Individual Bilingualism
"Since bilingualism is a relative concept, it involves the question of degree. How well does the
individual know the language he uses? In other words, how bilingual is he? Second, it involves the
question of function. What does he use his languages for? Third, it includes the question of
alternation. To what extent does he alternate between his languages? How does he change from
one language to the other, and under what conditions? Fourth, it includes the question of
interference. How well does the bilingual keep his languages apart? To what extent does he fuse
them together? How does one of his languages influence his use of the other?" (Mackey 1968:5556)
Basic question (see also above): Which varieties are considered to be distinct languages or to be
dialects of one language?
"From a purely linguistic point of view there is no real reason for treating Zulu as distinct from
Xhosa" (Guthrie 1948)
Diglossia
Ferguson (1972:232) originally used the term diglossia to refer to a specific relationship
between two or more varieties of the same language in use in a speech community in different
functions. The superposed variety is referred to as High or simply H, and the other variety or
varieties as Low, or L. The most important hallmark of diglossia is the functional specialization
of H and L. In one set of situations, only H is appropriate, while in another, only L. (Romaine
1989:31)
"Where sharp differences in form and function exist between formal and informal style, we speak
of Diglossia." (W.Bright 1964:12)
Fishman extends the use of "diglossia" for functional differentiation with different languages. He
also argues that modern life does no longer allow for a strict compartmentalization of H and L
varieties.
Fishman (1980) shows that the relationship between individual bilingualism and societal diglossia
is not a necessary or causal one. There is 1. both, diglossia and bilingualsm, 2. diglossia without
bilingualism, 3. bilingualsm without diglossia and 4. neither diglossia not bilingualsm.
Code-switching
Embedded (EL) and Matrix language (ML) (Carol Myers-Scotton 1993)
Leo sikuCOME na BOOKS zangu
"Today I came without my books".
ML = Swahili; EL = English
AlimMARRY msichana yule lakini HE WAS NOT HAPPY.
He married the girl but he was not happy.
ML = Swahili; EL = English; ML & EL = English.
Types of code-switching (Romaine 1988:112-115)
"Tag-switching involves the insertion of a tag in one language into an utterance which is
otherwise entirely in the other language. (Romaine 1988:112)
"Intersentential switching involves a switch at a clause or sentence boundary, where each
clause or sentence is in one language or another. (Romaine 1988:112)
"Intrasentential switching involves, arguably, the greatest syntactic risks, and may be
avoided by all but the most fluent bilinguals." (Romaine 1988:113)
Motives for code-switching (Appel & Muysken 1990: 118-121)
1. Referential function caused by lack of language competence (code-confusing)
2. Directive function to exclude certain persons from (portions of ) the conversation (children,
buyers)
3. Expressive function to emphasize a mixed identity (Sukuma in Dar-es-salaam)
4. Phatic function to change tone of conversation (private - official, friendly - hostile)
5. Metalinguistic function to impress others with language skills (???)
http://uk-online.uni-koeln.de/remarks/d637/rm2148926.doc