Bronchial
Asthma
Bronchial
Asthma
Second Edition
D Behera
MD (Medicine) FCCP FNCCP FICP FICA MNAMS (Medicine)
Dip. NBE (Respiratory Medicine)
Professor
Department of Pulmonary Medicine
Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research
Chandigarh (India)
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Bronchial Asthma
2005, D Behera
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Dedicated to
the loving memory of
my distinguished teacher
late Dr SK Malik
Director
:
91-11-7666180
:
91-11-7667027
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91-11-7667420
: vijayanvk@hotmail.com
July 8, 2004
Date: ...........................
Foreword
The prevalence of bronchial asthma, a major public health problem is increasing worldwide.
Several studies have demonstrated that there is an increase in morbidity and mortality from
bronchial asthma. Over and under treatment of asthma may be responsible for high mortality
rates. Until recently bronchospasm that results from hyperresponsiveness of the airways to
multiplicity of stimuli has been regarded as the main cause of airway dysfunction in asthma.
Bronchial asthma is now considered as a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways. This
realization that inflammation is the key factor in the pathogenesis of asthma is reflected in the
change in asthma therapy with emphasis on inhaled anti-inflammatory drugs. There are
many controversies in the management of bronchial asthma especially the role of
immunotherapy. Many new drugs are under development and yet there is no cure for asthma.
In a country like India with different socio-cultural diversities and beliefs, the treatment of
asthma varies and the existence of different systems of medicine in our country complicates
the treatment issues. Prof D Behera, a renowned Pulmonologist of our country and Professor
of Pulmonary Medicine at the Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research,
Chandigarh has taken up the challenge of bringing out the updated second edition of his
book, Bronchial asthma. The tremendous response to the first edition of his book is a
testimony to the academic excellence of this book. The second edition has 21 chapters including
epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, complications, management and
various guidelines. This revised edition is a comprehensive review of bronchial asthma and
provides practical information for Physicians and Pulmonologists who have to take
appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic decisions in patients with bronchial asthma.
I congratulate Dr Behera for his tireless efforts to bring out the second edition of this book.
Dr VK Vijayan
Director
Contents
1. Epidemiology ........................................................................................................................ 1
2. Aetiology ............................................................................................................................... 14
3. Pathophysiology of Bronchial Asthma ............................................................................ 40
4. Pathology .............................................................................................................................. 86
5. Clinical Presentation of Bronchial Asthma ..................................................................... 92
6. Diagnosis of Bronchial Asthma ........................................................................................ 98
7. Prognosis of Bronchial Asthma ...................................................................................... 114
8. Complications of Bronchial Asthma .............................................................................. 117
9. Management of Bronchial Asthma ................................................................................ 127
10. Pharmacologic Management of Asthma ....................................................................... 134
11. Inhalation Therapy ........................................................................................................... 176
12. Therapeutic Approach in Patients with Asthma
I. Chronic Bronchial Asthma ........................................................................................... 183
13. Therapeutic Approach in Patients with Asthma
II. Acute Severe Asthma (SA) ......................................................................................... 208
14. Management of Asthma with Special Problems ......................................................... 235
15. New Treatment Modalities/Newer Drugs for Bronchial Asthma ............................ 247
16. New Guidelines for Asthma Management
(Non-pharmacological Management) ............................................................................ 256
17. New Guidelines for Asthma Management (Pharmacological Management) ........ 265
18. New Guidelines for Asthma Management (Acute Asthma) ..................................... 276
19. Alternate Treatments in Asthma .................................................................................... 293
20. Severe Asthma (Fatal Asthma, Refractory Asthma) .................................................... 306
21. Asthma in Children .......................................................................................................... 314
Index ..................................................................................................................................... 337
1
Epidemiology
DEFINITION
Asthma is a disease whose presence dates back to at least the time of Hippocrates who
noted a condition of deep and heavy breathing. The Greeks had labelled this condition as
asthma, the meaning of which was panting. Bronchial asthma is difficult to define since it
is not one homogenous condition and because there is no one objective measurement or
series of measurements that can be used to make the diagnosis of asthma. A widely
acceptable definition still remains elusive ever since it was first defined in 1959 by an expert
study group during the CIBA Foundation Guest Symposium.1 The Global Initiative for
Asthma (1995) defines asthma on the basis of its pathogenesis (vide infra). The clinician,
immunologist, physiologist, and pathologist all have their own perspective of asthma, and
all these perspectives are difficult to merge into a comprehensive definition sufficiently
specific to exclude other diseases. Earlier definitions were non-specific and therefore the
condition was both under and over-diagnosed.2,3 However, during the past one-decade
there have been major changes in the concepts of pathophysiology of asthma. Whereas the
condition was previously considered as a bronchospastic disorder only, it is now recognised
that asthma is primarily an inflammatory disease. The current definition incorporates both
of these components and a generally agreed-on working definition of asthma is as follows:4
Bronchial asthma is a disease characterised by (i) airway obstruction (airway narrowing)
that is reversible (but not completely so in some patients) either spontaneously or with
treatment; (ii) airway inflammation; and (iii) airway hyperresponsiveness to a variety of
stimuli.
Subsequently, the Consensus Report5 describes asthma as a Chronic inflammatory
disorder of the airways in susceptible individuals, inflammatory symptoms are usually
associated with widespread but variable airflow obstruction and an increase in airway
response to a variety of stimuli. Obstruction is often reversible, either spontaneously or
with treatment.
PREVALENCE
The prevalence of asthma is not exactly known. This is because the precise way how to
define asthma in population studies is defined differently. Questionnaires are the most
practical tools to use in screening population for asthma. Such questionnaires have been
validated to assess the ability of individual questions and combination of questions to predict
which individuals in the population have either clinical diagnoses of asthma or non-specific
bronchial hyperreactivity to agents like methacholine or histamine.6 Unfortunately,
Bronchial Asthma
physician-diagnosis of asthma and bronchial hyperreactivity are not particularly good gold
standards for identifying asthma. While the former can miss milder forms of asthma, the
later is present in many people without asthma.6-8 To avoid these limitations, many studies
now use questionnaires.6,9-11 In general, questions about ever having asthma, ever having
asthma diagnosed by a physician, and having wheezing during the previous 12 months
have been the questions with best sensitivity and specificity for prediction of the flawed
gold standards. These questionnaires, of course are being used most often in recent studies.
However, earlier surveys will have flaws as mentioned, and the difference prevalence rates
in different studies in the past can be explained in part due to these methodological
difficulties. Nonetheless, in many countries, the prevalence of asthma has increased in recent
decades.12,13
The disease has reached epidemic proportions affecting 155 million individuals in the
world. About 15% (one out of seven) of children in United Kingdom wheeze and similar
number suffers from the related disorders of atopic dermatitis. The prevalence has risen
over the past 30 years all over the world particularly in all Westernised societies perhaps as
a result of the loss of childhood infections.14 While asthma is one of the less common causes
of death, the magnitude of the problem is evident from the fact that during a 10 years
period from 1978 to 1987, there were 1,87,000 deaths in USA, Canada, England, Wales,
France, West Germany, and Japan.15,16 Since the definition of asthma was varying, the
available statistics is viewed with some skepticism. In general, it seems that asthma remains
under diagnosed especially during childhood. There is some evidence that bronchial asthma
is increasing in a number of countries particularly New Zealand, UK and USA.15,17 An
estimated 10 million persons in the USA had asthma. In the general population, asthma
prevalence rates increased 29% from 1980 to 1987.
Bronchial asthma is the most common chronic respiratory disorder among all age groups
with a reported prevalence of 5 to 10%.18 During the last decade, studies from different
countries keeping appropriate statistics have reported a significant rise in asthma morbidity
and mortality.18-28 In the United States, approximately 17 million people have asthma (and
asthma related symptoms) account for 10 million missed school days, > 1.5 million
emergency department visits, approximately 500,000 hospitalisations and > 5000 deaths
annually. In 1998, the direct and indirect expenditures for the treatment of asthma in the
United States were approximately $11.3 billion.29 The overall 1988 asthma death rate was
1.9/100,000 persons with much lower rates in persons younger than 45 years, rising
dramatically with increasing age.18-30 Asthma is the most common chronic disease of children
in USA.31,32 About 6 million children in the United States have asthma compared to 3.1 million
in 1984, an increase of 80%. Annually, asthma accounts for 12 million primary care visits,
1.6 million emergency department visits, 11 million missed school days, 200,000 hospital
admissions, and 150 paediatric deaths.33 Improved personal behaviour and medical care
have a limited sustained impact on childhood asthma until basic environmental issues are
modified.34 Various other statistics also prove that both asthma and allergic rhinitis have
increased in recent years. The effect of these disorders on children and adults is considerable
in terms of morbidity and lost productivity resulting from the disease and its treatment .35,36
In addition, hospitalisation due to asthma and deaths attributed to asthma are increasing,
despite the availability of effective drugs.37 From 1982 to 1992, the overall annual age-adjusted
prevalence rate of self reported asthma increased 42% (from 34.7 per 1,000 people to 49.4
Epidemiology 3
per 1,000 people). Even more alarming is the observation that during this period, the overall
annual age-adjusted death rate for asthma increased 40%.38
One disadvantage with these statistics is that these are based on informations obtained
by questionnaire and in most cases identical questions were not used at each survey.39
However, from available data, both morbidity and mortality from asthma in New Zealand
are amongst the highest in the world.40 A survey of 12-year-old school children carried out
in New Zealand and South Wales41 revealed a higher prevalence in the former (17%) than
in the later (12%). New Zealand children were also more likely than the Wales children to
have a history of wheeze ever (27% vs. 22%) and wheeze brought on by running (15% vs.
10.5%). The sex ratio of asthmatic and wheezy children was very similar in the two countries.
The overall prevalence of asthma is estimated at 13.7%, bronchial hyperresponsiveness at
13.4%, and atopy at 31.1% in the age range of 13 to 18 years. The prevalence of bronchial
hyperresponsiveness in those without asthma symptoms is 3%. Both current asthma
symptoms and bronchial hyperresponsiveness are more common among females. In a study
to determine the prevalence of asthma in cohorts of Finnish young men in the period 19261989, Haahtela et al42 found that during 1926-1961 the prevalence was steady at between
0.02 and 0.08%. Between 1961 and 1966, however, a continuous, linear rise began, the
prevalence increasing from 0.29% in 1966 to 1.79% in 1989, that is, representing a six-fold
increase. The rise is 20 folds compared with that in 1961. Much of this increase appears real
and not merely due to an improvement in the methods of diagnosis over these years. A
review of the available published figures for children in United Kingdom revealed
prevalence for wheeze in the previous year of between 4.9 and 15% and wheeze ever
between 9.9 and 24.9%. Figures for asthma ever varied between 1.2 and 5%.
A simple flow diagram of the natural history of asthma17 based on the prevalence of
childhood wheeze in Australia is shown in Figure 1.1.
Bronchial Asthma
The Figure 1.1 also shows the approximate number of people entering adult life with
persistent wheeze. This study showing natural history of asthma is based on the prevalence
of atopy as measured by skin tests and the prevalence of childhood wheeze in Australia. A
number of studies from around the world show that the prevalence of atopy is between 3050% in children.43-46 In addition, the number of children who have wheezed at sometime is
around 25-30%.47-49 Most children with persistent wheeze are atopic.50,51 About 7% of the
patients have persistent asthma as reported from Australia by Woolcock et al.18
Adequate prevalence data from most developing countries is not available either for children
or adults. Although it is a general perception that bronchial asthma is a very common problem
in India, apart from tuberculosis, authentic information is not available regarding its
prevalence or incidence. Whatever data is available, it lacks the uniformity of definition,
problems of sample size, and analytical methodology used. From different studies, the
prevalence of asthma has been reported to be 1.2 to 6.2% in adults in the western world.
In a survey of respiratory symptoms in India, the prevalence of asthma has been reported
to be 0.6 and 3.2% in rural and urban women respectively. The same in urban males has been
4%.52-55 The prevalence was reported to be 1.76% in an urban population in the mid sixties.56
It was also reported by the same investigators that the prevalence in the morbidity surveys of
government employees and their families in Delhi was 1.8%.56 However, in recent years two
studies from Mumbai and Northern India are available.57,58 The study from Greater Mumbai
revealed a prevalence of 3.5% by physician diagnosis and 17% using a very broad definition
including those with asymptomatic bronchial reactivity. Prevalence of asthma in Mumbai
was similar in males and females (3.8 and 3.4% respectively). In the North Indian survey, a
validated questionnaire was used tested against physiciandiagnosed asthma and the
prevalence in the population was assessed.58 The true population prevalence was reported as
3.94% in urban and 3.99% in rural males and 1.27% in both urban and rural females. A recent
study from Delhi59 estimated the risk of asthma in children to be very high.59 Prevalence of
asthma symptoms in children was determined in the International Study of Asthma and
Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) in the age groups of 6-7 and 13-14 years using a standardised
sample survey.60,61 Prevalence of ever asthma varied from 1.8 to 12.4% with an overall figure
of 4.5%. The figure of ever asthma in 12 months is not strictly same as prevalence of asthma
in adults. The overall prevalence of asthma in children of 10-18 years age at Chandigarh was
2%, using the same methodology as in adults.58,62
Since morbidity depends, at least partly, on prevalence, the trends should be similar.
Other indices of morbidity such as days lost from work and restriction in lifestyle, nocturnal
disturbances with symptoms and hospital admission rates confirm the trends and extent of
problem due to asthma. It is clear that the most dramatic increase in admission to hospitals
has been in children. All the data collected on the basis of above informations indicate
continuing extensive morbidity from asthma, although more effective treatment may be
modifying this.
MORTALITY
Statistics for deaths from asthma yield widely variable mortality rates between countries.15
Increasing asthma mortality was first highlighted in the early-mid 1960s63,64 when there
was a dramatic increase in asthma deaths in England and Wales, Australia and New Zealand.
This was most apparent in children 10-14 years, but was also apparent for all age groups,
Epidemiology 5
particularly in 5-34 age group. The range of such mortality between 1985-1987 in 20 different
countries has been depicted in Figure 1.2.15
The intriguing points about asthma mortality are that there are sizeable differences
between countries and that death rates from asthma are gradually increasing in most western
countries. An analysis of asthma mortality rates in Western countries as well as developed
nations such as the United States, Canada, New Zealand, France, Denmark, and Germany
has revealed a distinct rise in rates during the 20 years period prior to 1990. Recent trends,
however, suggest a stabilisation of mortality rates due to asthma in United States. From
1977 to 1996, there was a rise in deaths due to asthma in the USA from 1,674 (0.8 per
100,000) to 5,667 (2.1 per 100,000).65 The mortality rate increased by 6.2% annually during
the 1980s and faster among subjects aged 5 to 14 years than those aged 15 to 34 years.
Among Whites, the mortality has increased more in female subjects than male subjects. The
death rates for asthma among African Americans is three times higher than among White
Americans. The trend in other countries is less apparent.66-72 In some countries, the rates
have doubled over the past 10 years. Two countries, the UK and New Zealand, have
experienced epidemics of asthma deaths; one epidemic in 1960s in the UK and two in
New Zealand; one in the 1960s and the other in the 1970s. At the peak of the New Zealand
epidemic in the 1970s, the mortality rate for asthma was approximately 10 times the rate in
the USA. However, the rate has shown a declining trend since 1979. However, this trend is
less apparent in other countries.73,74 For example, asthma mortality rate in Israel during the
years 1980 to 1997 was low and stable. Most of the patients still died outside the hospital.
There was no difference in the asthma death rate and place of death between Jews and
Arabs, suggesting that the population genetic predisposition is not likely to be a risk factor
for mortality.75
Bronchial Asthma
All statistics shown are derived from published population and mortality data available
from the national statistics centres in each country. West Germany reported over 9 deaths
per 100,000 followed by Norway, New Zealand, and Sweden. Netherlands, USA, and Hong
Kong reported asthma mortality rates less than 2/100,000.
The reasons for the trends in mortality due to asthma and for the sizeable differences
between countries are not clear.76-79 The increase in mortality in most countries cannot be
primarily due to an increase in the prevalence of asthma as the rise in mortality is
disproportionately greater than that of the prevalence.80 In the last decade, though, the
stabilisation of mortality, and even a decrease in mortality, from asthma has been reported.81-84
A number of reasons have been proposed including: (i) Partial contribution from the shift
of International code of death (ICD-8 to ICD-9). Due to this, the term asthmatic bronchitis
was coded as asthma rather than bronchitis; (ii) Shifts in physician diagnosis patterns,
especially from bronchitis to asthma in the 0-5 years age group and from COPD to asthma
in smokers past middle life. There is clearly some misclassification of asthma deaths with
over-reporting over age 50 and under-reporting in the younger age groups; (iii) An increase
in the prevalence and or severity of asthma; (iv) Increased diagnosis of asthma; and
(v) Adverse drug effects. In the 60s overuse of adrenaline in Europe and currently the use
of fenoterol have been postulated to be contributory to the mortality due to asthma. However,
these postulates have not been confirmed.85-89 Other possible contributors are delay in care,
poor compliance, lack of access to health care, theophylline toxicity, besides the overuse of
-agonists.90-92 Most likely cause of the recent decline in asthma deaths is the more judicious
use of prophylactic treatment, particularly inhaled steroids, as a possible factor.93,94 Race
and socioeconomic status may influence the outcome of an asthma attack.95,96 Hospital
admission rates for asthma are high and have increased in the last few decades.97,98 However,
some patients die before they can receive medical care.98-100 The exact proportion of deaths
occurring outside the hospital and its association with genetic, environmental or social
factors is not clear. An estimated 15 million persons in the United States have bronchial
asthma, and the number is increasing. Although asthma is generally treated in an outpatient
basis, increased hospitalisation rates have been observed. Hospitalisation rates and episodes
of asthma have increased in all age groups particularly in boys up to 4 years old.101
Hospitalisation rates are twice as common in African Americans as White Americans.102
Causes for the Increase in Asthma Mortality
Besides the above mentioned reasons, many other causes have been advocated for the
increase in asthma mortality and morbidity and they include allergen exposure, air pollution,
medication use, inadequate access to health care, increased incidence of viral infections,
and physician management of asthma (Discussed subsequently).
The risk of death due to asthma appears to predominate in large urban areas with high
rates of poverty. Risk of hospitalisation for children with asthma is 8.4 times greater in
areas with population of lower socioeconomic status and 5.3 times greater in areas with a
larger African American population.103 Lower socioeconomic status and African American
race are strong risk factors for hospitalisation and mortality from asthma.
NATURAL HISTORY OF BRONCHIAL ASTHMA
Over the last few decades the natural evolution of asthma from childhood to adulthood has
been the subject of many reviews and studies and more than 50 such well-designed
Epidemiology 7
publications highlight the subject.104 It was long believed that the prognosis for asthma
originating in infancy or childhood was good, and that in most patients the symptoms would
resolve by the age of puberty. However, a review of literature shows that not all patients
become asymptomatic in adulthood. In fact, asthma symptoms persist in 30-80% of adult
patients. Although epidemiological studies have shown a fair chance of either remission or
a reduction in asthma symptoms between the ages of 10 and 20 years,105-108 and most population
based and clinical studies have also shown a reduction in asthma symptoms with age, the
relapse rates after a symptom-free interval is also high.107,109 It has also been shown that, even
in the absence of asthma symptoms, subjects may still have obstructive lung functions and
increased bronchial hyperresponsiveness.110-116
No definite information is available about the progression of asthma through childhood
and adolescence.117 Martinez118 studied the natural history of wheezing in children aged
0-6 years and found that approximately half of the children experienced wheezing illness at
sometime during the study period. In some of them wheezing occurred early in life but resolved
by the age of three years (transient early wheezing), some experienced wheezing illness between
the ages of three and six years (late onset wheezing) and others had wheezing illness throughout
the entire study period (persistent wheezing). Different risk factors were associated with these
results. Children with transient early wheezing had reduced pulmonary function, as measured
by functional residual capacity shortly after birth and before any lower respiratory tract
illness had occurred. The risk was also increased in children whose mothers smoked during
pregnancy. Congenitally smaller airways may therefore predispose children to wheezing
illness early in life. Children with late and persistent wheezing are more likely to be atopic as
assessed by elevated serum IgE levels and skin test reactivity, asthmatic mothers, and their
lung function decreased after the age of one till they are six years of age. This study suggests
the presence of two distinct wheezing illnesses up to the age of six years. As discussed above,
there are varying reports about the persistence/disappearance of asthma symptoms in
adolescence. However, some reports suggest that up to 80% of asthmatics may become
asymptomatic during puberty.119,120 In a cohort study of Australian school children121 tested
initially at the age of 8-10 years and then again at 12-14 years of age, the persistence of
bronchial hyperresponsiveness at 12-14 years of age was found to be related to the severity of
disease at 8-10 years of age, the atopic status of the child, and parental history of bronchial
asthma. Most of the children who had a slight or mild degree of bronchial hyperresponsiveness
at 8-10 years of age lost their increased response by the age of 12-14 years. Only 15.4% of
children with severe or moderate bronchial hyperresponsiveness at the initial assessment
had normal levels of bronchial responsiveness at the later assessment. Whether the decline in
reported symptoms is real or the result of the children increasingly denying their illness as
they reach puberty remains to be clarified. The reduced bronchial responsiveness may favour
the hypothesis of a real reduction in the activity of the disease or higher doses of the provocative
agents like histamine or methacholine may be needed to provoke hyperresponsiveness in
larger airways of rapidly growing children.
As against the above figures, the prevalence of bronchial asthma in adolescents in 4 different
countries 122 varied from 2.8 to 38% at different ages and is summarised in
Table 1.1.123-126 This shows a significant number still will have asthma in adolescence.
Bronchial Asthma
Table 1.1: Prevalence of bronchial asthma in adolescents
Country
New Zealand
Australia
Netherland
Finland
Year of study
1991
1992
1989
1991
Age (years)
Prevalence (%)
12-15
12-15
10-23
15-16
32-38
16.5
19
2.8
Several other prospective studies,127-130 which separately examined subjects aged 10 to 19,
20 to 40, and over 60 years, revealed that asthma was frequently preceded by lower respiratory
tract symptoms, sometimes for years. Among subjects who were diagnosed with asthma after
age 60, one-third reported respiratory symptoms before age 16.130 Similarly 82.7% with asthma
diagnosed between the ages of 5 and 11 years had lower respiratory tract symptoms before the
age of 5 years.127
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50. McNichol KH, Williams HE. Spectrum of asthma in children-II. Allergic components. Br Med J
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52. Behera D, Jindal SK. Respiratory symptoms in Indian women using domestic cooking fuels.
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54. Behera D, Malik SK. Chronic respiratory disease and ventilatory function in adult rural Oriya
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56. Viswanathan R, Prasad M, Thakur AK, Sinha SP, Prakash N, Mody RK et al. Epidemiology of
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57. Chougule R, Shetye VM, Parmer JR et al. Prevalence of respiratory symptoms, bronchial
hyperreactivity and asthma in a mega city: Results of the European Community Respiratory
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58. Jindal SK, Gupta D, Aggarwal AN, Jindal RC, Singh V. Study of prevalence of asthma in adults
in North India using a standardised questionnaire. J Asthma 2000;37:345-51.
59. Chhabra SK, Epidemiology of childhood asthma. Indian J Chest Dis Allied SS 1998; 40:179-94.
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61. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) Steering Committee:
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62. Jindal SK. Asthma epidemiology in India. Chest2001; 2(Indian Edition):115.
63. Speizer FE, Doll R, Heaf P. Observations on recent increase in mortality from asthma. Br Med J
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66. Evans R, Mullally DI, Wilson RW et al. National trends in the morbidity and mortality of asthma
in the US prevalence, hospitalisation, and mortality of asthma over two decades; 1965-1984.
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67. Buist AS. Asthma mortality: What have we learnt? J Allergy Clin Immunol 1989;84:275-83.
68. Sheffer AI, Buist AS. Proceedings of the asthma mortality task force. J Allergy Clin Immunol
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69. Khanna PM, Linger J. Asthma mortality and hospitalisation among children and young adults;
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70. Buist AS, Vollmer WM. Reflections in the rise in asthma morbidity and mortality. JAMA
19990;264:1719-20.
71. Burney P. Asthma deaths in England and Wales 1931-85: Evidence for a true increase in asthma
mortality. J Epidemiol Community Health 1988;42:316-20.
72. Weiss KB, Wagener DK. Changing pattern of asthma mortality. JAMA 1990;264:1683-87.
73. Salas-Ramirez M, Sagura N, Martinez C. Trends in asthma mortality in Mexico. Bol Oficina
Sanit Panam 1994, 116:298-306.
74. Molinari J, Chatkin J. Tendencia da mortalidade por asthma bronnquica no Rio Grande do Sul.
J Pneumonol 1995;21:103-06.
75. Picard E, Barmeir M, Schwartz S et al. Rate and place of death from asthma among different
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76. Sears MR, Rea HH, De Boer G et al. Accuracy of certification of death due to asthmaA national
study. Am J Epidemiol 1986;124:1004-11.
77. Hunt LW, Mair JE, Laplante JM et al. Causes of death in a population with asthma. Am Rev
Respir Dis. 1989;139:A486.
78. Riou B, Barriot P. Accuracy of asthma mortality in France. Chest 1990;97:507-08.
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80. Garrett J, Kolbe J, Richards G et al. Major reduction in asthma morbidity and continued reduction
in asthma mortality in New Zealand: What lessons have been learned? Thorax 1995;50:303-11.
81. Sly RM. Changing asthma mortality. Ann Allergy 1994;73:259-68.
82. Vergara C, Caraballo L. Asthma mortality in Colombia. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1998;80:5560.
83. Pearce N, Beasley R, Crane J et al. End of the New Zealand asthma mortality epidemic. Lancet
1995;345:41-44.
84. Sly RM, ODonnell R. Stabilisation of asthma mortality. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol
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85. Stolley PD, Schinnar R. Association between asthma mortality and isoprenol aerosols: A review.
Preventive Med 1978;7:519-38.
86. Esdaile JM, Feinstein AR, Horwitz RI. Can general mortality data implicate a therapeutic agent?
Arch Intern Med 1987;147:543-49.
87. Crane J, Flatt A, Jackson R et al. Prescribed fenoterol and death from asthma in New Zealand.
Lancet 1989;1:917-22.
88. Poole C, Lanes SF, Walker AM et al. Fenoterol and fatal asthma. Lancet 1990;335:920.
89. Beasley R, Smith K, Pearce N et al. Trends in asthma mortality in New Zealand, 1908-1986. Med
J Aust 1990;152:570-73.
90. Sly RM. Mortality from asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1989;84:421-34.
91. Spitzer WO, Suissa S, Ernst P et al. The use of beta-agonists and the risk of death and near-death
from asthma. New Engl J Med 1992;326:501-06.
92. Sly RM. ODonnell R. Regional distribution of deaths from asthma. Ann Allergy 1989;62:347-54.
93. Goldman M, Rachmiel M,Gendler M et al. Decrease in asthma mortality rate in Israel from
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94. Campbell MJ, Gogman GR, Holgate ST et al. Age, specific trends in asthma mortality in England
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96. Lang D. Trends in US asthma mortality: Good news and bad news. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol
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98. To T, Dick P, Feldman W et al. A cohort study in childhood asthma admissions and readmissions.
Paediatrics 1996;98:191-95.
99. Jones AP, Bentham G. Health service accessibility and death from asthma in 401 local authority
districts in England and Wales. 1988-92. Thorax 1997;52:218-22.
100. Capewell S. The continuing rise in emergency admissions. BMJ 1996;312:991-992.
101. Vollmer et al. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;147:347
102. Osborne M. Clinical asthma: Will NAEP guidelines help? Pulm Perspectives 1994;11(1):1-3.
103. Castro M, Halstead J, Schechtman K et al. Risk factors for asthma morbidity and mortality in a
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104. Roorda RJ. Prognostic factors for the outcome of childhood asthma in adolescence. Thorax
1996;51(Suppl 1):S7-S12.
105. Peckham C, Butler N. A national study of asthma in childhood. J Epidemiol Community Health
1978;32:79-85.
106. Anderson HR, Bland JM, Patel S, Pekham C. The natural history of asthma in childhood. J
Epidemiol Community Health 1986;40:121-29.
107. Bronniman S, Burros B. A prospective study of the natural history of asthma. Remissions and
relapse rates. Chest 1986;90:480-84.
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1990;79:206-11.
109. Radford PG, Hopp RJ, Biven RE et al. Longitudinal changes in bronchial hyperresponsiveness
in asthmatic and previously normal children. Chest 1992;101:624-29.
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follow-up study of 20 subjects with special reference to work capacity and pulmonary gas
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111. Ferguson AC. Persisting airway obstruction in asymptomatic children with asthma with normal
peak expiratory flow rates. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1988;82:19-22.
112. Cooper DM, Cutz E, Levison H. Occult pulmonary abnormalities in asymptomatic asthmatic
children. Chest 1977;71:361-65.
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asthma? Aust NZ J Med 1973;3:545-51.
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N Engl J Med 1995;332:133-38.
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123. Robson B, Woodman K, Burgess C et al. Prevalence of asthma symptoms among adolescents in
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1991;88:870-77.
14
Bronchial Asthma
2
Aetiology
A number of factors are responsible either in the causation or exacerbation of bronchial
asthma. A brief account of each of these factors will be discussed.
ATOPY AND ALLERGY
The association between asthma and allergy has long been recognised. It has been reported
that 75-85% of patients with asthma have positive immediate skin reactions to common
inhalant allergens. There are at least 6 major evidences to prove that most asthma in young
people is due to exposure to allergens or to sensitisers. They are summarised below.
i. Most people with asthma are atopic, which can be measured by skin tests or with
measurements of specific IgE. In population studies and in clinical practice, it is clear
that majority of young people are atopic. Furthermore, in most population studies of
asthma, atopy has been found to be the most important single risk factor. House dust
mite allergens appear to be the most common one associated with asthma.
ii. Challenge with allergens in atopic asthmatics increases the severity of the disease. The
stimulus is capable of increasing this for days and sometimes for weeks. This implies
that allergens play a role in maintaining the disease.
iii. Occupational asthma occurs due to allergens and sensitisers. In some healthy people,
who are exposed to these agents, sensitisation occurs and is followed by episodic wheeze.
Unless the subject is removed from the source, episodic symptoms continue, and with
time become persistent.
iv. It has been shown that subjects with apparently intrinsic asthma (normal skin tests),
have higher levels of circulating IgE than the non-asthmatic population.
v. Improvement in the symptomatology occurs on allergen withdrawal, which proves
the causal relationship between the two.
vi. Population studies have clearly demonstrated the association between atopy and
asthma.
It has been shown that in Indonesian children, there is less atopy and less asthma.
Similarly studies from France have reported a lower prevalence of asthma where mites
are less in number. There is a strong co-relation between allergic sensitisation to common
aeroallergens and the subsequent development of asthma. There is also a strong
association between allergen exposure in early life and sensitisation to these allergens,
although it has not been possible to demonstrate an association between allergen
exposure and the development of asthma.1
Aetiology 15
Some studies, however, challenged the assumption that childhood asthma is largely of
allergic etiology.2 Pearce et al 3 reviewed the epidemiological evidence implicating
aeroallergen exposure in the primary causation of asthma, and concluded that the available
data do not indicate that aeroallergen exposure is a major risk factor. In a further study,
they reported that atopy attributes only 38% to the causation of asthma.2 Some investigators
have observed a weak and inconsistent association between atopy and asthma prevalence.
On the contrary, recent studies suggest that among those reporting wheezing in the previous
months have a stronger relationship with atopy for those reporting > 12 episodes of wheezing
in the past 12 months compared to those reporting 1 to 3 episodes in the last 12 months.4
The proportion of asthma-ever attributable to atopy was 33%, while the proportion was
89% for those who were attending hospitals (indicating more severe form). Based on these
findings, it is suggested that atopy contributes more to the frequent or severe asthma than
to mild or infrequent asthma.4 These findings are consistent with other studies. The important
association of atopy with childhood asthma is well recognised.5 A review of studies relating
atopy to asthma notes that in cross-sectional studies conducted exclusively or predominantly
in children, the proportion of cases attributable to atopy varied from 25 to 63%, with a
weighted mean of 38%.6 Relationship of atopy and severity of asthma is a well-known fact.6
Atopy is also related to degree of bronchial hyperreactivity.7,8 Conversely, in patients having
wheeze in the previous 12 months, bronchial hyperactivity is related to both atopy and
measures of disease severity such as peak expiratory flow variability.9
Taken together these facts are strong evidence for the role of atopy in asthma. Even
though not all asthmas are associated with or perpetuated by exposure to common airborne
allergens, exposure to these agents plays a major role. Both indoor and outdoor allergen
exposures have increased asthma morbidity. People now spend a substantial proportion of
the time indoors. Most of the responsible allergens are probably prevalent inside the houses
since this is where human beings spend most of their lives. The most important ones
throughout the world appear to be the house dust mites, grass pollens, animal proteins, and
moulds. Recent changes in housing styles in many western countries may have led to
increased allergens levels. Houses tend to have less ventilation, making them more humid,
and there has been widespread introduction of carpeted floors and pets living in the houses.
Whereas house dust mite is the most important and common indoor allergen linked to
asthma,10 Outdoor allergens such as grass pollen, soyabean dust and Alternaria alternate
have been specifically linked to severe asthma exacerbations.11,12 There has also been spread
of plants, cockroaches and perhaps mites. Moreover, the climate of a particular area may
favour the availability of various allergens, which in part may be responsible for the
difference in the prevalence of asthma in various countries. Another important factor is the
way the allergen is handled. Pollutions add to the allergenicity of aeroallergens. The
predominance of these allergens will of course depend upon various factors, particularly
local. Studies in asthmatics of allergen skin reactivity, IgE antibody levels, and bronchial
provocation have all helped establish the important role of allergens in many asthma
exacerbations.13 Further, reducing the patients exposure to allergens can help bring asthma
symptoms under control. A growing number of uncontrolled and controlled studies suggest
that allergen eradication and avoidance measures lead to improvement in bronchial
hyperresponsiveness, severity of symptoms, and requirements of asthma medications.14
Recent research suggests that for many allergic disorders associated with aeroallergens,
the process of IgE sensitisation begins right early in life while the immune response is still
16
Bronchial Asthma
developing. It has been shown that the level of dust mite allergen present in the home
during the first year of life is a major factor in determining whether an infant born of an
allergic mother who is genetically susceptible, did in fact develop allergy or asthma by the
time they are 11 years of age. Moreover, the density of allergen (per gram of dust) is an
important factor in determining the age of onset of first symptoms. Higher is the
concentration of allergen earlier is the onset of disease.
Allergenic pollens vary at different places. The predominant offending allergen will
vary with locality, lifestyle, season, and climate. For example, in Delhi, Amarantus pollen is
the most common offending allergen followed by Cassia siamea, Ricinus, Brassica, Imperata,
Prosopis, Cenchrus, Cassia occidentalis, etc.15 Prosopis is the commonest antigenic pollen in
Bikaner, Lucknow, and Varanasi.16-18 Brassica is the commonest pollen in Bhopal and
Kanpur.19,20 On the other hand Parthenium is the commonest offending agent in Kolhapur .21
In the United kingdom, 50-75% of atopic asthmatics react to house dust mite, similar number
to grass pollens, 35-55% to cat dander, 10-20% to dog dander, 10-20% to tree pollens,
10-15% to moulds, and fewer than 10% to food allergens.13 In contrast, keeping cats as pets,
unlike in many western countries is not a common practice in India. Therefore, cat or dog
dander allergy may not be that important in this country. On the other hand because of
tropical climates, and peculiar habit of storage of food articles, cockroaches grow plenty in
this country. Therefore, these might be an important allergen for people of India.
The importance of allergy is different for different age groups. In infants, allergens play
a less important role than other ages and viral respiratory infections are the principal triggers.
Although allergic reactions to food can occur in infants, foods are not the common triggers.
Studies in children suggest that allergy influences the persistence and severity of asthma. It
is reported by several authors that severity of childhood asthma corelates with the number
of positive immediate skin tests. Children with multiple positive skin tests are more likely
to have daily rather than intermittent symptoms of asthma. The important allergens in
children after infancy appear to be inhalants. Aeroallergens are important in patients whose
disease has started before the age of 30 years or who are exposed to occupational allergens.
Patient can also have allergy for the first time after the age of 30. However, in adults the
intensity of allergic skin tests does not appear to be associated with increased severity of
asthma. Food allergies are not common triggers for asthma in adults. The patient may have
aspirin sensitivity, but it has no immunological basis.
Different Allergens (Figs 2.1a to 2.1h)
i. Important outdoor allergens include pollens and moulds.
Pollen Particles greater than 10 micron in diameter are usually cleared in the nose and
mouth and do not penetrate the lower respiratory tract. However, there are some plants,
which produce allergen-containing particles that are less than 10 microns. Ragweed
and grass pollination are definitely associated with asthma. Pollen allergy is usually
season-related and is more closely linked to hay fever and allergic conjunctivitis.
Mould Mould spores are generally smaller than pollen grains and are more likely to
penetrate the lower respiratory tract. Mould spores exist primarily outdoors and tend
to be seasonal. Some fungi sporulate on warm, dry summer days and others prefer the
rainy season. The species of the fungus vary with the geographic distribution according
to climatic conditions.
Aetiology 17
18
Bronchial Asthma
ii. Although house dust itself is not an allergen, there are allergic components in it. The
most important ones are mites, animal danders, and cockroaches.
House dust mite plays a major role in the causation of asthma, although it does not leave
any immediately perceptible sting or bite. This is the agent most widely implicated in
the pathogenesis and provocation of allergic asthma. They are arachnoids distantly
related to ticks and spiders. They are ubiquitous, living in the house dust that provides
both their shelter and food (scales of skin shed by humans). They occur in environments
with sufficient humidity since they are quite dependent for survival on moisture from
the atmosphere. Loss of water from the mite body constrains their growth, but mites
are capable of extracting water vapour even from air that is only 50% saturated. Live
mites are equipped with suckers at the tips of their legs, which make them difficult to
remove by vacuuming. The commonest mite is Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus. Other
species may also exist in small numbers. Mite antigen is found throughout the home,
wherever human dander, the food for the mite, is found.
High levels are found in mattresses, pillows, carpets, upholstered furnitures, bed
covers, clothes, and soft toys. The principal allergen of the house dust mite is found in
its faeces. A gram of dust may contain 1,000 mites and 250,000 faecal pellets. These
pellets are quite large and 10-40 microns in size, similar to pollen grains and share
some of the aerodynamic properties with them. Like larger pollen grains, they do not
easily enter the lower respiratory tract and are rapidly cleared from the airway by
Aetiology 19
gravity. Mite antigen is readily demonstrated in the air during cleaning. Some mite
allergens may be smaller that may be in the respirable range for the lower respiratory
tract. The major allergens of house dust mites are probably digestive enzymes,
collectively designated as group I allergens or Der p I, and there are now tests available
to quantitate this.
The improvement of asthma in children residing in high altitude where low humidity
constrains dust mite growth or in patients admitted to the relatively dust-free environment of a hospital14 indicates the contribution of the house dust mite to asthma
exacerbation. A study of children requiring hospitalisation for asthma found that the
risk of re-admission was associated with continued exposure to high concentrations of
mite allergen.22-28
Animal allergens Dogs, cats, and other pet animals including rodents are commonly
kept in homes. Danders from these animals contribute greatly to the allergenic
components of house dust. All warm-blooded pets can cause allergic reactions, including
the birds and small rodents. Products made from feathers retain the allergens from
bird. All breeds of cats produce common allergens, and cat saliva and cat danders are
potent allergens. Dogs also produce common allergens, although minor breed
differences may exist. For several reasons cat allergen is more likely to cause sensitisation
than that of dogs. The major cat allergen is Fel d I, which is a protein secreted by the
cats salivary, sebaceous, and lacrimal glands. The protein is very stable and loses none
of its antigenic potency for at least a month. It is coated on to the fur by the usual
grooming, and at the rate cats shed their fur and dander, a reservoir of the antigen
rapidly accumulates in household furnishings. In addition, Fel d I, particles are less
than 2.5 mm in diameter and flake-shaped, making them easily airborne and easily
respirable. While air filtration can remove some of the allergens, little permanent
reduction occurs unless carpets, furnishings, and other reservoirs of coated fur (the cat
itself) are removed. It takes several months before the concentration of allergens in
domestic dust falls after removal of the pet.
A number of epidemiological studies suggest that close contact with a cat or dog in
very early infancy reduces subsequent prevalence of allergy and asthma. This may be
a consequence of high allergen exposure inducing tolerance.29-31
Cockroach allergen The cockroach appears to be important, particularly in warmer
climates and inner side of the house in cooler climates. Cockroach allergy has been
identified as an important cause of asthma. This form of asthmaThe cockroach
asthmais a more severe form of the disease, having perennial symptoms, and high
levels of IgE. Cockroaches produce several allergens, which produce sensitisation.
Usually there is exposure to high levels of this allergen at homes. The important domestic
species are Blattella germanica and Periplaneta American.
Kinds of Allergens
The allergens are Bla g 2 (inactive aspartic protease), Bla g 4 (calycin), Bla g 5 (glutathione
S-transferase), Bla g 6 (troponin), the Group I cross-reactive allergen Bla g 1 and Per a 1,
Per a 3 (arylphorin), and Per a 7 (tropomyosin). Although elimination of cockroaches totally
is difficult, development of cockroach allergens as recombinant proteins has led to better
control of this form of asthma.32 Indoor moulds are prominent in environments with
increased humidity. Bathrooms, kitchens, basement areas, and perspiration on pillows are
20
Bronchial Asthma
the common sites of mould growth. Cockroach sensitivity in children has been associated
with greater symptom frequency and more emergency department visits due to
asthma.33-36 Similar observations are made for elderly patients with asthma also.37
Risk Allergens: Responsible for Acute Attacks
Threshold concentrations of allergens that can be regarded as risk factors for acute attacks
include:
10 g/g dust of group I mite allergen
8 g/g dust of Fel d I, the major cat allergen
10 g/g dust of Can f I, the major dog allergen
8 g/g dust of cockroach allergen
FOOD ALLERGEN AND BREASTFEEDING
In the first 1 or 2 years of life, food sensitivity is an important factor in the development of
allergies. Breastfeeding has been advocated as a method of preventing allergy and asthma.
With breastfeeding there is a decreased risk (about 20%) for development of asthma.38 Impact
of exclusive breastfeeding in children at 6 years of age has shown that the introduction of
milk other than breast milk before the age of 4 months of age is a significant risk factor for
increased likelihood of bronchial asthma.39 However, another study has shown an increased
risk of wheezing, particularly in asthmatic mothers and if the child is also atopic.40
There are some reports that regular consumption of oily fish is associated with a reduced
risk for asthma in children, although subsequent studies have not shown clinical benefits of
supplemental 3 fatty acids over a 6 months period.41,42 Further, it has been hypothesised that
decreased dietary antioxidant vitamin intake is associated with increased asthma.43 Higher
concentrations of vitamin intake are associated with a decreased serum levels if IgE and a
significant decrease of atopy.44 Recent experimental data showed a reduced risk with intake
of lectins (wheat germ agglutinin from whole wheat products).45
INFECTION
It has long been recognised that viral respiratory infections provoke and alter asthmatic
responses. Over 80% of acute asthma exacerbations in school children and about 60% in
adults result from viral infections, mostly common cold viruses. These observations have
suggested that viral infections may be intimately involved in the development of asthma
and allergy. The susceptibility of the asthmatic airway to viral inflammation is due to
persistent allergic mast cell and eosinophil-derived inflammation stimulates the release of
cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha, which cause an increase in the expression
of receptors for human respiratory viruses on the airway lining epithelium. In case of most
rhinoviruses, the receptor is an adhesion molecule (intracellular adhesion molecule-1). The
Viral respiratory illnesses may produce their effect by causing epithelial damage, producing
specific immunoglobulin IgE antibodies directed against respiratory viral antigens and
enhancing mediator release. Once the virus enters the epithelial cells, it replicates and
generates a wide variety of proinflammatory cytokines, which further enhance eosinophil
and mast cell inflammation. Apart from aggravating clinical asthma, viral upper respiratory
Aetiology 21
infections increase airway responsiveness, which may persist for many weeks after the
infection.
Provocateurs of Asthma
The principal infection provocateurs of asthma in childhood during the first 2 years of
life are respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), parainfluenza virus, and rhinovirus. Influenza
virus is much more common in older children and adults. Early hospitalisation for respiratory
syncytial virus, croup, or bronchiolitis is associated with greater airway responsiveness and
more frequent history of wheezing.46 Other microorganisms that can exacerbate bronchial
asthma include Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Although bacterial infection i s no t a cause of
such exacerbations, it has been reported recently that H.influenzae and other Gram-negative
bacteria can synthesise histamine both in vivo and in vitro.47 The presence of this mediator
may contribute to the bronchoconstriction and other effects of histamine that can accompany
bronchial infection. Pseudomonas infection in cystic fibrosis is responsible for a hyperreactivity
reaction in these patients. A recent study in 101 nonsmoking severe asthmatics shows
association between accelerated loss of lung function and seropositivity to Chlamydia
pneumoniae.48
Interestingly, in recent years it is also observed that some infections are protective of
bronchial asthma. While viral infections can undoubtedly cause deterioration of established
asthma, viral or bacterial infections during the first three years of life may serve a protective
function against the development of allergic diseases. Possibly they evoke a Th1-like protective
response with the generation of IFN-gamma and IL-2. Thus, if multiple infections occur during
the first few years of life, high concentrations of these Th1 cytokines could inhibit the release
of Th2 cytokines, thereby tuning the mucosal immune response away from allergen
sensitisation. This hypothesis is supported from observations from an African study, where
children infected with measles during the first year of life had a 63% lesser chance of developing
positive skin tests to common aeroallergens. Similarly repeated vaccination with BCG exerted
a protective effect against the development of allergy in young Japanese children. Both measles
and BCG are potent stimulators of the Th1 cytokine response. Another support of this protective
infection comes from observations comes from the fact that the increase in asthma and allergy
with movement to urban areas may be related to a decrease in early exposure to parasitic
infections. One study from slum are of Caracas, Venezuela showed that antihelminthic
treatment causes a decrease in IgE level, but was accompanied by an increase in skin test
reactivity to house dust mite. In contrast, in the untreated children, the parasitic colonisation
continued, IgE levels increased but the dust mite sensitisation fell. It indirectly means that
eradication of parasites or reduced opportunities for infection could, in part, explain the rural
to urban differences in the prevalence of allergic diseases. These observations led to the
Hygiene hypothesis of bronchial asthma. This suggests that early exposure to microbial
products will switch off allergic responses preventing allergic disorders like asthma.49
Epidemiological studies comparing large populations who have or have not had such
exposures support the hypothesis.50 The hygiene hypothesis explains that allergic diseases
were prevented by infections in early childhood, transmitted by unhygienic contact with
older siblings or acquired prenatally. Over the past century declining family size, improved
household amenities, and higher standards of personal cleanliness may have resulted in
more atopic diseases.49 It is further proposed that modern vaccinations, fears of germs and
22
Bronchial Asthma
obsession with hygiene are depriving the immune system of input on which it is dependent.
Recent data suggest that exposure of young children to older children at home or to children
at day-care protects against the development of asthma and frequent wheezing later in
childhood. A double blind placebo controlled trial using the probiotic.
Lactobacillus CG, observed a reduced incidence of atopic eczema but no effect on IgE antibody
sensitisation, important for bronchial asthma. However, this study has the limitation of small
sample size and early age limit of interpretation.51
DRUGS
About 5 to 20 per cent of adults with asthma will experience severe and even fatal exacerbations of bronchoconstriction after ingestion of aspirin or certain non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). These drugs are as follows:52-58
Aspirin
Ibuprofen
Indomethacin
Piroxicam
Sulindac
Tolmetin
Naproxen
Fenoprofen
Meclofanamate
Mefenamic acid
Diclofenac sodium
The list is not complete and aspirin sensitivity implies cross-reactivity with other nonsteroidal medications. The prevalence increases with increasing severity of asthma. In these
individuals, ingestion of aspirin is followed within 1 to 2 hours by the onset of bronchospasm,
which may be accompanied by rhinitis and/or urticaria. An association between aspirin
sensitivity in people with asthma and the presence of sinusitis and nasal polyps is often
stressed. Although there is a statistical relation, many patients with nasal polyps are not
aspirin sensitive, and many patients with asthma and aspirin sensitivity have not been
found to have nasal polyps. It is likely that sinusitis, nasal polyps, and aspirin sensitivity all
increase in prevalence with increasing severity of asthma and they are not causally related.
Although the exact mechanism is not known, it is nonimmunologic and probably depends
on inhibition of cyclo-oxygenase. Accordingly, the arachidonic acid metabolism proceeds via
the lipo-oxygenase pathway producing leukotrienes (see pathogenesis). Although the exact
pathogenesis of aspirin-induced asthma is unclear, studies have demonstrated that
leukotrienes play an important role in airway narrowing and other signs in these patients.
These observations are derived from the fact that urinary LTE4 is two-folds to ten-folds higher
in these patients than in aspirin tolerant patients.59-61 Several leukotriene modifiers inhibit the
asthma response in oral or inhaled bronchial provocation tests, such as aspirin and
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs,62-64 and improve respiratory function by expanding
the airway in patients with aspirin induced asthma.65 An additional hypothesis for the
mechanism of aspirin sensitivity suggests that there is increased target organ sensitivity to
leukotrienes. The inhibition of cyclo-oxygenase is a property common to all of the drugs
producing this adverse reaction. Although analgesics not inhibiting this enzyme are generally
considered to be safe, the most frequently employed alternative, acetaminophen, has been
reported to cause asthma exacerbations in a few aspirin-sensitive patients.
Other drugs that are known to exacerbate asthma include beta-blocker drugs (i.e. propranolol and nadolol). Eye drop preparations of this class of drugs also can induce asthma.
Recently, inhaled verapamil, a calcium channel blocker, has been reported to induce severe
bronchospasm in mild asthma.
Aetiology 23
EXERCISE-INDUCED ASTHMA66-71
Exercise-induced asthma (EIA) is often used to describe the asthma of persons in whom
exercise is the predominant or even the only identified trigger to airflow obstruction. No
available data support the concept that exercise-induced asthma represents a distinct
pathologic or pathophysiologic entity. Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction is one
manifestation of the asthmatic diathesis. Most, virtually all, people with asthma have airway
hyperirritability that leads to exercise-induced asthma if the provocative stimulus - eucapnic
voluntary hyperventilation- is appropriately intensified. Accordingly, this condition should
be anticipated in all asthma patients. For some asthmatics, exercise is the only trigger. In
addition, most patients in whom exercise is the predominant trigger, will have other
additional sensitivities that either can be found in the clinical history or will evolve over
time. It is estimated that approximately 40 per cent of children with allergic rhinitis, but
without clinical asthma, have EIA. This situation probably holds true for adults. Untreated
EIA can limit and disrupt normal life. Although individual episodes of EIA are short lived,
the severity and impact is striking.
During short (few minutes) periods of exercise, airways actually dilate. Exercise-induced
asthma is the airway narrowing that occurs minutes after the onset of vigorous activity.
Airway narrowing develops within 2-3 minutes after cessation of exercise. It generally
reaches its peak about 5-10 minutes after cessation of activity and usually resolves
spontaneously in the next 30-90 minutes or within a few minutes of administration of an
inhaled beta-adrenergic bronchodilator. There are some reports now that a late phase of
EIA exists.72,73 However, this phase is uncommon (EIA is a nonimmunologic form of asthma)
and not severe unlike the late phase of allergen-induced asthma. Ambient air conditions
during the post-exercise period also influence the degree of bronchoconstriction that
develops. A rapid change to warm, moist air post-exercise tends to worsen the development
of airflow obstruction.74 Some patients who engage in continuous, repetitive exercise periods,
EIA diminishes or is completely abated during a refractory period that usually lasts 2 hours
after an exercise challenge. This is referred to as refractory period. Because of this
phenomenon, many asthmatic athletes report that a warm-up period of sub-maximal exercise
helps to minimise exercise-induced symptoms.75 During sustained exercise they are often
able to work through initial respiratory symptoms, i.e. experience resolution of initial
symptoms despite continued exercise.
In contrast to asthma in general, which is characterised by both smooth muscle contraction
and airway inflammation, exercise-induced asthma is due mainly to smooth muscle
contraction. Therefore some investigators call this as airflow-induced bronchoconstriction
(AIB) or exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB). Although the exact mechanism of asthma
is debated, it is generally established that EIA is due to loss of heat or water or both, from
the lung during exercise resulting from hyperventilation of air that is cooler and dryer than
that of the bronchial tree. The key aspects of the triggering stimulus are the level of ventilation
during exercise and the temperature/water content of the inspired air.70 The higher the
minute ventilation during exercise and the colder and drier the inspired air, the greater is
the stimulus for bronchoconstriction. How this airway cooling causes bronchoconstriction,
is not exactly clear. It has been suggested that heat and water loss leads to changes in airway
fluid osmolarity which initiates mediator release that cause constriction in the smooth
muscle. Some investigators believe that airway cooling triggers bronchoconstriction in
asthmatic subjects, and a rewarming-induced hyperaemia and oedema results in airway
24
Bronchial Asthma
Aetiology 25
Prevalence of Asthma in Workers
Although the exact prevalence of occupational asthma is not known and will vary according
to the setting in which it occurs, on the industrial agent involved, on the intensity of exposure,
and on working conditions, industrial hygiene, and engineering factors; it is reported that
between 5 to 15% of all cases of asthma in Japan are occupational. Bakers exposed to flour
dust develop asthma at a rate of 10-30%, in washing powder industry, up to 60% of the
workers become sensitised to Bacillus subtilis, and in the cotton industry the prevalence of
byssinosis is 25-29% in workers exposed in the carding process and 10-29% in those exposed
in the spinning process. Similarly 5% of the western red cedar workers, 6% of the animal
handlers, 5% of the workers in plastics industry (volatile isocyanates), and 30-50% of those
working in the metal industry using soluble platinum salts develop the disease.
Agents capable of inducing occupational asthma can be vapours, gases, aerosols, or
particulate matters and can range from very low molecular weight inorganic chemicals to
complex organic macromolecules. Some of these agents are shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Selective agents known to cause occupational asthma
Agents
Occupation
Laboratory workers/Veterinarians
Food processing
Detergent factory
Poultry farmers
Bakers
Farmers
Fish food manufacturing
Silk workers
Farmers
Electric soldering
Carpenters and Saw mill workers
Shipping workers
Cotton mill workers
Granary workers
2. Organic chemicals.
Isocyanates (TDI, MDI, HDI)
Antibiotics, piperazine, methyl dopa
Disinfectants
Paraphenylene diamine
Formaldehyde, ethylene diamine
Furfuryl alcohol resin
Dimethyl ethanolamine toluene di-isocyanate
3. Inorganic chemicals.
Platinum salts
Nickel salts
Cobalt salts
Chromium salts
Aluminium fluoride
Persulphate
Vanadium
Stainless fumes
Refining
Plating
Diamond polishing
Stainless steel welding
Manufacturing
Beauty shop
Refinery workers
Welding
26
Bronchial Asthma
Occupational asthma can be mediated by any of the several, mechanisms. They include,
reflex vagal bronchoconstriction in response to an irritant effect on specific receptors;
inflammatory bronchoconstriction secondary to toxic concentration of gases (nonspecific
complement activation, neuro-peptide release, disrupted cell membrane releasing arachidonic
acid products); direct pharmacological reaction by agents such as organic insecticides
(parasympathetic agonists) and beta-adrenergic blocking agents; or by immunologic
mechanisms. Some agents also act via alternative path way of complement activation through
an antibody-independent mechanism.
TARTRAZINE AND SULPHITE SENSITIVITY
Tartrazine is a yellow dye commonly employed in food and medications. Beginning in 1958,
a number of reports appeared linking this agent with the occurrence of acute
bronchoconstriction. The reaction is particularly noted in those with aspirin sensitivity.
Although the exact prevalence is not known, there are reports of positive challenge in up to
22% of unselected asthma patients and 25-50% of those with aspirin sensitivity. It is not an
inhibitor of cyclo-oxygenase. However, the incidence of tartrazine-induced asthma is very
low and perhaps is limited to those rare individuals who appear to have an immunologically
mediated sensitivity to the dye.87
Sulphiting agents88-90 have been used to preserve foods and beverages since ancient times.
They maintain the crisp and fresh appearance of the foods, prevent browning, and control
microbial growth and spoilage. The agents used include sulphur dioxide as well as the
sodium and potassium salts of sulphite, bisulphite, and metabisulphite. All these agents
release sulphur dioxide gas under suitable conditions of warmth and acidity. Major sources
of exposure to sulphites are processed potatoes, shrimp, dried fruits, beer and wine. Another
source of sulphite exposure for patients with asthma is medication. Sulphites are used to
prevent oxidation of beta-adrenergic agonists. For this purpose, sulphites are contained in
some nebuliser solutions, injected epinephrine, and injected local anaesthetics containing
epinephrine. Except in vary rare individuals with true allergy to sulphites, the amount of
injected solutions is inconsequential. However, the amount in the nebuliser solutions is
sufficient to cause paradoxical bronchoconstriction or a blunted bronchodilator response
in these subjects.
Exposure to sulphites, particularly in restaurant salad bars in western countries, or after
drinking wine or beer, has been reported to be responsible for fatal attacks of asthma and
its use has been banned in many countries. Sulphur dioxide released in the mouth and
stomach from sulphites has been incriminated as the cause of precipitation of asthma in a
vast majority of patients. Sulphur dioxide is a known irritant and asthmatics are particularly
susceptible. The levels released from food and beverages may be sufficient to account for
the bronchoconstriction. However, all patients with asthma do not react adversely to
sulphites. This may be due to varying extent of inhalation of liberated sulphur dioxide by
different patients or there may be a subset of asthmatics, which have low levels of the
enzyme sulphite oxidase. These patients will be able to metabolise sulphites to harmless
sulphates. A small number of asthma patients may have true allergy to sulphites, in whom
an immediate skin test reactivity can be demonstrated.
Aetiology 27
RHINITIS AND SINUSITIS
A possible relation between sinusitis and activation of asthma has been postulated recently.
A high incidence of radiographic evidence of sinusitis on the order of 40 to 60 % has been
demonstrated in asthmatic patients. However, the question is, does this association represent
an epiphenomenon? There is suggestive clinical evidence that sinusitis not only occurs in
association with asthma but may also play some role in its pathogenesis. Studies of children
and adults after medical or surgical therapy indicate that the asthmatic state may improve
with proper management of the underlying sinusitis. It is also likely that nasal and sinus
pathology can aggravate asthma, particularly if there is uncontrolled drainage of mucoid
or mucopurulent material down the nasopharynx where it can contribute to cough and
irritability of larynx. This material may also be aspirated into the lower respiratory tract,
especially during sleep. It is also possible, but not proven, that sinus infection may aggravate
asthma through reflex mechanisms.91-93
Although historically, it was believed that structurally and functionally there are
differences within the respiratory tract which have been used as the basis for separating the
airway into upper and lower respiratory tracts, it is now being appreciated that allergic
rhinitis and bronchial asthma are considered as one airway, and one disease.94 The
prevalence of asthma and allergic rhinitis is increasing in the general population, and a
high proportion of new patients have coexisting upper and lower respiratory tract disease.
It is estimated that 60 to 70% of patients who have asthma have also coexisting allergic
rhinitis. During the past decade with increased understanding, current thinking is emerging
that they should better be described as a continuum of inflammation involving one common
airway. Traditional therapies originally indicated for allergic rhinitis and asthma are being
reassessed to explore their potential utility in both these conditions. Recently, there has
been a renewed interest in the role that histamine plays in lower airway disease, and interest
in increasing in the theory that leukotrienes, which are more potent inflammatory mediators
than histamine, play a role in upper airway disease as well. Because its important role in
the pathogenesis of both airways disease, leukotriene receptor antagonists are recently have
emerged as important therapeutic advances that have potential clinical utility in both asthma
and allergic rhinitis.
GASTRO-OESOPHAGEAL REFLUX (GER)
A number of reports are available in the medical literature on the relationship between gastrooesophageal reflux (GER) and pulmonary disease. Since the late seventies, numerous
investigators have reported on epidemiology, mechanisms and clinical trials in an effort to
piece together the gastro-oesophageal reflux and asthma. Epidemiological evidence for the
association suggest that about three-fourth of the asthmatics, independent of the use of
bronchodilators, have acid gastro-oesophageal reflux, increased frequency of reflux episodes,
or heart burn, and about 40 per cent have reflux oesophagitis. As early as 1967, Urschel and
Paulson reported that of 636 patients scheduled for an operative treatment for GER, 60%
also had pulmonary symptoms.95 Since then, many studies have shown a high prevalence
of GER among patients with asthma.96,97 A recent report says that even asthmatics without
having reflux symptoms have a high prevalence (62%) of abnormal results for 24-hours
oesophageal tests.98 The simultaneous occurrence of GER and asthma suggests a causal
28
Bronchial Asthma
relationship. The occurrence of GER after bedtime is strongly associated with asthma,
respiratory symptoms, and obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome.99
Two separate mechanisms are involved in the gastro-oesophageal reflux and asthma
relationship.99,100
i. Reflex vagal bronchoconstriction occurs secondary to stimulation of sensory nerve fibres
in the lower oesophagus. This mechanism is supported by the findings that acid infusion
of the oesophagus in asthmatic patients leads to increased airway resistance that rapidly
reverses with antacids and infusion of acid into the lower oesophagus of asthmatic
children during sleep induces bronchoconstriction.
ii. The second proposed mechanism is micro-aspiration, particularly during sleep. This is
supported by the findings of (a) a large vagally mediated increase in airway resistance
with minute quantities of hydrochloric acid infused into the trachea of cats; (b) a high
prevalence rate of hiatus hernia and gastro-oesophageal reflux in patients with bronchial
asthma and (c) an incidence of gastro-oesophageal reflux in 63 per cent of children
with asthma. The prevalence of gastro-oesophageal reflux is increased at least threefolds in both children and adults with bronchial asthma. The evidence for the relationship
also has gained support from the results of clinical trials.
iii. The partial narrowing or occlusion of the upper airway during sleep, followed by an
increase in intrathoracic pressure, might predispose the patient to nocturnal GER and,
consequently, to respiratory symptoms.99 Both medical treatment with antacids and
postural therapy and surgical management of gastro-oesophageal reflux have resulted
in improvement of asthma symptoms. However, other studies have not demonstrated
such a beneficial effect.101-105
Prevalence of gastro-oesophageal reflux in asthmatics can be summarised as follows:106
57% of asthmatics have heartburn
41% of asthmatics note reflux-associated respiratory symptoms
82% of asthmatics have abnormal oesophageal acid contact times
43% of asthmatics have oesophagitis
Heartburn is more prevalent in asthmatics over 65 years of age (35%) compared with
asthmatics 18-34 years of age (23%)
Heartburn is associated with a higher rate of future asthma hospitalisation
Subjects reporting nocturnal GER have higher asthma prevalence rates and symptoms
of obstructive sleep apnoea
Proximal oesophageal acid exposure is present in 48% of asthmatics
In children : abnormal oesophageal pH tests are present in 62% and GER is a risk
factor for asthma (OR 1.9).
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
There has been a great deal of controversy regarding the cause and effect relationship of
asthma and psychological factors. Many patients with asthma acknowledge that
exacerbations are provoked by psychological events, such as shock, bereavement, or
excitement. However, such factors are rarely the dominant cause of disease. Suggestion
and hypnosis may have some beneficial effect in modifying the asthmatic reactions.
Depression most often associated with asthma may be secondary to a chronic disease. In
rare instances, patients commit suicide. Although the information linking depression and
Aetiology 29
increased death from asthma is derived from clinical reports, the association, however, is
striking. In a review of cases in which children died suddenly and unexpectedly of asthma,
there is clinical evidence that the children had expressed despair, hopelessness, a wish to
die, and other evidence of depression. Other psychological problems that are documented
as associated with those at increased risk of mortality include alcohol abuse, documented
depression, recent family loss and disruption, recent unemployment, and schizophrenia.
The severe asthmatic attack is very frightening and such patients are understandably
anxious. Occasionally, psychological illness, family disputes or marital disharmony may
be major factors in the aetiology of intractable asthma.107-109
POLLUTION
Pollution with particulate matter adds to the allergenicity of aeroallergens. Passive smoking
is known to be a risk factor110 and there is evidence that diesel fumes are associated with
increased allergic responses. Similarly smokers have increased bronchial hyperreactivity
to a variety of stimuli. A small increase in allergen exposure will make the airway more
reactive, which will result in a large increase in severity and potential deaths. Ozone and
other oxidants contained in photochemical smog which occurs in areas of high traffic density,
high sunlight and temperature inversions as in Los Angeles and Athens, act as respiratory
irritants and can exacerbate asthma. Similarly other atmospheric pollutants as in highly
industrialised area containing sulphur dioxide and other smoke particulates can provoke
asthma. Indoor air pollution due to cooking fuels such as gas, biomass, and kerosene contain
oxides of nitrogen and are responsible for increased respiratory symptoms as reported in
some studies.111
Other environmental pollutants such as diesel particulates, and noxious gases like ozone,
sulphur dioxide, and nitrous oxides may be important in the development in young
children.112
Air pollution is partly being incriminated as a possible contributing factor in the recent
rise in the prevalence, morbidity and mortality of asthma globally.113 Although recent studies
have not established a direct causal relation of air pollution and bronchial asthma, there is
now substantial evidence that air pollution can contribute significantly to asthma morbidity
and mortality. Ambient levels of air pollutants exacerbate mucosal inflammation in asthmatic
airways, can affect lung function, and potentiate inhaled response to aeroallergens. Emissions
from motor vehicles are a major source of these pollutants. Retrospective analysis of pollution
episodes in the world history (Meuse Valley, Belgium -1930; Donnora, Pennsylvania-1948;
London 1952) have identified a link between respiratory morbidity and mortality and high
levels of sulphur dioxide and black smoke, although these studies were not primarily
focussed to study the association between asthma and air pollution.114-116 Reports from the
Tokyo-Yokohama area of Japan where USA soldiers were based, revealed many cases of
asthmatic bronchitis characterised by cough, wheeze, and breathlessness associated with
eosinophilia and positive skin prick tests. This area experienced smog as it was highly
industrialised and surrounded by hills. These individuals experienced relief of their
symptoms when they moved out to less polluted areas. This entity is known as TokyoYokohama asthma. However, since the levels of pollutants were not measured, this could
not be attributed to any specific pollutant.117-119 Other studies from Yokkaichi, Japan,120
Birmingham, UK,121 Seattle,122 Utah valley,123 Southern Ontario and Toranto124-126 have shown
30
Bronchial Asthma
positive correlations between asthma exacerbations and SO2, ozone, fine particulate matter,
and sulphates.127-129 Indoor air pollution is a contributory factor in exacerbation of bronchial
asthma.130
Environmental tobacco smoke is important in the development of childhood asthma
and in the worsening of asthma in children and adults.131 The earlier and the greater the
degree of environmental tobacco smoke, the greater the likelihood of asthma developing in
children. In infants exposed to prenatal and postnatal cigarette smoking, have altered lung
function.130,132,133 These limitations in lung functions may be secondary to smaller lung size,
and less maturity of lungs secondary to in utero lung growth retardation because of persistent
exposure of lungs to nicotine.134-136 Increased bronchial responsiveness after birth occurs in
infants exposed to maternal smoking.137 Infants exposed to smoking are at increased risk of
developing asthma later in life.138-146 It is, however, not clear whether increased bronchial
reactivity after birth plays a role, if any, in the development of asthma. It is also not clear
whether the increased bronchial reactivity in these infants is purely genetic, or whether it is
the result of lung injury from exposure to cigarette smoke.
Asthmatic smokers have increased hyperresponsiveness to methacholine.147 Asthmatic
smokers have higher sputum total cell and neutrophil numbers and IL-8 concentrations
compared to asthmatic nonsmokers. In contrast, sputum eosinophils and eosinophil-cationprotein levels are higher in nonsmoking than smoking asthmatics, suggesting a normalising
effect of smoking on the Th1/Th2 balance. Thus upon the eosinophils inflammation, smoking
induces neutrophilic airway inflammation in asthma.147 Further, smoking asthmatics show
no improvement in lung function, airway hyperresponsiveness, and sputum eosinophilia
on treatment with steroid inhalation.148 This decreased steroid responsiveness is responsible
for the faster decline in FEV1 seen in smoking asthmatics.
ENDOCRINAL FACTORS
Although the exact role of hormones in asthma has not been defined, a number of patients
complain of exacerbation of their symptoms during or preceding menstruation.
Retrospective studies suggest that in approximately one-third of women, asthma becomes
worse during pregnancy; in one-third, it becomes better; and in one-third, it remains
unchanged. In women in whom asthma becomes worse during pregnancy, peak severity
occurs at 29-36 weeks of gestation. Asthma becomes less severe during the last 4 weeks of
pregnancy. The change in the severity of asthma during pregnancy is sometimes dramatic
and tends to be consistent in subsequent pregnancies. Most patients return to a prepregnancy level of severity by 3 months of postpartum.149-152 There may be an improvement
in airway responsiveness during pregnancy that is greatest in those with the most
hyperresponsive airway initially. It is also reported that improvements in responsiveness
are associated with improvements in clinical asthma severity. However, progesterone alone
did not appear to be the sole contributor to these improvements. It is also suggested that
oestrogen plays a role in the pathophysiology of asthma and long-term use and/or high
doses of postmenopausal hormone therapy increase subsequent risk of asthma.153
Several observations have been made on the influence of thyroid hormones on asthma.
Hyperthyroidism is accompanied by many manifestations suggesting over stimulation of
the sympathetic system and this condition is a contraindication for use of -2 agonists. One,
therefore would expect that patients of bronchial asthma, who in addition develop hyperthyroidism, should either have a decreased requirements of bronchodilators or amelioration
of their symptoms. However, the reverse has been observed. Asthmatics who develop
Aetiology 31
hyperthyroidism, do far worse than euthyroid asthmatics. In some hyperthyroid asthmatics
following treatment of hyperthyroidism, not only asthma improves, but in rare instances
they become completely asymptomatic. Similar discrepancies have also been observed in
hypothyroidism. Various mechanisms such as changes in beta adrenoceptor activity and
altered prostaglandin metabolism have been proposed to explain these observations.
Bronchodilator response is impaired in the presence of excess thyroid hormones, which
improves after euthyroid state is achieved.154
GENETICS AND ASTHMA
Genetic factors play a contributing role in the pathogenesis of asthma.155 There are several
studies indicating familial aggregation of asthma. It is a frequent clinical observation that
asthma runs in families. Moreover, other atopic conditions like allergic rhinitis and atopic
dermatitis are common among the family members of the asthma patients. The concordance
of asthma in monozygotic (MZ) twins is reported to be significantly greater than that in
dizygotic (DZ) twins. Though the dosage of inhaled antigens and other factors influence
the likelihood of clinical disease, recent family studies suggest that atopy is dominantly
inherited. Molecular genetic linkage studies indicate that the atopy gene locus is on
chromosome 11.156-159
Cytokines are important components in the pathogenesis of asthma (see below). The
genes for these cytokines are encoded in a small region in the long arm of chromosome 5
and a number of them are coordinately regulated. T cells that differentiate along this route
and preferentially release cytokines of the IL-4 gene cluster are called Th2-like. These Th2like lymphocytes and their cytokines are over represented in tissue biopsy studies in patients
with allergic diseases. The chromosome 5 contains an IL-4 gene cluster which encodes the
allergic cytokines IL-3,4,5,9,13 and GM-CSF (granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating
factor). This gene is closely linked to inheritance of an increased IgE response and to increased
bronchial hyperresponsiveness. Further, human genome studies have revealed that allergic
diathesis is linked with a region on the long arm of chromosome 12 which contains the
gene encoding interferon-) (INF-), which is a powerful suppressor of Th2 responses. It is
established that there is a reciprocal relationship between Th2 and Th1 responses with
IL-10 derived from Th2 cells inhibiting Th1 responses while INF- generated by Th1 cells
inhibits Th2 responses. It is possible that, in allergic diseases like asthma, there is an increase
in the expression of genes, which regulates Th2 cytokines, a decrease in expression of genes
that regulate INF- production, or a combination of both.160
The other genetic component that plays an important role is the ability of a susceptible
individual to recognise an environmental allergen as foreign and starts an allergic immune
response. This component operates through the human lymphocyte antigen (HLA, or MHC
class II) molecules HLA-DR, HLA-DP, HLA-DQ, which provide the mechanism for antigen
recognition and presentation to and by T and B lymphocytes.160
Many candidate genes and positional cloning have recently been identified.161 The first
genome-wide screen for linkages to asthma identifies linkages on chromosomes 4q,6 (near
the major histocompatibility complex, (MHC), 7,11q containing FcR1-, 13q and 16.
Linkages have been confirmed to chromosomes 4,11,13 and 16. Suggestive evidences are
also found for linkages and replication for loci on chromosomes 5q, 12q, 19q, and 21q.
Different linkages have been reported from different ethnic groups. The loci most consistently
and robustly identified are on chromosomes 5, 6, 12 and 13.
32
Bronchial Asthma
Various candidate genes those have been implicated in atopy and asthma are summarised
in Table 2.2.162
Several studies have shown that polymorphisms in the 2 adrenergic receptor gene
influences responsiveness to -agonists. Similarly polymorphisms in the 5-lipoxygenase gene
and the leukotriene C4 synthase gene have been associated with response to medications that
target leukotriene metabolism. These findings suggest the potential for pharmacogenetic
tailoring of therapy in individual asthmatic patients.163
Environmental risk factors for development of asthma are summarised in Table 2.3.
Table 2.2: Candidate genes for asthma
Chromosome
1
5
6
11
12
13
14
16
Gene
IL-10
IL-4 promoter
IL-5
IL-9
IL-12B
IL-13
GM-CSF
CD 14
2 adrenergic receptor
TNF-
Human leukocyte antigens
FcR1-,
CC16
Interferon
STAT 5
T-cell receptor / complex
IL-4 receptor (IL-4)
Table 2:3: Environmental risk factors for the development of bronchial asthma
Allergens
Pollutants
Infections
Dietary modifications
Food allergens
Inhalant allergens
Environmental tobacco smoke
Diesel particulates
Noxious gases (ozone, SO2, NO2)
Viral
Respiratory syncytial virus
Parainfluenza virus
Human rhinovirus
Bacterial
Mycobacterium
Chlamydia
Mycoplasma
Lactobacillus
3 fatty acids
Vitamins
Antioxidants
Lectins
Aetiology 33
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158. Cookson WOCM, Sharp P, Faux J, Hopkin JM. Linkage between immunoglobulin-E responsiveness underlying asthma and rhinitis and chromosome 11q. Lancet 1989;i:1292.
159. Nieminen MM, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo M. A population-based study of bronchial asthma in adult
twin pairs. Chest 1991;100:70.
160. Holgate ST. Asthma and allergy: Interaction of immunology and environment. Pulmonary
Perspectives 1997;14:4-6.
161. Cookson WOC. Asthma genetics. Chest 2002;121:7S-13S.
162. Sandford A, Pare P. The genetics of asthma: The important questions. Am J Respir Crit Care
Med 2000;161:S202-S206.
163. Joos L, Sandford AJ. Genotype predictors of response to asthma medications. Curr Opin Pulm
Med 2002;8:9-15.
40
Bronchial Asthma
3
Pathophysiology of
Bronchial Asthma
Bronchial asthma is a disease characterised by wide variation over short periods of time in
the resistance to flow in the airways. The hallmark of the disease is the airflow obstruction.
Most asthma is of allergic origin. In this form, it is viewed as a sum of three features: the
early asthmatic reaction (EAR); the late asthmatic reaction (LAR); and bronchial
hyperresponsiveness, with varying contribution from each. The cellular response in LAR
in non-allergic asthma is similar, but little is known of the underlying aetiology. Three
factors narrow airway caliber to limit the flow:
Airway smooth muscle contraction;
Gland and epithelial secretions and exudation into the airway lumen; and
Inflammatory oedema and vasodilatation (hyperaemia).
Early Asthmatic Reaction (EAR)
In atopic individuals, bronchial challenge/inhalation of appropriate antigens will elicit an
early response, which is maximum at 15 minutes and characterised by smooth muscle
contraction, exudation of plasma, and mucus production. This reaches its peak in about
thirty minutes and resolves within 90-180 minutes. This early reaction is IgE dependent
and is the result of IgE binding to mast cells by its Fc portion and to specific antigens by its
F(ab) portion. When IgE-sensitised mast cells are exposed to antigen against which the IgE
molecule is directed, pre-formed and newly generated mediators are released.1 These can be
detected in the blood as they overflow into the circulation, in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid,
and as metabolites in the urine and include histamine, prostaglandin D2, and leukotriene C4
from airway mast cells.2 This early response is due to the release of histamine. This reaction
can be prevented by pre-medication with sodium cromoglycate and nedocromil sodium and
-2 agonists,3 but not with steroids.
Late Asthmatic Reaction (LAR) and Bronchial Hyperreactivity (BHR)
The EAR is followed by a complete or partial recovery period over the next 1 to 2 hours and
then by a further progressive fall in respiratory function, which is maximal between 6 to 12
hours. A further recovery occurs by 24 to 36 hours. This response can only be partially
reversed by -2 agonist, but pre-medication with cromolyn and corticosteroids inhibits this
response. The LAR is also characterised by the release of inflammatory mediators into the
same fluids. However, during this phase there is a striking infiltration of inflammatory
42
Bronchial Asthma
Fig. 3.1: Arachidonic acid metabolism and mediator release (LT- Leukotriene)
activation. It has been shown recently in experimental animals that certain activated mast
cells also release transiently a large number of cytokines affect the tissue microenvironment
during inflammation. These substances are GM-CSF, INF-, IL-1, IL-3-6, PAF, transforming
growth factor, JE, and M1P1. These cytokines are capable of recruiting, priming and
activating other cells involved in inflammation. Through the release of cytokines similar to
those released from TH2 lymphocytes, it is possible that mast cells also play an important
role in the development of LAR in addition to its primary role in EAR.
It has been suggested that mast cells also possess anti-inflammatory properties through
release of heparin and related proteolysis. The tissue damaging properties of cationic protein
mediators released from eosinophils (see later) are neutralised by the highly anionic heparin.
It has also been shown that heparin inhibits the increased vascular permeability induced
by a wide range of agonists, can inhibit lymphocyte activation and trafficking and like
glucocorticoids is capable of inhibiting delayed hypersensitivity responses. Thus, it is
hypothesised that an imbalance between these inflammatory and anti-inflammatory
substances will decide the final outcome. However, this has not yet been proven.
Although mast cells are primary cells in EAR through IgE dependent release of
spasmogenic mediators, they also have an important role in LAR as they also produce
44
Bronchial Asthma
GM-CSF, interleukins, etc.41 although some other reports indicate that they are less likely to be
involved in the chronic inflammatory response.42,43
Eosinophils44-47
The importance of eosinophils in the causation of bronchial asthma is evident in view of
extensive tissue, blood and sputum eosinophilia in this disease. Biopsy studies both
postmortem and during life have shown the presence of excess eosinophils in the bronchial
mucosa of these patients. They also play a key role in asthma, and their presence in the
airways characterises the inflammation of asthma, which has been termed as chronic
eosinophilic bronchitis. The number of activated eosinophils is closely related to asthma
severity and may be associated with epithelial shedding. Their development is dependent
on T cell function. The IL-5 specifically stimulates eosinophil differentiation. They have
receptors for IgG, IgA, and IgE on their cell surface.
These cells are able to produce many mediators that are responsible for the disordered
airway function characteristic of asthma. These substances include:
Platelet activating factor
LTB4
LTC4
PGE2
15-HETE
Oxygen radicals and
Four cytotoxic proteins48-51
i. Major basic protein (MBP)
ii. Eosinophil cationic protein (ECP)
iii. Eosinophil-derived neurotoxin (EDN) and
iv. Eosinophil peroxidase (EPO).
All these mediators are released by activated eosinophils. The release of these mediators
results in bronchoconstriction, epithelial damage, and recruitment and priming of other
inflammatory cells. Eosinophil maturation and priming are under the control of IL-3, IL-4,
IL-5, and GM-CSF (Granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor), cytokines released
from a number of cell types in the airways including activated T cells of the TH2 type, and
mast cells. Another molecule present in the eosinophils is the Charcot-Leydon crystal protein
that possesses lysophospholipase activity.
Eosinophils have characteristic granules and granule proteins. The granule is composed
of a crystalloid core and a matrix. The above four proteins are present in the granules. The
genes of these proteins are cloned and the cDNA for MBP specifies the existence of a proMBP molecule that is composed of an acid-rich portion and a basic MBP portion. EDN and
ECP are both ribonucleases. In addition, ECP is a potent helminthotoxin. EPO is a member
of the peroxidase multigene family that is composed of myeloperoxidase, thyroid peroxidase,
and lactoperoxidase. The MBP is toxic to respiratory epithelium and is elevated in the sputum
of patients with asthma. It has also been shown that MBP is deposited in the damaged areas
in the epithelium. Not only MBP, but also ECP and EPO alone, as well as EPO in the presence
of halide and hydrogen peroxidase, damage bronchial epithelium. Experimental studies
have shown that eosinophil proteins, particularly MBP applied to respiratory epithelium
stimulates smooth muscle contraction and also can increase the sensitivity of the smooth
46
Bronchial Asthma
interleukins which favour the synthesis of IgE and activation of eosinophils and mast cells.
There is a preferential expansion of type Th2 T cells secreting IL-3, IL-4, IL-5 and GM-CSF with
fewer Th1 cells whose cytokine profile includes IL-2 and interferon-. Such a mechanism
would explain the peculiarities of allergic inflammation involving isotype switching to IgE
synthesis, and the preferential recruitment of eosinophils and mast cells.
Lymphokines and various other cytokines that are relevant to airway inflammation in
asthma are shown subsequently.57-68 Two important cytokines , that are particularly important
in bronchial asthma are IL-4 and NF-KB.69,70 IL-4 is essential for IgE production. INF-
diminishes cell processing necessary for IL-4 production.69 Thus, interplay of these cytokines
will decide whether IL-4 producing cells will be produced, and, thus, whether IgE will be
produced in response to various allergic stimuli. The role of transcription-factor NF-KB is
emerging recently to play a key role in the pathogenesis of bronchial asthma. It is postulated
that inflammatory signals activate transcription factors such as NF-KB and this in turn will
switch on the inflammatory genes, which will lead on to the increased expression of
inflammatory proteins. Corticosteroids are potent inhibitors of NF-KB and their antiinflammatory action is believed to be mediated through this mechanism.70
Thus, it may be summarised that T cell participation is an important event in allergic
diseases and asthma. Th2 cells are more important by the way of production of various
cytokines which are necessary for allergic responses. In contrast, Th1 cells are primarily
responsible for classic delayed hypersensitivity. Products of Th1 type cells, principally
INF-, inhibit or antagonize Th2 effector function. IL-4 induces IgE synthesis, and INF- is
a strong inhibitor of this process. Such control establishes a model of how IgE can be tightly
regulated in vitro. The Th2 pathway is also involved in regulation of eosinophilia, mast cell
activity and IgE synthesis. The differentiation into Th1 and Th2 cells are again regulated by
cytokines. While IL-4 may act directly on the precursor T cell to induce Th2 differentiation,
interferon and transforming growth factor-beta TGF-.71 While T cell sensitisation is an
important factor in the development of IgE production to a particular antigen and T cell
subsets are important in establishing the process of airway hyperresponsiveness.
Experimental data have shown that the transfer of antigen-specific IgE, immediate cutaneous
hypersensitivity, and increased airway responsiveness may be mediated, depending on
the antigen, by specific V expressing T cell subsets.
While the precise mechanisms by which inflammatory cells are recruited into the lungs
are not fully understood, increasingly available evidence suggest that the activation of
antigen-specific CD4+ T cells of the type 2 T-helper (Th2) subset in the lungs, which results
in IL-5 secretion, plays a major role in asthmatic airway inflammation.72 CD4+ T cell
activation leading to cytokine production and effector function requires two signals from
the antigen-presenting cell (APC). The first signal is triggered by the interaction between
antigen-specific T cell receptor and peptide-major histocompatibility complex II complexes
on APCs. The second signal or co-stimulatory signal is triggered by CD80 (B7-1) and CD86
(B7-2) of the APC binding to the CD28 and cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen (CTLA-4) of the
T lymphocytes.73-76 In the absence of co-stimulatory signals, the T cell-dependent immune
response is greatly diminished, or even eliminated.77 Thus, costimulatory signals may fulfill
a valuable role in T lymphocyte activation, Type 1 T-helper (Th1) or Th2 cell differentiation,
and the production of different cytokines.78
CTLA-4 is a second co-stimulatory molecule and is a homologue of CD28. It is expressed
only on activated T cells, binds to accessory molecule B7,79 and mediates T cell-dependent
48
Bronchial Asthma
Basophils
Basophils are histamine releasing cells in the late phase reaction of asthma unlike mast
cells, which release histamine in the early phase reaction. The spontaneous release of
histamine is quite high by these activated basophils (20-40% of total). This release process
has slow kinetics and is temperature dependent. Various cytokines (IL-1, IL-3, and histamine
releasing factor) and PAF have an up regulatory/stimulatory effect on blood basophils.
Any or all of these cytokines could prime the basophils such that they become responsive
to very low concentrations of stimuli or some could directly trigger basophil mediator release.
Epithelial Cells and Adhesion Molecules
The infiltration of inflammatory cells into the airways is dependent on the expression of
adhesion molecules on inflammatory cells and endothelial cells of the bronchial circulation.97
One consequence of inflammation is epithelial injury. Morphological studies have shown
that asthma is associated with epithelial injury. These changes range from minor disruption
of the epithelium with loss of ciliated cells to complete denudation of the epithelium. These
structural changes in the epithelial barrier can lead to increased permeability to inhaled
allergens, irritants, and inflammatory mediators. In addition, transudation of fluids and
reduced clearance of inflammatory substances and respiratory secretions occur with
disruption of epithelial mucociliary mechanisms. The epithelium also participates in
mediator release and metabolism.98-101 They have the capacity to produce PGE2, PGF2,
12-and 15-hydroxy eicosatetraenoic acid, GM-CSF, etc. The bronchial hyperresponsiveness
in asthma is attributed to the epithelial cell damage. The airway epithelial cells have a
protective role against various tachykinins.
Currently, adhesion molecules are considered to be important in the causation of airway
inflammation, although the specific mechanism is still under investigation.102-109 Adhesion
of various inflammatory cells to the bronchial vascular endothelium is a key step in the
initiation and propagation of inflammation. This is effected by the interaction of various
adhesion molecules expressed on endothelial cells, epithelial cells, platelets, and leucocytes.
These molecules are specific glycoproteins that are grouped into different families depending
upon their molecular structure. These include integrins, immunoglobulin super gene family
(intracellular adhesion molecule-ICAM, vascular cell adhesion molecule-VCAM; platelet
endothelial adhesion molecule-PCAM), selectins (E-selectin like ELAM-1, and ECAM-1,
P-selectin, L-selectin) and carbohydrates are important for lung inflammation. Expression
of various adhesion molecules is regulated by various mediators of inflammation.
Neutrophils
Although neutrophils are found in large proportions in the bronchial wall and
bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in bronchial asthma, it is not clear if they have any definite
role to play in bronchial asthma. However, such neutrophils in bronchial asthma show
increased expression of membrane complement receptors and enhanced toxicity for
complement coated antigens. They also have ability to alter airway function. These finding
suggest that neutrophils probably participate in inflammation of bronchial asthma.
Cytokines
IL-1
IL-2
IL-3
IL-4
IL-5
IL-6
IL-8
IL-10
IL-12
IL-13
GM-CSF
chemotaxis
IFN-
Tumour necrosis
factor
Platelet derived
Monocytes,
growth factor (PDGF) Macrophages
50
Bronchial Asthma
52
Bronchial Asthma
Further, several leukotriene modifiers inhibit the asthma response in oral or inhaled
bronchoprovocation by aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents144,145 and
improve respiratory function by bronchodilatation.146
Mast Cell Proteases
As much as 70% of the weight of a mast cell consists of proteases that are enzymatically active
at neutral pH. These cells express a complex array of proteases, which consist of serine
proteases, tryptases, and chymase. These enzymes regulate neuropeptide regulation in the
airways, smooth muscle contraction, and submucosal gland secretion.147-149 Histamine, another
mast cell product has a well-established role in the pathogenesis of asthma. It induces
bronchospasm, increases vascular and epithelial permeability, and increases the mucous
glycoprotein secretion.150
Histamine
The role of histamine in the pathogenesis of bronchial asthma is well established for a long
time. Histamine induces bronchoconstriction, increases epithelial and vascular permeability,
and increases the secretion of mucus glycoproteins.150 In patients of bronchial asthma, the
levels of histamine are increased in blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid.151,152
Prostaglandins
PGD2 and PGF2- A are very potent bronchoconstrictor agents. The former has greater
bronchoconstrictor activity compared to that of the later or histamine.153 Both these
prostaglandins also potentiates the bronchoconstricting activity of histamine and
methacholine.155,156 On the other hand, PGE1 and PGE2 has bronchodilating effect. While
Thromboxane A2 (TXA2) is a bronchoconstrictor, vasoconstrictor, and platelet aggregator,
PGI2 is a bronchodilator, vasodilator and prevents platelet aggregation.156,157
Platelet-activating Factor (PAF)
PAF has attracted attention as an important mediator of bronchial asthma.158-161 Recovery of
this substance from bronchoaveolar lavage fluid in antigen exposed individuals supports
such a role.162,163 It is an important mediator involved in the bronchial hyperresponsiveness
in addition to having action of bronchoconstriction, stimulation of eosinophil and eosinophil
accumulation in the airway, induction of airway microvascular leakage and oedema, and
increased airway secretions and epithelial permeability.
Bradykinin
Bradykinin is another important inflammatory mediator in asthma and asthmatics have
increased responsiveness to bradykinin,164 and the levels are found to be high in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from these patients165 The substance causes bronchoconstriction,
increases vascular permeability, has vasodilator activity, increases mucus secretion, activates
C-fibre nerve endings, enhances neuropeptide release from sensory nerves, and increases
cholinergic reflex.164, 166,167 Bradykinin mediates its effects through BK1 and BK2 receptors,166
although the effects on airways are primarily mediated via BK2 receptors. It also releases
tachykinins from airway sensory nerves.
Cytokines
Pro-inflammatory cytokines
Th2 cytokines
Anti-inflammatory cytokines
Growth factors
Cytokine receptors
Cytokine receptor super family
Seven-transmembrane G-protein
coupled receptor super family
Chemokine receptors
54
Bronchial Asthma
Table 3.3: Summary of effects of cytokines
Cytokines
Lymphokines
IL-2
IL-3
IL-4
IL-5
IL-13
IL-15
IL-16
IL-17
Pro- inflammatory
IL-1
TNF-
IL-6
IL-9
IL-11
GM-CSF
Eosinophilia in vivo
Growth and differentiation of T cells
Eosinophilia in vivo
Pluripotent haematopoietic factor
Eosinophil growth
Th2; Th1
IgE
Mucin expression and goblet cells
eosinophil maturation
Apoptosis
Th2 cells
BHR
Activates eosinophils
apoptosis
IgE
mucin expression and goblet cells
As for IL-2
Growth and differentiation of T cells
Eosinophil migration
Growth factor and chemotaxis of T cells (CD4+)
T cell proliferation
Activates epithelia, endothelial cells, fibroblasts
Contd...
SCF
Inhibitory cytokines
IL-10
IL-1ra
IFN-g
IL-18
Growth factors
PDGF
TGF-
Eosinophil survival
Th1 and Th2
Monocyte/macrophage activation; B cell; mast cell growth
BHR
Th2 proliferation
BHR
Eosinophil influx after allergen
Th2 cells
Activates endothelial cell, epithelial cells, alveolar macrophages/monocytes
IgE
BHR
Via IFN- release
Releases IFN- from Th1 cells
Activates NK cells, monocytes
IgE
Fibroblast and airway smooth muscle proliferation
Release of collagen
T cell proliferation
Blocks IL-2 effects
Fibroblast proliferation
Chemo-attractant for monocytes, fibroblasts, mast cells
Airway smooth muscle proliferation
Asthmatic Inflammation
The chronic airway inflammation of asthma is characterised by an infiltration of T lymphocytes,
eosinophils, macrophages/monocytes and mast cells, and sometimes neutrophils. An acute
or chronic inflammation may be observed with acute exacerbations, with an increase in
eosinophils and neutrophils in the airway submucosa and release of mediators, such as
histamine and cysteinyl-leukotrienes, from eosinophils and mast cells to induce
bronchoconstriction, airway oedema and mucus secretion. Changes in the resident cells are
also observed, such as an increase in the thickness of the airway smooth muscle with
hypertrophy and hyperplasia, more myofibroblasts with an increase in collagen deposition
in the lamina reticularis, more vessels and an increase in goblet cell numbers in the airway
epithelium.
Cytokines play an integral role in the coordination and persistence of the inflammatory
process in the chronic inflammation of the airways (Table 3.3).
56
Bronchial Asthma
Th2-associated Cytokines
CD4+ T lymphocytes of the asthmatic airways express Th2 cytokines including IL-3, IL-4, IL5, IL-10, IL-13 and GM-CSF. The primary signals that activate Th2 cells may be related to the
presentation of a restricted panel of antigens in the presence of appropriate cytokines. Dendritic
cells are ideally suited to being the primary contact between the immune system and external
allergens. Co-stimulatory molecules on the surface of antigen-presenting cells, in particular
B7.2/ CD28 interaction, may lead to proliferation of Th2 cells.169 With the expression of IL-4,
synthesis of IgE by B lymphocytes on immunoglobulin isotype switching occurs.170 IgE
produced in asthmatic airways binds to FcRI receptors (high-affinity IgE receptors) on mast
cells priming them for activation by antigen. The maturation and expansion of mast cells from
bone marrow cells involve growth factors and cytokines such as SCF and IL-3 derived from
structural cells. Bronchoalveolar mast cells from asthmatics show enhanced release of
mediators such as histamine. Mast cells also elaborate IL-4 and IL-5.171 IL-4 also increases the
expression of an inducible form of the low-affinity receptor for IgE (FcRII or CD23) on B
lymphocytes and macrophages.172 IL-4 drives the differentiation of CD4+ Th precursors to
Th2- like cells.
IL-18 is a cytokine with potent interferon (IFN)- -inducing activity. It is predominantly
produced by activated macrophages and synthesised with IL-12 to induce (IFN)- synthesis
from T lymphocytes, promoting differentiation of T cells to the Th1 subsets. The IL-18 levels
are low in the BAL fluid of patients with bronchial asthma. This inherently low levels of IL18 may be associated with pathogenesis of asthmatic airway inflammation.173
58
Bronchial Asthma
Nitric Oxide
Although it is now well established that normal subjects have measurable concentrations of
nitric oxide (NO.) in their expired air, in patients with bronchial asthma the peak or mixed
expired NO are about 50% higher.185-187 Furthermore, compared with normal subjects, the
airways of patients with asthma have up regulated expression of type II nitric oxide synthase,
NOS.188 Taken together, these findings have led to the speculation that expired concentrations
of NO reflect the inflammatory microenvironment of the asthmatic airway wall.189
Neurotrophins
The neurotrophins are a family of peptides that promote survival, growth, and differentiation
of neurons. They may also influence the function of non-neuronal cell types, including
immune cells. The development and maintenance of asthma are thought to involve nervous
system and the immune system, but the exact role that the neurotrophins play is unclear.
The cellular sources of neurotrophins include mast cells, lymphocytes, macrophages,
epithelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and eosinophils. The action of neurotrophin receptors
like Trk (tyrosine kinase) acts possibly act in concert with known immune regulating factors
to modulate the maturation, accumulation, proliferation, and activation of immune cells.
Neurotrophins also can modulate afferent nerve function by stimulating the production of
neuropeptides within airway afferent neurons. These neuropeptides may be released from
the central terminals of airway afferent neurons, which leads to increased autonomic reflex
activity, and increased reactivity in the airways.190
The role of different mediators is summarised in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Role of mediators causing pathological changes in asthma
Pathological changes
Mediator implicated
Bronchospasm
Histamine (H1response)
LTC4, LTD4, LTE4
Prostaglandins and TXA2
Bradykinin
Platelet activating factor
Acetylcholin
Mucosal oedema
Histamine (H1response)
LTC4, LTD4, LTE4
Prostaglandin E
Bradykinin
Platelet activating factor
Cellular infiltration
Eosinophil chemotactic factor
(airway hyperreactivity)
Neutrophil chemotactic factor
HETEs
LTB4
Mucus secretion
Histamine (H1response)
LTC4, LTD4, LTE4
Prostaglandins generating
Factor of anaphylaxis
Prostaglandins
HETEs
Acetylcholin
Macrophage mucus secretagauge
Desquamation
O2, H2O2, OH
Proteolytic enzymes
Basement membrane thickening
O2, Proteolytic enzymes
60
Bronchial Asthma
fibres represent only a minor component of the total nerve fibres in human airways. Although
there is little or no direct sympathetic innervations of human airways, there are many and -adrenergic receptors that are important in regulating bronchomotor tone. Earlier it
was believed the imbalance between cGMP and cAMP production was the underlying
mechanism of bronchial asthma, (Yin-Yang hypothesis).
The neurotransmitters for the NANC nervous system were initially thought to be purine
nucleotides, such as adenosine and adenosine triphosphate and accordingly the NANC
nerves were termed purinergic. However, now it is believed that the neurotransmitters
are not purines, but peptides, and thus the nerves are peptidergic. Although a number of
neurotransmitters have been identified, only VIP, peptide histidine methionine (PHM),
and nitric oxide may be the neurotransmitters of the nonadrenergic inhibitory nervous system
and thus are important endogenous bronchodilators.202,203 They also decrease mucus secretion
and manifest anti-inflammatory actions. Deficiency of this system has been postulated to
contribute to the development of bronchial hyperreactivity. Functional deficiencies of the
system can result from blockade of nonadrenergic pathways at the level of ganglia or nerve
endings; from deficiency of airway VIP or PHM receptors, or from enhanced breakdown of
neuropeptides by peptidases released from inflammatory cells in the asthmatic airway. It
has been demonstrated recently that there is a loss of VIP from pulmonary nerve fibres in
asthmatics. Immunoreactive VIP is observed within nerves in more than 90% of lung sections
from normal subjects but is not identified in any lung sections from patients with asthma.
However, it is not clear whether it is a primary or secondary event.
Other peptides such as substance P, neurokinin A (substance K, neuromodulin L) and
calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) are believed to be neurotransmitters of the
noncholinergic excitatory system and thus act as endogenous bronchoconstrictors.204-209 These
peptides also play a role in regulating mucus production, pulmonary vasomotor tone,
mucosal permeability, and inflammatory cell function. A number of substances are known
to release neuropeptides from these nerves include capsaicin (most potent), irritant gases,
antigen, and various inflammatory mediators, including histamine, bradykinin, and
prostaglandins. These neuropeptides have the remarkable ability to affect multiple cells in
the airways and to provoke many responses including cough, mucus secretion, smooth
muscle contraction, plasma extravasations, and neutrophil adhesion. This series of effects
is termed as neurogenic inflammation.210-215 An enzyme neutral endopeptidase (NEP)
exists on the surfaces of all lung cells. The enzyme inactivates the neuropeptides limiting
their concentration. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) also helps in the degradation of
these neuropeptides. Thus neurogenic inflammatory responses are normally mild and
probably protective in nature. It is proposed that in asthma, a decrease in the normal
degradation process of substance P occurs by NEP or ACE. Cigarette smoke, respiratory
viral infections, and inhalation of industrial pollutant toluene diisocyanate inhibit NEP
and exaggerate neurogenic inflammation. In addition, there are reports that there are more
substance P immunoreactive nerves in the lungs of patients with asthma compared to that
in normal subjects.
Therefore, in addition to the proposed changes in the cholinergic and adrenergic nervous
systems, subjects with asthma have now been revealed to potentially have changes in their
nonadrenergic inhibitory and noncholinergic excitatory nervous system. These changes
will lead to an imbalance in the autonomic nervous system and predispose subjects with
asthma towards bronchospasm (Fig. 3.4).
62
Bronchial Asthma
was accompanied by a 60% fall in sGaw in asthmatic subjects but only a 30% fall in sGaw in
normal controls.217 In another study Davidson et al reported a 30% fall in V30 induced by
inhaled histamine was accompanied by a 10 and 13% fall in FEV1 in asthmatic and normal
subjects, respectively. But when the same individuals inhaled LTE4, a 30% fall in V was
accompanied by a 17% fall in FEV1 in asthmatic subjects and a 3% fall in FEV1 in normal
controls.218 While FEV1 represents the central airway function, V30 represents small or
peripheral airways function. The interaction of various factors and the pathophysiology of
bronchial asthma is summarised in Figure 3.5.
AR) and Asthma
Beta-adrenergic Receptors (
ARs belong to the family of adrenergic receptors that use the endogenous catecholamines
epinephrine and norepinephrine (and, to a lesser extent dopamine) as agonists. Nine different
adrenergic receptor subtypes have been cloned.219 There are three AR subtypes (1, 2, 3)
and they couple to the stimulatory G-protein, Gs, which results in activation of adenyl
cyclase and increases in intracellular cAMP. The 2 AR is expressed to some extent in virtually
every tissue in the body. In the lung, this is present in epithelium, smooth muscle of bronchi
and bronchioles, submucosal glands, the endothelium and smooth muscle of pulmonary
arteries, alveolar walls, immune cells including mast cells, macrophages, eosinophils,
neutrophils, and lymphocytes. There are reports that 3AR also regulates bronchial smooth
muscle tone in pharmacological in vivo studies. 2 AR has been studied extensively and
thought to have important therapeutic implications. Recent genetic polymorphisms of the
2 AR have been identified in the population, which may be the basis of a more severe form
of the disease or the basis of the heterogeneity of receptor expression and response to betaagonists observed clinically.220 Some of the important molecular domains that have been
found to be important for receptor function have also been identified. Although a number
of studies have addressed whether 2 AR are dysfunctional in asthma, there appears to be
no consensus in this matter.221 It seems that beta-receptor dysfunction may not be the primary
lesion in asthma. Perhaps this occurs as a secondary phenomenon in asthma either because
of the drugs used and thus acquired or there may be a receptor mutation or polymorphism.
Szentivanyi proposed in 1968 that asthma may be due to an inherited or acquired deficit
in -adrenoceptor function.222 Several lines of evidence suggest that the 2-adrenoceptor
may be abnormal in asthma, making the 2-adrenoceptor gene an attractive candidate
gene in this disease. Administration of 2-adrenoceptor agonists increases airway tone and
responsiveness in patients with asthma.223 Bronchial or tracheal smooth muscle obtained at
either autopsy or surgery from asthmatic patients show a deficit in -adrenoceptor
function.224-227 A large number of polymorphisms or point mutations have been described
in the human 2-adrenoceptor gene. A restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)
of this gene has been reported using the restriction enzyme Ban I.228 Another biallelic
polymorphism is reported using the restriction enzyme Fnu4HI,229 while subsequent
investigations reported nine different point mutations within the coding region, four of
which result in changes in amino acid residues 16, 27, 34 and 164.230
Moreover, cells transferred with 2-adrenoceptor complimentary DNA containing the
mutations at amino acid positions 27 or 164 showed altered -adrenoceptor function. Studies
on the distribution of Ban I polymorphisms in South African asthmatics showed the presence
of both these alleles in this group, but the genotypes were found with similar frequencies in
allergic and nonallergic subjects. Further studies on sequencing of the 2-adrenoceptor gene
identified nine separate point mutations or polymorphisms, but there was no significant
difference in the frequency of alleles between the asthmatic and nonasthmatic patients.230
Japanese investigation on family members of asthmatics found a higher prevalence of asthma
in family members who lacked the 3.1 kb Ban I RFLP, but the findings were not sufficient to
exclude genetic linkage to either methacholine responsiveness or allergy.231 Subsequent
64
Bronchial Asthma
studies also showed that distribution of these alleles was not different between asthmatics
and nonasthmatics,232 although it was not possible to exclude an association. In a more
recent study to exclude genetic linkage between the 2-adrenoceptor gene and asthma,
allergy, and methacholine airway hyperresponsiveness, indicated that these are not linked
to a dominant 2-adrenoceptor gene with strong effect in families with an inherited pattern
of asthma.233
Nitric Oxide (NO) and Bronchial Asthma185-188
Nitric oxide is synthesised from L-arginine by the enzyme NO synthase (NOS). Two forms
of NO is known; iNOS (independent of Ca++) and cNOS (Ca++/calmodiulin-dependent,
constitutive form). While the former is induced by TNF-alpha and beta, interferon gamma,
endotoxins, interleukin-1 and other cytokines, stimulation of the later occurs through
mediators like bradykinin, histamine, PAF, acetylcholine, and leukotrienes. Thus, it is
obvious that NO has the potential to affect a number of cells critical for normal lung function
and NO possibly plays a key role in the pathogenesis of asthma and its inhibitors may be
useful therapeutically to treat asthma.221 Nitric oxide is present in the expired air of healthy
individuals.234 It is a known bronchial smooth muscle relaxant. Thus its level should be
reduced in bronchial asthma. But on the contrary, NO is higher in the expired air of
asthmatics,185,235 and epithelial NOS is higher in the epithelial cells in them.236 This implies
that NO may increase in asthma as a compensatory response to other factors, such as those
that cause bronchoconstriction or inflammation. Further, elevated NO might exacerbate
bronchial obstruction because NO relaxes vascular smooth muscle and thus, vascular
engorgement which is an important pathogenetic mechanism. In addition, elevated NO
may result in elevated NO reaction products, such as superoxides, particularly peroxynitrite,
which may cause airway damage if excess. However, it is not clear whether elevated NO is
part of the primary pathologic process in asthma or is a compensatory response.
SUMMARY OF EVENTS LEADING TO AIRWAYS INFLAMMATION
The pathogenesis of bronchial asthma is more clearly understood in extrinsic or allergic
asthma and is summarised in Figure 3.6.237 Although the terms intrinsic and extrinsic
no longer adequately reflect our knowledge of the clinical syndrome of asthma, recent
advances in the understanding of its pathophysiology indicate that it is a heterogenous
disorder with multiple triggers. There are, however, features, which are virtually common
to all asthmatics. These include airways inflammation and hyperreactivity to a broad range
of stimuli. The chronic allergic response is a continuous process of IgE generation, mast cell
activation, and eosinophil recruitment. These processes are orchestrated by T lymphocytes.
In atopic individuals, T lymphocytes receive an allergen-specific signal from highly
specialised antigen presenting cells, called dendritic cells, at mucosal surfaces. Presentation
of allergen peptides to the T cell usually occurs in local lymphoid tissue along with the
essential engagement of co-stimulatory molecules (B7 and CD28) and results in the
differentiation of the naive T cell to one that generates a range of cytokines which upregulate
cells and antibodies involved in the allergic response. CD4+ lymphocytes of the Th2-type
are activated and clonally expand after capture and processing of inhaled allergens like
cigarette smoke, house dust mites, pollen, viral infection, fungi, etc. by the dendritic cells
which migrate to the regional lymph nodes and present allergens, together with major
histocompatibility antigen II, to lymphocytes.237,238
A number of cytokines are then released. The genes for these cytokines are encoded in a
small region on the long arm of chromosome 5 and a number of them (IL-4, IL-5, and GMCSF) are coordinately regulated. While Th2 lymphocytes produce these cytokines, Th1
lymphocytes are involved in cell-mediated immunity. A number of Th2-derived cytokines
are involved in mast cell, basophil, and eosinophil recruitment and maturation, IL-4 and
IL-3 play a particularly important role in this arm of the immune process by interacting
with B lymphocytes, they change the immunoglobulin isotope being secreted from the shortterm protective antibody IgM to the allergic antibody IgE. As with dendritic T cell
interactions, effective signalling to cells requires an interaction with the Th2 cell and
66
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68
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70
Bronchial Asthma
which may lead to mast cell and basophil degranulation and precipitating EIA.266,267
Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction, a feature of 70-80% of asthmatics,268 is triggered
by drying of the bronchial epithelium due to airway water loss from the tracheobronchial
tree.269-273 During exercise, the ventilation rate increases, and thus the respiratory tract
needs to condition much larger volumes of air over a much shorter time during exercise
compared with rest, and airway dehydration occurs with subsequent exercise-induced
bronchoconstriction. The findings that269 inhaling fully humidified air at body conditions
could prevent exercise-induced bronchoconstriction demonstrated the importance of water
loss from the airway. It is also been recommended swimming as the exercise least
troublesome to asthmatic patients because of the humidity of the inspired air, a phenomenon
that is supported by comparative studies of diverse sporting activities.274,275
Since mast cell-derived mediators, such as histamine and leukotrienes, may cause not only
airway smooth-muscle contraction, but also airway oedema, it is possible that both of these
hypotheses are related to the airway narrowing following exercise in asthmatics. Exerciseinduced bronchospasm is, at least in part, due to bronchial microvascular phenomena such
as vascular engorgement and plasma leakage that could thicken the mucosa and thereby
narrow airway diameters, which could in turn amplify the effects of airway smooth muscle
contraction.
Various reports give conflicting results concerning the role of inflammation in EIA.276,277
However, some believe that EIA, to a larger extent, is mediated through the release of
bronchoconstrictor substances from inflammatory cells in the airway wall. Leukotrienes seem
to play a particularly important role in this response. This conclusion is arrived from
observations made in antileukotriene drug studies in EIA.278,279 Similarly antileukotrienes are
helpful in cold air-induced bronchial asthma280 highlighting the role of cold air in causing
EIA. Further, eucapnic voluntary hyperventilation manoeuvres designed to simulate exerciseinduced bronchoconstriction in the laboratory, demonstrate that airway fluid-loss has a similar
bronchoconstrictor effect to histamine.281-284 It is also demonstrated that the release of histamine,
a potent bronchoconstrictor, and other pro-inflammatory bronchoconstrictor mediators,
including cysteinyl-leukotrienes,285 from mast cells and other airway cells under hyperosmolar
conditions.286-288 These findings underline the bronchoconstrictor potential of airway
dehydration. Presence of thermally sensitive neural receptors in the airways of patients
susceptible to EIA may be responsible for bronchoconstriction in response to cold air.267
Recently another hypothesis suggests that increased excessive production of nitric oxide
during exercise289,290 increases airway vascular permeability, that co-relates with the severity
of exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in asthmatics. Assessment of albumin flux in airway
lining fluid stimulated by hypertonic saline solution is a sensitive predictor of the severity of
this phenomenon.291
Occupational Asthma
Bronchial hyperreactivity is a characteristic feature of occupational asthma.292 Specific
inhalation challenge tests may induce any of the five types of reactions: (i) isolated early;
(ii) isolated late; (iii) biphasic; (iv) continuous; or (v) atypical asthmatic reactions.293 An early
reaction occurs within a few minutes after an inhalation challenge, reaches maximal intensity
within 30 minutes, and ends within 60-90 minutes. An isolated late asthma reaction occurs
4-6 hours after the challenge, reaches maximal intensity within 8-10 hours, and ends after
72
Bronchial Asthma
Nocturnal Asthma
Diurnal variations (circadian rhythm) is normally seen in healthy normal individuals as well
as in patients with bronchial asthma. Lowest airways function during early in the morning
and best during the mid-day and evening has been shown by various investigators.308-310
Frequent occurrence of nocturnal symptoms has been shown in many reports.311-313 Patients of
bronchial asthma show a greater bronchial reactivity at 4 AM when compared to at 4 PM.314 It
is also seen that majority of asthma deaths occur most often at night.315,316
Although mechanisms involved in nocturnal asthma are not clearly understood, multiple
factors seem to be involved. In allergic individuals, allergen exposure during evening hours
initiates a cascade of events to produce a LAR. Further, exposure to house-dust mite may
precipitate an EAR, and these factors precipitate bronchoconstriction.317 Lowest levels of
serum adrenaline and cortisol, and highest levels of histamine during night hours could be
responsible for nocturnal episodes in asthmatic individuals318 The BAL fluid recovered from
patients having nocturnal asthma shows greater number of eosinophils and neutrophils at
4 AM compared to that at 4 PM. This indirectly suggests worsening of inflammation during
night319 Increased vagal tone at night or gastro-oesophageal reflux leading to increased vagal
tone may further be contributory to increased bronchial reactivity and bronchial asthma at
night. Changes of body temperature, i.e. lowering of temperature, and increased accumulation
of secretions in the respiratory tract during sleep may be additional factors.320-321
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191. Barnes PJ. The third nervous system in the lung: Physiology and clinical perspectives. Thorax
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192. Casale TB. Neuropeptides and the lung. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1991;88:1.
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198. Barnes PJ. Neural control of human airways in health and disease. Am Rev Respir Dis
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199. Barnes PJ. Neural control of airway function: New perspectives. Mol Aspects Med 1990;11:351423.
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Minett PAH, Lammers J, Dixon CMS, McCuska MT, Barnes PJ. A muscarinic agonist inhibits
reflex bronchoconstriction in normal but not in asthmatic subjects. J Appl Physiol 1989;67:
2461-65.
Palmer JB, Cuss FM, Barnes PJ. VIP and PHM and their role in nonadrenergic inhibitory responses
in isolated human airways. J Appl Physiol 1986;61:1322-28.
Belvisi MG, Stretton CD, Verlenden GM, Jacob MH, Barnes PJ. Inhibitory NANC nerves in
human tracheal smooth muscle involvement of VIP and NO. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;143:A355.
Lundberg JM, Saria A, Lundblad L et al. Bioactive peptide in capsaici sensitive C-fibre afferents of
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Rogers DF, Belvisi MG, Arsudkij JB, Evans TW, Barnes PJ. Effects and interactions of sensory
neuropeptides on airway microvascular leakage in guineapigs. Br J Pharmacol 1988;95:1109-16.
Johnson AR, Aston J, Schulz WW, Erdos EG. Neutral metalloendopeptidases in human lung
tissue and cultured cells. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985;132:564-68.
Rogers DF, Arsudkij JB, Barnes PJ. Effects of tachykinins on mucus secretion on human bronchi
in vitro. Eur J Pharmacol 1989;174:283-86.
Mak JCM, Barnes PJ. Autoradiographic localisation of calcitonin gene-related peptide binding
sites in human and guineapig lung. Peptides 1988;9:957-64.
Barnes PJ. Neuropeptide and asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;143:S28-S33.
Barnes PJ. Neurogenic inflammation and asthma. J Asthma 1992;29:165-80.
Naline E, Devillier P, Drape G et al. Characterisation of neurokinin effects and receptor selectivity
in human isolated bronchi. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;140:679-86.
Barnes PJ, Dewar A, Rogers DF. Human bronchial secretion: effect of substance P, muscarinic
and adrenergic stimulation in vitro. Br J Pharmacol 1986;89:787P.
Richardson PS, Webber SE. The control of mucus secretion in the airways by peptidergic
mechanisms. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;136:S72-S76.
Fuller RW, Maxwell DL, Dixon CMS et al. The effects of substance P on cardiovascular and
respiratory function in human subjects. J Appl Physiol 1987;62:1473-79.
Sekizawa K, Tamaoki J, Graf PD et al. Enkephalinase inhibitor potentiates mammalian tachykininsinduced contraction in ferret trachea. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1987;243:1211-17.
Bisgaard H, Groth S, Madsen F. Bronchial hyperreactivity to leukotriene D4 and histamine in
exogenous asthma. Br Med J 1985;290:1468.
Smith LJ, Greenberger PA, Patterson R et al. The effect of inhaled leukotrienes in humans. Am
Rev Respir Dis 1985;131:368.
Davidson AB, Lee TH, Scanlon PD et al. Bronchoconstrictor effects of leukotriene E4 in normal
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Liggett SB, Raymond JR. Pharmacology and molecular biology of adrenergic receptors. In PM
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adrenergic receptor in normal and asthmatic subjects. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1993;8:334-39.
Liggett SB, Levi R, Metzger H. G-protein coupled receptors, nitric oxide, and the IgE receptor in
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McNeil RS. Effect of adrenergic blocking agent propranolol on asthmatics. Lancet 1964;2:
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Goldie RG, Spina D, Henry PJ et al. In vitro responsiveness of human asthmatic bronchus to
carbachol, histamine, badrenoceptor agonists, and theophylline. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1986;22:
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225. Bai TR. Abnormalities in airway smooth muscle in fatal asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;141:
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226. Bai TR. Abnormalities airway smooth muscle in fatal asthma: a comparison between trachea and
bronchus. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;143:441-43.
227. Cerrina J, Ladurie MLR, Labat C et al. Comparison of human bronchial muscle response to
histamine in vitro with histamine and isoproterinol agonists in vitro. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986;
134:57-61.
228. Lentes KU, Berretinni WH, Hoche MR et al. A biallelic DNA polymorphism of the human
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229. McQuitty CK, Emala CW, Hirshman CA et al. polymorphism in the human 2-adrenergic receptor
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230. Reihsaus E, Innis M, AacIntyre N et al. Mutations in the gene encoding for the 2-adrenergic
receptor in normal and asthmatic subjects. Am J Respir Cell Biol 1993;8:334-39.
231. Ohe M, Munakata M, Hizawa N et al. 2-adrenergic receptor gene restriction fragment length
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232. Taguchi H, Ohe M, Hizawa M. XV International Congress of Allergology and Clinical Immunology
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233. Emala CW, McQuitty CK, Eleff SM et al. Asthma, allergy, and airway hyperresponsiveness are
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234. Gustafsson LE, Leone AM, Persson MG, Wilklund NP, Moncada S. Endogenous nitric oxide is
present in the exhaled air of rabbits, guinea pigs, and humans. Biochem Biophysics Res Comm
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235. Springall DR, Hamid OA, Buttery LKD et al. Nitric oxide synthase induction in airways of
asthmatic subjects. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;147:A515.
236. Gaston B, Drazen J, Chee CBE, Wohl MEB, Stamler JS. Expired nitric oxide (NO) concentrations
are elevated in patients with reactive airway disease. Endothelium 1993;1:87-92.
237. Pauwels R. Asthma: Managing the underlying disease. Eur Respir Rev 1994;4:291-94.
238. Holt PG. Regulation of antigen-presenting cell function(s) in lung and airway tissue. Eur Respir
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239. Martinez FD, Wright AL, Taussig LM et al. Asthma and wheezing in the first six years of life.
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246. Christie PE, Tagari P, Ford-Hutchinson AW, et al. Urinary leukotriene E4 concentrations increase
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270. Strauss RH, McFadden ER Jr., Ingram RH Jr et al. Influence of heat and humidity on the airway
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271. Strauss RH, McFadden ER Jr., Ingram RH Jr et al. Enhancement of exercise-induced asthma by
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272. Deal EC Jr, McFadden ER Jr., Ingram RH Jr et al. Hyperapnea and heat flux: initial reaction
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273. Anderson SD, Schoefield RE, Follet R et al. Sensitivity to heat and water loss at rest and during
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275. Bar-Or O, Inbar O. Swimming and asthma: Benefits and deleterious effects. Sports Med 1992;14:397405.
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279. Reiss TF, Bronsky E, Hendeles L et al. MK-0476, a potent leukotriene (LT)D4 antagonist, inhibits
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290. Kanazawa H, Hirata K, Yoshikawa J. Role of endogenous nitric oxide in exercise-induced airway
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86
Bronchial Asthma
4
Pathology
The earlier descriptions of histological changes in bronchial asthma relied on postmortem
specimens taken from people dying in status asthmaticus. Since the 1960s, epithelial
shedding and influx of eosinophils into the airway mucosa have been associated with
bronchial asthma.1,2 Large segments of the airway from the major bronchi to the periphery
are occluded with a mixture of tenacious secretion containing serum protein mixed with
mucus and cellular debris. Crystalline material consisting largely of major basic protein
derived from eosinophil granules (Charcot-Leyden crystals) may be present. There is
oedema, dense eosinophilic infiltration, and epithelial denudation in the bronchial wall.
Airway samples obtained at open lung biopsy show goblet cell hyperplasia, peribronchial
smooth muscle hypertrophy and apparent basement membrane thickening. Further evidence
of epithelial shedding in asthmatics is provided by the findings of clumps of epithelial cells
in the sputum of such patients during acute attacks. The strips of epithelial cells are called
Curschmanns spirals. Clumps of cells (Creola bodies) or isolate metaplastic cells are
common. However, no detailed pathological changes were available in milder forms of
asthma before the use of fibreoptic bronchoscope (Fig 4.1a-c)
Fibreoptic bronchoscopy has helped in sampling the bronchial mucosa as well as the
submucosa from the subcarinal levels in asthmatics at various stages of their disease. In
1985, fresh biopsies were taken from eight asthmatics, with two of them having mild asthma,
three having moderate and three with severe asthma.3 All of them showed virtual destruction
and shedding of epithelium at the three airway levels studied. This was in contrast to
perfectly intact epithelium found in a control subject. The most important observation was
that epithelial changes and influx of inflammatory cells also existed in the two untreated
patients who had mild disease both clinically and functionally. The existence of severe
inflammatory changes is well known from necropsy studies on patients died of bronchial
asthma. However, significant inflammation is also present in early asthma in patients with
only a short duration of symptoms, or with mild disease.4-6 These bronchial mucosal biopsy
findings resulted in surprising results. Biopsies taken from mild asthmatics requiring only
occasional bronchodilators, showed them to be always abnormal compared to that from
nonatopic normal individuals. Such changes included the presence of mast cells at various
stages of degranulation, and a wide spread infiltration of eosinophils. Most of the eosinophils
revealed the ultrastructural features of activation and degranulation. Eosinophils,
neutrophils, and mononuclear cells were present in increased numbers in the postcapillary
venules, and were frequently in close contact with the vascular endothelium.
Another important observation was the presence of apparent thickening of the subepithelial basement membrane.7-9 Although the basement membrane is of normal thickness,
Pathology 87
88
Bronchial Asthma
the subepithelial band consists of dense cross-linked collagen fibrils. Monoclonal antibody
studies suggest that the sub-basement membrane band consists of types III and V collagen,
together with fibronectin but not laminin. This suggests the fibroblastic origin of the band.
Recent data further revealed an expanded network of subepithelial myofibroblasts with both
contractile and collagen secreting properties. The number of myofibroblasts correlates with
the degree of subepithelial thickening, suggesting a repair response secondary to chronic
inflammation. Extensive collagen deposition within the bronchial mucosa might influence
the mechanical properties of the airways and contribute towards bronchial
hyperresponsiveness and irreversible airflow obstruction. The thickness of the reticular
basement is increased even in mild asthma and is correlated with airway obstruction and
hyperresponsiveness. It is therefore, suggested that anti-inflammatory treatment with inhaled
steroids should be started in the early stage of bronchial asthma to prevent structural changes
from occurring in the airway wall.10
Similar changes have been described in the asthmatic airway in childhood. Bronchial
biopsy specimens from children show thickening and hyalinization of the basement membrane.
The ciliated epithelial cells showed loss of cilia in some cases. Overactive fibroblasts are
constant findings. There is submucosal infiltration with degranulating mast cells and
lymphocytes. Eosinophils are present in some cases.11
AIRWAY REMODELLING
Chronic inflammation in the airways leads to structural changes, including hypertrophy and
hyperplasia of airway smooth muscle and thickening of the reticular layer of basement
membrane. This later thickening is due to the deposition of collagen from activated
myofibroblasts in response to cytokines and growth factors released during the inflammatory
response.12 There is extensive deposition of collagen beneath the true basement membrane.
Using immunostaining this collagen is identified as predominantly types III and V, but not
type IV (basement membrane)13 collagen. Thus, the increased subepithelial collagen in asthma
does not represent a thickening of the true basement membrane but rather collagen laid down
by fibroblasts with the lamina propria. Although the factor(s) controlling the proliferation
and collagen-secreting activities of the myofibroblasts is not known, these structural changes
may underlie the progressive and irreversible airflow obstruction that is seen in patients with
poorly controlled asthma over a period of time.
The remodelling of airways in bronchial asthma involves structural changes in the
epithelium, the myofibroblasts, and extracellular matrix including the basement membrane,
and smooth muscle. This remodelling process is mainly caused by a complex interaction of
inflammatory cells that are central to the pathogenesis of asthma with structural tissue cells.
The inflammatory cells such as eosinophils, T cells, mast cells and macrophages together
with structural tissue cells, play important effector role through the release of a number of
cytokines, mediators, and chemokines.
Remodelling of the airways in asthma involves structural changes in the epithelium, the
myofibroblasts and extracellular matrix including basement membrane, and smooth muscle.
This remodelling process is mainly orchestrated by a complex interaction of inflammatory
cells that are central in the pathogenesis of asthma with structural tissue cells. Epithelial
injury plays an important role in asthma airway remodelling.14 An intrinsically aberrant
epithelium when injured by toxic mediators, cause the epithelium to be in a chronic state of
Pathology 89
increased injury and repair. Pro-fibrotic stimuli cause subsequent subepithelial basement
membrane and submucosal alterations of collagen, elastin, and smooth muscle fibres. This
interaction is called the epithelial mesenchymal trophic unit. Patients of asthma have increased
goblet cell hyperplasia, and increased stored mucin in the airway epithelium.
Airway inflammation and remodelling contribute significantly to the decline in lung
function in bronchial asthma. Generally, lung function increases during childhood, levels
off around 25-35 years of age, and declines after the age of 35 years. However, in asthmatic
children the observation is different. A girl developing asthma at age of 7 years would have
5% reduction in FEV1 by age of 10 years and a 7% deficit by age of 15 years compared with
children without asthma.15,16 Similar observations are made for adult asthmatics that may
also have increased decline in lung function during their life.17 This enhanced decline in
lung function is present in both sexes and is further enhanced by smoking. On this logic a
175 cm tall, nonsmoker, nonasthmatic man had an average FEV1 of 3.05 L, compared with
the FEV1 of 1.99 L for a man of the same age and height who smoked and had asthma.
Further, there may be a subset of nonsmoking asthmatics those have an excess overall decline
in lung function. This may lead to severe, potentially life-threatening, irreversible airway
obstruction without the presence of emphysema.18
Further, ongoing inflammation results in more severe airway hyperreactivity, and lower
lung function as well as accelerated loss of FEV1.
Airway Pathology during Asthma Remission
Spirometric abnormalities and bronchial hyperresponsiveness to methacholine or cold air
challenge during clinical remission of asthma are often observed.19,20 It is unclear whether
these functional abnormalities reflect persistent activity of the airways inflammatory process
or merely indicates structural changes of the airways as a consequence of childhood asthma.
These structural changes (airway remodelling) are probably early events in the course of
the disease that appear to progress. The process of remodelling leads to thickening of the
airway wall.21-24 The exact physiologic consequences of airway wall thickening are not
completely understood.25 If airway wall thickening is present in subjects in clinical remission
of asthma, it could at least partly account for the functional abnormalities including bronchial
hyperreactivity observed during remission. On the other hand, ongoing active airway
inflammation will have substantial impact on the risk of relapse later in life. Therefore,
subjects with subclinical airway inflammation could benefit from anti-inflammatory
treatment.26-28 Elevated exhaled nitric oxide (eNO) levels and bronchial hyperreactivity during
clinical remission have been demonstrated recently implying ongoing inflammation.29 Recent
studies have shown that eosinophils, T cells, mast cells, and IL-5 are significantly elevated in
the airway mucosa of subjects with bronchial asthma in remission compared with control
subjects.13 Also blood eosinophil cell counts were higher in subjects with clinical remission.
Blood eosinophil cell counts, exhaled nitric oxide (eNO) levels, and bronchial response to
adenosine-5-monophosphate correlated significantly with the quantity of tissue eosinophils.
Significant airway remodelling was found in subjects in clinical remission. Matrix
metalloproteinase-9 concentrations are increased in severe, persistent asthma and following
airway challenge.30 These results indicate ongoing airway inflammation and airway
remodelling in adolescents in clinical remission of atopic asthma. Subclinical airway
inflammation may well determine the risk of an asthma relapse later in life.
90
Bronchial Asthma
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92
Bronchial Asthma
5
Clinical Presentation of
Bronchial Asthma
The clinical presentations of bronchial asthma are heterogeneous, falling into every age
group from infancy to old age, and the spectrum of signs and symptoms varies in degree of
severity from patient to patient, as well as within each patient, over time. Detailed clinical
history taking is very important in the clinical diagnosis of bronchial asthma. The usual
symptoms include cough, wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and modest degree
of sputum production. The sputum is usually white or clear, and the patient may sometimes
notice more solid or greenish streaks in it. Dry cough may be the only manifestation of
asthma in some (cough variant asthma). It is estimated that about 10% of the population,
i.e. double the number having overt asthma symptoms experience asthma-like symptoms.1
Conditions known to be associated with bronchial asthma include rhinitis, sinusitis, nasal
polyposis, or atopic dermatitis. Between 60-78% of patients, who have asthma have
coexisting allergic rhinitis.2 Further, allergic rhinitis has been recognised as a risk factor for
asthma and between 20-38% of patients who have allergic rhinitis have coexisting asthma.
Most patients will complain of the onset of an attack of bronchial asthma following allergic
pharyngitis, in the form of sore throat, pain in the throat, itching, sneezing, running nose or
a blocked nose. Viral infection of the upper airways is another important preceding event
in many patients.3 The pattern of symptoms may be perennial, seasonal, or perennial with
seasonal exacerbations. The symptomatology is generally episodic, although may be
continuous or continuous with acute exacerbations. There is usually a circadian variation
with more nocturnal symptoms.4 These nocturnal attacks wake the patient in early hours of
morning and the patient feel the need to get out of bed and want to open the window for
air. Exacerbation of symptoms, may occur after several minutes of usually unaccustomed
exertion, increase in severity over a minute or two and wane over about half an hour. The
precipitating event (discussed above under etiology) may or may not be evident from history.
The incidence of IgE mediated allergy (allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, hay fever)
and bronchial asthma in close relatives is very high. The detailed medical history of the
patient including other allergic disorders and in children history of early life injury to airways
(bronchopulmonary dysplasia, history of pulmonary infiltrates, documented pneumonia,
viral bronchiolitis, recurrent croup, symptoms of gastro-oesophageal reflux and passive
exposure to smoking) may be rewarding.5 Many other risk factors discussed above like
domestic dust mite, pollens, mould, furred animals, airborne irritants, tobacco smoke, are
also capable of aggravating asthma and are known as asthma triggers as they can provoke
94
Bronchial Asthma
may, therefore, be under diagnosed and under treated.8 Although several studies report
the characteristics of older patients with asthma, few have described patients with onset of
asthma after the age of 65 years. Available studies are limited by small number of patients.9,10
In a recent population based study, the incidence of asthma was found to be more common
in the elderly.11 The age-and sex-adjusted incidence was 95/100,000 at or after the age of
65 years.
Late onset asthma has sometimes been equated with intrinsic asthma, but in some patients
there will be other important causes that must be recognised. Asthma induced by drugs,
and occupational asthma may belong to this category. Asthma of adult onset may be the
first sign of the development of polyarteritis nodosa. Women, who develop adult onset
asthma more often than men, often give a history of asthma beginning at the menopause.
Many patients report that their symptoms started after a respiratory tract infection.
Occupational Asthma
Occupational asthma is the most common occupational lung disease in developed world
and accounts for 26-52% of all occupational lung diseases in UK, and Canada.12 About 15%
of bronchial asthma are due to occupational exposure as reported from USA.13 About 250
agents have been identified that can cause occupational asthma and some of them are
indicated in earlier in the section under aetiology. Isocyanates that are widely used in many
industries are responsible for the most common form of the disease and the prevalence of
isocyanate-induced asthma in exposed workers is close to 10%.14
There can be two categories of asthma related to the workplace. They are: occupational
asthma and work-aggravated asthma. Occupational asthma is characterised by variable
airflow limitation, bronchial hyperresponsiveness, or both, due to conditions in particular
work environment, not to stimuli outside the workplace.15 On the other hand, workaggravated asthma is preexisting or concurrent asthma that is aggravated by irritants or
physical stimuli in the workplace. Occupational asthma may develop in a person with
preexisting asthma or concurrent asthma after workplace exposure. There is usually a latent
period between the first exposure to the offending agent and the onset of asthma. This
period may vary from a few weeks to over 20 years. Occupational asthma with latency
includes all instances of immunologic asthma, although the immunologic mechanism has
not been identified for all agents. The other type of occupational asthma is without a latent
period and the worker develops symptoms immediately upon working with the same
substance. This is usually due to exposure to high concentrations of irritant gases, fumes,
or chemicals on one or several occasions-reactive airway dysfunction syndrome.16
Exposure is the most important determinant whether occupational asthma develops.
Higher the degree of exposure to an agent, higher is the prevalence of occupational asthma.
History of atopy and smoking are important determinants to induce occupational asthma
that occurs through an IgE-dependent mechanism. The duration of exposure is not important.
About 40% of patients with occupational asthma have symptoms within 2 years of exposure
and in 20%, symptoms develop after 10 years of exposure.17 HLA class II alleles are involved
in some cases of isocyanate-induced asthma. The patient usually complains of chest
symptoms after working hours, in the evenings and at nights, but not during working
hours at the onset of the illness. Improvement in symptoms occurs at weekends or during
longer periods away from work and worsening on return to work suggests but does not
96
Bronchial Asthma
is enhanced. Circulating eosinophils increase, which may allow their ingress into pulmonary
tissue. Together with a decreased plasma catecholamine and cortisol levels all these factors
may influence airway tone, inflammation, and responsiveness during sleep and produce
the observed clinical picture.
The characteristic symptomatology is described above.
PATTERNS OF AIRFLOW OBSTRUCTION IN CHRONIC ASTHMA
Chronic asthma may be classified according to patterns of variations in their airflow
obstruction.18
1. Brittle asthma
2. The morning dipper
3. The irreversible asthma
a. A group never achieving a normal peak flow, but showing a reversible component,
either spontaneously or after specific drug therapy.
b. A subgroup having a reversible FVC, but irreversible FEV1 and PEFR.
c. The drifter, having irreversible airflow obstruction gradually improving over
weeks of intensive therapy.
Brittle Asthma
This is a form of intractable and persistent asthma resistant to all conventional therapy.
There will be no wheeze at one moment, but gross wheezing may be present over a short
period of time. Most often they are misunderstood to have deliberate or emotional asthma.
Serial measurements of PEFR show a chaotic pattern, with normal to grossly abnormal
patterns of airflow obstruction. They occur randomly throughout 24 hours. Low readings
may reverse to normal with small doses of bronchodilators, but stabilisation is difficult.
The salient feature of this asthma is their response to sympathomimetic drugs but without
stabilisation. The patient may be atopic or non-atopic. Cromoglycate and steroid therapy
will not be able to stabilize. These patients usually need frequent bronchodilators. However,
not all patients are resistant to conventional therapy.
Morning Dippers
These are the patients who have worsening of their symptoms during early hours of the
night and is discussed above. The rhythm city is maintained during the day and reduction
occurs early in the morning. During day times, the patient may be completely normal and
stable, so that no abnormality may be detected during the visit to the doctor. In children,
the attack is usually worse around 2 AM and in adults it is variable increasing slowly and
rapidly from midnight. Waking does not change the attack. It is observed in sleep workers
that the attack is worse towards the end of sleeping hours.
REFERENCES
1. National Asthma Programme in Finland 1994-2004. Ministry of Health and Social Welfare,
Helsinki, 1994; quoted in Haahtela T. The importance of inflammation in early asthma. Respiratory
Med 1995;89:461-62.
2. Braman SS, Barrows AA, deCotiis BA et al. Airway hyperresponsiveness in allergic rhinitis: A
risk factor for asthma. Chest 1987;91:671-74.
98
Bronchial Asthma
6
Diagnosis of
Bronchial Asthma
The diagnosis of asthma is a clinical one; there is no confirmatory diagnostic blood test,
radiographic or histopathological investigation. In some people, the diagnosis can be
corroborated by suggestive changes in lung function tests. The clinical diagnosis of asthma
is not always simple and the absence of an agreed definition of the disease is a problem,
with many descriptions existing. However, while making a diagnosis of bronchial asthma
The International Consensus Report definition of asthma should be kept in mind which
states that it is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways..in susceptible individuals,
inflammatory symptoms are usually associated with widespread but variable airflow
obstruction and an increase in airway response to a variety of stimuli. Obstruction is often
reversible, either spontaneously or with treatment.
Some of the symptoms of asthma are shared with diseases of other systems. Even when
the symptom of breathlessness is thought to be due to lung disease, there are numerous
relatively common lung diseases and differentiation of an airway disorder needs to be
made from both infections, and pulmonary thromboembolic disease and restrictive lung
disorders. Features of an airway disorder such as cough, wheeze and breathlessness should
be corroborated where possible by measurement of airflow limitation. They may be due
either to a localised airway obstruction (e.g. tumour, foreign body, vocal cord dysfunction
or post-tracheostomy stenosis), or to a generalised problem (such as asthma, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchiectasis, cystic fibrosis or obliterative
bronchiolitis).
Symptoms of Asthma
To avoid misdiagnosis it is essential to remember that people with asthma may suffer from
a variety of symptoms, none of which is specific for asthma:
Wheeze
Shortness of breath
Chest tightness
Cough
The hallmark of asthma is that these symptoms tend to be:
Variable
Intermittent
Worse at night
Provoked by triggers including exercise
=
=
=
=
=
(highestlowest)/highest 100
400 1/min
300 l/min
400 l/min 300 l/min = 100 l/min
(400-300)/400 100 = 25%
Positive
Negative
Skin testing
Positive
Exercise/Methacholine
Positive
Negative
Negative
Bronchial asthma
Fig. 6.1: Diagnostic work-up for bronchial asthma
Parameter
Bronchial asthma
Clinical
Airflow obstruction
Postmortem
Sputum
Surface epithelium
Bronchiolar mucus cells
Reticular basement
membrane
Congestion/oedema
Bronchial smooth
muscle
Bronchial glands
Cellular infiltrates
Cytokines
COPD
Characteristics
Pretreatment
Frequency of
exacerbations
Mild
Exacerbation of
cough and wheezing
no more often than
1-2 times/week
Moderate
Severe
Requires continuous
multiple round-theclock drug therapy
including daily steroids
either aerosol or
systemic in high doses
7
Prognosis of Bronchial Asthma
FACTORS FOR ASTHMA MORTALITY
Although the possibility of asthma-related death exists for all patients with asthma, several
studies have revealed factors associated with an increased risk of such deaths.1-6 Several
studies from many countries of the world including Britain, New Zealand, United States,
France, Germany, and Canada have shown increases over the last two decades in the
incidence of deaths from asthma. The cause of such increase in deaths remains a puzzle.
There are many hypotheses to explain this, but little emphasis has been placed on the
possibility that confidence in better drug treatment may modify patients behaviour so as
to place him at greater risk of illness. Excessive confidence in bronchodilator inhalers and
nebulisers can make patients stay away from hospitals too long during acute attacks. It is
also very likely that prevention of symptoms by use of antiasthma drugs could allow patients
to spend more time in environments containing antigens or other agents that provoke
asthma, resulting in more serious and long-lasting bronchial inflammation and reactivity.
Some of these recognised factors that increases the susceptibility to death from asthma are
as follows.
Age and Ethnicity
Asthma-related death rates are higher among older patients than in any other age group.
Although the death rate is relatively low in younger patients, an increased trend in asthma
deaths among these individuals between the age group of 5 to 34 years have been noted
during the last 10 years. People in their late teens and early twenties, particularly members
of minority groups, are over represented in asthma mortality statistics groups. AfricanAmericans have asthma related mortality rates that are higher than those of Caucasians,
especially in relatively young age groups, and the mortality rate in this group has increased
significantly during the past decade. In 1979, African-Americans of both sexes were about
twice as likely to die of asthma as Caucasians.
Previous Life-threatening Acute Asthma Exacerbations
Individuals who have had acute exacerbations of asthma that resulted in respiratory failure
and required intubation are at increased risk for subsequent fatal exacerbations. Those who
have experienced respiratory acidosis without requiring intubation are also high-risk
patients.
8
Complications of
Bronchial Asthma
Infections, pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, and atelectasis due to mucus plugging
are the complications of acute bronchial asthma. Allergic broncho-pulmonary mycosis
(ABPM) is an important complication of asthma.1 The most common fungus involved is
Aspergillus fumigatus. Sensitisation to aspergillus antigens may occur in asthmatics without
full-blown picture of ABPA. The prevalence of such sensitisation reportedly occurs in
20-50% of cases of bronchial asthma and the incidence of full-blown pictures of ABPA occurs
in about 65 of cases, although higher figures have been reported.2-11 Other organisms that
can cause such bronchopulmonary reactions include other species of Aspergillus, Candida
albicans, Pseudoallescheria boydii, Stemphylium sp, Helminthosporium sp, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Curvularia lunata, Drechslera hawaiiensis, Torulopsis glabrata, Rhizopus, Penicillium,
Bipolaris, and Fusarium vasinifectum.12 Cor pulmonale secondary to bronchial asthma is
extremely uncommon and in fact, the presence of this complication should be an indication
that the underlying problem is not asthma. Respiratory failure is common during acute
severe asthma.
ALLERGIC BRONCHOPULMONARY ASPERGILLOSIS (ABPA)
Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis is a complex hypersensitivity reaction to
Aspergillus antigens because of the presence of the fungus in the bronchial tree and the
disorder characterised by bronchospasm, pulmonary infiltrates, eosinophilia, and
immunologic evidence of allergy to the antigens of Aspergillus species. Aspergillus fumigatus
is the one responsible for the condition although other species may also be responsible.
The first three cases were diagnosed in 1952 in England by Hinson et al.13 Subsequently
the entity has been reported more frequently from that country as well as from other regions
of the world like Australia,14 North America15 and parts of Asia.16 It was first reported from
India in 197117 and a few case series have subsequently been documented.18-27 The disease is
typically seen in patients with long-standing asthma or cystic fibrosis. The incidence of the
condition in asthmatics is reported to vary from 3 to 20% of corticosteroid dependent asthma
patients28 and 6% of patients with cystic fibrosis meet the diagnostic criteria of ABPA.29
Pathophysiology
Patients with ABPA are usually atopic and have a history of bronchial asthma. The basic
underlying pathophysiologic process in ABPA is a hypersensitivity reaction to the presence
Colonisation
Normal host
No sequel
Cavitary lung
disease
Aspergilloma
Chronic Nercotising
Aspergillosis
Immunocompromised host
Invasive Pulmonary
Aspergillosis
Asthma
ABPA
Colonisation
Tracheobronchitis
Ulcerative
Tracheobronchitis
Pseudomembranous
tracheobronchitis
of fungus in the bronchial tree. Tissue invasion by the fungus usually does not occur. The
factors favouring the initial colonisation of the bronchial tree are unclear. Other host factors,
including cellular immunity, may contribute to the pathologic changes seen in ABPA.30,31
The changes brought about by the ensuing local immunologic reactions and the tenacious
sputum of bronchial asthma favour the trapping of fungal spores and further colonisation.
Antigenic material from the fungus stimulates production of IgE, IgG, and IgA antibodies.
A number of immunologic reactions, notably type I (immediate) and type III (antigenantibody, immune complex) hypersensitivity reactions occur in this condition. The type I
immediate hypersensitivity reaction is IgE mediated and account for the bronchospastic
symptoms of the condition. Type III reactions mediated by IgG result in polymorph
aggregation, inflammation of bronchial and peribronchial tissue and is responsible for the
radiological features of ABPA. Both these reactions play a central role in the pathogenesis
of ABPA.32,33 Recently a possible role of type IV hypersensitivity reaction has been inferred
from the demonstration of in vitro lymphocyte transformation in response to Aspergillus
antigens in patients with ABPA and the presence of parenchymal granuloma and
mononuclear cell infiltration seen on histopathology. Alternate pathway complement
Stage I The classic signs, symptoms, and laboratory findings present at diagnosis
characterize the acute stage. Bronchial asthma, a markedly elevated IgE levels, peripheral
eosinophilia, pulmonary infiltrates, and the presence of IgE and IgG antibodies to A.fumigatus
characterize this stage. In practice, patients are rarely identified at this stage.
Primary
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Secondary
1.
2.
3.
Aspergillus in sputum
History of mucus plug expectoration
Late skin (Arthus) reactivity to Aspergillus antigen
The diagnosis of ABPA is considered likely if the first six primary criteria are present; certain if all
seven are present.
Table 8.2: Modified diagnostic criteria of ABPA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Bronchial asthma
Immediate skin reactivity to Aspergillus
Serum precipitin to A.fumigatus
Increased serum IgE and IgG to A.fumigatus
Total serum IgE > 1000 ng/ml
Current or previous pulmonary infiltrates
Central bronchiectasis
Peripheral eosinophilia (1,000 cells/L)
Not all of these criteria need to be present to diagnose ABPA. Withholding therapy until
the development of all clinical symptoms and evidence of bronchiectasis may lead to a
missed diagnosis in a significant number of patients and to delayed treatment resulting in
irreversible pulmonary damage. Therefore, ABPA may be subdivided into the following
groups of patients with or without central bronchiectasis.40
A. Essential criteria for the diagnosis of ABPA with central bronchiectasis :
Asthma,
Immediate skin reactivity to Aspergillus antigen
Serum IgE > 1000 ng/ml
Central bronchiectasis
B. Minimal criteria for the diagnosis of ABPA without central bronchiectasis: (labelled
ABPA-seropositive)
Asthma,
Immediate skin reactivity to Aspergillus antigen
Serum IgE > 1000 ng/ml
History of pulmonary infiltrates
Elevated levels of serum IgE and IgG antibodies to A.fumigatus
9
Management of
Bronchial Asthma
A number of guidelines on the management of bronchial asthma, both in children and
adults are developed in recent years.1-11 They include those of the British Thoracic Society,
NHLB, USA, and the Global Initiative for Asthma, etc. The recommendations are based on
the same principle and basically the same. The goals of management of bronchial asthma
as recommended by these agencies are as follows:
i. To recognise asthma
ii. To maintain a normal activity level including exercise.
iii. To maintain a normal or near normal (best) pulmonary function rates.
iv. To prevent chronic and troublesome symptoms like coughing or breathlessness in the
night, early in the morning, or after exertion.
v. To prevent recurrent exacerbations.
vi. To minimise absence from work or school
vii. To enable normal growth to occur in children, and
viii. To use the least minimum drugs to avoid adverse reactions from medications used
for asthma.
Since bronchial asthma is a chronic condition with acute exacerbations, treatment requires
a continuous care approach to control symptoms, to prevent exacerbations, to treat
adequately such exacerbations, and to reduce chronic airway inflammation. Prevention of
exacerbation is an important principle of therapy. This includes avoidance of triggers and
allergens. Round-the-clock medication may be beneficial to many patients. Children and
adults, who have poor exercise tolerance, recurrent symptoms, and frequent nocturnal
attacks and patients with moderate asthma will often benefit from the regular administration
and more aggressive use of antiasthma medication, particularly anti-inflammatory drugs.
In contrast, patients with mild intermittent asthma with uninterrupted sleep at night, and
good exercise tolerance may need only occasional treatment for the relief of symptoms.
Periodic assessment of these patients is essential to assure that their therapy is appropriate.
The treatment of asthma should also be based on the understanding of the underlying
pathophysiologic mechanisms and the objective assessment of severity of the disease. It is
now appreciated that asthma is an inflammatory disease and therapy should include antiinflammatory agents to reduce inflammation and to relieve or prevent symptomatic airway
narrowing. Anticipatory or early interventions in treating acute exacerbations of asthma
reduce the likelihood of developing severe airway narrowing.
Environmental Control
Outdoor allergens like pollens and mould are best avoided by staying indoors particularly
during the midday and afternoons. An air conditioned environment is the best way. Various
nasal filters are available, which may be helpful to prevent penetration of allergens. However,
this has not been proved to be very effective.
Indoor allergen elimination is possible by paying special attention to the following. To
avoid exposure to animal danders, the animal should be removed from the house. Removal
of pets may not afford immediate relief even when followed by vigorous cleaning, since
allergens continue to stay in the home for many months. Application of 3% tannic acid will
denature and render such substances nonallergic. If the pet cannot be kept out of the house,
there should be least contact with the patient and the animal should not be allowed at all to
the bed room. Washing and bathing the pet frequently may reduce the amount of dander
and dried saliva to be deposited on carpets and furnitures.22
10
Pharmacologic
Management of Asthma
The drugs used for the treatment of bronchial asthma are classified as:
1. Bronchodilators
-adrenergic agonists
Anticholinergics
Methylxanthines (now can be classified as anti-inflammatory)
2. Anti-inflammatory agents
Corticosteroids
Cromolyn sodium or cromolyn-like compounds
Methylxanthines
Leukotriene antagonists
Miscellaneous compounds including antihistamines.
METHYLXANTHINES
Theophylline, the principal methylxanthine used in asthma therapy over the past six decades
and the most widely prescribed anti-asthma treatment worldwide, is a dimethylxanthine
similar in structure to the common dietary xanthines, caffeine and theobromine.1-3 Other
substituted xanthines have also bronchodilator property and include: Dyphylline
(dihydroxypropyl theophylline), Etophylline (-hydroxyethyl theophylline), Proxyphylline
(-hydroxypropyl theophylline), and Enprophylline (3-propylxanthine).
Many salts of theophylline preparations are commonly marketed and have been in
use over many years. Aminophylline, the ethylenediamine salt is perhaps the commonest
compound used in many countries. Other commonly salts include formulations with calcium
salicylate, sodium glycinate, and choline (oxtryphylline).
Mechanism of action of theophylline remains unclear despite the long history and
widespread use of the drug.4 Various mechanisms proposed for the molecular mechanism
of action has been proposed and are shown in Table 10.1.
Phosphodiesterase Inhibition
Earlier it was believed that theophylline acts as an anti-asthma drug as it relaxes bronchial
smooth muscle. Although the exact mechanism of such relaxation was not known, in vitro,
theophylline inhibits phosphodiesterase (PDE) which breaks down cyclic nucleotides in
the cell, that results in delayed degradation of cAMP and cGMP. Several families of PDE
are now recognised,5 of which PDE III is predominant in airway smooth muscle relaxation
and PDE IV is important in inflammatory cells.5-8 Theophylline is a nonselective PDE
inhibitor. Such inhibition occurs at concentrations ten-fold higher than those usually attained
clinically. Total PDE activity in human lung extracts is inhibited by only 5-20% at therapeutic
concentrations of theophylline.9,10 However, this modest inhibition may be sufficient to cause
a substantial increase in intracellular cyclic nucleotide levels in the presence of endogenous
activators of adenylyl cyclase.11 Inhibition of PDE could also lead to synergistic interaction
with -agonists. Since there is some evidence that PDE levels may be higher in asthmatics
than normal individuals, theophylline may have a greater than expected inhibitory effects
on PDE in asthmatic airways than in normal airways. 12 Bronchodilating effects of
theophylline appear to closely parallel the serum concentrations. Although a steady-state
serum concentration between 10-20 g/ml gives optimal effect, a more conservative
approach would be to aim for levels between 5-15 mg/ml. Since there is a linear relationship
between log serum concentration and bronchodilator effect within this range, the dose should
be increased if symptoms persist and the patient is at the lower end of the serum
concentration range.
Adenosine Receptor Antagonism
Adenosine causes bronchoconstriction in bronchial asthma both in vitro and clinically when
given by inhalation.13,14 This involves the release of histamine and leukotrienes from airway
mast cells. This bronchoconstricting effect of adenosine is prevented by theophylline.15 This
shows that theophylline is capable of antagonising the effects of adenosine at therapeutic
concentrations. Theophylline is a potent inhibitor of adenosine receptors (both A1 and A2
receptors) at therapeutic concentrations and this may be the basis of its bronchodilator
effect.16 Since the potent bronchodilators enprophylline doxofylline, do not have action against
adenosine receptors, adenosine antagonism may not be the exact cause of bronchodilatation.
However, inhibition of different adenosine receptor types and subtypes may be important
for this differential action.
Increased Catecholamine Release
Intravenous theophylline increases the secretion of adrenaline from the adrenal medulla.17,18
Although the increase is small, it may be important.
Anti-inflammatory Effect
Recent evidence shows that theophylline may also possess some anti-inflammatory activity.19
Theophylline reduces both bronchial hyper-reactivity20,21 and the inflammatory response.
The anti-inflammatory effect has been shown both in vitro and in vivo studies. The effects
16 mg/kg/day
0.2(age in weeks) + 5 = mg/kg/day
For the management of acute asthma, the drug may have an additive effect on other
medications. Intravenous aminophylline has been used in the management of acute severe
asthma for over 50 years. However, its has been questioned recently in view of the risk of
adverse effects compared with nebulised -agonists. Intravenous aminophylline is less
effective than nebulised -agonists.25 Thus some authors recommend that the drug should
be reserved for those patients who fail to respond to -agonists. On the other hand, there
are evidences to suggest that use of aminophylline in the emergency room reduces
subsequent admissions to hospitals.26 There is no added advantage if aminophylline is used
in addition to -agonists. Use of intravenous aminophylline may increase the death rates.27
However, this is a drug which is cheap and still used as an important drug in many hospitals
in the management of acute severe asthma. Whenever a decision is taken to use
aminophylline intravenously, it should be given as a slow intravenous infusion with careful
monitoring and a plasma theophylline concentration should be monitored, if possible, prior
to infusion. The loading dose is aimed for a target serum concentration no higher than the
mid point of the 10 to 20 g/ml that is determined by multiplying the desired change in
serum concentration by an average volume distribution of about 0.5 L/kg. In other words,
each g/ml increase in serum concentration requires 0.5 mg/kg of a loading dose. A repeat
serum concentration 30 minutes after the loading infusion determines the need for an
additional loading dose and provides a baseline for monitoring change during a subsequent
maintenance infusion. A conservative maintenance infusion based on mean clearance and
targeting a steady state serum concentration of 10 g/ml is maintained with as follows:
Factor
Decreases
Increases
Action to be taken
Food
or delays
absorption
absorption
(fatty foods)
Select appropriate
preparation
Diet
metabolism
(high protein)
metabolism
(high carbohydrate)
Major changes in
diet not advised
Systemic, febrile
viral illness
metabolism
Hypoxia,
cor pulmonale
CCF, cirrhosis
Age
metabolism
Decrease dose
metabolism
(<6m, elderly)
metabolism
Alternative H blockers
(ranitidine/famotidine)
metabolism
Alternative antibiotic
or adjust theophylline
Alternative antibiotic
or adjust theophylline
dose of theophylline
Phenobarbitone
Phenytoin,
Carbamazepine
metabolism
(1-9 y)
metabolism
Cimetidine
Macrolides:
Erythromycin
TAO, Clarithromycin
Quinolones
Ciprofloxacin, etc.
Rifampicin
metabolism
Ticlopidine
Smoking
metabolism
metabolism
metabolism
dose of theophylline
dose of theophylline
advise to quit smoking
Classification
Ephedrine
Catecholamines
Epinephrine
Isoproterenol
Isoetharine
Resorcinols
Metaproterenol
Terbutaline
Fenoterol
Saligenin
Salbutamol
Miscellaneous
Bitolterol
Pirbuterol
Procaterol
Long acting drugs
Formoterol
Salmeterol
Duration of action(hours)
, 1, 2.
Oral
2-3
, 1, 2
1, 2
(1), 2
Injection, inhaler
Oral, inhaler, Injection
Inhaler
1-2
1-2
3
2
2
2
Oral, inhaler
Oral, inhaler, Injection
Inhaler
3-5
4-6
4-6
4-6
2
2
2
Inhaler
Inhaler
Oral, inhaler
6-8
4-6
6-8
2
2
Inhaler
Inhaler
> 12
> 12
Drug
Adrenaline (1:1000)
Isoproterenol
Isoetharine
Metaproterenol
Salbutamol
Terbutaline
Bitolterol
Formoterol
Salmeterol
Subcutaneous
(ml)
0.1-0.5
0.5
0.25-0.5
Nebulizer
(mg)
Oral
(mg)
2.5-22
0.63-3.8
1.25-5
10-15
5-20
2-4
2.5-5
areas of concern. Adverse drug reactions involving the cardiovascular system may also occur.
Cardiovascular complications may result from decreased serum potassium levels or direct
stimulation of the myocardium. Adverse reactions of the cardiovascular system may occur
with the combination of systemic adrenergic agonists and theophylline. However, cardiac
arrhythmias and myocardial ischaemia resulting from -agonist therapy usually occurs in
patients with preexisting cardiovascular disease, especially among the elderly.
Very rarely, patients with asthma may experience paradoxical bronchoconstriction as a
result of inhaled -agonists administered by metered-dose inhalers (MDI). The paradoxical
response is an abrupt worsening of asthma symptoms and/or a decrease in expiratory flow
rates shortly after inhaling a therapeutic aerosol. It is not clear whether the reaction is due to
the drug itself or due to another component or contaminant of the particular canister or batch
of canisters or due to a hypersensitivity reaction to the hydrocarbon propellant. Very rarely
lactic acidosis may occur.
Several recent studies have suggested that regular use of -agonists increases the
responsiveness of airways to challenges with agents such as methacholine and histamine in
children and adults. Similarly some recent reports associate the regular use of a potent inhaled
2-agonist with diminished control of asthma. Although the mechanisms of diminished control
or increased hyperreactivity are not known, possibilities include the development of rebound
airway hyperresponsiveness, increased bronchial secretions, or both. There are also some
concern regarding damage to the mucosal epithelium due to repeated inhalation. There are
controversies regarding the link between the use of fenoterol and increased asthma deaths in
New Zealand.
Another potential reason for increased asthma symptoms during prolonged therapy with
these drugs may be the development of tolerance or subsensitivity resulting from downregulation of -adrenoreceptors. This phenomenon is a tendency of biological responses to
wane over time in the presence of a stimulus of constant intensity, and may develop to the
antiasthmatic effects of inhaled 2-agonists.65,86 Although some evidences suggest that tolerance
to the bronchoprotective effects of both short- and long-acting 2-agonists does develop,87-91
numerous other studies using a recommended dose of -agonists by metered dose inhalers
have failed to show the development of complete tolerance.92 Most studies suggest that clinically
significant tolerance does not usually develop in patients with asthma. When tolerance
develops, it is characterised by a small reduction in the bronchodilator response and by a
slight shortening in the duration of action after inhaling a -agonist. Thus, tolerance is not
Eosinophils
Mast cells
T-Lymphocytes
Mucus secretion
Plasma exudation
Mediator formation
CYTOKINES
-Adrenoceptors
INFLAMMATION
Fig.10.1: Anti-inflammatory effects of glucocorticosteroids
either with a short course therapy or for longer times. It is now clear that the duration and
severity of an acute asthma attack can be substantially reduced by therapy with corticosteroids.
Early treatment of severe acute exacerbations of asthma with oral corticosteroids prevents
progression of the exacerbation, decreases the need for emergency visits and hospitalisation,
and reduces the morbidity of the illness. When oral steroids are used to treat acute severe
asthma, the onset of action is gradual, occurring approximately 3 hours after administration
with peak effectiveness occurring about 6-12 hours after administration.
Acute short-term therapy is begun usually with a relatively high dose of 40-80 mg of
prednisone daily and can be maintained up to 5-10 days or tapered over the same interval.
Therapy with oral steroids should be maintained until peak expiratory flow rates are stable
near the best predictable value. The major adverse effects associated with high-dose shortterm systemic therapy are: reversible abnormalities in glucose metabolism, increased appetite,
fluid retention, weight gain, rounding of face, mood alteration, hypertension, peptic ulcer,
and aseptic necrosis of the femur.
In all patients requiring chronic maintenance therapy with steroids, a trial of inhaled
steroids, which have minimal systemic side effects, should be attempted to see if oral
corticosteroids could be reduced or eliminated. Oral therapy can be continued only if that
shows to reduce chronic symptoms substantially or reduce the frequency of severe episodes.
Drug
Beclomethasone
Budesonide
Flunisolide
Fluticasone
Triamcinolone
Topical potency
(skin blanching)
600
980
330
1,200
330
Corticosteroid receptor
binding half-life (hrs)
7.5
5.1
3.5
10.5
3.9
Receptor
binding affinity
13.5
9.4
1.8
18.0
3.6
Glucocorticoid
Activation
in the lung
Beclomethasone
dipropionate
Flunisolide
Triamcinolone
acetonide
Budesonide
Fluticasone
propionate
Mometasone furoate
Ciclesonide
Relative
receptor
activity
Expected theoretical
therapeutic ratio
1345
High
41
Intermediate
180
361
Low
Low
20
23
Less favourable
Less favourable
935
1800
Medium/low
High
11
<1
Intermediate
Favourable
1235*
1200
High
High
<1
<1
Favourable
Favourable
Receptor affinity are calculated with respect to dexamethasone as reference compound except * ,
which is based on that for fluticasone dipropionate 813.
Side Effects
Although inhaled glucocorticoids have revolutionised the treatment of asthma being the
most commonly and widely used anti-inflammatory drug treatment, which is highly
effective in controlling asthma in all patients,140 concern has been expressed about their
local and systemic side effects.195
The important local side effects of inhaled steroids are throat irritation, oropharyngeal
candidiasis and dysphonia (huskiness) and only a minority of patients develop these
complications (<5%). However, dysphonia is commonly seen (in more than 50%) if patients
are given high-dose therapy. All these complications are caused by the active drug and not
by the propellant and are clearly related to the daily dose, although other co-determinants
are important. Dysphonia is common, whereas laryngeal thrush is extremely rare. The two
are not causally related. The primary cause of husky voice is a steroid-induced dyskinesia
of the voluntary musculature that control vocal cord tension. This can be alleviated by any
thing that reduces the deposition of the drug around the larynx. These measures include
reduction of the daily dose, slowing the speed of inhalation and/or by using a spacer, a
longer post-inspiratory breath hold to reduce drug deposition during exhalation, and mouth
rinsing immediately after inhaling the drug.196,197 The problem is more common, severe,
and persistent in patients who use their voice maximum like preachers, teachers, singers,
switch board operators, sports coaches or employees in a noisy work place. Compulsive
throat clearing and hypothyroidism aggravates and perpetuates the huskiness. Voice rest
may improve the condition in these patients. Candidiasis and thrush depend upon the
frequency of dosing and the concomitant use of antibiotics and/or oral steroids. The Candida
overgrowth occurs due to the inhibitory effect of the drug on the normal host defense
functions of neutrophils, macrophages, and T-lymphocytes at the oral mucosal surface. A
12-hour interval between doses appears sufficient to allow temporary recovery of these
functions and to prevent this complication. Spacers also markedly reduce the incidence of
this complication. Other rare local complications include esophageal candidiasis; painful
Name
Leukotriene D4 antagonists
Zafirlukast
Probilukast
Pranlukast
Tomelukast
Verlukast
5-Lipoxygenase inhibitors
Zileuton
FLAP Inhibitors
Compound
ICI-204.219
SK and F 104353-Q
ONO-1078
LY 171883
MK-679,-476,-571
A-64077, ABT-761, Z-D2138
MK-886, MK-0591, BAYx1005
Fig.10.2: The four groups of drugs directed against leukotriene synthesis and activity. Thick
arrows shows sites of action that finally prevents the final pathophysiological activity
being observed 5-30 minutes after stimulation.247 400 g of the drug inhaled also produced a
similar degree of protection.248 In aspirin-induced asthma, where there is an increased
production of cysteinyl LTs, the LT-antagonists improve lung function and inhibit
bronchoconstriction induced by aspirin.249,250 Zafirlukast and pranlukast are well tolerated in
clinical trials. Efficacy of objective and subjective measures in patients with symptoms are
dose related and the greater response are achieved with 40 mg total dose of zafirlukast.
Compared with placebo, significant improvement occurs in evening peak flow, a 30%
reduction in rescue use of inhaled 2-agonists, a 46% reduction in night waking, and a 26%
improvement in morning asthma and daily symptoms are observed.251 Doses up to 80 mg
11
Inhalation Therapy
Current therapeutics emphasises the importance of effective delivery of a drug to its site of
actionthe Targeted Drug Delivery.1-6 The advantage of this approach is avoidance of
unnecessary and undesirable exposure of tissues/organs not involved in the disease process
to the drug. It is sufficient and advantageous to have the drug delivered only to the site
where the drug is needed. Targeted delivery of the drug to the desired site of action means
that smaller doses are enough to produce the desired effect and generalised systemic side
effects can be eliminated or minimised and a rapid action of the drug can be obtained. The
value of inhalation as a route of drug administration has been recognised for thousands of
years by the ancient civilisation in India, China, the Middle East and as well as by Hippocrates
and Galen. The Ayurvedic system of medicine advocated the use of datura smoked in a
pipe for a variety of ailments and atropa belladonna was given by smoking as a standard
remedy for asthma. Asthma cigarettes made from Datura leaves are also being used by
herbalists.
Bronchodilator aerosols have been in use since 1935. In the past adrenergic bronchodilators have been given by hand-held squeeze-bulb nebulisers. This was cumbersome,
and modern pressurised aerosols were introduced in 1956 and constituted a breakthrough
in inhalation treatment. In recent times, inhalation therapy for asthma has been developed
to a high level of sophistication although they are simple to use.
The key to inhalation therapy is the aerosol particle. An aerosol is a suspension of fine
liquid or solid particles in air. The efficacy of an inhaled drug depends largely on how
much of the drug is deposited in the peripheral airways. On the other hand, the deposition
of inhaled particles is determined both by the physical characteristics of the air-borne
particles and physiological parameters like airflow to the lungs. Particle size is an important
determinant of aerosol deposition in the lungs. Most devices (discussed below) generate
particles in the size range of 1-10 micron. Only particles in the size range of 2-5 micron can
be inspired deep into the lungs; particles 5 micron or more in diameter are impacted in the
throat or in larger airways. Particles less than 1 micron behave like a gas and are exhaled in
the expired air. Most aerosols contain a wide range of particle sizes and are known as
heterodisperse aerosols. The mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) is the median
diameter of the aerosol multiplied by the square root of particle density. MMAD is important
as regards aerosol deposition rather than the particle sizes. The propellant surrounding the
drug particles evaporates on emerging from the canister and the particle steadily decreases
as the aerosol moves away from the canister. Other factors that count for aerosol deposition
include velocity, inertial impaction, and gravitational sedimentation. However measurements using radioactive teflon particles labelled with technetium-99m with a gamma camera
large droplets on the internal walls of the nebuliser itself. Thus, in an acute attack of
bronchial asthma, a properly used MDI with a spacer is as effective/useful as a nebuliser.
The main advantages of inhalation devices are the greater asthmatic effect (10-20 times
of an oral dose is required to produce an equivalent response as by inhalers), rapid onset of
action and response, self administration on demand. Short-term prophylaxis and lack of
side effects are the other advantages. Various problems of inhaler use include Hand-Lung
dyscoordination (failure of timing the inspiration with dose release), cold freon effect,
inspiration and breath holding, and cough on inhalation of aerosol.
All aerosolised medications that are used for the treatment of asthma are available as
metered-dose inhalers (MDI) which are pressurised and propellant-powered; or jet and
ultrasonic nebulisers which are electrically powered. The advantage of delivering drugs
directly into the airways is that high concentrations of drug can be delivered to the airways,
while systemic side effects are usually avoided. The major disadvantage of this mode of
drug delivery is that training and skill are required to coordinate activation of the MDI
with inhalation of the drug. Therefore, teaching of proper MDI techniques is very essential
183
12
Therapeutic Approach in
Patients with Asthma
I. Chronic Bronchial Asthma
Asthma is a chronic condition with acute exacerbations having variable course. The course
of disease is not uniform with periods of exacerbations and remissions which varies from
days to weeks to months to years. Management therefore, requires a continuous care
approach to control symptoms, prevent exacerbations, and reduce chronic airway
inflammation. The course of asthma varies among patients. The degree of an individuals
asthma severity may change from one season or year to the next. Therefore, specific asthma
therapy must be selected to fit the need of individual patients. The therapy must be adaptable
to change as the disease changes in the individual.
Over the years a number of guidelines have been developed. Notable amongst them are
those of the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute of the NIH, USA, British Thoracic
Society, Research Unit of the Royal College of Physicians of London, the Kings Fund Center,
the National Asthma Campaign, Global Initiative for Asthma and WHO.1-11 The basic
principles are the same in all these guidelines. Management of bronchial asthma can be
divided into that for chronic asthma and acute severe asthma.
CHRONIC BRONCHIAL ASTHMAAIMS OF THERAPY
The basic goals or aims of management of chronic asthma are:
i. To recognise asthma and its severity
ii. To abolish symptoms particularly those of the chronic troublesome ones like nocturnal
cough and dyspnoea, and early morning symptoms
iii. To maintain normal activity levels including exercise
iv. To maintain a normal or near normal or the best possible long-term pulmonary
functions
v. To prevent recurrent exacerbations of asthma and the risk of severe attacks
vi. To minimise absence from school or work
vii. To enable normal growth to occur in children
viii. To minimise the need for as needed (quick-relief) 2-agonist therapy
ix. To avoid adverse effects from asthma medications
x. To meet patients and families expectations of and satisfaction with asthma care.
185
187
mutual support. Group members exchange personal tips on managing asthma, making
changes at home, and coping with the stress of a chronic disorder in the family.
Currently asthma education worldwide websites are available. However, asthma
education material contains many accessibility barriers, is highly variable in quality, and
content, and takes little innovative use of technology. These informations currently available
in the web fails to meet the information needs of the patient.23
The patient must be made to understand that there are new ways to manage their disease
so that they can prevent problems, be free of symptoms both day and night, and live
productive, active lives. They can learn to control their asthma, handle mild attacks promptly
at home, and prevent serious attacks. Emergency visits should no longer be needed. Regular
medical visits provide periodic opportunities to address concerns, solve problems, and
reach agreement on long-term treatment. This is achieved by having the patient become
actively involved as a partner in his or her care through guided self-management. Guided
self-management means a patient can take medications correctly; understand the difference
between quick-relief and long-term preventive medications, avoid triggers; monitor personal
status using symptoms and if possible, PEFR indicators; recognise signs that asthma is
worsening and take action; follow personalised action steps and stop attacks; and seek
medical help at the appropriate time to stop serious attacks.
Long-term asthma control requires a written management plan that describes what to
do to prevent symptoms and attacks and what to do in case an attack occurs. An asthma
management zone system is effective for guided self-management and should be included in
the management plan. This system classifies levels of asthma control as different zones
based on the frequency and severity of symptoms and peak expiratory flow measurements.
The system then indicates the appropriate therapy for each zone. The zone system helps
patients understand the chronic and variable nature of asthma, monitor their condition,
identifies the earliest possible signs that day to day control of asthma is deteriorating, and
act quickly to regain control. When PEFR readings are available, the patients current reading
must be compared to his or her personal bestthe highest PEFR value achieved when the
patients asthma is under controlis his benchmark for asthma control. The patient then
follows the prearranged action steps appropriate to each of the following three zones.
Green zone It indicates all clear. Asthma is under control with no symptoms or interruption
of activities or sleep. PEFR are usually 80-100 percent of personal best. The variability is
less than 20%. If the patient has stayed for at least 3 months in this zone, a careful stepdown of the therapy can be considered as outlined below.
Yellow zone This signals caution. Some mild asthma symptoms are present. PEFR readings
are 60-80% of personal best. There is 20-30% variability. Readings in this zone indicates
that an acute attack may be present for which a temporary increase in medication is needed,
essentially 2agonist inhalers for quick relief. The patient should develop a treatment plan
with the physician. Also it is possible that an overall deterioration of asthma might have
occurred that require further treatment. A short burst of corticosteroids will be required till
the PEFR comes back to the green zone. In case the patient is taking inhaled steroids, that
should be doubled for 12 weeks or until PEFR improves. Frequent fluctuations into the
yellow zone may indicate poor control of asthma and the green zone therapy has to be
increased.
Red zone This indicates medical alert. Asthma symptoms are present even when the patient
is at rest or interfere with activity. PEFR readings are below 60% of the personal best. The
Animal Allergens
The best way to avoid animal allergens are just to remove the animal from the house (dog, cat,
rodents, birds, etc). Removal of the animal may not afford immediate relief even when followed
by vigorous cleaning as allergen has been shown to remain in the home for many months.27
Residual allergen can be denatured and rendered nonallergenic by application of 3% tannic
acid solution. If the pet cannot be removed from the house, it should at least be kept out of the
allergic persons bedroom at all times. If the animal is in the bedroom at all, the dander and
saliva will remain for a long time even after the pet leaves. Weekly washing of the pet may
reduce the amount of dander and dried saliva deposited on carpets and furnishings. The
189
most reliable reduction of exposure to allergens derived from furred pets is done by completely
excluding the pet from the home and avoiding exposure to pets elsewhere. It is of course not
possible always. It is important to make patients aware of the choices they are making like
more medications, decrease in health related quality of life and to reexamine these choices on
a regular basis. Patients are often interested in alternatives to excluding the pet from the home.
In such a situation, there is hardly anything other than complete avoidance can benefit
asthmatic patients with a documented pet allergy.28 Since there is a dose-response relationship
between parameters of asthma control, and exposure to allergens, it seems reasonable to keep
the cat out of the bedroom, living room, and play- room. Washing of pets as mentioned above
has given variable results and must be repeated so frequently as to be impractical in most
situations. Settled allergens will be removed by methods of removal of house dust (see on page
191). Cat and dog allergens, as opposed to dust mite allergen, are often found on small
particles that are easily airborne. This renders the use of air filtration devices attractive. Due
to small particle size of airborne allergens, HEPA cleaners are likely required. Significant
health benefits are not documented despite the reduction in the amount of airborne particles,29
although an improvement in bronchial hyperresponsiveness has been found in cat allergic
children.30 In a recent meta-analysis, it is reported that use of air filtration systems in patients
with asthma or allergy showed a reduction in symptoms, but not of medication use, and no
improvement in measures of peak flow.31
House-dust Mite
House-dust mites are important causes of allergic asthma. They occur in environments with
sufficient humidity since they are quite dependent for survival on moisture from atmosphere.
Mite antigen is found throughout the home, wherever human dander, the food for the mite, is
found. High levels are obtained in dust obtained from mattresses, pillows, carpets, upholstered
furnitures, bedcovers, clothes, and soft toys.32 The principal allergen is found in the mite
faeces. A gram of dust may contain 1,000 mites and 250,000 faecal pellets. These faecal pellets
are quite large varying in size from 10-40 microns, and therefore do not easily penetrate the
lower respiratory tract. Mite antigen is easily demonstrated in the air during housecleaning
activities, but it is present in only very small amounts in undisturbed air.33 Some mite allergen
is associated with smaller size particles that may be in the respirable range for the lower
airways.34 House-dust mite control measures include encasing the mattress in an airtight
cover; the pillows are also to be encased and be washed weekly; the bedding should be
washed in water at 130 F or 55 C weekly and dry thoroughly in a hot dryer or in the sun;
curtains and childrens soft toys are to be washed regularly; the patient should avoid sleeping
or lying on upholstered furnitures; and carpets laid on concrete are to be removed, if possible
the indoor humidity is to be reduced to less than 50%; carpets may be removed from the
bedroom; and ascaricides may be useful in killing the mites.35-38 If carpet removal is not possible,
vacuuming should be carried out with a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) vacuum cleaner
with a double reservoir bag, preferably when the asthmatic patient is not present. Central
vacuum cleaners exhausted to the outside are also likely to be effective.39 Such a multifaceted
and concerted approach to reducing levels of dust mite allergen among asthmatic subjects
with positive allergy skin test results to mite allergens, if successful, is clearly associated with
improvement in the parameters of asthma control like symptoms, need for medications,
measures of airflow, and measures of bronchial hyperresponsiveness.40
Cockroach Allergen
It is important in warmer climates.41 The infested homes should be cleaned thoroughly and
regularly. Pesticides and pesticide sprays are used to eliminate cockroaches. If sprays are
used the patient should not be present at that time.
Indoor Moulds
These are found in environments with increased humidity. Bathrooms, kitchens and basements require adequate ventilation and frequent cleaning using chlorine bleach if necessary.
Dehumidifiers for damp basement areas should be considered, with humidity levels for
less than 50% but above 25%. The unit should be cleaned regularly. Perspiration on foam
pillows may encourage mould growth. Pillows should be encased or changed regularly.
Other Precautions
Since vacuum cleaners are prone to mobilise fine respirable allergen particles, allergic
patients should not vacuum or if they do so, they should use a dust mask, or use a vacuum
cleaner with a high efficiency particulate air filter. Air conditioning is helpful since the
windows and doors need to be closed and it reduces indoor humidity discouraging mould
and mite growth. Humidifiers are potentially harmful. The patient should avoid tobacco
smoke, both active and passive. Wood smoke and other smoke from domestic cooking
should be avoided as they are known to increase respiratory symptoms. To avoid this, all
furnaces and stoves are to be vented outside and the room is to be kept well-ventilated.
Strong odours or sprays produced by cosmetics like perfumes, talcum powder, room
deodorisers, frying, household cleaning products, and fresh paints irritate some patients
airways and trigger asthma symptoms. Those affected by such odours should avoid them.
Exposure to air pollutants like oxidants and sulphur oxides and ozone has been associated
with worsening pulmonary function and increased airway hyperresponsiveness in persons
with asthma. These environmental exposures may interact with allergens and other triggers
in the causation of bronchial asthma.
Other precipitating factors like gastroesophageal reflux, sulphite sensitivity, and medication sensitivities need to addressed in all patients.
All patients with asthma deserve an allergy evaluation to identify sensitisation to common
inhaled allergens. Avoidance of allergens to which a patient with asthma is sensitised is an
integral and effective part of asthma management. Indoor allergens are of particular
importance because of the most part of the time spent indoors. The indoor allergens most
likely to be relevant are dust mites, cockroaches, and furred pets. Avoidance measures for
dust mites,42 and cockroaches,42 are probably effective at improving asthma control if the
measures are strictly adhered to. Air filtration devices are unlikely to be important or effective
over and above the more usual measures, given the characteristic distribution of these
allergens at home. Air filtration devices are effective at reducing levels of pet allergen in
home and may improve asthma control when combined with exclusion of the pet from the
bedroom. This is likely to be less effective than ridding off the pet from the home completely.43
IMMUNOTHERAPY
The role of specific immunotherapy in asthma management is controversial and is under
continual investigation. In fact, the British Thoracic guidelines clearly mentions that the
191
Regular steroid
tablets added
Step IV
Step III
Step II
Regular inhaled
anti-inflammatory
agents
Step I
Occasional use
of relief
oronchodilator
Inhaled short
acting beta
agonists SOS.
If needed > 1
daily, move to
Step II.
Before altering a
step ensure that
the patient is
having the
treatment and
having proper
inhalation.
Inhaled short
acting beta
agonists SOS
plus
beclomethasone
or budesonide
100-400 mcg bd
or fluticasone
50-200 mcg bd
or cromoglycate
or nedocromil. If
no control, start
inhaled steroids.
High dose
inhaled steroids
and regular
bronchodilators
Stepping
down
Review
every
3-6
months
193
The appropriate treatment with different drugs in various steps are summarised below:
Step 5 Addition of Regular Steroid Tablets Inhaled short-acting beta agonists as required
with inhaled beclomethasone or budesonide 800-2000 g daily or fluticasone 400-1000 g
daily by a large volume spacer and one or more of the long-acting bronchodilators with
regular prednisolone in a single daily dose.
Step 4 High dose inhaled steroids and regular bronchodilators Inhaled short-acting
-agonists as required with inhaled beclomethasone or budesonide 800-2000 g daily or
fluticasone 400-1000 g daily through a large volume spacer plus a sequential therapeutic
trial of one or more of inhaled long-acting beta agonist or sustained release theophylline
or inhaled ipratropium or oxytropium or long-acting beta agonist tablets high dose
inhaled bronchodilators or cromoglycate or nedocromil.
Step 3 High dose inhaled steroids or low dose inhaled steroids plus long-acting inhaled beta
agonist bronchodilator Inhaled short-acting beta agonists as required plus either
beclomethasone or budesonide increased to 800-2000 g daily or fluticasone 400-1000 g
daily through a large volume spacer or beclomethasone or budesonide 100-400 g twice
daily or fluticasone 50-200 g twice daily. In a very small number of patients who experience
side effects with high doses of inhaled steroids, either the long-acting inhaled beta agonist
or a sustained release theophylline may be added to step 2 medications. Cromoglycate or
nedocromil may also be tried.
Step 2 Regular inhaled anti-inflammatory agents Inhaled short-acting beta agonists as
required plus beclomethasone or budesonide 100-400 g twice daily or fluticasone
50-200 g twice daily. Alternatively, use cromoglycate or nedocromil sodium. If control
is not achieved start inhaled steroids.
Step 1 Occasional use of relief bronchodilators Inhaled short-acting beta-agonists as required
for symptom relief are acceptable. If they are needed more than once daily move to
step 2.
Before altering a treatment step, it must be ensured that the patient is having the treatment
and has a good inhaler technique. Any fear the patient might be having must be addressed.
The possible outcome with various steps of treatment are shown below.
Outcome of steps 1-3: Control of asthma
Outcome of step 4-5: Best possible result
Minimal or no chronic symptoms
Least possible symptoms
No nocturnal symptoms
Least need for relief bronchodilators
Infrequent exacerbations
Least possible activity limitations
Minimal need of relief bronchodilators
Least possible variation in PEFR
No activity or exercise limitations
Best PEFR
PEFR variation < 20%, PEFR 80%/more
Least adverse reactions from drugs
Minimum side effects from drugs
The expected line of therapy and possible outcome in different grades of asthma are
depicted in Figure 12.3.
For patients who have established control of their asthma, regular follow up visits at
approximately 1 to 3 month intervals are necessary to review the treatment plan, the patients
management techniques including use of medicines, peak flow measurements, etc. For many
patients with moderate to severe asthma, control of the disease as reflected in normalisation
of pulmonary function and activity levels without symptoms, can be maintained with only
continuous preventive therapy. The aim of therapy should be to use the minimum medication needed to maintain control with minimum risk for adverse effects. Reduction of therapy
can be carefully considered if PEFR variability is less than 10% and there are no asthma
symptoms for a reasonable period (2-3 days for the exacerbation in mild asthma, several
weeks for moderate or severe asthma). If PEFR variability is greater than 10-20%, evaluation
of the patients technique in using the medication, find out environmental aggravators and
the patients efforts to control them will be necessary. The possibility of concomitant upper
respiratory tract disease, and the possibility of increasing the dosage or change of medications
may also need to be considered.
Recently the Expert Panel Report 2 of the National Institute of Health has published guidelines for the diagnosis and management of bronchial asthma in adults and children .50
Although the basic principles of management are the same, some more facts have been
highlighted. The basic components of management include:
A. Measures of assessment and monitoring. The new guidelines includes additional goal
of therapy to meet the expectations of the patient and its family with satisfaction. Periodic
assessment of six domains of patient health is highlighted. These include signs and
symptoms, pulmonary function, quality of life, history of exacerbations, pharmacotherapy, patient-provider communication and patient satisfaction. The panel also
recommends home monitoring of PEFR from twice daily to once in the morning only. If
the morning reading is less than 80% of the personal best PEFR, more frequent monitoring
may be required. The use of the individual patients personal best PEFR is emphasised.
It is emphasised that patients of all severity levels are to monitor symptoms to recognise
early signs of deterioration. Sample questions to use in periodic assessments are also
added.
B. Control of factors contributing to asthma severity is important. Skin testing or in vitro
testing is now specifically recommended for at least those patients with persistent asthma
195
exposed to perennial indoor allergens. Adult patients with severe persistent asthma, nasal
polyps, or a history of sensitivity to aspirin or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are
to be counselled regarding the risk of severe and even fatal exacerbations from using these
drugs. Routine use of chemicals to kill house-dust mite and denature the antigen is no
longer recommended as a control measure. Patients should be treated for rhinitis, sinusitis,
and gastro-oesophageal reflux. Annual influenza vaccinations are specifically
recommended for patients with persistent asthma. Pneumococcal vaccination is considered
not important.
C. The importance of pharmacological therapy is very much there and is an important
component of asthma management. However, medications are now categorised into two
general classes; (a) long-term control medications; and (b) quick-relief medications. While
the former are used to achieve and maintain control of persistent asthma, the later are used
to treat acute symptoms and exacerbations. The most effective medications for long-term
control are those having anti-inflammatory effects and include drugs like corticosteroids,
long-acting 2-agonists, and leukotriene antagonists. The stepwise approach to asthma
therapy emphasises initiating a higher level of therapy at the onset to establish prompt
control and then stepping down. Corticosteroids are the most important anti-inflammatory
drugs and include various inhaled forms as discussed earlier and systemic drugs like
methylprednisolone, prednisolone, and prednisone.
D. Education for a partnership in asthma care includes providing patients both a written
treatment plan for daily self-management and a written action plan for management of
exacerbations. However they do not replace, though supplement, the education by the
physician. Patient education by the principal clinician as well as other members of the
health care team is important. To enhance the delivery of education, detailed questions to
elicit information and educational messages for each visit are to be provided. Key messages
are to be reinforced during each visit. Further, it is necessary to evaluate the outcome in
terms of patient perceptions of improvement, specially quality of life and the ability to
engage in desired activities. Patient education for CFC-free inhalers is gaining importance
in view of the ban on the use of CFC (chlorofluorocarbons).
The Expert Panel50 has changed the classification of the severity of asthma from mild,
moderate, severe to mild intermittent, mild persistent, moderate persistent, and severe persistent
asthma. The clinical features before treatment are shown in Table 12.1.
Stepwise management of bronchial asthma in adults and children over 5 years of age
depending upon the above severity criteria as recommended by the NIH Expert Panel is
shown in Table 12.2.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF APPROACH TO TREATMENT OF
CHRONIC PERSISTENT ASTHMA
i. Treatment of chronic persistent asthma should be considered in a stepwise manner as
described above with the patients starting treatment at the step most appropriate for
the initial severity of their conditions.
ii. The stepwise approach presents general guidelines to assist clinical decision making;
it is not intended to be a specific prescription.
iii. Since asthma is highly variable; clinicians should tailor specific medication plans to
the needs and circumstances of individual patients.
Severity
Step 4
Severe persistent
Symptoms
Lung function
FEV1 or PEFR 60% or
less than predicted
Variability of PEFR
> 30%
Step 3
Daily symptoms
Moderate persistent Daily use of inhaled
2-agonists
Exacerbations affect
activity
Exacerbation 2 or
more/week
May last days
> 1 week
Step 2
Mild persistent
Step 1
Mild intermittent
Symptoms 2 times or
less per week
Asymptomatic and
normal PEFR
between exacerbations
Exacerbations brief
2 times or less
per month
Note: The presence of one of the features of severity is sufficient to place a patient in that category.
An individual should be assigned to the most severe grade in which any feature occurs. The characteristics described above are general and may overlap in view of the variable nature of asthma.
Patients at any levels of severity can have mild, moderate, or severe exacerbations. Some with intermittent asthma experience severe and life-threatening exacerbations separated by long periods of
normal lung function and no symptoms.
Table 12.2: Stepcare management of bronchial asthma50
Step
Long-term control
Step 4
Severe persistent
Daily medications
Anti-inflammatory
Inhaled steroids (high
dose and long-acting
bronchodilators like
long-acting inhaled or
oral 2-agonist,
sustained release
theophylline
Oral corticosteroid
Step 3
Moderate
Persistent
Daily medications
Anti-inflammatory
Inhaled steroid (medium
Quick relief
Education
Inhaled 2-agonists
Intensity of treatment
will depend upon
severity of exacerbations
Use of short-acting
2-agonists on a daily
basis, or increasing use
indicates the need for
additional long-term
control therapy
Inhaled 2
agonists sos
Intensity of treatment
As in step 2 and 3
Individual education
Contd...
Step 2
Mild persistent
Step 1
Mild intermittent
Long-term control
dose) or low-medium
dose and add a longacting bronchodilator,
especially for nighttime symptoms: either
long-acting inhaled
2-agonist, sustained
release theophylline
or long-acting
2-agonist tablets
If needed:
Anti-inflammatory:
Inhaled corticosteroids
(medium-high dose) and
long-acting bronchodilators, especially for
night-time symptoms;
either long-acting
inhaled 2-agonist,
sustained release
theophylline, or longacting 2-agonist tablets
Daily medications:
Anti-inflammatory
Either inhaled steroid
(low doses) or cromolyn
or nedocromil
Alternatively, sustained
release theophylline.
Leukotriene antagonists
may also be tried for the
patients of 12 yrs or >,
although their role in
therapy is not fully
established.
Daily medication not
needed
Quick relief
197
Education
Short-acting
bronchodilator:
Inhaled 2agonist as needed.
Intensity of treatment
will depend on exacerbation severity.
Use of short acting
inhaled 2-agonists
daily or increasing
use indicates need
for additional longterm control therapy.
Short-acting bronchodilator: Inhaled 2agonist sos
Intensity of treatment
will depend on
severity of exacerbation
Use of above more
than 2 times a week
may need to start
Step 1 action +
teach self monitoring
Group education.
Review and
update self manage
ment plan.
Contd...
Long-term control
Quick relief
long-term control
therapy
Step down
Review treatment every 1-6 months
a gradual stepwise reduction in treatment
may be possible
Education
Develop action plan to
when and how to take
rescue actions
Discuss appropriate
environment control
measures
Step up
If control is not maintained, consider
step up. First, review patient medication
technique adherence, and environment
control
iv. The control should be gained as soon as possible and then the treatment is to be
decreased to the least medications necessary to maintain control. Gaining control may
be accomplished by either starting treatment at the step most appropriate to the initial
severity of their condition or by starting a high level of therapy like a short course of
oral corticosteroids may be needed at any time and at any step to control their asthma
as mentioned above. Alternatively, a higher dose of inhaled corticosteroid may be
used.
v. Patients should avoid all known factors precipitating their asthma. They may be
chemicals, certain drugs like aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
blockers are contraindicated in asthma.
vi. A rescue course of systemic corticosteroids may be required at any step at any time.
vii. Some patients with intermittent asthma experience severe and life-threatening
exacerbations separated by long periods of normal lung function and no symptoms.
This may be especially common with exacerbations provoked by respiratory
infections. A short course of systemic corticosteroids is recommended in that situation.
viii. At each step the patient should control his environment to avoid or control factors
that make their asthma worse like allergens, irritants, etc. This requires specific
diagnosis and education.
ix. Referral to an asthma specialist for consultation or co-management is recommended
if there are difficulties in achieving or maintaining control of asthma or if the patient
requires step 4 care. Referral may be considered if the patient requires step 3 care.
Quick-relief Medications
Bronchodilators. Short-acting 2-agonists are the therapy of choice for relief of acute symptoms
and prevention of exercise-induced asthma. They are the most effective medications for
relieving acute bronchospasm. A 2-agonist such as salbutamol 100-200 g or terbutaline
250-500 g should be used as required rather than regularly. Patients should be encouraged
to use the minimum dose to control their symptoms. They can be used 2 puffs three to four
times a day. Salbutamol is also available as rotahalers with 100-200 mcg/capsule which can
199
be used 1-2 capsules every 4-6 hours as needed and prior to exercise. Increasing use of these
drugs or roughly use of more than one canister in one month indicates inadequate control of
asthma and the need for initiating or intensifying anti-inflammatory therapy. Regularly
scheduled or daily use of these drugs are generally not recommended. Solutions for use in
nebulisers are also available (salbutamol 5 mg/ml or terbutaline 5 mg/ml) for use during
acute exacerbations.
Anticholinergic drugs like ipratropium bromide may provide additive benefit to inhaled
2-agonists in severe exacerbations. It may be an alternative bronchodilator for patients who
do not tolerate inhaled 2-agonists. They may be used as regular maintenance therapy in step
4 (British Thoracic Society) patients who already require high dose inhaled steroids. The drug
is also available in solution forms for nebulisation. The MDI dose is 20 mcg for each puff and
2-3 puffs are used every 6 hours.
Although systemic corticosteroids are strictly not bronchodilators, they are used for moderate
to severe exacerbations to speed recovery and prevention of exacerbations along with other
medications.
Long-term Control Medications
Inhaled anti-inflammatory agents. Patients who need to inhale a bronchodilator more than once
daily or who have night time symptoms require regular inhaled anti-inflammatory drugs.
Various drugs that can be used include corticosteroids, sodium cromoglycate (5-20 mg four
times a day), and nedocromil sodium (4 mg four times daily). Inhaled steroids are the drugs of
choice since they are the most potent and effective anti-inflammatory drugs available currently
for mild, moderate and severe persistent asthma. The small but potential risk of adverse
reactions from the use of inhaled corticosteroids is well balanced by their efficacy. Inhaled
form is used for the long-term control of asthma. Systemic corticosteroids are used in longterm therapy to gain prompt control of the disease and also to manage severe persistent
asthma. Beclomethasone dipropionate or budesonide should be started in doses of 100-400
g twice daily. As the severity increases, the doses are to be increased. Patients with nocturnal
symptoms and more severe and persistent form of disease may need more frequent and higher
doses. Once symptoms and PEFR are controlled, the dose should be reduced to be maintained
with the minimum.
High doses of inhaled steroids. If control is not achieved, spacers and higher doses are needed
after checking the compliance and proper use of inhalers. When the dose exceeds 800 g, a
large volume spacer is recommended to reduce systemic and local effects. The delivery system
is an important determinant of the systemic effects of inhaled corticosteroids. The Turbohaler
delivers approximately twice as much inhaled steroid to the lung,52 and, therefore the dose
may be halved when this device is used. The patient should also be advised to rinse mouth
(rinse and spit) following inhalation. The lowest possible dose of inhaler should be used to
maintain control. Current guidelines recommend that patients should double the dose of
inhaled steroids temporarily if their asthma deteriorates or at the first sign of an upper
respiratory tract infection. To maintain control asthma, particularly nocturnal symptoms, a
long-acting inhaled 2-agonist is to be added to a low-to medium dose of inhaled corticosteroid
rather than using a high dose. For children growth monitoring is essential.
Inhaled corticosteroids are typically associated with a flat dose-response curve when
traditional efficacy values are examined by measurement of FEV1. Thus, by increasing the
Drug
Low Dose
Medium Dose
High Dose
Beclomethasone
(100,200 mcg/puff)
(DPI same)
200-400 mcg
400-800 mcg
>800 mcg
Budesonide
(200,400 mcg/puff)
200-400 mcg
400-600 mcg
>600 mcg
Flunisolide
(250 mcg/puff)
500-1000 mcg
1000-2000 mcg
>2000 mcg
Fluticasone
(50,125 mcg/puff)
DPI same doses
50-250 mcg
250-660 mcg
Triamcenolone
100 mcg/puff
400-1000 mcg
1000-2000 mcg
>2000 mcg
201
The addition of long-acting xanthine derivatives may be good enough to control symptoms.
Sustained release theophylline is a mild to moderate bronchodilator used principally as
adjuvant to inhaled corticosteroids for prevention of nocturnal symptoms. They may have
mild anti-inflammatory effect also. Usual starting dose is 10 mg/kg of body weight up to a
maximum of 800 mgm per day.
Long-acting 2-agonists are to be used concomitantly with anti-inflammatory drugs (lowto-medium dose corticosteroid inhalers) for long-term control of symptoms, particularly
nocturnal symptoms. They also prevent exercise-induced bronchospasm. Long-acting 2agonists are not to be used for the treatment of acute symptoms or exacerbations. High doses of
inhaled bronchodilators should be considered only if the patient does not respond to standard
doses. Daily use of long-acting 2-agonists should generally not exceed 80-100 mcg. Salmeterol
is currently available in India and Formoterol is being tried for clinical use in this country.
Oral sustained release salbutamol 8 mgs tablets are available which can be used twice daily.
Leukotriene Modifiers These drugs may be considered as alternative therapy to low doses of
inhaled corticosteroids or cromolyn or nedocromil in mild persistent asthma in patients 12
years or older. These drugs are not yet marketed in India. Further study and clinical experience
are needed to help establish their role in asthma therapy. The leukotriene receptor antagonist
is available in USA as 20 mg tablets and the adult dose is 40 mg daily (1 tablet twice daily).
The 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor Zileuton is available as 300 and 600 mg tablets and the daily
dose is 2400 mgs in four divided doses.
Oral steroids Systemic corticosteroids are used in long-term therapy to gain prompt control
of the disease (Rescue therapy) and also to manage severe persistent asthma. High doses of
inhaled steroids should always be continued in patients receiving oral steroids. These patients
need to be referred to a specialty clinic where additional measures can be considered. For
long-term treatment of severe persistent asthma, single dose is to be administered in a.m.
either daily or on alternate days which may produce less adrenal suppression. Short courses
or bursts are effective for establishing control when initiating therapy or during a period of
gradual deterioration. The burst should be continued till the patient achieves 80% of personal
best PEFR or the symptoms resolve. This usually requires 3-10 days, but may require longer.
The most commonly available oral corticosteroid is prednisolone, although methylprednisolone
or prednisone can also be used. Prednisolone tablets are available in 5 mg, and 20 mg, tablets.
For control of asthma symptoms, a dose of 10-60 mgms daily single doses may be required. For
short-course burst 40-60 mgm per day as single or 2 divided doses may be given for 3-10
days.
Alternative and Complementary Therapies
Alternative and complementary therapies are sought most frequently for many chronic
disabling conditions as a desperate (sometimes with true belief) measure as there is no
definite cure for these conditions. These include back pain, anxiety, depression, arthritis,
headaches, HIV infection, and chronic allergic disorders like allergic rhinitis, and asthma.58,59
These forms of treatment include acupuncture, homeopathy, fish therapy, other herbal therapy
including ayurvedic drugs, ionisers, and antihistamines including ketotifen, chiropractice,
megavitamins, and spiritual healing, which are tried by many but have not stood the test of
controlled clinical trials, although some patients claim benefit. Results of a 1998 survey
indicates that 42% of adults in the United States consult alternative medical practitioners and
203
205
31. McDonald E, Cook D, Newman T et al. Effects of air filtration systems on asthma. A systematic
review of randomised trials. Chest 2002;122:1535-42.
32. Tovey ER, Chapman MD, Platts-Mills TAE. Mite faeces are a major source of house-dust allergens.
Nature 1981;289:592-93.
33. Platts-Mills TAE, de Weck AL. Dust-mite allergens and asthma: Worldwide problem. J Allergy
Clin Immunol 1989;83:416-26.
34. Swanson MC, Campbell AR, Klauck MJ, Reed CE. Correlation between levels of mite and cat
allergens in settled and airborne dust. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1989;83:776-83.
35. Walshaw MJ, Evans CC. Allergen avoidance in house dust mite sensitive adult asthma. Q J Med
1986;58:199-215.
36. Ehnert B, Lau-Sehadendorf S, Weber A, Buettner P, Sehou C, Wahn U. Reducing domestic
exposure to dust mite allergen reduces bronchial hyperreactivity in sensitive children with
asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1993;90:135-38.
37. Murray AB, Fergusson AC. Dust free bed room in the treatment of asthmatic children with
house dust mite allergy: A controlled trial. Pediatrics 1983;91:418-22.
38. Colloff MJ, Ayeres J, Carswell F et al. The control of dust mites and domestic pets: A position
paper. Clin Exp Allergy 1992;22(Suppl 2):1-28.
39. Arlian LG, Platts-Mills TA. The biology of dust mites and the remediation of mite allergens in
allergic diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol 20-01;107(3 Suppl):S406-S13.
40. Custovic A, Simpson A, Chapman MD et al. Allergen avoidance in the treatment of asthma and
atopic disorders. Thorax 1998;53:63-72.
41. Lan JL, Lee DT, Wu CH et al. Cockroach hypersensitivity: Preliminary study of allergic cockroach
asthma in Taiwan. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1988;82:736-40.
42. Eggleston PA, Arruda LK. Ecology and elimination of cockroaches allergens in the home.
J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;107(3 Suppl):S422-S29.
43. Ernst P. Environmental measures and asthma. Chest 2002;122:1509-10.
44. Aas K. Controlled trial of hyposensitisation to house dust. Acta Pediat Scand 1971;60:264-68.
45. Ohman JL Jr, Findlay SR, Leiterman KM. Immunotherapy in cat-induced asthma: Double-blind
trial with evaluation of in vivo and in vitro responses. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1984;74:230-39.
46. Reid MJ, Moss RB, Hsu YP. Seasonal asthma in northern California: Allergy causes and efficacy
of immunotherapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1986;78:590-600.
47. Horst M, Hejjaoui A, Horst V, Michel FB, Bouquest J. Double-blind, placebo-controlled rush
immunotherapy with a standardised alternaria extract. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1990;85:460-72.
48. Van Bever HP, Stevens WJ. Suppression of the late asthmatic reaction by hyposensitisation in
asthmatic children allergic to house dust mites (dermatophagoides pteronyssiunus). Clin Exp
Allergy 1989;19:399-404.
49. Bousquet J, Maasch HJ, Hejjaoui A et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled immunotherapy with
mixed grass-pollen allergoids. III. Efficacy and safety of unfractionated and high-molecularweight preparations in rhino conjunctivitis and asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1989;84:546-56.
50. Expert Panel Report 2: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma. American
College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National
Institute of Health. NIH Publication No. 97-4051A, May 1997.
51. Glinert R, Wilson P, Wedner HJ. Fel; D1 is markedly reduced following sequential washing of
cats. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1990;85:225.
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twice that from a pressurised metered dose inhaler p-MDI. Eur Respir J 1994;7:1839-44.
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the physiology and bronchial wall immunopathology in mild-to-moderate asthma. Chest
2002;122:1966-72.
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77. Rabe KF, Vermiere PA, Soriano JB et al. Clinical management of asthma in 1999: The asthma
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2002;122:2217-23.
13
Therapeutic Approach in
Patients with Asthma
II. Acute Severe Asthma (SA)
Definition
The term status asthmaticus was previously used to describe a severe attack of asthma, which
had continued for more than 24 hours. Although most severe attacks of asthma develop
over days or weeks prior to presentation to medical care, all recent studies of asthma deaths
have described patients who have died within hours or even minutes of the onset of
symptoms. It is, therefore, not appropriate to include the duration of the attack in a definition
of acute severe asthma. The most important aspect of such an attack is its severity. Another
suggested definition of an acute asthmatic attack is severe airflow obstruction that had
become unresponsive to the patients normal bronchodilator treatment. All patients with
bronchial asthma are at risk of developing a severe asthma attack that places them at risk of
developing respiratory failurethe disorder referred to as status asthmaticus.1-19 The attack
can occur at any time and at any speed. In most cases of severe life-threatening asthma
develops against a background of poorly controlled disease. However, in 10-20% of cases
of fatal or near fatal asthma the onset appears to be sudden and unexpected, with death
occurring at times within a couple of hours. Such episodes are called Sudden asphyxic
asthma.20 This form is quite different from the more slowly progressive forms of airflow
obstruction. These are accompanied pathologically by only mild inflammatory changes
and little mucus plugging of the airways.21 This sudden and unexpected increased airflow
obstruction results primarily from bronchial smooth muscle-mediated bronchospasm. An
important feature of this near fatal asthma is that attacks are often recurrent and a previous
life-threatening episode represents one of the most important factors predicting asthma
deaths.22 Acute severe asthma said to run to type, meaning thereby, if hypercapnia
develops during one severe attack, it is likely to recur in a subsequent episode.23 Both fatal
and near fatal asthmatic attacks have similar features.24
Patients dying of sudden exacerbations of asthma have diminished eosinophils and
increased neutrophils in the airway submucosa20 and less intraluminal mucus.25 This is in
contrast with the relatively slower onset disease. Patients who develop progressive
symptoms over days before finally presenting to the emergency room do so with respiratory
distress. In these patients, inflammation of the airway wall and edema play a significant
209
role. Yet many patients fail to perceive the severity to treat effectively their worsening airway
inflammation.26 They fail to appreciate the severity of the final episode because of poor
perception. Reduced chemosensitivity to hypoxia and blunted perception of dyspnoea
perhaps predispose patients to fatal asthma.27
About 1.1 to 7.0% of patients with bronchial asthma die from an acute attack.28-30 It is
difficult to predict which asthma patients will have a fatal or near-fatal asthma attack. In
both these conditions (fatal and near-fatal asthma), there is a female predominance,31,32
history of frequent hospital admissions and emergency department visits, 33 noncompliance,34 psychosocial abnormalities,35 and socioeconomic factors linked to poverty.36
In addition, a significantly decreased response to inspiration against resistance and to
hypoxic hypercapnia27 and a low perception of dyspnoea are other risk factors.37 In a case
control study, the following eight variables were found to be associated with near-fatal
asthma: history of seizures, conflict with parents and hospital staff, inappropriate self-care,
decrement in prednisolone dose by 50%, use of inhaled beclomethasone, increased asthma
symptoms during the week prior to discharge, depressive symptoms, and disregard of
asthma symptoms.38 The variables associated with subsequent deaths include older age,
female gender, smoking, labile asthma, poor compliance, and psychiatric treatment for
anxiety or depression.39 In a recent unmatched, case-control study, the near fatal asthma
was most often associated with the use of bronchodilators or corticosteroids during the last
12 months and these patients had nocturnal symptoms in the previous two weeks, more
severe form of the asthma, and more likely to have had a previous intubation.40 Further,
patients with near fatal asthma have more food allergies and onset of their episodes follows
a visit to the bar, party or restaurant.41 This may be related to hypersensitivity to foods,
such as nuts, or exposure to smoking exposure or substance abuse in this group.42 Another
important contributory factor may be an inadequate access to health care facilities.43
Pathophysiology
Abnormalities of gas exchange occur due to airways obstruction as a result of inflammation
and bronchial smooth muscle contraction. Mucus plugging of both large and small airways
is found at autopsy. Dead space increases as result of hypoperfusion of hyperinflated lung
regions. Mechanical abnormalities of the lung include marked elevation of airways
resistance, inspiratory transpulmonary pressure during quiet tidal breathing increases to
as high as 50 cm H2O and expiration becomes active. Despite increased work of breathing,
FEV1 is reduced to almost 10-20 percent of normal and PEFR is less than 100 L/min in
severe cases. Expiratory time is prolonged and alveolar emptying is not complete at the
end of expiration. Intrinsic or occult positive-end expiratory pressure (PEEPi) is the
consequence of alveolar pressure not reaching atmospheric pressure under the condition
of prolonged expiratory time.
Abnormal circulatory effects of severe airways obstruction result mostly from pleural
pressure excursions associated with breathing. During expiration, increases in intrathoracic
pressure diminish blood return to the right heart. During inspiration, right ventricular
volume may increase sufficiently to shift the interventricular septum towards the left
ventricle compromising the volume of this chamber and resulting in incomplete filling.
These cyclical events result in pulsus paradoxus. Additionally, large negative pleural pressure
may directly impair left ventricular emptying by increasing left ventricular after load.44,45
Further, lung hyperinflation may represent a further after load on the right ventricle by
211
them. Status asthmaticus can cause right ventricular strain, which is usually transient and
which resolves within hours of therapy.52,54 However, presence of right heart failure should
suggest some other disease. The possibility of coronary ischaemia should be considered in
older patients with coronary artery disease. Such patients with status asthmaticus are in
increased risk of myocardial oxygen supply/demand imbalance when large decreases in
intrathoracic pressure increases left ventricular after load and possibly decreased coronary
blood flow.55 High dose beta agonists, theophylline and hypoxia can further tilt this balance.
Although effort-dependent, objective physiologic measurements of airflow obstruction
can be made by bedside determination of FEV1 and PEFR. In most patients PEFR can be
measured more easily even if the maneuver is difficult in severely dyspnoic patients. In
these cases, this may be deferred because deep inhalation may worsen bronchospasm56 and
in rare cases, precipitate respiratory arrest.57 However, the measurements are safe in most
patients.
Measurement of arterial blood gas is essential in patients with status asthmaticus. The
measurement is generally recommended when the FEV1 is less than 1 litre or PEFR is less
than 120 L/min. Patients in the early stages of status asthmaticus will exhibit mild hypoxemia
and respiratory alkalosis with low carbon dioxide tension. If respiratory alkalosis persists
for hours to days, compensatory renal bicarbonate wasting may take place manifesting as
a non-anion-gap metabolic acidosis. As the severity of obstruction increases, PaCO2 increases.
This is because of patient exhaustion, inadequate alveolar ventilation, and/or an increase
in physiologic dead space. Hypercapnia has a good correlation with FEV1 and usually does
not occur unless the FEV1 is less than 25% of the predicted.58 Presence of hypercapnia, even
normal PaCO2, indicates a severe degree of airflow obstruction and the possible need for
mechanical ventilation. However, in certain situations, hypercapnia alone is not an indication
for intubation. Such patients may respond to aggressive drug therapy.54,59 On the other
hand the absence of hypercapnia does not exclude the possibility of severe airflow
obstruction and impending respiratory arrest.3 Metabolic acidosis can occur in as high as
28% of patients with status asthmaticus.60 This may occur more likely in men and in patients
with more severe degrees of airflow obstruction and hypoxemia. The possible cause is
because of the elevated anion gap. Although the pathogenesis of lactic acidosis in this setting
is not clearly understood, the possible mechanisms are:61
213
include alertness, colour, respiratory distress, and fluid status. Although wheezing is a
prominent finding on chest auscultation, extremely severe obstruction may be accompanied
by silent chest. Routine laboratory studies and sputum culture are not necessary for initial
management of patients. A chest X-ray may be needed afterwards to identify any
complication. Measurement of PEFR and FEV1 are very essential. Arterial blood gas should
be obtained in all cases as far as possible, particularly if the patient is not able to perform
pulmonary function tests or for whom intubation and mechanical ventilation are being
considered.
Various indices of acute severe asthma are shown in Table 13.2.
Various clinical parameters helpful for the overall assessment of the patient are shown
in Table 13.3.
Table 13:2. Sherwood Jones index of severity of asthma
Grade 1a
Grade 1b
Grade 2a
Grade 2b
Confined to a chair or bed but able to get up with great difficulty. Unable to sleep.
Pulse rate > 120/min.
Grade 3
Grade 4
Moribund.
Table 13.3: Indices of acutely severe asthma
Symptoms/history
Severe breathlessness, cough, chest tightness, and wheezing
Difficulty in walking for 100 feet or more
Speech fragmented by rapid breathing
Syncope or near syncope
Physical examination
Pulsus paradoxus of > 12 mmHg
Use of accessory muscles of respiration
Diaphoresis, unable to lie supine
Heart rate > 120/min
Respiratory rate > 30/ min
Silent chest
Pulmonary functions
FEV1 or PEFR , 30-50% baseline
Failure of PEFR to improve at least 10% after initial treatment
Arterial blood gas
PO2 < 60 mmHg or O2 saturation of less than 90%
PCO2 > 40 mmHg
Mild
Moderate
Severe
On walking;
Can lie down
While talking;
Prefers sitting
While at rest;
Sits upright
Phrases
May be
agitated
Words
Usually
agitated
Usually
agitated
Increased
Increased
Accessory
muscles use;
Suprasternal
retractions
Usually not
Commonly
Usually
Paradoxical
thoraco-abdominal
movement
Wheeze
Moderate
Only endexpiratory
Loud
Throughout
expiration
Usually loud
Throughout
inspiration and
expiration
Absent
Pulse/min
< 100
100-120
> 120
Bradycardia
Pulsus
paradoxus
Absent
< 10 mm Hg
Often present
10-25 mm Hg
Present
> 25 mm Hg
Absence
suggests
respiratory
muscle fatigue
SYMPTOMS
Breathless
Talks in sentences
Alertness
SIGNS:
Respiratory
rate
FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT:
PEFR (%
80%
predicted or %
personal best)
Respiratory
arrest imminent
Drowsy or
confused
50-80%
<50% predicted or
personal best or
response lasts < 2 hours
PaO2 (air)
Normal
Test usually
not required
> 60 mmHg
Test usually not
necessary
< 60 mmHg
May be cyanosed
and/or PaCO2
< 42 mmHg
Test usually
not required
< 42 mmHg
Test usually not
necessary
= or > 42 mmHg
Possible respiratory
failure
SaO2
(on air at
sea level)
> 95%
Test usually
not required
91-95%
< 91%
Note: The presence of several parameters, but not all, indicates the general classification of the
exacerbations.
215
Recent data also showed that peak expiratory flow measurements must be interpreted
in the light of other features of severity and the patients past history, particularly previous
admissions to hospital, attendance at the emergency departments and current treatment,
especially corticosteroids. Life-threatening asthma is one where the PEFR is less than 33%
of the personal best. There is also a difference between a patient with PEFR of 50% who has
been on prednisolone for a week and a patient who has a short history and has not yet
started oral steroids. Similarly, pulsus paradoxus need not be measured as it adds nothing
to the assessment and its interpretation is subject to many factors (BTS, 1995). Facilities for
the monitoring of oxygen saturation should be available in all clinical areas that treat patients
with acute asthma. Interpretation of saturation in patients who are on or who have recently
been on oxygen, is difficult, but if the value is 92% or more and there is no feature of an
imminently life-threatening attack, arterial puncture may be deferred (BTS, 1995).
Therapeutic Management
The best strategy for management of asthma exacerbations is early treatment to prevent
deterioration and abort the exacerbation. Therefore early recognition of worsening lung
function, prompt communication between the patient and the physician, appropriate
intensification of antiasthma medication, and removal of the allergen or irritant are important
components of management. Some patients are at increased risk for exacerbations and the
category of high risk for asthma-related death includes patients who have history of :
Prior intubation for asthma,
Two or more hospitalisation for asthma in the past year,
Three or more emergency care visits for asthma in the past year,
Hospitalisation or emergency care visit within the past month
Current use of systemic steroids or recent withdrawal from systemic steroids,
Past history of syncope/hypoxic seizure due to asthma,
Prior admission to hospital based intensive care unit (ICU), and
Serious psychiatric disease or psychosocial problems.
The basic principle of care of acute asthma exacerbations is the rapid reversal of airflow
obstruction with relief of accompanying respiratory distress. This can be achieved by
repetitive administration of inhaled 2-antagonists, early addition of systemic steroids, and
correction of hypoxaemia.
Some acute exacerbations can be managed at home, as an emergency outpatient basis, or
the patient needs hospitalisation with or without admission into the intensive care unit
(ICU). The primary goal of home management of acute exacerbations of asthma is to avoid
delays in initiating antiasthma therapy by having the patient begin treatment at home. It is
equally important that the patient does not delay seeking professional medical help if the
asthma exacerbation is severe or if the response to therapy is not prompt and sustained.
The initial treatment should consist of subcutaneous adrenaline (1:1000) in a dose of
0.5 ml slowly. This can be repeated every 20 minutes for three times. The drug should be
avoided in patients with hypertension, and elderly individuals particularly with underlying
heart disease. Although these drugs were commonly used as the first line therapy earlier,
because of the availability of more 2-antagonist selective inhaled drugs recently, their use
has declined dramatically. Subcutaneous adrenaline, terbutaline, or salbutamol has no
217
Recent studies have shown that in nonintubated patients, MDIs combined with a spacer
are as useful/effective as that used by a nebulizer.75-78 Further, MDIs are more quicker action
and cheaper still, many prefer the use of nebulizers as they need fewer instructions, less
coordination is required and less supervision is necessary. Moreover, both the patient and
physician feel satisfied psychologically. Both MDIs and nebulizers can also be used in
patients on ventilators,79 although there are controversies regarding the optimal delivery of
inhaled drugs in the intubated and/or mechanically ventilated patient, optimal ventilatory
settings to be used during ventilation for drug delivery, ideal site on the ventilator circuit
for connection of the nebulizer, and maximal acceptable drug dosage.80 Higher dosages are
required to achieve physiologic effects than in nonintubated patients since pulmonary
aerosol deposition is poor in these patients, in the range of 1.2-2.9%.81, 82 In recently extubated
patients, MDIs can be used successfully.
Inhaled 2-agonists are the drugs of choice with which to treat patients with acute severe
asthma. In comparison to systemic approach, inhalation is associated with a more rapid
onset of action, and fewer systemic side effects. There is a consensus that frequent intermittent
nebulisation, every 20 minutes within the first hour, are appropriate, although continuous
nebulisation also has been proposed. Since the late 1980s, there has been considerable clinical
and academic interest in the use of continuous aerosolised bronchodilators for the treatment
of acute asthma.83 A recent meta-analysis supports the equivalence of continuous and
intermittent salbutamol nebulisation in the treatment of acute adult asthma.84 This method
of therapy has potential advantage in terms of time, cost, and medication delivery. This
feature may allow deeper penetration into the airways and greater reduction of bronchoconstriction. Furthermore, this may result in fewer side effects. In children, continuous
salbutamol nebulisation is considered to be better than intermittent therapy.85-87
Since airway inflammation is an important component of airflow obstruction of bronchial
asthma, treatment with corticosteroids is the most important and an integral part of
managing a case of acute severe asthma. Ideally, an intensifying treatment of worsening of
ones asthma should start with aggressive use of corticosteroids, which both the patient
and many physicians do not appreciate. If not intervened early, airway inflammation
proceeds unchecked. Whether patients are using corticosteroids or not when they arrive in
the emergency with severe attacks of asthma, the dose is inadequate. There is evidence to
suggest that failure to use or under use of steroids contribute to asthma deaths.88 Benefits of
steroids are well established in recently confirmed meta-analysis of large number of studies.89
The facts that emerge are that steroids given in the emergency room significantly reduce
the rates of admission and the number of future relapses in the first 7-10 days. It did not
matter whether steroids are given intravenously or orally even if intravenous therapy is
preferred in patients at risk of intubation, as long as a minimum of 30 mg of prednisolone
or its equivalent is given every 6 hourly. Lower doses are less effective and there will be no
obvious benefit by giving higher doses.90-92 It is recommended that 150-225 mg/day of
prednisolone or its equivalent is required to reach maximal therapeutic benefit. Either 40 mgms
of intravenously administered methyl prednisolone every 6 hours or prednisolone 60 mg
orally every 6-8 hours for 36-48 hours depending upon the condition of the patient will be
most ideal. Corticosteroids both intravenous and oral should be started simultaneously.
However, these drugs have a slow onset of action because of their intracellular mode of action
whatever their route of administration. Intravenous administration speeds up their action
marginally by about an hour. Hydrocortisone should be administered 200 mg intravenously
219
acute attack of bronchial asthma in the form of a continuous drip in many countries because
of its lower cost and if given in proper doses, the drug is not all that unsafe. Moreover,
other modalities may not be available at all places. However, the ready availability of beta
agonists and their safety and quick onset of action has replaced theophylline therapy in
acute asthma. The usual loading dose and maintenance dose is shown in the table below. In
most situations roughly 250 mg, 400 mg, and 500 mg 8 hourly will be required for a small,
medium or large person respectively for maintenance. Serum theophylline level should be
obtained whenever possible. Use of theophylline confers additional benefit on beta agonists
and parenteral steroid therapy.103 Further, administration of theophylline results in fewer
hospitalisations.104 A recent analysis of the use of theophylline had concluded that there is
inadequate evidence to support or reject the use of theophylline in the emergency setting.105
However, theophylline continues to be an important adjunct in the management of acute
asthma particularly in the setting of poor or incomplete response to treatment with beta
agonists and steroids and where economy is a consideration. Theophylline can be, and has
been used, safely if attention is paid to the possible side effects, serum drug levels, and to
factors that increase serum levels. Serum levels should be checked within 6 hours of
intravenous loading to avoid toxic levels.
High concentrations of oxygen (35%) will increase arterial PO2 and will not lead to carbon
dioxide retention unless there is some other associated problem. Obstruction of peripheral
airways will result in V/Q mismatch and hypoxemia. However, true shunt in acute asthma
is only 1.5% of the pulmonary blood flow.106 Therefore, correction of hypoxemia requires
only modest flow of oxygen, 1-3 L/min through a nasal cannula. Only a small proportion
of patients below the age of 45 years develop hypoxaemia. Although there is a good
correlation of FEV1 or PEFR with that of arterial oxygen tension, there is no cut-off value for
either measurement to accurately predict hypoxaemia. The routine administration of low
flow oxygen is an entirely safe practice that is recommended if routine pulse oxymetry is
not available and if there is co-morbid condition such as coronary artery disease. Oxygen
therapy improves oxygen delivery to the peripheral tissues including respiratory muscles,
reverses hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, airway bronchodilatation, and protection
against the modest fall in PaO2 often seen after 2-agonist administration resulting from
pulmonary vasodilatation and increased blood flow to low V/Q units.
Since the attack is frightening reassurance to the patient is essential.
Routine use of antibiotics is not necessary unless there is evidence of bacterial infection
in form of fever, purulence of sputum or radiological evidence of consolidation. However,
sputum that looks purulent, may be due to abundant eosinophils and not polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
Adequate hydration should be maintained.
Sedatives of all kinds should be avoided. Periodic assessment of progress of disease or
the effect of therapy is very essential.
There are reports supporting the usefulness of magnesium sulphate107-111 or heliox in the
treatment of refractory bronchial asthma. This benefit has been described in patients with
normal magnesium levels, although hypomagnesemia has been reported in 50% of patients
with acute asthma.112 Magnesium was first reported as a treatment for acute bronchial asthma
in 1936.113 It has since been shown to be a bronchodilator.114-116 Many case reports showed clinical benefits in patients with respiratory failure complicating bronchial asthma.117,118 Several
trials in paediatric patients demonstrated a benefit from IV magnesium. 119,120 Many
221
Drug
Dosage/Mode of use
Adrenaline
Salbutamol
Corticosteroids
Anticholinergics Ipratropium bromide 0.5 mg by nebulisation hourly or 4-10 puffs by MDI with Spacer
every 20 minutes for three doses.
Theophylline
- Loading dose:
Oxygen
Unproved alternatives
Magnesium
1 gm intravenously over 20 minutes (Total dose 2 gm). If hypomagnesemic, dose
sulfate
adjusted to normalize serum levels.
Heliox
Non-invasive Ventilation
223
advantage of better suction and a decrease in airway resistance beneficial at high airflow.
Nasal intubation is safe in most patients particularly if he is awake, breathless and in obese
patients with short necks. Fibre optic guided intubation may be helpful in difficult cases.
The disadvantage with the nasal route is that a smaller endotracheal tube can only be used
and there is a high incidence of nasal polyps and sinusitis in them.
C. Sedation
Sedation will invariably be required in awake patients to prepare for intubation and to
allow for effective mechanical ventilation (to avoid fighting the ventilator). Further, sedation
improves patient comfort, facilitates various procedures, and decreases oxygen demand
and consumption and decreased carbon dioxide production besides decreasing the risk of
barotrauma. Various sedatives that can be used in status asthmaticus are shown in
Table 13.6.
D. Paralysis
Muscle paralysis is required in patients fighting with the ventilator despite sedation and in
those who continue to have asynchronous breathing which is a grave risk factor for
generation of high airway pressure and loss of airway access. The decision, however, will
be based on the clinicians own judgment whether to use neuroparalytic agents or not to
achieve a therapeutic strategy to maintain stable respiratory parameters. Paralysis further
helps to reduce oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, and lactic aciodosis in
addition to decreasing the risk of barotrauma with an overall augmentation of sedatives
already used. Because the expiratory effort is eliminated, there is less airway collapse.
The paralytic drugs of choice are vecuronium and atracurium. These are nondepolarising
agents and are free of cardiovascular side effects, although larger doses may cause
hypotension. The drugs are either given intermittently by bolus injection or by continuous
Table 13.6: Sedatives that can be used in status asthmaticus
Drug
Dose
Comments
Ketamine
Sympathomimetic effects,
respiratory depression,
mood change, delirium
Propofol
60-80 mg/min IV
up to 2 mg/kg followed by
an infusion of 5-10 mg/kg/hr
as needed
Respiratory depression
Before intubation
Midazolam
Drug accumulation
Ileus
As described above
Seizures, hypertriglyceridemia
225
Inhalant Anaesthetics
Rarely, the above strategy fails to allow adequate ventilation at a safe level of lung inflation.
In that situation inhalation of general anaesthetic ishalothane and enfluranecan be
considered. These have bronchodilatation activity that can acutely reduce Ppk, and
PaCO2.134,135 But the effect lasts as long as the drugs are in use. The bronchodilating effect
are lost once the drugs are stopped. Inhalation of these drugs are. Inhalation of these drugs
has significant cardiovascular side effects including myocardial depression, arterial
vasodilatation, and arrhythmias.
Recently, nitric oxide has been used to induce bronchodilatation, however, the experience
is limited and at a dose of 80 ppm it exerts a weak bronchodilator effect in asthmatics.136
G.
Bronchoalveolar Lavage
Since mucus plugging is one of the notable features of status asthmaticus, all attempts
should be made to remove the same from the respiratory tract to improve airflow. Strategies
of mucus removal short of bronchodilators or steroids, like chest physiotherapy or mucolytics
are not efficacious.137,138 Bronchoalveolar lavage using saline or acetylcystine, is being tried
to remove mucus plug.139-143 Although there is improved airflow in intubated patients, the
procedure is not without risk in intubated patients which further compromises the airway
lumen. This will increase the expiratory airway resistance and may lead to high levels of
lung hyperinflation. At present, BAL is not recommended as part of a routine management
of patients with status asthmaticus.
Hospital Discharge and Future Plan of Action
After the patient has come out of the ICU, in the general ward itself the question of prevention
and treatment of subsequent asthma attacks should be addressed. This process starts with
extensive patient education, how to recognise the worsening of asthma and what to do at
home in such an eventuality, and when to contact a physician or to visit the emergency
department. Patients should be provided with written medication instructions as well as a
written plan of action to be followed in the event of worsening of symptoms. The proper
agents like inhaled medications with or without spacer as per the need. Their doses,
frequency, etc. should be clearly explained. Similarly, any oral medication required is to be
told to the patient in writing. It is important to explain also the purpose of such medication
plans and the techniques are to be taught, particularly for inhalers. The importance of airway
inflammation and use of anti-inflammatory drugs needs special explanation to the patient.
When inhaled corticosteroids are prescribed, patients must be told not to expect immediate
Initial treatment:
Inhaled short-acting 2-agonist; up to three treatments of 2-4 puffs by MDI at 20-minutes
intervals or single nebuliser treatment.
Good response
Incomplete response
Poor response
Mild episode
Moderate episode
severe episode
Marked wheezing
and breathlessness
Response to 2-agonist
sustained for 4 hours
Repeat 2-agonist
immediately
If distress is severe
and non-responsive, consult
physician and report to
emergency.
Contact physician
urgently the same day
Visit emergency
department
relief of respiratory symptoms as they are not bronchodilators. Possible side effects of various
drugs are to be told. The purpose and importance of peak flow measurements is to be
explained. The technique of the manoeuvre, frequency of measurement maintaining a diary,
timings of measurements are to be told. The patient should be told that it is to be measured
at am and pm and the best of three readings each time is to be noted as the representative
PEFR. Most important is to tell the patient what is the best for him and at what level of
reading (severity) he should report to the physician. Appointments are to be made for followup care with primary clinician or asthma specialist. The patient should be given the date,
time and location of appointment within seven days of hospital discharge. Before or at
discharge the action plan has to be decided. The patient or its caregiver should be instructed
on simple plan of action to be taken for symptoms, signs, and PEFR values suggesting
recurrent airflow obstruction.
227
ASSESSMENT IN HOSPITAL
Acute severe asthma
If SaO2 < 92% or if the patient has
PEFR 50% or less of predicted or
any life-threatening features, ABG
personal best
measurement is essential
Cannot complete sentence in one breath
Severe, life-threatening, if
Respiration 25/min or more
Pulse > 110/min
Normal (36-45) or high PaCO2
PaO2 < 60 mmHg irrespective of
treatment with oxygen
A low pH
Life-threatening features
No other investigation is required for
management
PEFR < 33% predicted or best
Silent chest, cyanosis, feeble respiratory effort
Bradycardia or hypotension
Exhaustion, confusion, or coma
IMP: Patients with severe or life-threatening attacks may not be distressed and may not have all
these abnormalities. The presence of any one should alert the physician.
1. Immediate treatment
Oxygen 40-60%(CO2 retention is not a problem)
Salbutamol 5 mg or Terbutaline 10 mg by a nebuliser
Prednisolone tablet 30-60 mg or IV Hydrocortisone 200 mg or both if very ill
No sedatives of any kind
Chest radiograph to exclude pneumothorax
If life-threatening features are present: Add ipratropium 0.5 mg to the nebulised beta-agonist
IV aminophylline 250 mg over 20 min or Salbutamol or Terbutaline 250 mcg over 10 min. No
bolus aminophylline to patients already taking oral theophylline.
2. Subsequent management:
If patient is improving:
Continue
40-60% oxygen
Prednisolone 30-60 mg orally daily or Hydrocortisone 200 mg 6 hrly.
Nebulised beta- agonist 4 hourly
If patient not improving after 15-30 min:
Continue oxygen and corticosteroids
Beta-agonists more frequently, up to every 15-30 min.
Add ipratropium bromide 0.5 mg to nebuliser and repeat every 6 hrly until patient is
improving.
If patient is still not improving:
Aminophylline infusion (750-1500 mg/24 hrs for a small and large framed individual); serum
level monitoring essential if continued for more than 24hr
Salbutamol or Terbutaline infusion as an alternative to aminophylline.
Contd...
Monitoring treatment:
Repeat measurement of PEFR 15-30 min after starting treatment
Oxymetry
Maintain SaO2 > 92%
Repeat ABG within 2 hrs after treatment if:
initial PaO2 < 60 mmHg
PaCO2 normal or more than normal
Patient deteriorates
Record PEFR before and after treatment and at least 4 times daily throughout hospital stay.
Patients should be taught how to recognise early warning signs so that they may initiate
appropriate treatment of their own. In general, warning signs of worsening airflow obstruction
include: a 20% drop in PEFR below predicted or personal best; an increase in cough, shortness
of breath, chest tightness, or wheeze. Although mild episodes may be treated by temporarily
increasing the bronchodilator therapy, these alone are not sufficient to treat more severe forms
of asthma. Inhaled 2-agonists at times give a false sense of security and delay the
administration
of
anti-inflammatory
therapy.
Accelerated
use
of
2-agonists should be a warning sign that airway wall inflammation has worsened and
corticosteroid therapy should be initiated. Patients with a history of sudden asphyxic asthma
should also be given a kit of epinephrine for the immediate subcutaneous epinephrine.
The guidelines of the NHLB Institute Expert Panel for management of acute exacerbations
of bronchial asthma at different levels are summarised in Figures 13.1 and 13.2.139
229
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sulfate in bronchial asthma. JAMA 1987;257:1076-78.
117. McNamara RM, Spivey WH, Skobeloff E et al. Intravenous magnesium in the management of
acute respiratory failure complicating asthma. Ann Emerg Med 1989;18:197-99.
118. Kuitert LM, Kletchko SL. Intravenous magnesium sulfate in life-threatening asthma. Ann Emerg
Med 1991;20:1243-45.
119. Devi PR, Kumar L, Singhi S et al. Intravenous magnesium sulfate in acute severe asthma not
responding to conventional therapy. Indian Paediatr 1997;34:389-97.
120. Clarallo L, Brousseau D, Reinert S. Higher-dose intravenous magnesium therapy for children
with moderate to severe acute asthma. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2000;154:979-83.
121. Blosch H, Silverman R, Mancherje N et al. Intravenous magnesium sulfate as an adjunct in the
treatment of acute asthma. Chest 1995;107:1576-81.
122. Green SM, Rothrock SG. Intravenous magnesium for acute asthma: Failure decrease emergency
treatment duration or need for hospitalisation. Ann Emerg Med 1992;21:260-65.
123. Tiffany BR, Berk WA, Todd IK et al. Magnesium bolus or infusion fails to improve expiratory
flow in acute asthma exacerbations. Chest 1993;104:831-34.
124. Silverman RA, Osborn H, Runge J et al. IV magnesium sulfate in the treatment of acute severe
asthma; a multicenter randomised controlled trial. Chest 2002;122:489-97.
125. Gluck EH, Onorato DG, Castriotta R. Helium-oxygen mixtures in intubated patients with status
asthmaticus and respiratory acidosis. Chest 1990;98:693-98.
14
Management of Asthma
with Special Problems
EXERCISE-INDUCED ASTHMA (EIA)
The term exercise-induced asthma (EIA) is often used to describe the asthma of persons
in whom exercise is the predominant or at times the only identified trigger to airflow
limitations. The goal of EIA is to enable patients to participate in any activity they choose
without experiencing asthma symptoms and to enable the patient to achieve a normal
exercise capacity. For some asthmatics, this goal means an ability to walk short distances
and to work regularly without limitation due to breathlessness. While for other, like children
and young adults, it implies the freedom to run about and to compete in sports without
respiratory disability. For highly trained athletes with asthma, it means to compete at
extremely high levels of physical activity and ventilatory performance. Therefore, the goals
of managing asthma in relation to exercise are: (i) to maximise lung function prior to exercise,
(ii) to protect bronchoconstriction during exercise.
The presence or absence of bronchospasm induced by exercise can be established by
spirometry before and after the exercise task in question. Some difficulty is encountered
when the exercise cannot readily be performed in the laboratory. In that situation, the
condition must be mimicked as closely as possible in the laboratory by having the patient
exercise with a stationary bicycle or treadmill to the levels of ventilation and with inspired
air temperature and humidity that simulates the actual exercising condition. Testing worldclass athletes in an otherwise well equipped pulmonary laboratory becomes still difficult
because of difficulty in providing a sufficiently strenuous exercise work load. In this setting,
eucapnic voluntary hyperventilation can be substituted for physical exertion, and the target
level of ventilation to be sustained can be set without limit. Formal pulmonary evaluation
before and after exercise can also be used effectively to evaluate the impact of preventive
therapies. In athletes failing to respond to conventional prophylactic treatment, identical
exercise challenges can be performed following administration of various medications in
varied doses and combinations, thereby objectively assessing their success.
Bronchoconstriction induced by exercise are generally rapidly eliminated by administration of inhaled 2-agonists. However, the bigger problem is preventing the development
of significant airflow obstruction during and following exercise so as to minimise the impact
of asthma on athletic participation and performance. Optimised control of asthma in general
as outlined is the first step towards prevention. The less is the underlying bronchial hyperresponsiveness and higher the pre-exercise level of expiratory airflow, the less likely it is
15
New Treatment Modalities/Newer
Drugs for Bronchial Asthma
A number of advances had taken place in the management of bronchial asthma and a number
of national and international guidelines have been developed on this regard.1-10 The most
recent one is the British Thoracic Society Guidelines-(2003).11 The main therapy consists of
inhaled 2-agonists, and corticosteroids along with other supplementary drugs. All these
guidelines emphasize that add-on or adjunctive therapies to inhaled corticosteroids,
including long acting 2-agonists and leukotriene antagonists, are clearly a better option for
asthmatic persons receiving lower doses of inhaled corticosteroids than merely increasing
the dose. A number of studies have demonstrated that in patients on moderate doses of
inhaled corticosteroids, addition of a long acting 2-agonist to the regimen is a better option
than merely increasing the dose of inhaled corticosteroids.12 The addition of a long acting 2agonist is also effective in reducing the number and severity of exacerbations.13 Combination
therapy of inhaled corticosteroid and long-acting 2-agonist, salmeterol or formoterol delivered
simultaneously by a single device may be beneficial.14
Although, current asthma therapy is effective and well-tolerated, there are certain
limitations. There are still concerns about side effects of corticosteroids, particularly in children
and in patients requiring very high doses of the drug. Many patients are also reluctant to take
steroids because of the fear of side effects. In general there is a corticophobia in the mind of
many. There are also concerns about the osteoporosis and fracture which is in direct correlation
with the overall drug intake. Inhaled 2-agonists, although effective bronchodilators, there
are concerns about side effects particularly tremor, tachycardia, and tachyphylaxis.
Theophylline, similarly has potentially serious side effects. About ~5% of asthma patients are
steroid-resistant. They do not respond to high doses of corticosteroid therapy. This group of
patients will need some other forms of therapy. Thus, there is a need for the development of
newer drugs for the treatment of asthma.
It is now firmly established about the cellular and mediator basis of the inflammatory
processes in bronchial asthma. This knowledge has been harvested through advancement in
biotechnology, by which new treatment options are being provided.15 Currently, a number of
different therapies are under investigation, and in some stages of clinical trial, which include:
Anti-immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies
Soluble interleukin-4 receptors (sIL-4Rs), and
Anti-interleukin-5 antibodies.
The basis of these therapeutic strategies are depicted in Figure 15.1.
B-cell
IgE
IL-4
Mast cell
Th2
IL-5
Acute symptoms
(early asthma
reaction)
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
professionals. US Department of Health and human services. NIH Publication No. 96-3659A,
December 1995.
New British Guidelines on management of Asthma Thorax 1993;58(Suppl 1):1-94.
Shrewsbury S, Pyke S, Britton M. Meta-analysis of increased doses of inhaled steroid or addition
of salmeterol in symptomatic asthma. (MIASMA). BMJ 2000;320:1368-73.
Pauwels RA, Lofdahl CG, Postma DS et al. Effect of inhaled formoterol and budesonide on
exacerbation of asthma. New Engl J Med 1997;337:1405-11.
Kavuru M, Melamed J, Gross G, et al. Salmeterol and fruticasone propionate combined in a new
powder inhalation device for the treatment of asthma: A randomised, double-blind, placebocontrolled trial. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000;105:1108-16.
Hansel TT, Barnes PJ (Editors); New drugs for asthma, allergy and COPD, In: Progress in
Respiratory Research, 31, Basel: Karger;2001.
Chang TW. The pharmacological basis of anti-IgE therapy. Nature Biotechnol 2000;18:157-62.
Presta LG, Lahr SJ, shields RL, et al. Humanisation of an antibody directed against IgE. J Immunol
1993;151:2623-32.
Mac-Glashan DW, Bochner BS, Adel man DC, et al. Down regulation of FceR1 expression on
human basophils during in vivo treatment of atopic patients with anti-IgE antibody. J Immunol
1997;158:1438-45.
Boulet LP, Chapman KR, Cote J, et al. Inhibitory effects of an anti-IgE antibody E25 on allergeninduced early asthmatic response. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:1835-40.
Fahy JV, Fleming HE, Wong HH, et al. The effect of an anti-IgE monoclonal antibody on the
early- and late-phase responses to allergen inhalation in asthmatic subjects. Am J Respir Crit
Care Med 1997;155:1828-34.
Coyle AJ, Wagner K, Bertrand C, et al. Central role of immunoglobulin (Ig) E in the induction of
lung eosinophil infiltration and T helper 2 cell cytokine production: Inhibition by a nonanaphylactogenic anti-IgE antibody. J Exp Med 1996;183:1303-10.
Casale TB, Benstein IL, Busse WW et al. Use of an anti-IgE humanised monoclonal antibody in
ragweed-induced allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997;100:110-21.
Milgrom H, Fick RB, Su JQ et al. Treatment of allergic asthma with monoclonal anti-IgE antibody.
New Engl J Med 1999;341:1966-73.
Casale T, Condemi J, Miller SD et al. rhu-MAB-E25 in the treatment of seasonal allergic rhinitis
(SAR). Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1999;82:75.
Boushey HA, Fick R, Fahy JV. Anti-IgE antibody. In. Hansel TT, Barnes PJ (Eds). New drugs for
Asthma, Allergy and COPD, In: Progress in Respiratory Research, 31, Basel: Karger;2001,31:
201-05.
Coffman RL, Ohara J, Bond MW et al. B cell stimulatory factor-1 enhances the IgE response of
lipopolysaccharideactivated B cell. J Immunol 1986;136:4538-41.
Pawankar R, Okuda M, Yssel H, et al. Nasal mast cells in perennial allergic rhinitis exhibit
increased expression of the Fc epsilon R1, CD40L, IL-4, and IL-13, and can induce IgE synthesis
in B cells. J Clin Invest 1997;99:1492-99.
Moser R, Fehr J, Bruijnzeel P. IL-4 controls the selective endothelium-driven transmigration of
eosinophils from allergic individuals. J Immunol 1992;149:1432-38.
Dabbagh K, Takeyama K, Lee HM, et al. IL-4 induces mucin gene expression and goblet cell
metaplasia in vitro and in vivo. J Immunol 1999;162:6233-37.
Hsieh CS, Hiemberger AB, Gold JS, et al. Differential regulation of T helper phenotype
development by interleukins 4 and 10 in an alpha beta T-cell receptor transgenic system. Proc
Natl Acad Sci USA 1992;89:6065-69.
Sedar RA, Paul WE, Davis MM, et al. The presence of interleukin 4 during in vitro priming
determines the lymphokine-producing potential of CD4+T cells from T cell receptor transgenic
mice. J Exp Med 1992;176:1091-98.
16
New Guidelines for
Asthma Management
(Non-pharmacological Management)
The British Thoracic Society has recommended the new guidelines for the management of
bronchial asthma in 2003.1 The first British Guidelines on Asthma Management in adults
were first published in 1990 after a joint initiative between the Thoracic Society, the Royal
College of Physicians of London, the Kings Fund Center, and the National Asthma
Campaign. These were updated in 1993 when the addition of childhood asthma and further
updated in 1995. Simultaneously Guidelines were also developed by the American
Physicians, by the Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA), the International Consensus Report
and the WHO. These guidelines are already discussed earlier.2-12 The Scottish Intercollegiate
Guidelines Network (SIGN) published its first asthma guidelines in 199613 and has
subsequently published on primary care management of asthma in 199814 and management
of acute asthma in 1999.15 Further, both the British Thoracic Society and the SIGN have
recognised the need to update their asthma guidelines, using evidence-based methodology
to cover all aspects of asthma care. The two organisations jointly produced the
comprehensive new guideline, which was strengthened by collaboration with the National
Asthma Campaign, the Royal College of Physicians of London, the Royal College of
Paediatrics and Child Health, General Practice Airways Group, and the British Association
of Accident and Emergency Medicine. The outcome is the new British Guideline on the
Management of Asthma.1
One important and new feature in this new guideline is the levels of evidence and grades
of recommendations used in these guideline. The panel of experts have taken into account
the evidence-based medicine, a more scientific way of expressing a particular conclusion .16
However, it is emphasised that the grade of recommendation relates to the strength of the
evidence and not necessarily the clinical importance of the recommendation in patient
management. Where there are only low grade recommendations in important clinical areas,
this should be seen as a stimulus for further research. The recommendations levels are
graded into 8 subtypes (1++, 1+, 1-, 2++, 2+, 2-, 3, and 4) depending on whether the inference
from high-level meta-analyses, systemic review of randomised controlled-trials (RCTs),
RCTs with a very low-risk of bias, well-conducted meta-analysis, systemic reviews, RCTs
with low-risk bias, meta-analyses, systemic reviews, or RCTs with high-risk of bias, High
quality systemic reviews of case-control or cohort studies, High quality case control or
Allergen Avoidance
There is a strong correlation between allergic sensitisation to common aeroallergens and
the subsequent development of asthma. There is also a strong association between allergen
exposure in early life and sensitisation to these allergens, although it has not been possible
to demonstrate an association between allergen exposure and the development of asthma.
Majority of allergen avoidance studies focus on dietary manipulation to prevent atopic
eczema and have paid little attention to aeroallergen avoidance. Two trials in progress are
investigating the consequences of introducing house dust mite reduction in early pregnancy,
and are following up the children born to the participating mothers. Although accurate
asthma phenotyping is not possible in infancy, outcomes at one year of age indicate a modest
but significant reduction in wheezing illnesses.
Allergen avoidance after birth has been studied in a number of controlled (but no double
blind) trials. There appears to be a transient reduction in the prevalence of atopic eczema
in the first two years of life but no evidence of sustained benefit in relation to asthma. A
number of epidemiological studies suggest that close contact with a cat or dog in very early
infancy reduced subsequent prevalence of allergy and asthma. This may be a consequence
of high allergen exposure inducing tolerance.
However, no recommendations on prenatal or postnatal allergen avoidance can be made
in relation to primary prevention of asthma.
Breastfeeding
A systematic review and meta-analysis involving 8183 subjects followed for a mean of four
years revealed a significant protective effect of breastfeeding against the development of
asthma. The effect was greatest in children with a family history of atopy. In contrast, a
more recent study in 1246 patients found that breastfeeding was associated with a reduced
Microbial Exposure
The hygiene hypothesis suggests that early exposure to microbial products will switch
off allergic responses preventing allergic diseases such as asthma. Epidemiological studies
comparing large populations who have or have not had such exposures support the
hypothesis. A double blind placebo trial of the probiotic, lactobacillus CG, reported a reduced
incidence of atopic eczema but no effect on IgE antibody sensitisation. Small sample size
and early outcome age limit the interpretation of this study. In the absence of good quality
intervention studies, no recommendation can be made at present.
Avoiding Pollutants
No evidence was found to support a link between exposure to environmental tobacco smoke
and other air pollutants and the induction of atopic asthma. An early meta-analysis suggested
an association between gas cooking and respiratory illness, but this has not been brought
out in larger studies. Increased risk of infant wheeze is associated with smoking during
pregnancy and maternal postnatal smoking. Pregnancy smoking affects an infants airway
function, increasing susceptibility to wheeze. There are many other adverse effects on the
young child of such exposures.
Pharmacotherapy
There are some pharmacological trials of treatments designed to prevent onset of the disease.
Children given ketotifen (206 infants, in two trials) showed significantly less asthma at one
Allergen Avoidance
Allergen avoidance measures may be helpful in reducing the severity of existing disease.
Increasing allergen exposure in sensitised individuals is associated with an increase in asthma
symptoms, bronchial reactivity and deterioration in lung function. Treatment requirements,
hospital attendance and respiratory arrest are associated with increased exposure to high
concentrations of indoor allergens.
Threshold concentrations of allergens that can be regarded as risk factors for acute attacks
include:
10 g/g dust of group l mite allergen
8 g/g dust of Fel d l, the major cat allergen
10 g/g dust of Can f l, the major dog allergen
8 g/g dust of cockroach allergen.
Evidence that reducing allergen exposure can reduce morbidity and mortality is tenuous.
In uncontrolled studies, children and adults have both shown benefit from exposure to a very
low allergen environment. However, the benefits in such circumstances cannot be necessarily
attributed to the allergen avoidance.
House dust mite control measures There have been two Cochrane reviews on house dust
mite control measures and the management of asthma. The first concluded that current
chemical and physical methods were ineffective and could not be recommended as
prophylactic treatment for asthma patients with sensitivity to house dust mites. An amendment
concluded that physical reduction methods may reduce asthma symptoms. The reviewed
studies used various chemical, physical or combinations of methods to reduce mite exposure.
The combined meta-analysis showed no difference in improvement in asthma between patients
in experimental groups compared with controls. There was heterogeneity between studies
with regard to intervention, and in some studies intervention allocation was not adequately
concealed. Larger and more carefully controlled studies are required to demonstrate any clear
benefit from house dust mite avoidance. At present, this does not appear to be a cost-effective
method of achieving benefit.
In committed families with evidence of house dust mite allergy and who wish to try mite
avoidance, the following are recommended.
Complete barrier bed covering systems
Removal of carpets
Removal of soft toys from bed
High temperature washing of bed linen
Acaricides to soft furnishings
Dehumidification
Other allergens Animal allergens, particularly cat and dog, are a potent cause of asthma
symptoms. Observational studies have not found that removing a pet from a home improves
asthma control. In a study in adults with cat sensitivity, randomisation to either bedroom air
cleaner and covers for bedding or no active intervention with restriction of cats away from the
bedroom, resulted in no differences between groups with regard to symptoms, peak flow,
lung function of bronchial reactivity. Alternatively, there is a suggestion that maintaining a
high exposure to cat allergen in the domestic environment might actually induce some degree
of tolerance. Many experts still feel that removal of pets from the home of individuals with
asthma who also have an allergy to that pet should be recommended. Cockroach allergy is not
a common problem in some countries like UK, but important in some other areas. There is no
conclusive evidence regarding the impact of cockroach allergen reduction on asthma
symptoms. Although fungal exposure has been strongly associated with hospitalisation and
increased mortality in asthma, to date no controlled trials have addressed fungal exposure
reduction and asthma.
Environmental Factors
Smoking The association between passive smoking and respiratory health has been
extensively reviewed. There is a direct causal relationship between parental smoking and
lower respiratory illness in children up to three years of age. Infants whose mothers smoke
are four times more likely to develop wheezing illnesses in the first year of life. The
independent contributions of prenatal and postnatal maternal smoking to the development
of asthma in children are difficult to distinguish. Maternal pregnancy smoking has been
shown to have an adverse influence on lung development. There is little evidence that
maternal pregnancy smoking has an effect on allergic sensitisation. Exposure to tobacco
smoke in the home contributes to the severity of childhood asthma. A US Institute of
Medicine review identified a causal relationship between environmental tobacco smoke
(ETS) exposure and exacerbations of asthma in pre-school children. Average exposure is
associated with a 30% increased risk of symptoms. One small study suggests that by stopping
smoking, parents decrease the severity of asthma in their children. Parents who smoke
should be advised about the dangers for themselves and their children and offered
appropriate support to stop smoking.
Starting smoking as a teenager increases the risk of persisting asthma. Only one study
was identified that examined the incidence of asthma related to taking up smoking. This
showed a relative risk of 2.1 for the development of asthma over six years in 14 years old
children who have started to smoke. No studies were identified that directly related to the
question of whether smoking affects asthma severity. One controlled cohort study suggested
that exposure to passive smoke at home delayed recovery from an acute asthma attack.
Studies of interventions designed to reduce environment tobacco smoke exposure in the
home have been largely ineffective in reducing the degree of exposure and none were
designed with primarily clinical (as opposed to smoking outcomes. In one observational
study giving up smoking in adults was associated with improved severity of asthma scores.
Smoking cessation should be encouraged as it is good for general health and may decrease
asthma severity.
Air pollution There is evidence that changing from a high particulate sulphur dioxide
(coal burning) environment to a low sulphur dioxide/high diesel particulate environment
Acupuncture
A Cochrane review of 21 trials raised many methodological concerns. Only seven trials
(174 patients) achieved randomisation to active (i.e. recognised in traditional Chinese
medicine to be of benefit in asthma) or sham acupuncture (i.e. points with no recognised
activity) for the treatment of persistent or chronic asthma. Binding was a common problem,
and only achieved for those making the observations. The difficulty in making sham
acupuncture convincing and part of the holistic approach of traditional Chinese medicine
was emphasised. There was wide inconsistency in methodology. Acute trials show that
acupuncture has a beneficial effect, but this is less in magnitude than that achieved by
inhaled bronchodilators or cromones. Demonstrating that this effect can be transferred to
persistent asthma using regular treatment was achieved in one RCT reported in the Cochrane
review. The Cochrane review found no evidence for a clinically valuable benefit from
acupuncture, with no statistically significant improvement in lung function being demonstrated. More rigorous research methodology and attention to outcomes other than lung
function are required.
Air Ionisers
Ionisers are widely advertised and marketed as being of benefit to patients with asthma,
however, there is no evidence that they are of value in ameliorating the symptoms of asthma
or improving lung function. They do reduced mite allergen levels in the room in which
they are used, and could be incorporated into a coordinated allergen avoidance programme,
but this has not been formally tested. One study has raised concerns that ionisation may
Homeopathy
A Cochrane review identified only three methodologically sound randomised controlled
trials. In the first trials (24 patients), homeopathy improved symptom scored and forced vital
capacity (FVC) but had no effect on FEV1 or bronchial reactivity. The second study
demonstrated improvements in both active and placebo groups. The third, poorly reported,
trial demonstrated an increase in lung function in patients receiving the active preparation.
There is insufficient information regarding the value of homeopathy in the treatment of
asthma. Large well designed trials using defined remedies and a spectrum of patients are
warranted.
Hypnosis
Studies of hypnosis in patients with asthma are generally poorly controlled and patient
characteristics and outcome measured vary enormously. The conclusions from a critical
review were that hypnosis may be effective for asthma with the biggest effect in susceptible
subjects, but more randomised and appropriately controlled studies are required.
Family Therapy
A Cochrane review identified two trials, in 55 children showing that family therapy may be
a useful adjunct to medication in children with asthma. Small study size limits the
recommendations.
Minerals
Low magnesium intakes have been associated with higher prevalence of asthma. An
intervention study of magnesium supplementation has suggested a reduced rate of bronchial
hyperresponsiveness and wheeze. Studies of sodium and antioxidant supplements such as
selenium and vitamin C have produced little or no evidence of benefit amongst patients with
asthma.
17
New Guidelines for
Asthma Management
(Pharmacological Management)
The aims of pharmacological management of asthma are:
The control of symptoms, including nocturnal symptoms and exercise-induced asthma
Prevention of exacerbations
Achievement of best possible pulmonary function
With minimal side effects.
It is not appropriate to define a fixed level of lung function or symptom control which
must be achieved, as individual patients will have different goals and may also wish to
balance these aims against the potential side effects or inconvenience of taking the medication
necessary to achieve perfect control. In general terms, control of asthma is assessed against
these standards:
Minimal symptoms during day and night
Minimal need for reliever medication
No exacerbations
No limitation of physical activity
Normal lung function (in practical terms FEV1 and/or PEF>80% predicted or best)
A stepwise approach aims to abolish symptoms as soon as possible and to optimise peak
flow by starting treatment at the level most likely to achieve this. Patients should start
treatment at the step most appropriate to the initial severity of their asthma. The aim is to
achieve early control and to maintain control by stepping up treatment as necessary and
stepping down when control is good. Before initiating a new drug therapy practitioners
should check compliance with existing therapies, inhaler technique and eliminate trigger
factors.
All doses of inhaled steroids in this section refer to beclomethasone (BDP) given via a
metered dose inhaler (pMDI). Adjustment may be necessary for fluticasone and/or other
devices.
STEP 1: MILD INTERMITTENT ASTHMA
The following medicines act as short acting bronchodilators:
Inhaled short acting 2-agonists
Inhaled ipratropium bromide
No response to LABA:
Stop LABA
Increase inhaled steroid
dose to 800 g / day
(adults) and 400 g/day
(children 5-12 years)
Control still inadequate: Trial of
other add-on therapy, e.g. leukotriene receptor antagonist or
theophylline
If control still inadequate
go to step 4
Combination Inhalers
There is no difference in efficacy in giving inhaled steroid and long acting 2-agonist in
combination or in separate inhalers.
STEP 4: POOR CONTROL ON MODERATE DOSE OF INHALED STEROID +
ADD-ON THERAPY: ADDITION OF FOURTH DRUG
In a small proportion of patients asthma is not adequately controlled on a combination of
as required short acting 2-agonist, inhaled steroid (800 g/day), and an additional drug,
usually a long acting 2-agonist. There are very few clinical trials in this specific patient
group to guide management. The following recommendations are based on extrapolation
from trials of add-on therapy to inhaled steroids and on previous guidelines.
If control remains inadequate on 800 g daily in adults and 400 g/day in children, of an
inhaled steroid plus a long acting agonist, 2-agonist, the following interventions are to be
considered:
Increase the inhaled steroids to 2000 g/day in adults or 800 g/day in children of
5-12 years of age.
Leukotriene receptor antagonists
Theophyllines
Slow release 2-agonist tablets, (caution needs to be taken in patients on long acting
2-agonist)
STEP5: CONTINUOUS OR
FREQUENT USE OF ORAL
STEROIDS
Use daily steroid tablet in lowest dose
providing adequate control
STEP3:
1.
2.
ADD-ON THERAPY
Add inhaled long acting 2-agonist (LABA)
STEP3:
1.
2.
ADD-ON THERAPY
Add inhaled long acting 2-agonist (LABA)
Assess control of asthma:
Good response to LABAContinue LABA
Benefit from LABA but control still inadequate
receptor antagonist
In children under 2 years consider proceeding to Step 4.
STEP
2: REGULAR PREVENTER THERAPY
Add inhaled steroid 200-400 g/day ; or
Leukotriene receptor antagonist if inhaled steroid cannot be used
Start at dose of inhaled steroids appropriate to severity
STEP
1: MILD INTERMITTENT ASTHMA
Inhaled short acting 2-agonist as required
Inhaled steroids indicate beclomethasone dipropionate or equivalent. Higher nominal doses may
be required if drug delivery is difficult.
Step care management of bronchial asthma in children less than 5 years.
18
New Guidelines for
Asthma Management
(Acute Asthma)
Confidential enquires into over 200 asthma deaths in the UK have concluded that three
important factors associated with the diseasethe medical management and the patients
behaviour or psychosocial status-contributed to the death. Most deaths occurred before
admission to hospital.
Disease Factors
Most patients who died of asthma had chronically severe asthma. In a minority the fatal
attack occurred suddenly in a patient with only mild or moderately severe background
disease.
Medical Management
Many of the deaths occurred in patients who had received inadequate treatment with inhaled
steroid or steroid tablets and/or inadequate objective monitoring of their asthma. Follow
up was inadequate in some and others should have been referred earlier for specialist advice.
There was widespread underuse of written management plans. Heavy or increasing use of
2-agonist therapy was associated with asthma death.
Deaths have continued to be reported following inappropriate prescription of -blocker
therapy or heavy sedation. A small proportion of patients with asthma were sensitive to
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents; all asthma patients should be asked about past
reactions to these agents.
Initial Assessment
All possible initial contact personnel, should be aware that asthma patients complaining of
respiratory symptoms may be at risk and should have immediate access to a doctor or
trained asthma nurse. The assessments required to determine whether the patients is
suffering from an acute attack of asthma, the severity of the attack and the nature of treatment
required are detailed above as well as follows: It may also be helpful to use a systematic
recording process. Proformas have proved useful in the emergency settings.
Clinical features
PEF or FEV1
Pulse oximetry
Chest X-ray
Systolic paradox
Oxygen
Patients with acute severe asthma are hypoxaemic. This should be corrected urgently using
high concentrations of inspired oxygen (usually 40-60%) and a high flow mask such as a
Hudson mask. Unlike patients with COPD there is little danger of precipitating hypercapnia
with high flow oxygen. Hypercapnia indicates the development of near fatal asthma and
the need for emergency specialist/anaesthetic intervention. Oxygen saturations of at least
92% must be achieved. In view of the theoretical risk of oxygen desaturaion while using air
driven compressors to nebulise 2-agonist bronchodilators, oxygen-driven nebulisers are
the preferred method of delivery in hospitals, ambulances and primary care. (in order to
generate the flow rate of 61/min required to drive most nebulisers, a high flow regulator
must be fitted to the oxygen cylinder). The absence of supplemental oxygen should not
prevent nebulised therapy from being administered where appropriate. In hospital,
ambulance and primary care, nebulised 2-agonist bronchodilators should be driven by
oxygen. Outside hospital, high dose 2-agonist bronchodilators may be delivered via large
2-Agonist Bronchodilators
In most cases of acute asthma, inhaled 2-agonist given in high doses act quickly to relieve
bronchospasm with few side effects. There is no evidence for any difference in efficacy
between salbutamol and terbutaline, although rarely patients may express a preference.
In acute asthma without life threatening features, 2-agonist can be administered by
repeated activations of a pMDI via an appropriate large volume spacer or by wet nebulisation
driven by oxygen, if available. Inhaled 2-agonist are at least as efficacious and preferable
to intravenous 2-agonist (meta-analysis has excluded subcutaneous trials) in adult acute
asthma in the majority of cases. High-dose inhaled 2-agonist are to be used as first line
agents in acute asthma and should be administered as early as possible. Intravenous
2-agonist should be reserved for those patients in whom inhaled therapy cannot be used
reliably.
In acute asthma with life threatening features the nebulised route (oxygen-driven) is
recommended. Parenteral 2-agonists, in addition to inhaled 2-agonist may have a role in
ventilated patients or those patient in extremes in whom nebulised therapy may fail; however
there is limited evidence to support this.
Continuous nebulisation of 2-agonist is at least as efficacious as bolus nebulisation in relieving
acute asthma. Most cases of acute asthma will respond adequately to bolus nebulisation of
2-agonist. In severe asthma (PEF or FEV1 <50% best or predicted) and asthma that is poorly
responsive to an initial bolus dose of 2-agonist, continuous nebulisation may be considered.
Repeated doses of 2-agonist should be given at 15-30 minute intervals or continuous
nebulisation of salbutamol at 5-10mg/hour (requires appropriate nebuliser) used if there is
an inadequate response to initial treatment. Higher bolus doses, e.g. 10 mg of salbutamol,
are unlikely to be more effective.
Steroid Therapy
Steroid tablets reduce mortality, relapses, subsequent hospital admission and requirement
for 2-agonist therapy. The earlier they are given in the acute attack the better the outcome.
Steroid tablets are to be given in adequate doses in all cases of acute asthma. Steroid tablets
are as effective as injected steroids, provided tablets can be swallowed and retained. Doses
of prednisolone of 40-50 mg daily or parenteral hydrocortisone 400 mg daily (100 mg sixhourly) are as effective as higher doses. For convenience, steroid tablets may be given as
2 25 mg tablets daily rather than 8-12 5 mg tablets. The duration of prednisolone
40-50 mg daily is for at least five days or until recovery.
Following recovery from the acute exacerbation steroid tablets can be stopped abruptly
and doses do not need tapering provided the patient receives inhaled steroids (apart from
patients on maintenance steroid treatment or rare instances where steroids are required for
three or more weeks). There is no evidence to suggest that inhaled steroids should be
substituted for steroid tablets in the treatment of patients with acute severe, or life threatening
asthma. Further randomised controlled trials to determine the role of inhaled steroids in
these patients are required. Inhaled steroids do not provide benefit in addition to the initial
Ipratropium Bromide
Combining nebulised ipratropium bromide with a nebulised 2-agonist has been shown to
produce significantly greater bronchodilation that a 2-agonist alone, leading to a faster
recovery and shorter duration of admission. Anticholinergic treatment is not necessary
and may not be beneficial in milder exacerbations of asthma or after stabilisation.
Nebulised ipratropium bromide (0.5 mg 4-6 hourly) should be added to 2-agonist
treatment for patients with acute severe or life threatening asthma or those with a poor
initial response to 2-agonist therapy.
Intravenous Aminophylline
In acute asthma, the use of intravenous aminophylline is not likely to result in any additional
bronchodilation compared to standard care with inhaled bronchodilators and steroid tablets.
Side effects such as palpitations, arrhythmias and vomiting are increased if IV aminophyline
is used. Intravenous aminophylline is to be used only after consultation with senior medical
staff.
Some individual patients with near fatal asthma or life threatening asthma with a poor
response to initial therapy may gain additional benefit from IV aminophylline (5mg/kg
loading dose over 20 minutes unless on maintenance oral therapy, then infusion of 0.5-0.7
mg/kg/h). Such patients are probably rare and could not be identified in a meta-analysis
of trials involving 739 subjects. If IV aminophylline is given to patients, on oral aminophylline or theophylline, blood levels should be checked on admission. Levels should be checked
daily for all patients on aminophylline infusions.
Heliox
The use of heliox (Helium/oxygen mixture in a ratio of 80:20 or 70:30) in acute adult asthma
cannot be recommended on the basis of present evidence.
Intravenous Fluids
There are no controlled trials or even observational or cohort studies of differing fluid regimes
in acute asthma. Some patients with acute asthma require rehydration and correction of
electrolyte imbalance. Hypokalaemia can be caused or exacerbated by 2-agonist and/or
steroid treatment must be corrected.
Timing of Dsicharge
There is no single physiological parameter that defines absolutely the timing of discharge
form an admission with acute asthma. Patients should have clinical signs compatible with
home management, be on medical therapy they can continue safely at home. Although
diurnal variability of PEF is not always present during an exacerbation, evidence suggests
that patients discharged with PEF<75% best or predicted and with diurnal variability >25%
are at greater risk of early relapse and readmission.
Patient Education
Following discharge from hospital or emergency departments, a proportion of patients reattend emergency departments, with more than 15% re-attending within two weeks. Some
repeat attendees need emergency care, but many delay seeking help, and are under-treated
and/or under-monitored. Prior to discharge, trained staff should give asthma education.
This should include education on inhaler technique and PEF record keeping , with a written
PEF and symptom based action plan being provided allowing the patient to adjust their
therapy within recommendations. These measures have been shown to reduce morbidity
after the exacerbation and reduce relapse rates. There is some experience of a discrete
population of patients who inappropriately use emergency departments rather than the
primary care services for their asthma care. For these groups there is a role for a trained
asthma liaison nurse based in, or associated with the emergency department.
Life threatening
Silent Chest
Cyanosis
Poor respiratory effort
Hypotension
Respiration >30 breaths/min aged>5 yrs
Exhaustion
>50 breaths/min aged 2-5 yrs
Confusion
Coma
Before children can receive appropriate treatment for acute asthma in any setting, it is
essential to assess accurately the severity of their symptoms. The following clinical signs
should be recorded:
Pulse rate (increasing tachycardia generally denotes worsening asthma; a fall in heart
rate in life threatening asthma is a pre-terminal event).
Respiratory rate and degree of breathlessness (i.e. too breathless to complete sentences
in one breath or to feed).
Use of accessory muscles of respiration (best noted by palpation of neck muscles)
Amount of wheesing (which might become biphasic or less apparent with increasing
airways obstruction).
Degree of agitation and conscious level (always give calm reassurance).
Clinical signs correlate poorly with the severity of airways obstruction. Some children
with acute severe asthma do not appear distressed. Objective measurements of PEF and
SpO2 are essential. Suitable equipment should be available for use by all health professionals
assessing acute asthma in both primary and secondary care settings. Low oxygen saturations
after initial bronchodilator treatment selects a more severe group of patients. Intensive
inpatient treatment for children with SpO2 <92% on air after initial bronchodilator treatment
should be considered.
Pulse
2-Agonist Bronchodilators
Inhaled 2-agonist are the first line treatment for acute asthma. pMDI + spacer is an effective
alternative to nebulisers for bronchodilator inhalation to treat mild to moderate asthma.
Children receiving 2-agonist via pMDI+ spacer are less likely to have tachycardia and
hypoxia than when the same drug is given via a nebuliser. pMDI+ spacer are the preferred
option in mild to moderate asthma. Information about implementing evidence-based
guidelines using such devices has been published. Children aged < 3 years are likely to
require a face mask connected to the mouthpiece of a spacer for successful drug delivery.
Inhalers should be actuated into the spacer in individuals puffs and inhaled immediately
by tidal breathing. Frequent doses of 2-agonist are safe for the treatment of acute asthma,
although children with mild symptoms benefit from lower doses. Drug dosing is to be
individualised according to severity and adjust according to the patients response.
Two to four puffs repeated every 20-30 minutes according to clinical response might be
sufficient for mild attacks although up to 10 puffs might be needed for more severe asthma.
Children with acute asthma in primary care show have not improved after receiving up to
10 puffs of 2-agonist should be referred to hospital. Further doses of bronchodilator should
be given as necessary, whilst awaiting transfer. Treatment of children should be given before
they are transported to hospital by ambulance with oxygen and nebulised 2-agonist during
the journey. Children with severe or life threatening asthma should be transferred urgently
to hospital to receive frequent doses of nebulised 2-agonist (2.5-5 mg albuterol or 5-10 mg
terbutaline). Doses can be repeated every 20-30, omits. Continuous nebulised 2-agonist
are of no greater benefit than the use of frequent intermittent doses in the same total hourly
dosage.
Steroid Tablets
The early use of steroids for acute asthma can reduce the need for hospital admission and
prevent a relapse in symptoms after initial presentation. Benefits can be apparent within
three to four hours. Prednisolone is to be given early in the treatment of acute asthma
attacks. A soluble preparation dissolved in a spoonful of water is preferable in those unable
to swallow tablets. The dose is 20 mg for children 2-5 years old and 30-40 mg for children
> 5 years. Oral and intravenous steroids are of similar efficacy. Intravenous hydrocortisone
(4 mg/kg repeated four hourly) should be reserved for severely affected children who are
unable to retain oral medication. Larger doses do not appear to offer a therapeutic advantage
for the majority of children. There is no need to taper the dose of steroid tablets at the end
of treatment. A dose of 20 mg prednisolone for children aged 2-5 years and a dose of
30-40 mg for children > 5 years is appropriate. Those already receiving maintenance steroid
tablets should receive 2 mg/kg prednisolone up to a maximum dose of 60 mg. The dose of
prednisolone in children who vomit may be repeated and intravenous steroids in those
who are unable to retain orally, ingested medication should be considered. Treatment for
up to three days is usually sufficient but the length of course should be tailored to the
number of days necessary to bring about recovery.
Inhaled Steroids
There is insufficient evidence to support the use of inhaled steroids as alternative or
additional treatment to steroid tablets for acute asthma. One need not initiate inhaled steroids
in preference to steroid tablets to treat acute childhood asthma. Children with chronic asthma
not receiving regular preventive treatment will benefit from initiating inhaled steroids as
part of their long-term management. There is no evidence that increasing the dose of inhaled
steroids is effective in treating acute symptoms, but it is good practice for children already
receiving inhaled steroids to continue with their usual maintenance doses.
Ipratropium Bromide
There is good evidence for the safety and efficacy of frequent doses of ipratropium bromide
used in addition to 2-agonist for the first two hours of a severe asthma attack. Benefits are
more apparent in the most severe patients. If symptoms are refractory to initial 2-agonist
treatment, add ipratropium bromide (250 mg/dose mixed with the nebulised 2-agonist
IV Amniophylline
There is no evidence that aminophylline is of benefit for mild to moderate asthma and side
effects are common and troublesome. However, one well conducted study has shown
evidence for benefit in severe acute asthma unresponsive to multiple doses of 2-agonist
and steroids. Aminophylline is not recommended in children with mild to moderate acute
asthma. However, one may consider aminophylline in a High Dependency Unit or PICU
setting for children with severe or life-threatening bronchospasm unresponsive to maximal
doses of bronchodilators and steroid tablets. A 5 mg/kg loading dose should be given over
20 minutes with ECG monitoring (omit in those receiving maintenance oral theophyllines)
followed by a continuous infusion at 1 mg/kg/hour. Estimation of serum theophylline
levels in patients already receiving oral treatment and in those receiving prolonged treatment
will be necessary.
Other Therapies
There is no evidence to support the use of heliox or leukotriene receptor antagonists for the
treatment of acute asthma in childhood. There is insufficient evidence to support or refute
the role of antibiotics in acute asthma, but the majority of acute asthma attacks are triggered
by viral infection.
Antibiotics are not to be given routinely in the management of acute childhood asthma.
Intravenous Fluids
Children with prolonged severe asthma not tolerating, oral fluids will require intravenous
hydration. Two-third of the childs maintenance requirement should be given because of
the possibility of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion. Serum electrolytes should
be measured and hypokalamia corrected, if detected. ECG monitoring is mandatory for all
intravenous treatments.
IV Magnesium Sulphate
Intravenous magnesium sulphate is a safe treatment for acute asthma although its place in
management is not yet established. Doses of up to 40 mg/kg/day (maximum 2g) by slow
infusion has been used. Studies of efficacy for severe childhood asthma unresponsive to
more conventional therapies have been inconsistent in providing evidence of benefit.
Moderate asthma
Initial Assessment
PEF < 33% best or predicted
Further Assessment
Speech normal
Respiration , 25/min
Pulse < 110/min
Contd...
Consider admission
Treatment
High-dose 2-bronchodilator:
ideally via oxygen-driven
nebulizer (salbutamol 5 mg
or terbutaline 10mg)
Or via spacer or air-driven
nebulizer (1 puff 10-20 times)
If PEF > 50-70% predicted:
Give prednisolone 40-50 mg
Continue or step up usual
treatment
If good response to first nebulised
treatment (symptoms improved,
respiration and pulse setting, and
PEF > 50%) continue or step up
usual treatment and continue
prednisolone
Oxygen 40-60%
Prednisolone 40-50 mg
or IV hydrocortisone
100 mg immediately
High-dose 2-bronchodilator and ipratropium:
Ideally via oxygendriven nebulizer (salbutamol 5 mg or
terbutaline 10 mg and
ipratropium 0.5 mg)
Or via spacer (1 puff
2-agonist via a large
volume spacer and
repeat 10-20 times)
or air-driven nebulizer
5 min
15-30
min
Give usual
bronchodilator
Clinically
stable, PEF >
75%
Patient
recovering
and PEF >
75%
60
min
Give 5 mg salbutamol
by oxygen-driven nebulizer
if any life threatening feature
Clinically
stable, PEF >
75%
No life threatening
feature PEF 5075%
Life
threatening
features OR
PEF < 50%
No sign of severe
asthma and PEF
50-75%
120
min
Immediate Management
High concentration O2
(60%)
Salbutamol 5 mg
+ipratropium 0.5 mg by
oxygen-driven
nebulizer
Prednisolone 40-50 mg
orally or IV hydrocortisone, 100 mg
Monitor ABG. Markers
of severity:
Normal or PaCO2
(35 mmHg)
Severe hypoxia
(PaO2 < 60 mHg)
Low pH
Observe
Monitor SpO2,
RR and HR
Signs of severe
asthma or PEF
< 50%
Give/repeat as above
after 15 minutes
Continuous
salbutamol nebulizer
5-10 mg/hr
Consider IV magnesium sulphate 1-2 gm/
20 min.
Fluid/electrolyte
balance monitoring
(specifically K+)
Chest X-ray
ADMIT
Patient should be
accompanied by a nurse
or doctor at all times
19
Alternate
Treatments in Asthma
Standard asthma therapy, as defined by various management guidelines includes oral and
inhaled corticosteroids, leukotriene antagonists, short-acting and long-acting -agonists,
cromolyn, theophyllines, and nedocromil. Although these agents are generally successful
in controlling asthma symptoms, a small but significant number of patients will continue
with persistent symptoms, frequent exacerbations, and no improvement in objective
pulmonary function parameters despite maximum standard therapy. The long-term use of
oral and high-dose inhaled corticosteroids is often associated with significant side effects.
Thus there is need for alternate agents that are effective in the treatment of asthma.
Alternate agents those have been evaluated in prospective randomized trials or have
novel mechanisms of action are shown in Table 19.1.1-4
Table 19.1: Alternate agents for bronchial asthma
Methotrexate
Azathioprine
Gold
Hydroxychloroquine
Troleandomycin
Cyclosporine
IVIG
Inhaled heparin
Inhaled furosemide
Dapsone
Anti-IgE and soluble interleukin (IL)-4 receptor therapy
Methotrexate
Mechanism of Action
Methotrexate is a folate antagonist. It has anti-inflammatory properties at low doses.
Therefore, it is widely used in a variety of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, including
severe steroid-dependent asthma. A number of potential reasons for its effectiveness have
been proposed, the mechanism of action of methotrexate in asthma remains unclear. The
drug inhibits leukotriene B4-mediated and leukotriene C5a-mediated neutrophil chemotaxis
in vitro5 although inflammatory cell numbers in vivo appear to be unaltered during
treatment.6 It affects function of many cytokines. The drug inhibits the expression of Ia, a
20
Severe Asthma
(Fatal Asthma, Refractory Asthma)
INTRODUCTION
Severe or fatal asthma or refractory asthma constitutes about <5% of all the asthmatics. The
entity is poorly understood clinically, physiologically, and pathologically. Severe forms of
the disease often remain refractory to the best current medical care. Although some patients
with severe asthma have had severe disease for most of their lives, a second group develops
severe disease in adulthood. It is not clear which genetic and environmental elements may
be the most important in the development of severe disease. Physiologically, these patients
often have air-trapping and may have loss of elastic recoil, as well. The pathology
demonstrates a wide variety of findings, those include continued eosinophilic inflammation,
structural changes, distal disease, and, in at least one third of patients, a different pathology.
Treatment remains problematic. These patients respond poorly to the usual treatment and
are very difficult to manage. Accordingly the cost of treatment is very high with poor
outcomes. The introduction of high-potency inhaled corticosteroids (CS) had a marked
impact on the numbers of patients who were dependent on therapy with oral CS. However,
beyond those medications, little further progress has been made in understanding the disease
and improving its treatment.
Definition
Severe or refractory asthma was defined by the workshop sponsored by the American
Thoracic Society.1 This definition includes the following:
Major Criteria
Continuous high-dose inhaled corticosteroids or
Oral corticosteroids for > 50% of the previous year
Minor Criteria
Genetic
Mutations in both the interleukin-4 gene or the interleukin-4 receptor
Non-T helper (Th) type 2 factors
Transforming growth factor (TGF)-1
Monocyte chemotactic protein-1
Environmental factors
Allergens (house dust mite; cockroach; alternaria exposure)
Smoking
Pet allergy
Infections
Respiratory syncytial virus infections in childhood
Mycoplasma and Chlamydia infections in adults
Lung-externa factors
Obesity (Increased body mass index)
Gastroesophageal reflux disease
Chronic sinusitis
Compliance/adherence to medications
Inadequate response to therapy
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
smoking and level of pulmonary function in a population sample of children. Am Rev Respir Dis
1980;122:697-707.
Milgrom H, Bender B, Ackerson L, et al. Noncompliance and treatment failure in children with
asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1996;98:1051-57.
Ogirala RG, Sturm TM, Aldrich TK, et al. Single, high-dose intramuscular triamcinolone acetonide
versus weekly oral methotrexate in life-threatening asthma: A double-blind study. Am J Respir
Crit Care Med 1995;152:1461-66.
Teeter JG, Bleecker ER Relationship between airway obstruction and respiratory symptoms in
adult asthmatics. Chest 1998;113:272-77.
Weiss ST, Van Natta ML, Zeiger RS. Relationship between increased airway responsiveness and
asthma severity in the childhood asthma management program. Am J Respir Crit Care Med
2000;162:50-56.
Chan MT, Leung DY, Szefler SJ, et al. Difficult-to-control asthma: Clinical characteristics of
steroid-insensitive asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;101:594-601.
Woolcock AJ, Rebuck AS, Cade JF, et al. Lung volume changes in asthma measured concurrently
by two methods. Am Rev Respir Dis 1971;104:703-09.
Woolcock AJ, Read J. The static elastic properties in the lungs in asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis
1968;98:788-94.
Gelb AF, Zamel N. Unsuspected pseudophysiologic emphysema in chronic persistent asthma.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:1778-82.
Wenzel SE, Schwartz LB, Langmack EL, et al. Evidence that severe asthma can be divided
pathologically into two inflammatory subtypes with distinct physiologic and clinical characteristics. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:1001-08.
Kam JC, Szefler SJ, Surs W, et al. Combination IL-2 and IL-4 reduces glucocorticoid receptorbinding affinity and T cell response to glucocorticoids. J Immunol 1993;151:3460-66.
Lane SJ, Adcock IM, Richards D, et al. Corticosteroid-resistant bronchial asthma is associated
with increased c-fos expression in monocytes and T lymphocytes. J Clin Invest 1998;102:
2156-64.
Leung DY, Hamid Q, Vottero A, et al. Association of glucocorticoid insensitivity with increased
expression of glucocorticoid receptor beta. J Exp Med 1997;186:1567-74.
Minshall EM, Hogg JC, Hamid QA. Cytokine mRNA expression in asthma is not restricted to the
large airways. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;101:386-90.
Takeyama K, Fahy JV, Nadel JA. Relationship of epidermal growth factor receptors to goblet
cell production in human bronchi. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:511-16.
Howat WJ, Holgate ST, Lackie PM. TGF- isoform release and activation during in vitro bronchial
epithelial wound repair. Am J Physiol 2002;282:L115-L23.
James AL, Pare PD, Hogg JC. The mechanics of airway narrowing in asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis
1989;139:242-46.
Vignola AM, Riccobono L, Mirabella A, et al. Sputum metalloproteinase-9/tissue inhibitor of
metalloproteinase-1 ratio correlates with airflow obstruction in asthma and chronic bronchitis.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;158:1945-50.
Lemjabbar H, Gosset P, Lamblin C, et al. Contribution of 92 kDa gelatinase/type IV collagenase
in bronchial inflammation during status asthmaticus. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:12981307.
Carroll NG, Elliot J, Morton AR, et al. The structure of large and small airways in nonfatal and
fatal asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;147:405-10.
Carroll NG, Mutavdzic S, James AL. Distribution and degranulation of airway mast cells in
normal and asthmatic subjects. Eur Respir J 2002;19:879-85.
Kraft M, Djukanovic R, Wilson S, et al. Alveolar tissue inflammation in asthma. Am J Respir Crit
Care Med 1996;154:1505-10.
21
Asthma in Children
The previous chapters have dealt with bronchial asthma in general, which is applicable, both
in cases of adult as well as childhood asthma. However, this chapter will highlight certain
important points about childhood asthma.
PREVALENCE
International Scene
A worldwide rise in the prevalence of asthma is being reported with increase in wheeze at an
alarming rate of 5% per year. From 1983 onwards an increase in asthma mortality and
morbidity has been noticed worldwide.1 Data on prevalence of bronchial asthma on children
are few from most countries but many from countries like Australia and UK.2 Table 21.1
shows the prevalence of current asthma, diagnosed asthma, wheeze ever, airway
hyperresponsiveness, and atopy in children.
There are large differences in the prevalence among the rich, partly rich, and poor
populations, with the highest prevalence found in Australia. It is possible that the differences
may be as a consequence of responses to different allergens, to different allergen loads, or to
other factors in the environment in the affluent and not-so-affluent populations. There are
some suggestions that patients with high levels of parasitic infections are less atopic, although
there is no convincing experimental confirmation. This protection of parasitic infections
against asthma may be a cause of less prevalence of the later in many developing countries.
Diet may also be a factor. Exposure to allergens may be important although the most common
allergen, the house dust mite has been found everywhere it has been looked for. However,
these mites are mainly found in bedding and it is possible that steeping on a bed rather than
on a floor, which many poor children do, increases exposure to them.
There was considerable concern that the prevalence of asthma and allergic diseases is
increasing in Western and developing countries. However, the etiology of these conditions
remains poorly understood, despite a large volume of clinical and epidemiological research
within populations that has been directed at explaining why some individuals and not
others develop asthma and allergies. Little is known about such worldwide variations in the
prevalence of asthma and allergic diseases. More authentic data was available from the
International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) designed in late 90s.3
The study allowed comparisons between populations in different countries. ISAAC Phase
One used standardized simple surveys conducted among representative samples of school
children from centres in most regions of the world. Two age groups (13-14 years and
Country
Number
Age
Current
asthma
Diagnosed Wheeze
asthma
ever
Airway
Hyperresponsiveness
Atopy
(SPT)
Australia
1,487
1,217
1,575
8 to 10
8 to 11
8 to 11
5.4
6.7
9.9
11.10
17.3
30.8
21.7
26.5
40.7
10.1(H)
10.0 (1.1)
16.0 (H)
29.3
31.9
37.9
New Zealand
813
1,084
873
9
6 to 11
12
11.1
9.1
8.1
27.0
14.2
16.8
22.0 (M)
20.0 (H)
12.0 (E)
45.8
27.2
26.6
England
Wales
Germany
Denmark
Spain
Indonesia
China
Papua
New Guinea
1,613
8.0
965
5.3
1.2
7.9
5,768
9 to 11
4.2
14.8*
22.3
?(H)
8.0 (E)
?
527
7 to 16
5.3
2,216
9 to 14
406
7 to 15
1.2
2.3
14.5
2.2 (H)
11 to 17
1.9
2.4
6.3
4.1 (H)
?30
1.7
1.0 (H)
17
3,067
16.0 (H)
?
257
6 to 20
Kenya
Australia
Indigenous
402
9 to 12
3.3
11.4
Aborigines
215
7 to 12
0.1
31
6.9(E)
10.7 (E)
1.4
1.8(H)
20.5
6-7 years) with approximately 3,000 children in each group were studied in each centre. The
13-14 years-old (n = 463,801) were studied in 155 centres (56 countries) and the 6-7 year-old
(n=257,800) were studied in 91 centres (38 countries). There were marked variations in the
prevalence of asthma symptoms with up to 15-fold differences between countries. The
prevalence of wheeze in the last 12 months ranged from 2.1-32.2% in the older age group and
4.1-32.1% in the younger age group and was particularly high in English-speaking countries
and Latin America. A video questionnaire completed in the older age group in 99 centres
(42 countries) showed a similar pattern.
The major differences between populations found in the International Study of Asthma
and Allergies in Childhood Phase One are likely to be due to environmental factors. The
results provide a framework for studies between populations in contrasting environments
that are likely to yield new clues about the aetiology of asthma.3 Self completed wheezing
questionnaire data in 13-14 years and 6-7 years old age group from different regions of the
world are shown in Tables 21.2 and 21.3.
The ISAAC study has demonstrated, by means of simple standardized questionnaires,
that there are large variations in the prevalence of asthma symptoms throughout the world.
The self-reported 12 months prevalence of wheezing among 13-14 years-old between countries
Region
Wheeze
4Attacks
Severe
wheeze
Exercise
wheeze
Night
cough
Ever had
asthma
Number
studied
Africa
11.7
3.4
5.4
23.3
23.3
10.2
20,475
Asia Pacific
Eastern
Mediterranean
8
10.7
2.2
2.9
1.8
3.8
16
16.9
17.8
20.2
9.4
10.7
83,826
28,468
Latin America
North America
16.9
24.2
3.4
7.6
4.5
9.2
19.1
30.9
28.6
33.7
13.4
16.5
52,549
12,460
Northern and
Eastern Europe
Oceania
9.2
1.9
1.8
12.3
12.2
4.4
60,819
29.9
9.9
8.1
39.0
29.3
25.9
31,301
6.0
16.7
1.6
4.6
3.0
4.2
9.5
20.0
14.1
27.1
4.5
13.0
37,171
1,35,559
Grand Total
(All World)
13.8
3.7
3.8
18.8
22.3
11.3
4,63,801
Region
Wheeze
4Attacks
Severe
wheeze
Exercise
wheeze
Night
cough
Ever had
asthma
Number
studied
Asia Pacific
9.6
2.2
1.5
5.0
17.6
10.7
39,476
Eastern
Mediterranean
Latin America
North America
6.8
1.7
1.7
4.0
13.6
6.5
12,853
19.6
17.6
4.0
5.5
4.5
3.0
9.1
9.6
30.6
25.1
12.4
14.7
36,264
5,755
Northern and
Eastern Europe
Oceania
8.8
2.0
1.5
3.6
11.4
3.2
23,827
24.6
8.9
4.6
15.9
29.4
26.8
29,468
5.6
8.1
1.5
1.9
1.9
1.5
3.6
3.7
12.3
16.1
3.7
7.2
31,697
68,460
11.8
3.1
2.4
6.2
19.1
10.2
2,57,800
Grand Total
(All World)
ranged from 2.1% in Indonesia to 32.2% in the UK. Parental reported 12 months prevalence of
wheezing in 6-7 years-old ranged from 4.1% in Indonesia to 32.1% in Costa Rica. The highest
values for 12-moth prevalence of wheeze were found in developed English-speaking countries
(e.g. Peru and Costa Rica). There were considerable variations within regions, e.g. the 12 months
prevalence in the 13-14 years-old age group varied within Europe from <5% in Centres in
Albania, Georgia, Greece, Italy, Romania, and Russia; to >30% in the UK; and within Latin
America from <10% in centres in Argentina, Chile, and Mexico to >25% in centre in Brazil and
Peru.
Region
Wheeze
4Attacks
Severe
wheeze
Exercise
wheeze
Night
cough
Ever had
asthma
Number
studied
Akola
Bombay (Area 1)
1.6
1.9
0.5
1.2
1.0
1.0
2.7
2.6
3.8
6.5
2.6
3.6
2,138
4,225
Bombay (Area 2)
Bombay (Area 3)
10.6
3.6
1.8
1.0
3.2
1.4
11.1
7.4
22.4
14.9
6.5
5.2
2,226
3,178
3.4
4.2
0.6
1.5
1.6
2.7
5.3
8.0
10.2
8.0
5.9
3.3
3,878
3,139
10.7
17.8
3.5
1.7
4.8
13.5
15.9
17.9
18.4
32.2
6.4
12.4
1,094
2,047
8.4
6.0
1.9
3.3
2.9
3.6
7.7
7.4
14.6
11.5
2.8
1.8
1,903
3,086
13.0
6.0
3.0
1.9
4.8
2.5
18.4
23.2
25.8
16.9
5.3
2.4
3,026
3,281
3.8
1.8
0.8
0.8
2.1
1.3
6.8
4.0
13.5
9.4
2.8
4.9
1,248
2,702
Borivali
Chandigarh
Jodhpur
Kottayam
Madras (Area 1)
Madras (Area 2)
New Delhi
Neyveli
Orissa
Pune
Region
Wheeze
4Attacks
Severe
wheeze
Exercise
wheeze
Night
cough
Ever had
asthma
Number
studied
Akola
Bombay (Area 1)
5.6
0.8
1.5
0.6
1.9
0,6
3.6
1.0
12.3
3.3
3.7
1.3
31,697
2,030
Bombay (Area 2)
Bombay (Area 3)
3.8
1.8
1.3
0.7
1.6
0.7
3.0
1.8
12.6
8.3
3.8
2.3
3,967
3,568
Borivali
Chandigarh
5.2
5.4
2.0
1.9
1.7
2.8
3.1
3.8
12.3
10.7
3.4
2.8
1,672
2,891
3.5
24.6
1.3
4.7
1.4
7.5
2.9
13.3
13.6
27.0
4.1
14.4
1,104
2,156
Madras (Area 1)
Madras (Area 2)
7.2
8.5
2.1
2.4
1.4
2.5
2.5
3.8
16.4
15.4
1.4
2.2
1,406
2,491
New Delhi
Neyveli
6.9
1.5
1.4
0.1
1.6
0.3
4.1
1.4
14.6
8.1
3.7
1.0
2,938
1,498
Orissa
Pune
4.1
2.3
1.4
1.0
2.2
1.3
3.8
2.5
8.7
9.5
3.8
4.2
1,520
3,248
Jodhpur
Kottayam
presence of smokers in the family.16 A more recent study from Chandigarh, North India
examined the prevalence of asthma and its association with environmental tobacco smoke
exposure among adolescent school children. Using a previously standardized questionnaire,
data from 9,090 students in the 9 to 20 years age range were analyzed. There were 4,367 (48%)
boys, in whom the observed prevalence of asthma was 2.6%. Among 4,723 (52%) girls, asthma
Bronchial asthma
Viral bronchiolitis
Cystic fibrosis
Chlamydia trachomatis infection
Obliterative bronchiolitis
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia
Aspiration
Vascular engorgements
Pulmonary oedema
Miscellaneous
1.
2.
3.
4.
Asthma in childhood can present a particularly difficult problem largely because episodic
wheezing and cough are among the most common symptoms encountered in childhood
illnesses, particularly in the under-3-years-old. Although health care professionals are
increasingly encouraged to make a positive diagnosis of asthma whenever recurrent wheezing,
breathlessness, and cough occur (particularly if associated with nocturnal and early morning
symptoms), the underlying nature of the disorders process may differ in infants from that in
older children and adults. The use of the label asthma to describe such children has important
clinical consequences. It implies a syndrome in which there is airway inflammation and for
which there is a specific protocol of management. The younger the child, particularly below
ages 5, the greater the possibility of an alternative diagnosis for recurrent wheeze as described
above. Chest radiography is important as a diagnostic test to exclude alternative causes.
Features such as a neonatal onset of symptoms, associated failure to thrive, vomitingassociated symptoms, and localized lung or cardiovascular signs all suggest an alternative
diagnosis and indicate the need for investigations, such as a sweat test to exclude cystic
fibrosis, measurements of immune function, and reflux studies.
Among those with no alternative diagnosis, there is the possibility that the problem does
not have a uniform underlying pathogenesis. Nonetheless, there are two general patterns of
wheezing in infancy. Some infants who have recurrent episodes of wheeze associated with
acute viral respiratory infections, often with a first episode in association with respiratory
syncytial virus (RSV) bronchiolitis, come from nonatopic families and have no evidence of
atopy themselves. These infants usually outgrow their symptoms in the preschool years and
have no evidence of subsequent asthma, though they may have minor defects of lung function
Guide
Symptoms
Night-time symptoms
Lung Function
Severe
persistent
Step 4
Continual symptoms
Frequent
PEFR < 60 %
predicted
> 1 time/week
PEF>60 to <80%
predicted
>2 time/month
PEF 80 % predicted
2 time/month
PEF 80 %
Moderate
persistent
step 3
Mild
persistent
step 2
Mild
intermittent
step 1
The presence of one of the features is sufficient to place a patient in that category. A child should be
assigned to the most severe category in which any feature occurs. An individual classification may
change over a period of time
Table 21.7: Stepwise approach in long-term management of children with asthma
Grade
Long-term
Severe
Daily therapy high dose inhaled, steroid
pesistent (BDP 1200 g or BUD>600 or FP*
step 4
200-400 g + Long acting beta sympathomimetic or SR Theophylline or oral
steroids. For infants 2 years inhaled
medication with spacer and/or mask
Moderate Daily therapy. Medium-dose inhaled
pesistent steroid (BDP 600-1200 g or BUD
step 3
400-600 or FP 100-200 g) or
Low-medium dose inhaled steroid +
SR Theophylline or long acting beta
sympathomimetic. For infants inhaled
medication with spacer and mask
Mild
Daily medication NSAIDs like Cromolyn
persistent (1-5 mg/dose Oh) or low-dose inhaled
step 2
steroid (BDP 200-600 or BUD 100-400 or
Quick relief
Education
Contd...
Mild
asduna,
intermittent
step 1
Long-term
Quick relief
Education
Mild
Moderate
Severe
While at rest
(infantstops
feeding)
While talking
(infantsofter,
shorter cry; difficult
feeding)
Prefers sitting
Phrases
Words
Symptoms
Breathlessness While walking
Talks in
sentences
Alertness
Signs
Respiratory rate Increased
Increased
ReiTiratory Arrest
Imminent
Sits upright
Usually agitated
Drowsy/confused
Often >30/ m
Usually not
Commonly
Usually
Contd...
Moderate
Severe
ReiTiratory Arrest
Imminent
Wheeze
Moderate
often only
end expiratory
Loud; throughout
exhalation
Usually loud;
throughout
inhalation and
Absence of wheeze
Pulse/min
< 100
100-120
> 120
Bradycardia
Examine for
1.
2.
3.
4.
1. Sensorium
2. Respiratory rate, heart rate, colour, use
of accessory muscles, breath sounds
intensity, wheeze
3. Saturation-SaO2 if pulse oxymeter is
available
4. Peak expiratory flow rate
Contd...
Assess Severity
Measure PEF: Value <50% personal best or predicted suggest severe exacerbation
Note signs and symptoms: Degrees of cough, breathlessness, wheeze and chest tightness correlate
imperfectly with severity of exacerbation. Accessory muscle use and suprasternal retraction
suggests severe exacerbation.
Initial Treatment
Inhaled short-acting beta-agonist: Up to three treatments of 2-4 puffs by MDI at 20-minute intervals
or single nebuliser treatment.
Good response
Incomplete response
Poor response
Mild episode
PEF>80% predicted or
personal best
Moderate episode
PEF 50-80% predicted or
personal best
Severe episode
PEF<50% predicted or
personal best
Contd...
Persistent wheezing or
shortness of breath
Add oral corticosteroid
Continue 2-agonist
Marked wheezing or
shortness of breath
Add oral corticosteroid
Repeat 2-agonist
immediately
If distress is severe
and nonresponsive,
call your doctor and
proceed to emergency
department, consider
calling ambulance
Proceed to emergency
department
Referral
Patients must be referred to a special clinic of asthma if any of the following problems arise:
Failure to meet the goals of therapy
Atypical signs or symptoms or uncertain diagnosis
Presence of complications
Need for additional diagnostic testing like skin tests, pulmonary function tests endoscopy,
incremental growth assessment etc.
Severe symptoms such as step 4 care
Nonadherence to therapy
Need for good asthma education
Significant psychosocial or psychiatric problems
Environmental Control and Prevention of Asthma
Allergen Avoidance
Indoor allergens Cockroach, house dust mite, fungal spores, animals (pets) are the main
sources. Skin testing can be used, for the diagnosis. Following control measures are suggested.
Cockroaches Leave no food uncovered. Traps are better than the anticockroach chemicals.
House dust mite Sun the bedding weekly. No carpets or stuffed, the house. Proper mapping
of the country needs I to be done to see where dust mite is an important allergen-expected in
warm, humid climate.
Pets Pets like dogs, cats or birds should not be kept. Reports on pets are very few in this
country. If pets are already in the house contact with the patients should be minimized or they
should be kept out of the premises.
Moulds or indoor fungal spores Prevent see page of water through rooms or walls during the
rainy season. Keep rooms well ventilated and allow sunlight in.
Irritants or Chemicals
Avoid tobacco smoke, strong odours, fumes from various kinds of stoves/chullah, using
kerosene, wood, cowdung.
In high risk families (atopy on both sides or even one side), exclusive breastfeed to continue
for 4 to 6 months and mother to avoid well-known allergenic food in diet while baby is
exclusively breastfeed.
Psychosocial Aspects of Asthma Management in Children
Children with chronic illnesses are at an increased risk for developing psychological
disturbances.
Children with severe asthma have been found to be three times more likely to develop
emotional/behavioural problems as compared to healthy children. It was decided at the
meeting that the primary physician to the patient be able to deliver the necessary preventive
services like explaining the basic facts about the disease and try to improve the quality of life
by optimum care. Mental health workers can provide important services to asthmatic children,
who have obvious psychological or behavioural problems, experience school difficulties and
are noncompliant with treatments.
Family therapy aimed at modifying family interaction problems and parent-child
relationships can help in improved management of asthma and also improve the overall
quality of life. Hence, family therapy is considered an adjunct to the conventional treatment in
asthma in children with severe disease. It is important that psychologists be part of the
multidisciplinary treating team in order to provide comprehensive services to children with
asthma.
Health Education
The experts stressed the need for health education not only in asthma clinic or hospital but
also on TV, radio and other communication media. The attitudes and practices concerning
this disease demonstrate a high degree of ignorance and misinformation. Written material
containing information regarding basic facts of asthma should be made available to the
patient and the parent at the time of transmission of information regarding the diagnosis.
Special measures were recommended to be taken to educate the people about the harms of
passive smoking.
Future Directions for Research
The data presented indicates gross inadequacy of information regarding basic facts of asthma
to patients and their parents. Intervention in the form of written material significantly improves
the knowledge of these individuals. More studies need to be done to assess the knowledge,
attitudes and practices of these patients and specific materials developed to improve the
baseline information and change attitudes towards inhalational therapy. All the participants
felt that there was a local social stigma attached to the disease, and parents of the patients
Index 337
Index
A
Acupuncture 261
Acute severe asthma 208, 276
anti-immunoglobulin E 248,
272
assessment 212,226
in children 285
clinical features 210
complications 211
definition 208
differential diagnosis 212
indices 213
management 215, 290
pathophysiology 209
therapeutic approach 227
Add-on therapy 268
Adhesion molecules 48
Adrenergic bronchodilators 142
Allergens 16, 20, 188
Allergic bronchopulmonary
aspergillosis 117, 272
Allergy 14, 129
management 129
Alternative and complementary
therapies 201
Alternative treatment
oral steroid dependence 161
Animal allergens 19
Anticholinergics 148
comparison 155
side effects 156
Antihistamines 159
Arachidonic acid 43
Aspirin 22, 67, 272
Assessment of asthma control
202
Asthma
definition 1
sign 99
symptoms 98
Asthma remission 89
Atopy 14
2-agonists 281
Basophils 48
Beta-adrenergic receptors 62,
139, 143
Bradykinin 52
Brittle asthma 96
Bronchial asthma
aetiology 14
complication 117
diagnosis 98
epidemiology 1
management 127
pathology 86
pathophysiology 40
pharmacologic management 134
prognosis 114
Bronchial asthma, management
127, 235
acute severe asthma 208
diet modification 258
nonpharmacologic 128, 256,
257
pharmacologic 134, 191
step-care 192, 194, 196
Bronchial hyperreactivity 40, 61
Bronchoprovocation test 103
C
Childhood asthma 7
Chronic bronchial asthma 183
Chronic eosinophilic bronchitis
44
Complementary and alternative
medicine 261
Corticosteroids 151
Cough variant asthma 92
Cromones 157
Cyclosporin 163, 296
Cytokines 49, 53, 55, 250
E
Early asthmatic reaction 40
Endocrinal factors 30
Environmental factors 32, 129,
260
Environmental tobacco smoke
30
Eosinophils 44
Epithelial-mesenchymal trophic
unit 89
Exercise-induced asthma 23, 69,
235, 271
Extrinsic asthma 93
F
Fatal asthma 306
Food allergen 20
G
Gastro-oesophageal
(GER) 27, 243
Genes 32
Genetics 31
Gold salts 163, 295
Gut hormones 59
reflux
H
Heparin 297
Histamine 52
Hospital discharge 284
House-dust mite 18, 189, 259
Hygiene hypothesis 258
Immunotherapy 131,190
Infection 20,21
Inflammation 55, 64, 65
Inflammatory mediators 49
Inhalation therapy 176
Interleukin 249
Intrinsic asthma 93
Natural history 6
Nebulisers 179
Nedocromil sodium 158
Neural control 59
Neurogenic inflammation 60
Neuropeptides 59
Neutrophils 48
Neutrophins 58
New guidelines for asthma
management 256, 265, 276
Newer drugs 247
Nitric oxide 58, 64
Nocturnal asthma 72, 95
K
Ketotifen 158
L
Laboratory findings 100
Late asthmatic reaction 40
Late onset asthma 93
Leukotriene 43, 49
antagonists 159
Lymphocytes 45
O
Objective tests 102
Occupational asthma 24, 70, 94,
106, 109, 241
Oxygen radicals 57
M
Macrophages 47
Mast cells 42
Mechanical ventilation 224
Mediators 58
Metered dose inhalers 177
Methotrexate 162, 293
Methylxanthines 134
Monocytes 47
Morning dippers 96
Mortality 4,6,114
Mould 16
P
Patient education 128, 185,
284
Phosphodiesterase inhibition
134, 251
Platelet 52
Pollen 16
Pollution 29, 260
Pregnancy 236
Prostaglandins 52
Provocateurs 21
S
Secondary prophylaxis 259
Severe asthma 306
Sherwood-Jones index 213
Sinusitis 27
Smoking 260
Spacer devices 181
Status asthmatics 208
drugs 221
Step-care management 273,
274, 275
Sulphite sensitivity 26
Surgery 239
Sympathomimetic agents 145
T
Tartrazine 26
Theophylline 140
Tiotropium 272
Tokyo-Yokohama asthma 29
Troleandomycin 295
V
Ventilator 222
noninvasive 283
Virus-induced asthma 69
Y
Yin-Yang hypothesis 60