PHYSICS REVISION

SEISMIC WAVES
TYPES OF WAVE

Transverse waves, (such as electromagnetic waves and S-seismic waves),

oscillate at right-angles to their direction of propagation.
Longitudinal waves, (such as sound waves and P-seismic waves), oscillate in
the same direction as the direction of propagation.

SEISMIC WAVES
Earthquakes result from primary, secondary and surface waves generated by the
release of energy stored in rocks which are compressed, bent or stretched on either
side of a fault which suddenly moves. P waves arrive first and can pass through any
material, even liquids such as the outer core, though they propagate fastest in solid
rock at about 6-7 km/s. S-waves travel at about 3.5-4.0 km/s and can only propagate
through solids such as the crust and mantle. Surface waves are the slowest at about
3 km/s and only propagate across the surface of the crust and are transverse.
The speed of seismic waves depends upon the density and rigidity of the material
through which it propagates. If the rock is more rigid, the waves will propagate faster
and if the rock is denser then the waves will be slower. However, if the rigidity goes
up by a bigger factor than the density, the waves will speed up.

SEISMIC ANALYSIS

The time lag between the arrival of P and S waves on seismic records from several
seismic recording stations can be used to locate the epicentre of an earthquake. At
least three stations should be used to accurately fix the position of the epicentre of
the earthquake as using only two gives two possible cross-over points.

The waves curve through the mantle and core because, although density increases
with death thus slowing the waves, rigidity increases more significantly which means
the wave speed increases overall and therefore they refract away from the centre.
The outer core is denser and less rigid than the lower mantle, so the P wave speed
decreases and waves refract towards the normal. S waves cannot travel through the

outer core because it is liquid causing a shadow zone at all angles greater than
around 104. This data can show the size of the outer core and rigidity of the core.

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

Waves travel at different speeds in different materials due to their optical densities
and at the boundary between materials, waves can either reflect or refract, changing
speed and direction if the waves hit the boundary at an angle to the normal.

Travelling from a faster (air) into a slower medium (glass), the ray bends towards the
normal and emerging into air the opposite occurs. Waves travel more slowly in
shallow than in deep water but, while speed and wavelength change, their frequency
remains constant.

If waves travel from a slower into a faster medium total internal reflection will occur at
the critical angle, and waves will not refract through the boundary. Endoscopes and
optical fibres rely on total internal reflection for their operation.