Evernote Shared Notebook - Newspaper S&T

7/30/2015
Evernotesharednotebook:newspaperS&T
NCERT
Friday,April62012,3:27PM
ImportantConcepts
1. Kelvin:273.16C.
2. Homogenousmixture:Alsocalledsolution,ithasuniformcompositionthroughout.Eg.saltinwater.
3. Colloids:Relativelylargesoluteparticles(calleddispersedphase)aredistributedthroughoutthesolvent
likemedium(calleddispersingmedium).
4. Tyndalleffect:Thecolloidparticlesare1indiameterandcan'tbeseenwithnakedeyesbutcanscatter
light.
5. Lavoisier:Fatherofchemicalscienceashegavethelawofconservationofmassinchemicalreaction.
6. Dalton:Hesaidallmatteriscomposedofatoms.
7. Avogadro'sconstant:6.022*10^ 23.
8. EmpiricalformulavsMolecularformula:NH2 isempiricalformula.N2 H4 ismolecularformula.
9. JJThomson: Discovered electron. Through his cathode ray tube experiments he found e/m = 2000 is
constantforallgasesandcathoderayshavenegativecharge.
10. Phosphorescence:Materialirradiatedwithlightcontinuestoemitlightevenwhenlightsourceisturned
off.Radium.
11. ElectronAffinity:Energyreleasedwhenanelectronisgainedbyaneutralatom.
12. Cationsare+vechargedandanionsarevecharged.
13. Electronegativity:Thetendencyofanatominamoleculetoattractthebondingpairofelectronstowards
itselfiscalledelectronegativity.
14. Oxidation/Reduction:Lossofelectronisoxidationandgainofelectronisreduction.
15. G:6.673x1011 .
16. Geotropism:Duetogravity,plantrootsgrowingdownwardsandstemupwardsirrespectiveoftheseedorientation.
17. Thermalexpansion:L/LT.
18. Boilingpoint:Itisthetemperatureatwhichthepressureofliquidissameasatmosphericpressure.Soifpressure
isloweredboilingpointcomesdown.Pressurecookersincreasethepressureovertheliquidsurfaceandincrease
theboilingpoint.
19. Vitaminsolubility:A,D,E,KarefatsolublewhileB,Carewatersoluble.
20. Coaltypes:Peat(27%)<lignite(30%)<Bituminous(80%)<Anthracite(95%)carboncontent.Coalgas
isamixtureofCH4 ,CO,H2 .
ModelsofAtom
JJThomson
1. Electronsarescatteredthroughoutthevolumeofatom.Electronsnotorbiting.
Rutherford
1. Nucleus@centreandelectronsorbitingaround.Buttheproblemischargedparticleswhenaccelerated
loseenergyandshouldfalltothenucleus.
2. Neutronisoneproton+electroncombined.
NBohrModel
1. Seeds of quantum physics. He said things behave differently on atomic scale. Charged accelerated
particlesdon'tloseenergy.
2. Electronsrevolveinfixedorbit.Theyabsorb/emitfixedquantumofenergytoreachnextorbit.
ChemicalBonding
https://www.evernote.com/pub/crazyphoton/newspaperst#st=p&n=4771739ad4294de399e217fd7f6af6f5
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ElectrostaticBonds
Properties
1. Theyarehardsolidsandhavehighmeltingandboilingpoints.
2. Theyareonlysolubleinpolarsolvents.
3. They are poor conductors in solid form (since ions not free to travel as they are bound) but good
conductorsinliquidform(sinceionsfreetomove).
CovalentBonds
1. As2atomsdrawcloser,theirpotentialenergyfallsduetoattractionbetweennucleusandtheelectronof
other atoms. But as they draw closer than desired limit, both nuclei start repelling each other and
potentialenergyjumps.
2. Electrostaticbondcanbeseenasacovalentbondwheretheelectronliesalmostentirelywithoneatom
duetoforceofattraction.
Keppler'sLaws
1. Thelinejoiningtheplanetandthesunsweepsequalareasinequaltime.
2. Thecubeofthemeandistanceoftheplanetfromthesunisproportionaltothesquareofthetimeperiod.
Waves
1. Forapendulum,T=2(l/g).
2. Mechanical wave propagates via transfer of energy in the medium particles. Kinetic energy gets
converted into potential energy and vice versa. For physical wave propagation the medium must have
inertia,elasticity,uniformdensityandminimumfrictionalforce
3. When a longitudinal wave travels there occur points of compression (highest density) and rarefaction
(lowestdensity).
4. Sound: Speed of sound depends on nature of the medium, pressure, temperature, humidity (increase
withincreaseinhumidity),salinity.Hearingaidsaredesignedtoreflectthesoundwavesintoafunnellike
structurewhichincreasestheiramplitude.Soundboardsareusedinlargehalls.Thespeakerisplacedat
the focus of a concave sound board which reflects it parallely in the hall. The gap between two sound
waves should be at least 0.1s for our ears to distinguish them as 2 and not as a contiguous stream.
Soundvelocityis344m/swhichmeansminimumdistanceoftheobstaclefromthesourceofthesound
shouldbe17.2mforustoheartheechodistinctly.
5. Ultrasound:Itproducesasoothingmassageeffectontheaffectedjoints.Italsogetsreflectedfromthe
boundaries of 2 materials having almost same density. So it can be used to take pictures inside body.
Minuteparticlessuspendedintheliquidthroughwhichtheultrasonicwavetravelstendtolumptogether
andsettledownmakingultrasoundsusefulinmanufacturingphotographicfilms.
Cells
ProkaryoticcellsvsEukaryoticcells
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1. Prokaryotic cells are usually independent, while eukaryotic cells are often found in multicellular
organisms.
2. Prokaryotes don't have a well defined nucleus (no nuclear membrane, no nucleolus, no DNA) while
eukaryoteshave.
3. Prokaryoteshavenomembraneboundcellorganelles(mitochondria,ER,vacuoles,lysosome,plastids)
whileeukaryoteshaveall.
4. Prokaryoteshavesinglechromosomewhileeukaryoteshavemultiplechromosomes.
5. Celldivisionisviafissionorbudding(nomitosis)inprokaryoteswhileeukaryoteshavemitosisormeiosis.
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CellStructure
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1. Cell membrane: It is made up of lipids and proteins and its main job is to separate the protoplasm
(cytoplasm+nucleus)formoutsideworldandtoregulatethemovementofmoleculesinandoutofthe
cell.Inplantsandprokaryotesitisusuallycoveredbyacellwall.Celluloseisthemaincomponentofthecellwall.
2. Cell nucleus: It is present in eukaryotes only. It is separated from the cytoplasm via a double layered semi
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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9.
10.
permeable membrane called nuclear membrane (which regulates the movement of molecules in and out of
nucleus). It has chromatin material (DNA) which is an intertwined mass of thread like structures and nucleolus
(RNA)whichisresponsibleforproteinsynthesisincytoplasm.
Cytoplasm:Itistheremainingpartofthecellapartfromnucleus.
Mitochondria:Thesearerodshapedorganelleswhichareresponsibleforproductionofenergy(hencecalledpower
plantsofthecell).Theycontainenzymesforcellularrespirationwhichbreakdowntheglucoseandstoresenergy
informofATPmolecules.Theyhavedoublemembranetheoutermembraneissmoothwhiletheinnermembrane
isfoldedintofingerlikestructuretoincreasethesurfacearea.
Endoplasmicreticulum:Itispresentineukaryotesonly.Itisthesitefortheproductionofproteins(roughER)and
lipids (smooth ER). Rough ER contain ribosomes. These proteins and lipids may either work to create cell
structuresortofunctionasenzymes(worksinsidethecell)andhormones(secretedoutofthecell).
Golgiapparatus:Itispresentineukaryotesonly.ItpackagesthelipidsandproteinsformedbyERanddispatches
themtointracellularandextracellulartargets.
Ribosomes: They are large complex molecules responsible for formation of proteins using messenger RNA as a
templateinaprocessknownastranslation.
Lysosomes: They are found in eukaryotes only. They contain powerful enzymes capable of breaking up organic
materiallikeforeignbacteriapresentinsidethecell(hencecalleddigestivebags).Theyalsoremovewornoutcell
organellestomakewayforthenewonesorsometimestheentirecell(hencealsocalledsuicidebags).Theyhave
thickmembranes.
Plastids:Theyarefoundinplantcellsonly.Theyarelikemitochondriainstructurethoughwithnoinnerfingerlike
membrane. Leucoplasts are colorless plastids used for forming and storing starch or oil drops. Chromoplasts are
pigmented plastids of varying color out of which chloroplast is the green colored plastid responsible for
photosynthesis.Othercoloredchromoplastsgivecharacteristiccolors.
Centrosomes: They are found in animal cells only, in plants their work is done by polar caps. They are
composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division and help in the formation of the mitotic
spindle.
11. Vacuoles:Vacuolesstorefoodandwaste.Somevacuolesstoreextrawater.Theyareoftendescribedas
liquidfilledspaceandaresurroundedbyamembraneandgiveturgidityandrigiditytotheplants.Some
cells,mostnotablyAmoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if there is
toomuchwater.
DNAvsRNA
1. DNAisanintertwinedmassofthreadlikestructureswhichispresentinformofcondensedchromosomes
andcontainshereditaryinformation.RNAhelpsinproteinsynthesisinthecytoplasm.
2. RNAsaresmallandlesscomplexcomparedtoDNAs.
ChromosomesandGenes
1. ChromosomesarethecondensedformofDNA.TheycontaingeneswhicharesegmentsofDNA.Agene
isthefunctionalunitofachromosome.
CellDivision
Mitosis
1. Prophase:Nucleolusdisappears,chromosomescanstillbeseenasthinthreadlikestructurescontaining
2 identical chromatids. Nuclear membrane also begins to break down and by the end of this phase, it
disappears. The 2 objects above the nucleus are the centrioles of the centrosome.
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2. Metaphase: A spindle like structure appears in the middle of the cell (as two centrioles migrate to the
polesandgeneratethespindle).Chromosomesareshortenedandnowarrangealongtheequatorofthe
spindle and their centers (called centrometer where both chromatids are joined) are attached to the
spindlefibers.
3. Anaphase: Centrometer of each chromosome splits. Each chromatid gets a centrometer of its own (at
the point where it is attached to the spindle). After the split both move towards the either poles as the
spindlefiberscontractbacktothecentrioles.Towardstheend,thecellbeginstoconstrictinthemiddle.
4. Telophase: The daughter chromosomes have reached the poles and begin to create the thread like
structures.Nuclearmembraneandnucleolusreappearsandspindledisappears.Cytoplasmisdividedby
constrictions(aprocesscalledcytokinesis).Bytheend2newcellsareformed.
Meiosis
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1. Prophase:Itissameasmitosisexceptthatinmeiosis,2homologouschromosomescometogetherand
join. Their chromatids overlap and cross. Then the same process as mitosis (with half the number of
chromosomesnowandhencecalledhaploidinsteadofdiploid).
2. Meiosishasmeiosis1andmeiosis2.Withthisdifferencemeiosis1isidenticaltomitosisandmeiosis2is
exactlyidenticaltomitosis.Thusattheendofthemeiosisdivision,4daughtercellsareproduced.
Tissues
PlantTissues
Meristematictissues/Meristems
1. Theyarepresentonlyinthegrowingregionslikeshoottip,roottupandcambium(responsibleforgrowth
inthickness).Theydividecontinuouslyhelpingtheplantgrowthroughoutitslife.
2. Theyhavethincellwallsanddon'thaveanyintercellularspaces.
3. Theydon'thaveanyvacuolesandthecytoplasmisdenseandnucleusislarge.
Permanenttissues
1. Parenchyma: Their job is to store and assimilate food, to maintain mechanical strength (by providing
turgidity) and to store wastes. They are living tissues and have large vacuoles, dense cytoplasm.
Chlorophyllcontainingparenchymaarecalledchlorenchyma.
2. Collenchyma: Their job is to provide mechanical support and elasticity to the plant. They have thin cell
wallsbuthavethickcornerswheremultiplecellsmeet(duetopresenceofcellulose/pectin).Intracellular
spacesareabsent.Theymanufacturesugarandstarchwhenthecellshavechloroplasts.
3. Sclerenchyma: They are dead tissues devoid of protoplasm and with thick cell walls. They are long
pointedcellswithnointercellularspaceandtheirjobistogivemechanicalsupporttotheplant.
Protectivetissues
1. Theyarepresentintheoutermostlayerandtheirlayerisonecellthick.Theyarecomposedofcorkcells
whicharedeadandhavenointercellularspaces.Theircellwallsarethickenedtoavoidthelossofwater,
theydon'tcatchfireeasily.
Vasculartissues
1. Xylem: Their job is to carry water and dissolved mineral salts from roots to other parts and they are
tubularinshape.Theyalsogivemechanicalstrengthtoplants.
2. Phloem:Theirjobistocarryfoodfromleavestootherpartsandtheyarealsotubularinshape.
AnimalTissues
Epithelialtissue
1. Itisthecoveringtissueandformsskinandexposedpartsofmouth,alimentarycanal,lungs.Theirmain
jobisprotectionandcontrollingmovementofwaterandnutrients.
Muscletissue
1. Striated/voluntarymuscle: Muscle contraction / movement takes place via contractile proteins present
insidetheircells.Theyarelongcylindricalandmultinucleatedwithnucleilocatedatthesurface.
2. Unstriated/involuntarymuscle:Theyarefoundwithinthewallsoforganslikestomach,intestine,bronchi
etc.Theyarelongpointedandeachcellhasonlyonenucleus.
3. Cardiacmuscle:Eachcellhasone/twonucleisituatedinthecentre.Theyarecylindricalandbranched.
Connectivetissue
1. Cartilage:Semihardandfoundatthetipofnoseandexternalear.
2. Tendonsandligaments:Tendonsconnectmusclestoboneswhileligamentsconnectbonestobones.
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DigestiveSystem
TypesofNutrition
1. Saprophyticnutrition: Organisms obtaining their nutrients from dead and decaying organic matter. E.g.
bacteriaandfungi.Suchorganismsarecalledsaprophytes.
2. Holozoicnutrition:Takingnutritionviaingestion.E.g.amoeba,humans.
Photosynthesis
1. Even artificial light can be used by plants for photosynthesis. Only visible light (mostly blue and red) is
used in photosynthesis. Rate of photosynthesis increases at lower intensities of light. Also since
photosynthesis uses enzymes, its rate initially increases with temperature but declines after a point. It
also increases with water as under water deficient conditions the stomata remain closed to reduce
transpirationwhichinterfereswiththeCO2 exchange.Andtherateofphotosynthesisalsoincreaseswith
CO2 concentrationuptoalevelbeyondwhichithasnoimpact.
2. CO2 for photosynthesis enters through the stomata in the leaves. Aquatic plants use CO2 dissolved in
water.WhentheamountofCO2 releasedinrespirationequalsamountneededforphotosynthesis,itis
calledcompensationpoint.
3. Photosynthesishas2stages(a)lightdependentorlightreactioninwhichthechlorophyllmoleculefirst
getsactivatedbythelightandemitselectrons.TheseelectronsconvertADPintoATPwhichservesasa
sourceofenergyforthedarkphase.Photolysis(breakupofwaterintoH+,O2 ande)alsotakesplacein
lightreactionandthereleasedH+ionreducesNADPtoNADPHwhichisalsousedindarkreaction.(b)
lightindependentordarkreactioninwhichtheATPandNADPH(producedinlightreaction)convertthe
CO2 intocarbohydrateinthechloroplast.
PharynxandTrachea
1. Pharynxisthecommonportionoforalcavityandnasalcavitylyingbeforethetrachea.
2. Tracheaisthewindpipewhichhasacartilagecalledepiglottiswhichisaflaplikestructurewhichcloses
thetracheawhenfoodbolusisingested.
Oesophagus
1. Peristalsis: THe process of alternate constrictions and relaxations of muscles in oesophagus which
pushesthefoodbolusdownwards.
Tongue&Teeth
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1. Thelowerincisorsaretheteethwhichgrowfirstinchildren.
2. Enamel, fluorine, dental caries: It is made of hydroxyapatite salts of calcium phosphate and calcium
carbonate. Fluorides promote calcium phosphate deposition thereby making teeth strong. Absence of
fluoridesleadstosofteningofteethaslessenamelisgeneratedmakingitpronetodentalcaries.Excess
offluoridesleadstobrownishdiscolorationofteethcalledteethmottling.Dentalcariesresultfromaction
ofbacteriafoundinplaque.Plaqueisafilmofsaliva+carbohydraterich/sugarrichfoodontheteeth.It
providesabreedinggroundforbacteriawhichdecomposescarbohydratesintolacticacidwhichinturn
decomposestheenamel.
SalivaryGlands
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1. Salivaryglandsarealwayspairedglands.Salivaflowis~11.5Lperday.Itcontains99.5%waterand
rest has some minerals like Na, K, HCO3 , Cl etc. Its pH is between 6 7 i.e. slightly acidic due to
presenceofHCO3 andCl.Enzymespresentarelysozyme(helpsindestroyingthecellwallsofbacteria,
usually present in tears, mother's milk and egg white) and ptyalin / salivary amylase (digests starch
partiallyintomaltose).
2. Parotidgland:Thelargestisparotidwhichsecretestheenzymeptyalin(salivaryamylase).Mumpsisa
viralinfectionofparotidglandcausinginflammation,pain,fever,lessenedsalivation.
3. Submandibulargland:Itproduceslysozyme.
4. Sublingualgland:Itisthesmallest.Itproduceslysozyme.
Stomach
1. Sphincter:Itisaringofmusclespresentattheentryandexitofstomachtopreventbackmovementof
food.Theuppersphincteriscalledcardiacsphincter(preventsmovementoffoodbackintooesophagus)
and the lower sphincter is called pyloric sphincter (prevents movement of food from duodenum to
stomach).
2. Proteindigestion: Stomach secretes gastric juices (containing HCl taking the pH to 12) from branched
andtubularglandspresentinitsinnersurface,churnsthefoodsandbreakstheproteins(itsecretesan
enzyme pepsinogen which converts into pepsin in the presence of HCl and breaks the protein partially
intopeptones)andpropelsitintothesmallintestine.HClinadditiontoprovidingoptimumenvironment
for activation of pepsinogen and breaking proteins into peptones also kills the bacteria present in the
food.Themerethoughtofappetizingfoodcanleadtosecretionofgastricjuice.
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3. Fats:Gastricjuicealsocontainsgastriclipasewhichpartiallybreaksdownfats.
4. VitaminB12:GastricjuicealsocontainsintrinsiccastlefactorwhichbindsvitaminB12andhelpsinits
absorptioninthesmallintestine.
5. Gastrin hormone: It increases the secretion of HCl and pepsinogen in the stomach. It also causes
increasedmovementofstomachmusclestofacilitatemovementoffood.
CompoundStomachinRuminants
1. Reticulumisthe2ndstomachandistheplacewherefoodisstoredbeforecomingbacktothemouth.
2. Abomasum is the 4th stomach and is the real stomach. Rumen is the 1st stomach and has symbiotic
bacteriawhichhelpindigestionofcellulose.
SmallIntestine
Duodenum
1. Bile from liver: Its pH is 8 and it contains bile salts (for emulsifying fats i.e. to break them into small
dropletssoastoincreasethesurfacearea),NaHCO3 (toprovideabasicmedium),bilirubin(bilepigment
containingdeadRBCs)andwater.Bilehasnoenzymeandisstorednormallyingallbladder.
2. Pancreatic juices from pancreas: Its pH is 8.8. It has carbohydrate digesting enzymes (pancreatic
amylase which breaks starch into maltose), fat digesting enzymes (pancreatic lipase converting
emulsified fat into mono glyceride) and protein digesting enzymes (trypsin which breaks peptone into
dipeptide),NaHCO3 .
Jejunum
1. Intestinal juices from small intestine: Its pH is 8.3. It contains maltase (breaking maltose into glucose),
lactase(breakinglactoseintoglucose),sucrase(breakingsucroseintoglucose+fructose),dipeptidase
(breaking dipeptide into amino acids), intestinal lipase (breaking mono glyceride into fatty acids +
glycerol).
Absorptioninsidesmallintestine
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1. Villiandmicrovilliincreasethesurfaceareaforabsorption.Stomachisapoorabsorberandonlysmall
amountsofwaterandalcoholtakesplaceinstomach.Majorabsorptiontakesplaceinsmallintestine.
2. Themoleculesofwater,aminoacids,glucoseandmineralsareabsorbedinbloodcapillarieswhilefatty
acids,glycerolareabsorbedinthelymphcapillaries.
ActiveAbsorption
1. Takes place via application of energy and is against the laws of osmosis. All the mineral ions are
absorbedbythebodyinthisfashion.
LargeIntestine
CaecumandVermiformAppendix
1. These are vestigial organs i.e. no use in humans except for vermiform appendix being a part of
protectivelymphoidtissue.Inotheranimalstheyusuallybreakdowncellulose.
Colon
1. Vitamin synthesis: It contains symbiotic bacteria (like ecoli) which synthesize some of B complex
vitaminslikeB1,B2andB12andalsovitaminK(neededforbloodclotting).
2. Absorptionofwaterandelectrolytes.
Diarrhea
1. Itiscausedbyinflammationoflargeintestinewherewaterandelectrolyteabsorptionisaffected.
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Liver
Functions
1. Urea synthesis: It breaks down amino acids into ammonia and then converts them into urea to be
excretedviakidneys.
2. Bloodclotting:Itformstheprothrombinandfibrinogenproteinswhichhelpinbloodclotting.Italsoforms
heparinwhichisananticlottingsubstanceintheblood.
3. RBCs:ItformstheRBCsinafetus.AlsoproducesbilirubinforremovalofdeadRBCs.
4. Storageofvitamins:ItstoresfatsolublevitaminslikeAandD,ironandwatersolublevitaminslikeB12.
hatiswhythedeficiencysymptomsareseenonlyafterseveredeficiency.
5. Detoxifyingagent:Anytoxicsubstanceinthebodygetsdetoxifiedinliveronly.
RespiratorySystem
Glycolysis
1. Respirationisa2stageprocess(aerobicoranaerobic).Afterthe1ststageinbothformspyruvateora3
carbonmoleculeisformedinthecytoplasmofthecell.Thisprocessiscalledglycolysisandtakesplace
incytoplasm.
AnaerobicRespiration
1. Musclefatigue: It is caused when due to lack of O2 , lactic acid is formed from pyruvate via anaerobic
respirationinskeletalmuscles.
2. InRBCsalsolacticacidisformedastheycontainnomitochondria.Inyeastsethanolisformedwhichis
usedinfermentation.
RespirationinPlants
1. Allpartsoftheplantsrespirateindividually.Thereisnotransportofgasesfromoneparttootherunlike
animals.Plantrespirationrateismuchslowerthanthatofanimals.
2. RootstakeupO2 presentbetweenthesoilparticles(thatiswhyplantsdieinwaterloggedsoils)bythe
process of diffusion through the root hair. Similarly CO2 exchange also takes place via diffusion. Older
portionsofrootswhichdon'thaveanyroothairexchangegasesvialenticelswhicharethetinyopenings
inthedeadcelllayercoveringoldroots.
RespirationinSomeAnimals
1. Earthwormsexchangegasesviaskin.Frogsbreathviabothskinandlungs.Insectsdoitviaairtubesor
trachea.Thesetracheabranchintotracheoleswhichreacheverycell.
NasalCavity
1. Apartfromfilteringtheair,italsobringsittothebodytemperature.Italsoaidsinsenseofsmell.
VocalChords
1. Theyarepresentinlarynx.Inmenvocalchordsarelongleadingtodeepersound.
2. Tracheaisthewindpipewhichhasacartilagecalledepiglottiswhichisaflaplikestructurewhichcloses
thetracheawhenfoodbolusisingested.
CO2 Transportation
1. ~70% is transported as HCO3 combined with Hgb. The formation of H2 CO3 from H2 O and CO2 is
catalyzed by a zinc based enzyme. ~23% is transported in direct combination with Hgb. ~7% is
transportedinadiffusedstateinplasma.
LungVolumes
1. Totallungcapacity(TLC):Thisisthemaximumcapacityoflung.TLC=VC+RV.~6L.
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2. Vital capacity (VC): This is the maximum amount of air that can be expelled from lungs after a forced
expiration following a forced inspiration. VC = IRV + TV + ERV. ~4.5 L. It shows how much of air is
actuallybeingusedupinrespirationviablood.PeopleinhillyareashavemoreVC.
3. Residual volume (RV): This is the air still present in the lung alveoli even after the most forceful
expiration.~1.5L.
4. Tidalvolume(TV):Itisthevolumeofairinhaledinanormalinspiration.~0.5L.
5. Inspiratoryreservevolume(IRV):Additionalairwhichcanbeinhaled(beyondthetidalvolume)inamost
forcefulinspiration.~3L.
6. Expiratory reserve volume: Additional air which can be exhaled (beyond the tidal volume) in a most
forcefulexpirationfollowinganormalinspiration.~1L.
7. Deadspace:Itisthevolumeofinhaledairwhichneverreachesthealveoli.Itremainstrappedintrachea,
bronchus,pharynx,nasalcavityetc.Italsoincludesairinthenonfunctionalalveoli.~150mL.
8. Alveoliair: It is the volume of air which participates in the gaseous exchange process via alveoli. ~350
mL.
Asthma
1. Itisanallergywhichleadstoinflammationoftracheaorbronchi.Thisleadstotheircontractionandalso
secretionofmucusbytheepithelialcellsleadingtoblockage.
Emphysema
1. Itisanabnormalandpermanentenlargementofalveoliwherethewallsseparatingthembreakdownand
they fuse. Generally seen in smokers. Heart in such cases has to pump more blood and it can lead to
heartfailures.
ControloverRespiration
1. WhentheconcentrationofHCO3 ionincreases,theresidualH+ionstimulatesthechemosensitivearea
ofmedullawhichtriggerstheactionofremovingexcessCO2 .
CirculatorySystem
Blood
1. IthasapHof7.4i.e.slightlyalkaline.
2. Packed cell volume: Blood cells together constitute ~45% of blood volume. This is called packed cell
volume.Remaining55%isplasma.
3. Plasma: It contains 90% water + 78% proteins like prothrombin (stimulates blood coagulation),
fibrinogen (stimulates blood coagulation), albumin (maintains water concentration in blood and its
deficiency causes kwashiorkor), globulin (helps in synthesis of antibodies which are themselves called
immunoglobulin)andsomeinorganicsalts.IgMisthefirstantibody.IgGisthemostabundantoneand
replacesMandremainspermanentlyinblood.IgEindicatespresenceofallergyandIgAispresentin
mother milk, saliva and tears. Heparin is a natural anticoagulant in blood while Na and K are artificial
anticoagulantsastheycombinewithCainthebloodtomakeitunavailableforclotting.
4. Erythrocyte(RBC):Normalconcentrationis5mm/l.PeoplelivinginhigheraltitudehavehigherRBCs.
NormalRBCsarebiconcavelensshapedwithoutanynucleus.
5. Thrombocyte(platelets):Theyaresmallestsizeandoccuronlyinbloodofmammals.
6. Leucocyte(WBC):Theirconcentrationinbloodistheleast(68K/l).Duringthetimesofinfectionsthe
concentrationincreases.Pathologicalincreaseinleucocytesleadstoleukemia.Theyareformedinbone
marrow,spleen,thymus(locatedinneckandproducestcells),lymphnodes.Neutrophilsarethe1stline
ofdefence.AcidophilsandBasophilsprotectbodyfromallergicconditions.MonocytesarelargestWBCs
andengulfbacteria.Lymphocytesareof2typestcellsandbcells.
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BloodClotting
1. As blood flows out, platelets secret a substance called thromboplastin. In the presence of Ca and
thromboplastin,prothrombinproteingetsconvertedintothrombin.Thrombinactsasacatalysttoconvert
fibrinogenproteinintofibrinwhichistheinsolubleproductformingthemeshtowhichRBCsgetentangled
andclot.
Hemophilia
1. Itisahereditaryconditionwherethebloodcannotclotduetoabsenceofbloodclottingprotein.
BloodGroups
1. Blood has antigens (A, B) and antibodies (a, b). A mismatch leads to clumping in blood blocking
capillariesandfatal.AifreactswithaleadstoclumpingwhileBleadstoclumpingifitreactswithb.So
bloodgroupAhasantigenAandantibodyb.BloodgroupBhasantigenBandantibodya.Bloodgroup
AB has both antigens A and B and no antibody. Blood group O has no antigen and both a and b
antibodies.
2. AB has no antibody. So it can receive blood from anybody but can give blood to only AB. O has no
antigensoitcangivebloodtoanybodybutcanreceivebloodfromonlyO.AcanreceivebloodfromO
andAandcangivebloodtoAandAB.BcanreceivebloodfromOandBandcangivebloodtoBand
AB.
3. Another factor is the Rh factor. Most people are Rh+ while some are Rh. A Rh mother can lose her
babyifthebabyhasRh+blood.
Heart
1. Diastole:Thisistheconditionwhenallcardiacmusclesarerelaxed.
2. Systole:Thisistheconditionwhencardiacmusclescontract.
Structure
1. The 2 upper chambers are called atria and lower are called ventricles. Atria receive blood from veins
whileventriclespumpbloodintoarteries.Therearevalvesbetweenventriclesandatria.
2. Inthediastolecondition(all4musclesrelaxed),bloodfromlargeveins(venacava)poursintotheright
atrium. This is the deoxygenated blood. Then the right atrium contracts and pushes the blood into the
right ventricle. Next the right ventricle contracts and pushes the deoxygenated blood into the lungs via
pulmonary artery. After the blood gets oxygenated into the lungs, it fills into left atrium via pulmonary
vein.Leftatriumcontractsandpushesthebloodintotheleftventricle.Finallyleftventriclecontractsand
pushes the blood into the aorta (largest artery). The contraction of both left and right atria is
simultaneousandsoisthecontractionofbothventriclessothereareonly2heartbeats.
LymphaticSystem
1. Lymphcontainslymphocytes(BandTcells).Itflowsonlyinonedirectioni.e.tissuestoheart.Itbathes
thecellsandliesoutsidethemandsoiscalledextracellularfluid.
CirculatorySysteminPlants
1. Xylem: It is of 2 types (a) Tracheids which are dead cells with thick cell walls and large cavity inside.
Theyarelong,spindleshaped.Waterandnutrientspassthroughthesecavities.(b)Vesselswhichare
long,tubularandaredeadcells.Floweringplantshavebothvesselsandtracheidsoronlyvesselswhile
nonfloweringplantshaveonlytracheids.Itistheevaporationofwaterfromleafstomatawhichcreatesa
suctionpullingmorewaterfromtheroots.
2. Phloem: They are living cells and are called sieve tubes. The nutrients are transported in an aqueous
solutionandtheprocessiscalledtranslocation.
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ExcretionSystem
1. Each kidney is made of excretory units called nephrons. Each nephron has blood capillaries passing
throughit(comingfromrenalarteriesandcarryingimpureblood).Bloodisfilteredviaosmosis.
Dialysis
ControlandCoordination
EndocrineGlands
1. Hypothalamus:Itregulatesthesecretionofhormonesfrompituitarygland.
2. Pituitarygland:Itsecretes(a)growthhormonewhichregulatesdevelopmentofbonesandmuscles.(b)
Trophic hormones which regulate secretion of hormones from other endocrine glands like adrenal,
thyroid,ovaries,testes.(c)Prolactinwhichregulatesfunctionofmammarygland.(d)Vasopressinwhich
regulates the water and electrolyte balance in the body (process called osmoregulation). (e) Oxytocin
whichstimulatescontractionofinvoluntary(smooth)musclesandhelpsinchildbirthandlactation.
3. Thyroidgland:Itsecretesthyroxinwhichregulatesmetabolismofcarbohydrates,fatsandproteins.
4. Parathyroidgland:Itsecretesparathyroidhormonewhichregulatesbloodcalciumandphosphate.
5. Adrenal gland: It secretes adrenalin which regulates blood pressure, heart rate and carbohydrate
metabolism.
6. Pancreas: It secretes insulin which lowers blood glucose level and glucagon which increases blood
glucoselevel.
ControlandCoordinationinPlants
1. This function is done by phytohormones in plants. The movement of plant in a particular direction is
called tropism. Geotropism, phototropism and chemotropism (movement towards a chemical stimulus)
areexamples.Nasticmovementistheplantmovementwhichisneithertowardsthestimulusnoraway
fromit.Forexamplethetouchmenotplant.
2. Photoperiodism:Floweringandseedgerminatingactivitiesareguidedbypresenceoflight.Thisprocess
iscalledphotoperiodismandisregulatedbyapigmentcalledphytochrome.
HumanNervousSystem
1. Sensory and motor nerves: Nerves passing signal from sensory organs (receptors) to brain are called
sensorynerves.Nerveswhichpasssignalbackfrombraintoorgansarecalledmotornerves.
2. Photoreceptors, phonoreceptors and olfacto receptors: Photoreceptors are sensory organs sensitive to
light.Phonoreceptorsareorganssensitivetosound.Olfactoreceptorsareforsmell.
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3. Nervecell: A nerve cell has 3 parts (a) Dendrites which receive the nerve impulse and carry it to cell
body. (b) Axons which carry the nerve impulse from cell body to synapse. (c) Synapse which carry the
nerveimpulsetothedendritesofanothernervecell.
Brain
1. Protectionofbrain:Itisinsideabox(calledcranium)intheskull.Ithas3protectivemembranes(called
meninges)andafluid(calledcerebrospinalfluid)flowsinthemembraneswhichprotectsthebrainfrom
mechanicalshocks.
2. Cerebrum: It contains sensory areas which receives the information from receptors. It also contains
motorareasfromwhereimpulsesaresent.Itisdividedintoleftandrightcerebrum.
3. Cerebellum:Itregulatescoordinationandbalanceofbody.
4. Medullaoblongata:Itregulatesswallowing,coughing,sneezingandvomiting.
5. Pons:Itregulatesrespiration.
SpinalChord
1. Itisalsoenclosedbymeninges.Ithastheautonomicnervoussystemwhichcontrolsthefunctioningof
internalorganslikeheart,bloodvessels,involuntarymuscles,glands,uterus.Theautonomicnervesare
always paired and further subdivided into (a) sympathetic nerves which produce action, and (b)
parasympatheticnerveswhichinhibitaction.
Reproduction
Fission
1. Binary fission (1 into 2) takes place in amoeba, paramecium etc. Plasmodium show multiple fission (1
intomany).
Budding
1. A bulge (called bud) emerges on the body as a result of repeated mitotic divisions. It is observed into
yeastandhydra.Iffromabud,anotherbudemergesandsoon,itiscalledchainbuddingandisseenin
yeast.
Spores
1. It is the most common method present in fungi and bacteria. Initially a structure called sporangium
develops which contains a nucleus. The nucleus is further subdivided into many and gets some
cytoplasm.Eventuallyasporedevelopsandburstsopenandallnewcellsarereleasedunderfavorable
conditions.
Regeneration
1. Itistheabilityoforganismstoregeneratealostbodypartandisusedbysometomultiply.Theydivide
theirbodyintomultiplepartsandeachpartgrowsintoafullfledgedorganism.Examplesarehydraand
spirogyra(analgae).
Layering
1. A part of the stem is pulled and buried in the soil with the tip of it remaining above the soil. It remains
attached to the parent plant but gradually develops roots and system of its own. Examples are
strawberry.
VegetativePropagation
1. Newplantsstarttoemergeontheleaves,roots,stemsoftheoldplants.Examplesarebryophyllum(the
moneyplant)whichdevelopsfromleaves.
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Grafting
1. 2 parts of different plants are joined together such that their cambium (middle growth tissue) are in
contact.Eventuallytheyuniteandgrowtogetherasoneplant.Theplantthatisgraftedontheotherplant
is called scion while the old plant is called stock. Citrus fruit plants are grafted. Using this technique a
veryyoungplantcanbemadetoflowerandproducefruitswhenplantedonamatureplant.
Parthenogenesis
1. Insomelowervertebratesandplantsanovumcangenerateanoffspringwithoutfertilization.
TissueCulture
1. Propagation of plants in a synthetic medium. The medium contains all the favorable conditions and
nutrients.Initiallyatissueisintroducedwhichgrowsintoacallus.Thecallusisthentakenandplacedin
differentmediumsfordifferentiationandfurthergrowth.
Flowers
1. Stamens(comprisingofantherandfilament)arethemalepartwhilecarpel(comprisingofstigma,style
andovary)arethefemalepart.Thefilamentandstylearethelongtubularstructures.Anthersproduce
pollen grains. Each pollen grain has 2 gametes. Ovary produces ovules and each ovule has one egg.
Oncethepollengrainisdepositedonstigmaitstartstoformapollentubewhichbeginstoextendfrom
thestigmatotheovarythroughthestyle.Insidetheovuleitreleasesthegametesandoncefertilization
takesplacetheovarydevelopsintoafruit.
2. One of the gamete fertilizes an ovule (called syngamy) and the other fertilizes two polar nuclei (called
triplefusion).Thus2fusionstakeplaceinsidetheembryosacandthisiscalleddoublefertilization.
Humans
1. In females each ovary is connected to uterus via a fallopian tube. During the cycle, a fallopian tube
developsintoamaturefollicleandsurroundsaneggwhichissubsequentlyreleasedfromtherespective
ovary(theprocessiscalledovulation).Whilethefolliclematures,theinnerwalloftheuterusthickensto
prepare for a potential fertilization. When fertilization doesn't take place, it sheds the inner wall. The
processofovulationtakesplaceinthemiddleofthemenstrualcycle.
2. The fertilization takes place in the fallopian tube and after fertilization the zygote moves down and
attaches itself to the uterus wall (process called implantation). Placenta is the special tissue which
developsbetweentheuterusandthezygote.
3. Commencementofmenstruationiscalledmenarchewhileterminationiscalledmenopause.
Diaphragm
CervicalCaps
IntrauterineContraceptiveDevices
Diseases
Trichomoniasis
HeredityandEvolution
1. Mendel'sexperiments:Heproposedpresenceof2copiesofthe'factors'controllingeverycharacter
displayed.Whenpeawith2differentcharactersarecrossedthenextgenerationshowsonlyone
characteristic.Butthesuccessivegenerationshowsbothcharacteristics.
2. Haploidsanddiploids:Pairedchromosomesarecalleddiploids,unpairedarecalledhaploids.
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