PERSONALITY DISORDERS

CLUSTER A

Individuals with these disorders

often appear odd or eccentric

ESSENTIAL FEATURES
Enduring pattern of inner experience and
behavior that deviates markedly form the
expectations of the individuals culture, is
pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in
adolescence or early childhood, is stable
over time, and leads to distress or
impairment

DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES
(Biological perspective)

Biological factors
o
Platelet monoamine oxidase

Students with low platelet MAO

levels report spending more
time in social activities

High platelet MAO levels have

been noted in some patients
with schizotypal disorders
o
Electrophysiology

Changes
in
electrical
conductance,
notably
slow
wave activity on the EEG occur
in some patients with antisocial
and
borderline
personality
disorders
o
Feedback loop

When out of balance, this can

be the reason for OCD
o
Neurotransmitters

5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid: low

in persons who attempt suicide
and in patients who are
impulsive and aggressive

Serotonin: people with OCD are

low in serotonin
(Psychodynamic perspective)

Freud
o
Personality traits are related to a
fixation at one psychosexual stage of
development

Oral character: passive and

dependent because they are
fixated at the oral stage, when
the dependence on others for
food is prominent

Anal
character:
stubborn,
parsimonious,
and
highly
conscientious
because
of
struggles over toilet training
during anal period

Defense mechanisms
o
Fantasy: often used by schizoid
patients who seek solace and
satisfaction within themselves by
creating imaginary lives, especially
imaginary friends
o
Dissociation:
replacement
of
unpleasant affects with pleasant
ones, often seen in those with
histrionic personalities
o
Projective
identification:
appears
mainly in borderline personality
disorder
(Biological perspective)

Genetic factors
o
Schizotypal personality disorder is

DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA
An enduring pattern of inner experience
and behavior that deviates markedly form
the expectations of the individuals culture;
this pattern is manifested in at least two or
more of the following areas:
o
Cognition
o
Affectivity
o
Interpersonal functioning
o
Impulse control
The enduring pattern is inflexible and
pervasive across a broad range of personal
and social situations
The enduring pattern leads to clinically
significant distress or impairment in social,
occupational, or other important areas of
functioning
The pattern is stable and of long duration,
and its onset can be traced back at least to
adolescence or early adulthood
The enduring pattern is not better
accounted for as a manifestation or
consequence of another mental disorder
The enduring pattern is not due to the direct
physiological effects of a substance or a
general medical condition

PARANOID PERSONALITY
DISORDER

Pattern
of
distrust
and
suspiciousness
such
that
others motives are interpreted
as malevolent

SCHIZOID PERSONALITY
DISORDER

Pattern of detachment from

social relationships and a
restricted range of emotional

Individuals with paranoid personality

disorder are generally difficult to get along
with and often have problems with close
relationships
Their excessive suspiciousness and hostility
may
be
expressed
in
overt
argumentativeness,
in
recurrent
complaining, or by quite, apparently hostile
aloofness
Because they are hypervigilant for potential
threats, they may act in a guarded,
secretive, or devious manner and appear to
be cold and lacking in tender feelings
Although they may appear to be objective,
rational, and unemotional, they more often
display a labile range of affect, with hostile,
stubborn,
and
sarcastic
expressions
predominating
Their combative and suspicious nature may
elicit a hostile response in others, which
then serves to confirm their original
expectations
Because
individuals
with
paranoid
personality disorder lack trust in others, they
have an excessive need to be self-sufficient
and a strong sense of autonomy
They also need to have a high degree of
control over those around them
They may blame others for their own
shortcomings
Individuals with this disorder seek to confirm
their
preconceived
negative
notions
regarding people or situation they
encounter,
attributing
malevolent
motivations to others that are projections of
their own fears
They may exhibit thinly hidden, unrealistic
grandiose fantasies, are often attuned to
issues of power and rank, and tend to
develop negative stereotypes of others
Attracted by simplistic formulations of the
world, they are often wary of ambiguous
situations
May first be apparent in childhood and
adolescence with solitariness, poor peer
relationships,
social
anxiety,
underachievement
in
school,
hypersensitivity, peculiar thoughts and
language, and idiosyncratic fantasies
This pattern of detachment begins by early
adulthood and is present in a variety of
contexts
Uncommon in clinical settings
Diagnosed slightly more often in males

more common in the biological

relatives
of
patients
with
schizophrenia
(Biological perspective)

In clinical samples, this disorder appears to

be more commonly diagnosed in males

Prevalence is 0.5-2.5% of the general

population

Believed to be more common among

people who are deaf than the general
population
(Psychodynamic perspective)

Use of projection as a primary defense

Allows them to disavow unpleasant feelings

and attribute them to others
(Cognitive perspective)

People with personality disorders act in

dysfunctional ways because their beliefs
and assumptions about themselves, other
people, and the world around them are
biased or distorted in characteristic patterns
that cause them to consistently misinterpret
the situation they find themselves in

A person with paranoid personality disorder

would be likely to interpret an event as an
intentional provocation and attack, based
on the core belief that the world is a
dangerous place
(Sociocultural perspective)

Believed to be more common among

minority groups and immigrants
(Family systems perspective

Relatives of patients with schizophrenia

show a higher incidence of paranoid
personality disorders

Does not appear to have a familial pattern

(Biological perspective)

Increased prevalence in relatives of people

with
schizophrenia
or
schizotypal
personality disorder

Has a constitutional, probably genetic basis

A pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of

others such that their motives are
interpreted as malevolent, beginning by
early adulthood and present in a variety of
context, as indicated by four or more of the
following:
o
Suspects, without sufficient basis,
that others are exploiting, harming, or
deceiving him or her
o
Is preoccupied with unjustified doubts
about the loyalty or trustworthiness of
friends or associates
o
Is reluctant to confide in others
because of unwarranted fear that the
information will be used maliciously
against him or her
o
Read
hidden
demeaning
or
threatening meaning into benign
remarks or events
o
Persistently bears grudges
o
Perceives attack on his or her
character or reputation that are not
apparent to others and is quick to
react angrily or to counterattack
o
Has recurrent suspicions, without
justification, regarding fidelity of
spouse or sexual partner
Does not occur exclusively during the
course of schizophrenia, a mood disorder
with psychotic features, or other psychotic
disorder and is not due to the direct
physiological effects of a general medical
condition
If criteria are met prior to the onset of
schizophrenia, add premorbid

A pervasive pattern of detachment from

social relationships and a restricted range
of expression of emotions in interpersonal
settings, beginning by early adulthood and
present in a variety of contexts as indicated

expression

SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY
DISORDER

Pattern of acute discomfort in

close relationships, cognitive
or perceptual distortions, and
eccentricities of behavior

Genetic susceptibility; the disorder might be

inherited
(Family systems perspective)

Unloving,
neglectful,
or
excessively
perfectionist parenting

Bleak childhood where warmth and emotion

were absent

Parent is cold and unresponsive to

emotional needs

Pattern of social and interpersonal deficits

begins by early adulthood and is present in
a variety of social contexts
Has
been
reported
to
occur
in
approximately 3% of the general population
Slightly more common in males

(Biological perspective)

Rates are higher in relatives of individuals

with schizophrenia than in relatives of
people with other mental illnesses or in
people without mentally ill relatives

May
be
considered
an
extended
phenotype that helps geneticists track the
familial or genetic transmission of genes
that are implicated in schizophrenia
(Family systems perspective)

Parenting styles, early separation, trauma

or maltreatment history, especially early
childhood neglect can lead to the
development of schizotypal traits

Parents were emotionally distant, formal,

and
displayed
confusing
parental
communication

Regularly humiliated by parents, siblings,

and peers resulting in significant relational
mistrust

by four or more of the following:

o
Neither desires nor enjoys close
relationships, including being part of
a family
o
Almost always chooses solitary
activities
o
Has little, if any, interest in having
sexual experiences with another
person
o
Takes pleasure in a few, if any,
activities
o
Lack close friends or confidants other
than first-degree relatives
o
Appears indifferent to the praise or
criticism of others
o
Shows
emotional
coldness,
detachment, or flattened affectivity

Does not occur exclusively during the

course of schizophrenia, a mood disorder
with psychotic features, or other psychotic
disorder and is not due to the direct
physiological effects of a general medical
condition
*
If criteria are met prior to the onset of
schizophrenia, add premorbid

A pervasive pattern of social and

interpersonal deficits marked by acute
discomfort with, and reduced capacity for,
close relationships as well as by cognitive
or perceptual distortions and eccentricities
of behavior, beginning by early adulthood
and present in a variety of contexts, as
indicated by five or more of the following:
o
Ideas of reference
o
Odd beliefs or magical thinking that
influences
behavior
and
is
inconsistent with subcultural norms
o
Unusual perceptual experiences,
including bodily illusions
o
Odd thinking and speech
o
Suspiciousness or paranoid ideation
o
Inappropriate or constricted affect
o
Behavior or appearance that is odd,
eccentric, or peculiar
o
Lack of close friends or confidants
other than first-degree relatives
o
Excessive social anxiety that does
not diminish with familiarity and tends
to be associated with paranoid fears
rather than negative judgments about
self

Does not occur exclusively during the

course of schizophrenia, a mood disorder
with psychotic features, another psychotic
disorder, or a pervasive developmental
disorder
*
If criteria are met prior to the onset of
schizophrenia, add premorbid

CLUSTER B

Individuals with these disorders

often
appear
dramatic,
emotional, or erratic

ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY
DISORDER

Pattern of disregard for, and

violation of, the right of others

Pervasive pattern of disregard for or failure

to comply with societal norms that occur
from childhood
(Signs and symptoms)

Does nor experience guilt, remorse, or

shame

Appear to lack conscience

Ruthless,
aggressive,
interpersonally
exploitative

Has poor sense of responsibility

Lack empathy/capacity to care and love

Has impulsive, reckless, erratic behaviors

Has inability to learn from experience

Emotionally empty
(Distribution)

Most individuals with ASPD are criminals

More common in men

Disregard for and violation of rights of

others occur since age 15

* Subtypes:

The covetous antisocial

o
Experiences a deep and pervasive
sense of emptiness, a powerful
hunger for the love and recognition
deprived from them in early life
o
Greediness and appropriation of
what others possess are central
motivating factors

The reputation-defending antisocial

o
Has a need for being thought of as
invincible and formidable persons,
indomitable and inviolable
o
Must do things that would show
peers that they are contenders of
potential significance; thus, their
acts include aggressive leadership
or risk-taking behaviors often of a
high violent or criminal behavior

The risk-taking antisocial

o
Persist in a hyperactive search for
hazardous challenges and for
gambling with lifes dangers
o
Driven by the feeling of being
trapped
and
burdened
by
responsibilities

The nomadic antisocial

o
Individuals who run away from a
society in which they feel unwanted
o
Beneath their social withdrawals are

(Biological perspective)

Genetic factors
o
Antisocial personality disorder is
associated with alcohol use disorders
o
Strong association between histrionic
personality disorder and somatization
disorder
(Biological perspective)

Hereditary: familial pattern is present;

individuals whose parents have antisocial
behavior are more prone in developing
ASPD

Low serotonin levels

Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume;

lack of autonomic arousal that is supposed
to be experienced due to feelings brought
about by hurting others

Impairment of frontal lobes; aggressive

behavior, inability to plan and judge actions
(Psychodynamic perspective)

Id is dominant
(Sociocultural/Family systems perspective)

Chaotic family life

Deprivation of emotional bond

There is a pervasive pattern of disregard for

and violation of the rights of others
occurring since age 15 years, as indicated
by three or more of the following:
o
Failure to conform to social norms
with respect to lawful behaviors as
indicated by repeatedly performing
acts that are grounds for arrest
o
Deceitfulness, as indicated by
repeated lying, use of aliases, or
conning others for personal profit or
pleasure
o
Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead
o
Irritability and aggressiveness, as
indicated by repeated physical fights
or assaults
o
Reckless disregard for safety of self
or other
o
Consistent
irresponsibility,
as
indicated by repeated failure to
sustain consistent work behavior or
honor financial obligations
o
Lack of remorse, as indicated by
being indifferent to or rationalizing
having hurt, mistreated, or stolen
from another
The individual is at least 18 years old
There is evidence of a conduct disorder
with onset before age 15 years
The occurrence of antisocial behavior is not
exclusively
during
the
course
of
schizophrenia or a manic episode

BORDERLINE PERSONALITY
DISORDER

Pattern
of
instability
in
interpersonal
relationships,
self-image, and affect, and
marked impulsivity

intense feelings of resentment and

anger

The malevolent antisocial

o
Have acquired a cold-blooded
ruthlessness, an intense desire to
gain revenge for the real or
imagined mistreatment to which
they were subjected in childhood
o
Described as brutal, callous,
malignant, rancorous and vengeful

Individuals may have a pattern of

undermining themselves at the moment a
goal is about to be realized

Individuals ma feel more secure with

transitional objects than in interpersonal
relationships

Premature death from suicide may occur in

individuals with this disorder, especially in
those with co-occurring mood disorders or
substance-related disorders

Physical and sexual abuse, neglect, hostile

conflict, and early parental loss or
separation are more common in the
childhood histories of those with BPD

Frequently co-occurs with other personality

disorders

Common co-occurring axis I disorders

include mood disorders, substance-related
disorders, eating disorders, PTSD, and
ADHD
(Specific culture, age, and gender features)

Adolescents and young adults with identity

problems may transiently display behaviors
that misleadingly give the impression of
borderline personality disorder
o
Such situations are characterized by
emotional
instability,
existential
dilemmas,
uncertainty,
anxietyprovoking choices, conflicts about
sexual orientation, and competing
social pressures to decide on careers

Diagnosed predominantly in females

(Prevalence)

Estimated to be about 2% of the general

population, about 10% among individuals
seen in outpatient mental health clinics, and
about 20% among psychiatric inpatients

Ranges from 30-60% among clinical

population with personality disorders
(Course)

The most common pattern is one of chronic

instability in early adulthood, with episodes
of serious affective and impulsive dyscontrol
and high levels of use of health and metal
health resources

Impairment form the disorder and the risk of

suicide are the greatest in the young-adult

(Biological perspective)

BPD is about five times more common

among first-degree biological relatives of
those with the disorder than in the general
population

Emotional dysregulation: results from a

combination of emotional vulnerability and
an inability to modulate emotional
responses

Activation of amygdala

Low level of serotonin, resulting to

impulsive behavior
(Psychodynamic perspective)

Unstable interpersonal relationship is

caused by an unstable self-image or sense
of self

Receives others in a distorted fashion and

forms a self based on this distorted
perception formed by others
(Cognitive perspective)

Forms a weak identity because of unstable

self-image which results to unstable
interpersonal relationships, lack of selfconfidence, sudden change in opinions and
plans about career, sexual identity, and
values

A pervasive pattern of instability of

interpersonal relationships, self-image, and
affects, and marked impulsivity beginning
by early adulthood and present in a variety
of contexts, as indicated by five or more of
the following:
o
Frantic efforts to avoid real or
imagined abandonment
* Do not include suicidal or self-mutilating
behavior covered in criterion 5
o
A pattern of unstable and intense
interpersonal
relationships
characterized by alternating between
extremes
of
idealization
and
devaluation
o
Identity disturbance: markedly and
persistently unstable self-image or
sense of self
o
Impulsivity in at least two areas that
are potentially self-damaging
* Do not include suicidal or self-mutilating
behavior covered in criterion 5
o
Recurrent
suicidal
behavior,
gestures, or threats, or self-mutilating
behavior
o
Affective instability due to a marked
reactivity of mood
o
Chronic feelings of emptiness
o
Inappropriate, intense anger or
difficulty controlling anger
o
Transient, stress related paranoid
ideation or severe dissociative
symptoms

years and gradually wane with advancing

age

During their 30s and 40s, the majority if

individuals with this disorder attain grater
stability in their relationships and vocational
functioning
(Differential diagnosis)

Often co-occurs with mood disorders, and

when criteria for both are met, both may be
diagnosed

HISTRIONIC PERSONALITY
DISORDER

Pattern
of
excessive
emotionality
and
attention
seeking

* Subtypes:

Discouraged
o
Avoidant, depressive, or dependent
features
o
Pliant, submissive, loyal, humble
o
Feels vulnerable and in constant
jeopardy
o
Feels
hopeless,
depressed,
helpless, powerless

Petulant
o
Negativistic features
o
Negativistic, impatient, restless, as
well as stubborn, defiant, sullen,
pessimistic, and resentful
o
Easily
slighted
and
quickly
disillusioned

Impulsive
o
Histrionic or antisocial features
o
Capricious,
superficial,
flighty,
distractible, frenetic, and seductive
o
Fearing loss, becomes agitated,
gloomy, and irritable
o
Potentially suicidal

Self-destructive
o
Depressive or masochistic features
o
Conforming,
deferential,
and
ingratiating
behaviors
have
deteriorated
o
Increasingly high-string and moody

Begins by early adulthood and is present in

a variety of contexts

Often lively and dramatic

Charm new acquaintances by their

enthusiasm,
apparent
openness,
or
flirtatiousness

Life of the party

If they are not the center of attention, they

may do something dramatic to draw the
focus of attention to themselves

Overly concerned with impressing others by

their appearance

Strong opinions are expressed with

dramatic flair but underlying reasons are
usually vague and diffuse

Their opinions and feelings are easily

influenced by others and by current fads

(Biological perspective)

Highly responsive noradrenergic systems

(norepinephrine)

The tendency towards an excessively

emotional reaction to rejection may be
attributed to a malfunction in catecholamine

Slightly increased risk for this disorder to be

passed down to children

More often diagnosed in women than in

men
(Psychodynamic perspective)

A traumatic childhood contributes towards

the development of HPD

More severe forms of SPD derive from

disapproval in the early mother-child
relationship

Defense mechanisms

A
pervasive
pattern
of
excessive
emotionality
and
attention-seeking,
beginning by early adulthood and present in
a variety of contexts, as indicated by five or
more of the following:
o
Is uncomfortable in situation in which
he or she is not the center of
attention
o
Interaction with others is often
characterized
by
inappropriate
sexually seductive or provocative
behavior
o
Displays rapidly shifting and shallow
expression of emotions
o
Consistently
uses
physical
appearance to draw attention to self
o
Has a style of speech that is
excessively
impressionistic
and

NARCISSISTIC PERSONALITY
DISORDER

Pattern of grandiosity, need for

admiration,
and
lack
of
empathy

Flights into romantic fantasy are common

(Specific gender features)

In clinical settings, this disorder has been

diagnosed more frequently in females

Their behavioral expression may be

influenced by sex role stereotypes

(Cognitive perspective)

Style of thinking: exaggerated, diffuse, and

rapidly changing emotional states
(Sociocultural perspective)

Occurs more often in cultures that tend to

value uninhibited displays of emotion

Begins by early adulthood and is present in

a variety of contexts

Routinely overestimate their abilities and

inflate
their
accomplishments,
often
appearing boastful and pretentious

They may ruminate about long overdue

admiration and privilege and compare
themselves favorably with famous or
privileged people

They may feel that they can only be

understood by, and should only associate
with other people who are special or of high
status

Their self-esteem is almost invariably very

fragile

They expect to be catered to and are

puzzled or furious when this does not
happen

They expect to be given whatever they want

or feel they need, no matter what it might
mean to others

They may assume that others are totally

concerned about their welfare

They may begrudge others their success

possessions, feeling that they better
deserve those achievements, admiration, or
privileges
(Specific age and gender features)

May be particularly common in adolescents

and do not necessarily indicate that the
individual will go on to have narcissistic
personality disorder

50-75% are male

(Biological perspective)

Genetic factors

Lack of emotional responsiveness

The craving-for-stimulation model

Brain abnormalities
(Psychodynamic perspective)

Result of fixation to early childhood

development

Problems in the parent-child relationship

before the child turned three
(Family systems perspective)

Children replicate the narcissistic disorders

of their parents

CLUSTER C

Individuals with these disorders

often appear anxious or fearful
AVOIDANT PERSONALITY
DISORDER

Pattern of social inhibition,

feelings of inadequacy, and
hypersensitivity to negative
evaluation

People who are diagnosed with avoidant

personality disorder desire to be in
relationships with other but lack the skills
and confidence that are necessary in social
interactions
o
In order to protect themselves, from
anticipated criticism or ridicule, they
withdraw from other people; this
avoidance of interaction tends to
isolate
them
from
meaningful
relationships, and serves to reinforce
their nervousness and awkwardness

(Biological perspective)

Genetic factors
o
Obsessive-compulsive traits are more
common in monozygotic twins than
dizygotic twins
(Biological perspective)

Genetic factors
(Psychodynamic perspective)

Strong sense of shame and inadequacy

(Cognitive perspective)

Faulty thinking patterns

(Sociocultural perspective)

Result of problems in acculturation following

immigration

lacking in detail
Shows
self-dramatization,
theatricality,
and
exaggerated
expression of emotion
o
Is suggestible
o
Considers relationships to be more
intimate than they actually are
A pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for
admiration, and lack of empathy, beginning
by early adulthood and present in a variety
of contexts, as indicated by five or more of
the following:
o
Has a grandiose sense of selfimportance
o
Is preoccupied with fantasies of
unlimited success, power, brilliance,
beauty, or ideal love
o
Believes that he or she is special
and unique and can only be
understood by, or should associate
with, other special or high-status
people
o
Requires excessive admiration
o
Has a sense of entitlement
o
Is interpersonally exploitative
o
Lack empathy: is unwilling to
recognize or identify with the feelings
and needs of others
o
Is often envious of others or believes
that others are envious of him or her
o
Shows arrogant, haughty behaviors
or attitudes
o

A pervasive pattern of social inhibition,

feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity
to negative evaluation, beginning by early
adulthood and present in a variety of
contexts, as indicated by four or more of
the following:
o
Avoids occupational activities that
involve
significant
interpersonal
contact, because of fears of criticism,
disapproval, or rejection
o
Is unwilling to get involved with
people unless certain of being liked

DEPENDENT PERSONALITY
DISORDER

Pattern of submissive and

clinging behavior related to an
excessive need to be taken
care of

in social situations
Characterized
by
social
withdrawal,
shyness, distrustfulness, and emotional
distance
o
These people tend to be very cautious
when they speak, and they convey a
general impression of awkwardness in
this manner; most are highly selfconscious and self-critical about their
problems relating to others
Avoid work or school activities that involve
significant interpersonal contact because of
fears of criticism, disapproval, or rejection
Often valiantly appraise the movements and
expressions of those whom they come in
contact
Described by others as shy, timid, lonely,
and isolated
Desire affection and acceptance and may
fantasize about idealized relationships with
others
Affect occupational functioning
Often diagnosed with dependent personality
disorder and mood and anxiety disorders
Equally frequent in males and females
Prevalence in the population is between .51%
Formerly known as asthenic personality
disorder
Unable to function or make decisions
without the help of others
Chronic disorder

*Subtypes:

Disquieted dependent: mixture of both

dependent and avoidant patterns

Accommodating
dependent:
selfsacrificing
type;
more
submissive,
agreeable, and hungry for affection,
nurturance, and security than other
subtypes

Immature dependent: remains childlike

throughout
their
existence,
prefer
childhood activities, and thoroughly all
adult activities

Ineffectual dependent: combination of

dependent and schizoid personality

Selfless dependent: attachment concerns

take on a new meaning for these
individuals; these types totally merge
themselves with others

o
o
o
o
o

(Biological perspective)

Dependency is never inherited, but certain

types of genetic endowments have high
probabilities of evolving
(Psychodynamic perspective)

Fixation during the oral stage

(Cognitive perspective)

Dependency comes form self-defeating

thoughts

Shows restraints with intimate

relationships because of fear of being
shamed or ridiculed
Is preoccupied with being criticized or
rejected in social situations
Is inhibited in new interpersonal
situations because of feelings of
inadequacy
Views self a socially inept, personally
unappealing, or inferior to others
Is unusually reluctant to take
personal risks or to engage in any
new activities because they may
prove embarrassing

A pervasive and excessive need to be

taken care of that leads to submissive and
clinging behavior and fears of separation,
beginning by early adulthood and present in
a variety of contexts, as indicated by five or
more of the following:
o
Has difficulty making everyday
decisions without an excessive
amount of advice and reassurance
from others
o
Needs
others
to
assume
responsibility for most major areas of
his or her life
o
Has
difficulty
expressing
disagreement with others for fear of
loss of support of approval
* Do not include realistic fears of
retribution
o
Has difficulty initiating projects or
doing things on his or her own
because of a lack of self-confidence
in judgment or abilities rather than a
lack of motivation or energy
o
Goes to excessive lengths to obtain
nurturance and support from others,
to the point of volunteering to do
things that are unpleasant
o
Feels uncomfortable or helpless
when alone because of exaggerated
fears of being unable to care for

himself or herself
Urgently seeks another relationship
as a source of care and support when
a close relationship ends
o
Is unrealistically preoccupied with
fears of being left to take care of
himself or herself
A pervasive pattern of preoccupation with
orderliness, perfectionism, and mental and
interpersonal control, at the expense of
flexibility,
openness,
and
efficiency,
beginning by early adulthood and present in
a variety of contexts, as indicated by four or
more of the following:
o
Is preoccupied with details, rules,
lists,
order,
organization,
or
schedules to the extent that the major
point of the activity is lost
o
Shows perfectionism that interferes
with task completion
o
Is excessively devoted to work and
productivity to the exclusion of leisure
activities
and
friendships
not
accounted for by obvious economic
necessity
o
Is over-conscientious, scrupulous,
and inflexible about matters of
morality, ethics or values not
accounted for by cultural or religious
identification
o
Is unable to discard worn-out or
worthless objects even when they
have no sentimental value
o
Is reluctant to delegate tasks or to
work with others unless they submit
to exactly his or her way of doing
things
o
Adopts a miserly spending style
toward both self and others; money is
viewed as something to be hoarded
for future catastrophes
o
Shows rigidity and stubbornness
o

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE
PERSONALITY DISORDER

Pattern of preoccupation with

orderliness, perfectionism, and
control

Maintains a regulated, highly structured,

and strictly organized life
Scrupulous and over conscientious over
matters of morality and ethics
Constructs world in terms of rules,
regulations, schedules, and hierarchies
Rigid, stubborn, and notably upset by
unfamiliar or novel ideas and customs
Sees self as devoted to work, industrious,
reliable, meticulous, and efficient, largely to
the exclusion of leisure activities
Actions and memories are highly regulated
forbidden impulses sequestered and tightly
bound
Personal and social conflicts are denied,
kept from awareness, and maintained under
control
Unrelaxed, tense, joyless, and grim
Restraints warm feelings and keeps most
emotions under tight control

PERSONALITY DISORDER NOT

OTHERWISE SPECIFIED

Category provided for two

situations:
o
The
individuals
personality
pattern
meets
the
general
criteria for a personality
disorder and traits of
several
different
personality disorders are
present, but the criteria
for
any
specific
personality disorder are
not met
o
The
individuals

Disorders of personality functioning that

do not meet the criteria for any specific
personality disorder
o
Presence of features of more than
one specific personality disorder
that do not meet the full criteria for
any one personality disorder
(mixed personality), but that
together cause clinically significant
distress or impairment in one or
more important areas of functioning

(Biological perspective)

Serotonin imbalance
(Psychodynamic perspective)

Fixation in the anal stage

Hoarding orientation: hoard and save and

rarely share anything
o
Negative qualities: rigidity and
stubbornness
o
Positive
qualities:
orderliness,
cleanliness, and punctuality
(Behavioral perspective)

Individuals with OCPD were consistently

punished for negative behavior, failure, and
rule-breaking while receiving no praise for
success and compliance; to avoid
punishment, the child develops a habit of
rigidly following rules that last into
adulthood
(Sociocultural perspective)

Societies or religions that are very

authoritarian an bound rules may impact
early childhood development that affects
personality expression

personality
pattern
meets
the
general
criteria for a personality
disorder,
but
the
individual is considered
to have a personality
disorder that is not
included
in
the
classification