Acacia pycnantha

Acacia pycnantha, commonly known as the golden wattle, is a tree of the family Fabaceae native to southeastern Australia. It grows to a height of 8 m (25 ft) and
has phyllodes (attened leaf stalks) instead of true leaves.
Sickle-shaped, these are between 9 and 15 cm (3.59 in)
long, and 13.5 cm (1 2 1 1 2 in) wide. The profuse fragrant, golden owers appear in late winter and spring,
followed by long seed pods. Plants are cross-pollinated
by several species of honeyeater and thornbill, which
visit nectaries on the phyllodes and brush against owers,
transferring pollen between them. An understorey plant
in eucalyptus forest, it is found from southern New South
Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, through Victoria and into southeastern South Australia.
Explorer Thomas Mitchell collected the type specimen,
from which George Bentham wrote the species description in 1842. No subspecies are recognised. The bark of
A. pycnantha produces more tannin than any other wattle
species, resulting in its commercial cultivation for production of this compound. It has been widely grown as
an ornamental garden plant and for cut ower production, but has become a weed in South Africa, Tanzania,
Italy, Portugal, Sardinia, India, Indonesia, New Zealand,
as well as Western Australia, Tasmania and New South
Wales. Acacia pycnantha was made the ocial oral em- Habit, Geelong Botanic Gardens
blem of Australia in 1988, and has been featured on the
countrys postal stamps.

ally takes place from July to November (late winter to

early summer) in the golden wattles native range; because the later buds develop faster, owering peaks over
July and August.[7][8] The bright yellow inorescences occur in groups of 40 to 80 on 2.59 cm (13 1 2 in)-long
racemes that arise from axillary buds.[2] Each inorescence is a ball-like structure that is covered by 40 to 100
small owers that have ve tiny petals (pentamerous) and
long erect stamens, which give the ower head a uy
appearance.[4]

Description

Acacia pycnantha generally grows as a small tree to between 3 and 8 m (1025 ft) in height,[2] though trees of
up to 12 m (40 ft) high have been reported in Morocco.[3]
The bark is generally dark brown to greysmooth in
younger plants though it can be furrowed and rough in
older plants.[4] Branchlets may be bare and smooth or
covered with a white bloom.[2] The mature trees do not
have true leaves but have phyllodesat and widened
leaf stemsthat hang down from the branches. Shiny
and dark green, these are between 9 and 15 cm (3.59
in) long, 13.5 cm (1 2 1 1 2 in) wide and falcate (sickleshaped) to oblanceolate in shape.[2] New growth has a
bronze coloration.[5] Field observations at Hale Conservation Park show the bulk of new growth to take place
over spring and summer from October to January.[6]

Developing after owering has nished, the seed pods

are attish, straight or slightly curved, 514 cm (25 1 2
in) long and 58 mm wide.[9][8] They are initially bright
green, maturing to dark brown and have slight constrictions between the seeds,[10] which are arranged in a line
in the pod.[8] The oblong seeds themselves are 5.5 to 6
mm long, black and shiny, with a clavate (club-shaped)
aril.[2] They are released in December and January, when
the pods are fully ripe.[7]

Floral buds are produced year-round on the tips of new Species similar in appearance include mountain hickory
growth, but only those initiated between November and wattle (A. obliquinervia), coast golden wattle (A. leioMay go on to ower several months later. Flowering usu- phylla) and golden wreath wattle (A. saligna).[2] Acacia
1

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT

obliquinervia has grey-green phyllodes, fewer owers in lia) raised in Europe have been given the names Acacia x
its ower heads, and broader (1.252.5 cm (1 2 1 in)- siebertiana and Acacia x deneufvillei.[1]
wide) seed pods.[11] A. leiophylla has paler phyllodes.[12]
A. saligna has longer, narrower phyllodes.[4]

3 Distribution and habitat

2

Taxonomy

Acacia pycnantha was rst formally described by botanist

George Bentham in the London Journal of Botany in
1842.[13] The type specimen was collected by the explorer Thomas Mitchell in present-day northern Victoria
between Pyramid Hill and the Loddon River.[14][1] Bentham thought it was related to A. leiophylla, which he described in the same paper.[13] The specic epithet pycnantha is derived from the Greek words pyknos (dense)
and anthos (owers), a reference to the dense cluster
of owers that make up the globular inorescences.[15]
Queensland botanist Les Pedley reclassied the species
as Racosperma pycnanthum in 2003, when he proposed
placing almost all Australian members of the genus into
the new genus Racosperma.[16] However, this name is
Galls formed by Trichilogaster signiventris wasps on a plant in
treated as a synonym of its original name.[1]
South Africa
Johann Georg Christian Lehmann described Acacia petiolaris in 1851 from a plant grown at Hamburg Botanic Golden wattle occurs in south-eastern Australia from
Gardens from seed said to be from the Swan River Colony South Australia's southern Eyre Peninsula and Flinders
(Perth). [14] Carl Meissner described A. falcinella from Ranges across Victoria and northwards into inland areas
material from Port Lincoln in 1855. Bentham classi- of southern New South Wales and the Australian Capied both as A. pycnantha in his 1864 Flora Australiensis, tal Territory.[8][22] It is found in the understorey of open
though he did categorise a possible subspecies angustifo- eucalypt forests on dry, shallow soils.[9]
lia based on material from Spencer Gulf with narrower
phyllodes and fewer inorescences.[17] However, no sub- The species has become naturalised beyond its original
species are currently recognised, though an informal clas- range in Australia. In New South Wales it is especially
sication distinguishes wetland and dryland forms, the prevalent around Sydney and the Central Coast region. In
Tasmania it has spread in the east of the state and become
latter with narrower phyllodes.[18]
weedy in bushland near Hobart. In Western Australia, it
In 1921 Joseph Maiden described Acacia westonii from
is found in the Darling Range and western wheatbelt as
the northern and western slopes of Mount Jerrabomberra well as Esperance and Kalgoorlie.[4]
near Queanbeyan in New South Wales. He felt it was
similar to, but distinct from, A. pycnantha and was un- Outside Australia it has become naturalised in South
certain whether it warranted species rank. His colleague Africa, Tanzania, Italy, Portugal, Sardinia, India, In[4]
Richard Hind Cambage grew seedlings and reported they donesia and New Zealand. It is present in California
had much longer internodes than those of A. pycnantha, as a garden escapee, but is not considered to be natu[23]
In South Africa, where it had been inand that the phyllodes appeared to have three nectaries ralised there.
[19]
troduced
between
1858 and 1865 for dune stabilization
rather than the single one of the latter species.
It is
[1]
tannin
production,
it had spread along waterways into
and
now regarded as a synonym of A. pycnantha.
forest, mountain and lowland fynbos, and borderline arCommon names recorded include golden wattle, green eas between fynbos and karoo.[24] The gall-forming wasp
wattle, black wattle, and broad-leaved wattle.[1] At Trichilogaster signiventris has been introduced in South
Ebenezer Mission in the Wergaia country of north- Africa for biological control and has reduced the capacity
western Victoria the aborigines referred to it as of trees to reproduce throughout their range.[25] The eggs
witch.[20][21]
are laid by adult wasps into buds of ower heads in the
Hybrids of the species are known in nature and summer, before hatching in May and June when the larcultivation. In the Whipstick forest near Bendigo vae induce the formation of the grape-like galls and prein Victoria, putative hybrids with Whirrakee wattle vent ower development. The galls can be so heavy that
(Acacia williamsonii) have been identied; these re- branches break under their weight.[26] In addition, the insemble hakea wattle (Acacia hakeoides).[2] Garden hy- troduction in 2001 of the acacia seed weevil Melanterius
brids with Queensland silver wattle (Acacia podalyriifo- compactus has also proved eective.[27]

Ecology

silvereye, striated, bu-rumped and brown thornbills. As

well as eating nectar, birds often pick o insects on the
foliage. Honeybees, native bees, ants and ies also visit
nectaries, but generally do not come into contact with
the owers during this activity.[6] The presence of Acacia pycnantha is positively correlated with numbers of
swift parrots overwintering in boxironbark forest in central Victoria, though it is not clear whether the parrots are
feeding on them or some other factor is at play.[35]
The wood serves as food for larvae of the jewel beetle species Agrilus assimilis, A. australasiae and A. hypoleucus.[36] The larvae of a number of buttery species
feed on the foliage including the ery jewel, icilius blue,
lithocroa blue and wattle blue.[37] Trichilogaster wasps
form galls in the owerheads, disrupting seed set[38] and
Acizzia acaciaepycnanthae, a psyllid, sucks sap from
the leaves.[39] Acacia pycnantha is a host to rust fungus
species in the genus Uromycladium that aect the phyllodes and branches. These include Uromycladium simplex that forms pustules and U. tepperianum that causes
large swollen brown to black galls that eventually lead
to the death of the host plant.[40][41] Two fungal species
have been isolated from leaf spots on Acacia pycnantha:
Seimatosporium arbuti, which is found on a wide range of
plant hosts, and Monochaetia lutea.[42]

A y visiting a nectary on a phyllode

5 Uses

Though plants are usually killed by a severe re, mature

specimens are able to resprout.[28][29] Seeds are able to
persist in the soil for more than ve years, germinating
after re.[29]
Like other wattles, Acacia pycnantha xes nitrogen from
the atmosphere.[30] It hosts bacteria known as rhizobia
that form root nodules, where they make nitrogen available in organic form and thus help the plant grow in poor
soils. A eld study across Australia and South Africa
found that the microbes are genetically diverse, belonging
to various strains of the species Bradyrhizobium japonicum and genus Burkholderia in both countries. It is unclear whether the golden wattle was accompanied by the
bacteria to the African continent or encountered new populations there.[31]
Trunk exuding gum
Self-incompatible, Acacia pycnantha cannot fertilise itself and requires cross-pollination between plants to set Golden wattle has been grown in temperate regions
seed.[32] Birds facilitate this and eld experiments keep- around the world for the tannin in its bark, as it provides
ing birds away from owers greatly reduces seed pro- the highest yield of all wattles.[15] Trees can be harvested
duction. Nectaries are located on phyllodes; those near for tannin from seven to ten years of age.[3] Commercial
open owers become active, producing nectar that birds use of its timber is limited by the small size of trees, but it
feed upon just before or during owering. While feed- has high value as a fuel wood.[43] The scented owers have
ing, birds brush against the ower heads and dislodge been used for perfume making,[15] and honey production
pollen and often visit multiple trees.[6] Several species of in humid areas. However, the pollen is too dry to be colhoneyeater, including the white-naped, yellow-faced,[33] lected by bees in dry climates.[3] In southern Europe, it is
New Holland,[34] and occasionally white-plumed and one of several species grown for the cut-ower trade and
crescent honeyeaters,[33] and Eastern spinebills have been sold as mimosa.[44] Like many other species of wattle,
observed foraging. Other bird species include the Acacia pycnantha exudes gum when stressed.[45] Eaten

REFERENCES

by indigenous Australians, the gum has been investigated Hawke, the Prime Ministers wife. In 1992, 1 September
as a possible alternative to gum arabic, commonly used was formally declared "National Wattle Day".[15]
in the food industry.[2][45]
The Australian Coat of Arms includes a wreath of wattle; this does not, however, accurately represent a golden
wattle. Similarly, the green and gold colours used by Aus6 Cultivation
tralian international sporting teams were inspired by the
colours of wattles in general, rather than the golden wattle
Golden wattle is cultivated in Australia and was intro- specically.[15]
duced to the northern hemisphere in the mid-1800s. The species was depicted on a stamp captioned watAlthough it has a relatively short lifespan of 15 to 30 tle as part of a 195960 Australian stamp set featuring
years, it is widely grown for its bright yellow, fra- Australian native owers. In 1970, a 5c stamp labelled
grant owers.[15][38] As well as being an ornamental Golden Wattle was issued to complement an earlier
plant, it has been used as a windbreak or in control- set depicting the oral emblems of Australia. To mark
ling erosion. Trees are sometimes planted with the taller Australia Day in 1990, a 41c stamp labelled Acacia pysugar gum (Eucalyptus cladocalyx) to make a two-layered cnantha was issued.[15] Another stamp labelled Golden
windbreak.[3] One form widely cultivated was originally Wattle, with a value of 70c, was issued in 2014.[51]
collected on Mount Arapiles in western Victoria. It is
oriferous, with fragrant owers appearing from April
to July.[46] The species has a degree of frost tolerance
and is adaptable to a wide range of soil conditions, but 8 See also
it prefers good drainage.[46] It tolerates heavy soils in
List of ora on stamps of Australia
dry climates,[47] as well as mild soil salinity.[48] It can
suer yellowing (chlorosis) in limestone-based (alkaline)
soils.[3] Highly drought-tolerant, it needs 370550 mm
(1020 in) winter rainfall for cultivation.[3] It is vulner- 9 References
able to gall attack in cultivation.[49] Propagation is from
seed which has been pre-soaked in hot water to soften the [1] "Acacia pycnantha Benth.. Australian Plant Name Index
hard seed coating.[15]
(APNI), IBIS database. Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government.

Symbolic and cultural references

[2] Kodela 2001, p. 298.

[3] Baumer, Michel (1983). Notes on Trees and Shrubs in
Arid and Semi-arid Regions. Food & Agriculture Org. pp.
3839. ISBN 978-92-5-101354-0.
[4] Golden Wattle Acacia pycnantha". Weeds of Australia:
Biosecurity Queensland Edition. Queensland Government.
Retrieved 31 August 2014.
[5] Birkenshaw, Marie; Henley, Claire (2012). Plants of Melbournes Western Plains: A Gardeners Guide to the Original Flora. Australian Plants Society, Keilor Plains Group.
p. 72. ISBN 978-0-909830-65-6.
[6] Vanstone, Vivien A.; Paton, David C. (1988). Extraoral Nectaries and Pollination of Acacia pycnantha Benth
by Birds. Australian Journal of Botany 36 (5): 51931.
doi:10.1071/BT9880519.

Golden wattle in full ower

Although wattles, and in particular the golden wattle, have

been the informal oral emblem of Australia for many
years, it was not until Australias bicentenary in 1988 that
the golden wattle was formally adopted as the oral emblem of Australia. This was proclaimed by GovernorGeneral Sir Ninian Stephen in the Government gazette
published on 1 September.[50] The day was marked by
a ceremony at the Australian National Botanic Gardens
which included the planting of a golden wattle by Hazel

[7] Buttrose, M.S.; Grant, W.J.R.; Sedgley, M. (1981).

Floral Development in Acacia pycnantha Benth. In
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[8] "Acacia pycnantha Benth.. PlantNET New South Wales
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[9] Costermans, Leon (1981). Native Trees and Shrubs of
South-eastern Australia. Kent Town, South Australia:
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[10] Simmons, Marion H. (1987). Acacias of Australia. Nelson. pp. 16465. ISBN 978-0-17-007179-6.
[11] Kodela 2001, p. 251.
[12] Elliot & Jones 1985, p. 74.
[13] Bentham, George (1842). Notes on Mimoseae, with a
Synopsis of Species. London Journal of Botany 1: 351.
[14] Kodela 2001, p. 297.
[15] Boden, Anne (1985). Golden Wattle: Floral Emblem of Australia. Australian National Botanic Gardens.
Archived from the original on 28 August 2007. Retrieved
28 August 2007.
[16] Pedley, Les (2003). A synopsis of Racosperma C.Mart.
(Leguminosae: Mimosoideae)". Austrobaileya 6 (3):
44596.
[17] Bentham, George (1864). "Acacia pycnantha". Flora
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[18] Ndlovu, J.; Richardson, D. M.; Wilson, J. R. U.; O'Leary,
M.; Le Roux, J. J. (2013). Elucidating the native sources
of an invasive tree species, Acacia pycnantha, reveals unexpected native range diversity and structure. Annals
of Botany 111 (5): 895904. doi:10.1093/aob/mct057.
ISSN 0305-7364.
[19] Maiden, Joseph Henry (1921). Notes on Two Acacias.
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[20] Maiden, Joseph Henry. Wattles and wattlebarks of New
South Wales (PDF). Sydney, New South Wales: Charles
Potter.
[21] Clark, Ian (1995). Scars in the Landscape: Hidden Aboriginal History in Western Victoria. Aboriginal Studies
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[22] "Acacia pycnantha Benth.. Flora of Victoria Knowledge
Base. Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne. Retrieved 6
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[23] "Acacia pycnantha Benth.. Jepson Flora Project. Retrieved 2 September 2014.
[24] Dennill, G. B.; Gordon, A. J. (1991). "Trichilogaster
sp. (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae), a potential biocontrol
agent for the weed Acacia pycnantha (Fabaceae)". Entomophaga 36 (2): 295301. doi:10.1007/BF02374565.
[25] Muniappan, Rangaswamy; Reddy, Gadi V. P.; Raman,
Anantanarayanan (5 March 2009). Biological Control of
Tropical Weeds Using Arthropods. Cambridge University
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[26] Homann, J. H.; Impson, F. A. C.; Moran, V. C.;
Donnelly, D. (2002). Biological Control of Invasive Golden Wattle Trees (Acacia pycnantha) by a gall
wasp, Trichilogaster sp. (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae),
in South Africa. Biological Control 25 (1): 6473.
doi:10.1016/s1049-9644(02)00039-7.

[27] Cullen, Jim; Julien, Mic; McFadyen, Rachel (2012).

Biological Control of Weeds in Australia. CSIRO Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-643-10421-1.
[28] "Acacia pycnantha". orabank. Greening Australia. Retrieved 2 September 2014.
[29] "Acacia pycnantha Benth.. FloraBase. Department of
Environment and Conservation, Government of Western
Australia.
[30] Greening Australia (2010).
Acacia pycnantha.
Florabank. Yarralumla, Australian Capital Territory:
Australian Government/Greening Australia/CSIRO.
Retrieved 10 October 2014.
[31] Rodrguez-Echeverra, Susana; Le Roux, Johannes J.;
Crisstomo, Joo A.; Ndlovu, Joice (2011). Jack-of-alltrades and master of many? How does associated rhizobial diversity inuence the colonization success of Australian Acacia species?". Diversity and Distributions 17
(5): 94657. doi:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00787.x.
[32] Kenrick, J.; Knox, R.B. (1988). Quantitative Analysis of
Self-Incompatibility in Trees of Seven Species of Acacia.
Journal of Heredity 80 (3): 24045. ISSN 0022-1503.
[33] Ford, Hugh A.; Forde, Neville (1976). Birds as Possible
Pollinators of Acacia pycnantha". Australian Journal of
Botany 24 (6): 79395. doi:10.1071/BT9760793.
[34] Corella. Australian Bird Study Association. 1998.
[35] Mac Nally, Ralph; Horrocks, Gregory (2000).
Landscape-scale Conservation of an Endangered
Migrant:the Swift Parrot (Lathamus discolor) in its
Winter Range. Biological Conservation 92 (3): 33543.
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[36] Jendek, Eduard; Polkov, Janka (2014). Host Plants of
World Agrilus (Coleoptera, Buprestidae). New York, New
York: Springer. p. 455. ISBN 978-3-319-08410-7.
[37] "Acacia pycnantha". Electronic Flora of South Australia
Fact Sheet. State Herbarium of South Australia. Retrieved
1 September 2014.
[38] Maslin, Bruce Roger; McDonald, Maurice William
(2004). AcaciaSearch: Evaluation of Acacia as a Woody
Crop Option for Southern Australia (PDF). Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. ISBN 9780-642-58585-1.
[39] Old, K.M.; Vercoe, T.K., Floyd, R.B.;Wingeld, M.J.
(2002). FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe
Movement of Germplasm No. 20 Acacia sp. (PDF).
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. p.
24. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
[40] McAlpine, Daniel (1906). The rusts of Australia their
structure, nature and classication. Department of Agriculture (Victoria). pp. 11012.
[41] "Uromycladium tepperianum on Acacia spp.. Invasive
and Emerging Fungal Pathogens Diagnostic Fact Sheets.
United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2
September 2014.

10

[42] Swart, H.J.; Griths, D.A. (1974). Australian Leafinhabiting Fungi: IV. Two Coelomycetes on Acacia pycnantha". Transactions of the British Mycological Society
62 (1): 15161. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(74)80016-1.
[43] Maslin, B.R.;Thomson, L.A.J.;McDonald.
M.W.;
Hamilton-Brown, S. (1998). Edible Wattle Seeds of Southern Australia: A Review of Species for Use in Semi-Arid
Regions. CSIRO Publishing. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-64310253-8.
[44] Wattle uses. World Wide Wattle. Retrieved 1 September
2014.
[45] Annison, Georey; Trimble Rodney P.; Topping, David
L. Feeding Australian Acacia Gums and Gum Arabic
Leads to Non-Starch Polysaccharide Accumulation in the
Cecum of Rats (PDF). Journal of Nutrition 125: 28392.
[46] Elliot & Jones 1985, p. 103.
[47] Lothian, T.R.N. (1969). Gardening in the Low Rainfall
Regions. Australian Plants 5 (38): 5455, 8095 [89].
[48] Zwar, J. (1975). Trees in Dry Areas. Australian Plants
8 (64): 16467 [165].
[49] Holliday, Ivan (1989). A Field Guide to Australian Trees
(2nd ed.). Port Melbourne, Victoria: Hamlyn. p. 28.
ISBN 0-947334-08-4.
[50] Stephen, Sir Ninian (1988). Proclamation of Acacia pycnantha as the Floral Emblem of Australia. Australian
National Botanic Gardens. Archived from the original on
11 September 2014. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
[51] Plant:Acacia pycnantha". Australian Plants on Stamps.
Australian National. Retrieved 1 September 2014.

9.1

Cited texts

Elliot, Rodger W.; Jones, David L.; Blake, Trevor

(1985). Encyclopaedia of Australian Plants Suitable
for Cultivation 2. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Lothian
Press. p. 103. ISBN 0-85091-143-5.
Kodela, Phillip G. (2001). Acacia. In Wilson,
Annette; Orchard, Anthony E. Flora of Australia.
11A, 11B, Part 1: Mimosaceae, Acacia. CSIRO
Publishing / Australian Biological Resources Study.
pp. 29798. ISBN 978-0-643-06718-9.

10

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