Novel Method for Evaluating the Series Resistance of Individual Cells

in encapsulated PV Modules by Means of a DLP Projection System.

J.D. Silva, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leics LE11 3TU
A paper for publication in Solar Energy Journal

Abstract: In this work a novel method is presented for the determination of the internal series resistance of individual
cells that compose an encapsulated photovoltaic module, by generating partial shading patterns using a Digital Light
Processing (DLP) projector. Given the impossibility to physically access the internal cells on a PV module, there is a
need on the PV industry for the development of fast and accurate systems that allow cell-level characterization. Several
analytical methods have been developed to determine the internal parameters of the cells, but these methods require the
projection of partial shading, which until now had been achieved by means of mechanical systems attached to the cells.
The aim of this project was to develop a non-destructive measurement system for determining the operational
parameters of the individual cells, by implementing high-speed image generation using a commercial DLP projector.
The developed system was be able to produce automatic shading patterns that permitted the acquisition of reliable and
repeatable data that could then be used to calculate the parameters using the previously developed methods. Using a
projector system results in faster and less cumbersome measurements than with the previously proposed mechanical
shading systems, achieving measurement correlations of up to 85%.
Keywords: PV module, Series Resistance, Partial Shading, DLP projector, LabVIEW.

1. INTRODUCTION
Commercial photovoltaic (PV) modules are manufactured as encapsulated, sealed arrays of solar cells,
predominantly series interconnected. As a result, the modules total output current is kept at relatively low values,
allowing to have smaller bus bars, thus maximizing the modules overall exposed active area, as well as keeping the
total output voltages sufficiently high so that the energy produced by the module can be efficiently extracted and
transported. Encapsulation of modules is a necessary feature given that they are continuously exposed to the open sky,
having to overcome all weather conditions for periods that in theory should be close to 20 years or more. This also
means that the internal layers cannot be intervened of modified in any way on the risk of damaging the encapsulation
and potentially compromising the integrity of the solar panel.
The impossibility to alter the internal connections of the PV modules has posed a very important challenge to PV
device characterisation, given that it makes it very difficult to assess the operational status of individual cells and the
identification of potential faults in them. Characterization of individual cells of encapsulated modules is a significant
concern in the solar industry, given that a PV modules performance is limited by the less efficient of its cells, meaning
this that if one cell underperforms, the whole module will be limited by this cell. This can cause not only reduction of
the total output power but can also generate harmful overheating for the cells that significantly underperform. This
phenomenon makes energy generation significantly lower than expected and in extreme cases can lead to failures of one
or more of the cells, compromising the operability of the module and possibly an entire PV installation.
The main objective of this project is to develop a non-destructive automated system for assessing the performance
of individual cells in a PV module, by determining the series resistance of each of the individual cells, implementing
high-speed image generation using a commercial DLP projector. The developed system was be able to produce
automatic shading patterns to detect the underperforming cells in an encapsulated module and evaluate their
performance parameters, allowing measurements to be faster and less cumbersome than in previous work.
The method for the calculation of the series resistance of a PV module based on the IV curves generated at two
different irradiances, was first published by Wolf [20] in 1963. This method became a standard for the solar industry
given that even if the tests are realized on relatively low irradiances as compared to the STC, it generates Rs (series
resistance) values that are extremely close to the values obtained by evaluating the PV modules under STC. This
characteristic makes the method very robust and is currently one of the most commonly used series resistance
calculation methods. This technique has been used in the present project as one of the main tests to be realized to the PV
module, to evaluate the effectiveness and precision of the computer generated shading, by comparing the results to

those obtained by using an STC solar simulator. In [22] a modification of the Wolf method is proposed, three different
irradiance IV curves are used and the results obtained for each of the curves are linearised. This modification increases
the precision of the method, especially when the tests are being realized under low irradiance conditions, but with the
downside of having to use different irradiances for each of the IV curves, condition that is not always achievable.
While this method has proven to be very useful, it only applies to the determination of the total series resistance of
the PV module, leaving still the determination of the series resistance of the individual cells unexplored. Several
researchers have used this as a base for the determination of individual resistances by implementing partial shading. In
[1], Alers introduces a method for obtaining the shunt resistance (Rsh) and the short-circuit current (Isc) of individual
cells of a PV module by implementing partial shading to the cells through a mesh. The technique is based on differential
voltage and current measurements obtained from a set of I-V curves, acquired from PV modules with partially shaded
cells establishing the relationship between the differential measurements with the series and shunt resistances of the
shaded cells.
In [2] Silvestre and Chouder produce a complete method for the calculation of the series resistances of internal
cells, condensing all the measurements and calculations needed for the extraction of series resistances. In this method
the Rs of the cells is extracted by maximizing the dV/dI function obtained from the IV curve generated by partially
shading one cell. Subsequently, the dV/dI of all the other unshaded cells is extracted from this measurements and the
individual series resistances are calculated by subtracting the resistance of all the unshaded cells from the one obtained
for the whole module. Tests are performed for two predefined shading values, which were achieved by implementing
3D printed meshes that could exactly simulate the desired shading levels. This process is repeated for all the cells which
means that it requires a significant amount of time and effort. This was one of the main guides for the present project
and provided a theoretical as well as a practical base for this work, although some changes were introduced to the
method given that the results have decreased accuracy when the tests are realized under low irradiance conditions, while
also other issues appear in a projector based system, which will be discussed in a later section.
A similar method for characterisation of the characteristics of polycrystalline PV cells through the I-V curves
obtained under different shading conditions is also realized by De Bernardez and Buitrago in [6]. A test shading is
applied to only one of the cells and the effect that this has on the PV module output is investigated. Different geometries
of shading patterns are used covering many cells at a once, giving what could be the base of correlation between the
changes that shading generates in the I-V curves and the deduction of the internal parameters of the cells. Shadowing
for I-V measurements has also been applied to concentrating PV modules in [7], by using an electromechanical frame to
shut the light entrance to the cells. The system used for the I-V curve measurements was similar to the one implemented
in the current project, given that it included an automatic shading system instead of manual installation.
A technique for the measurement of shunt resistance and photocurrent of individual cells in a PV module is
presented in [4] by Eisgruber and Sites, implementing laser scanning instead of partially shading the cells, which
enables measuring directly the quantum efficiency, given that the number of photons and the energy incident onto the
sample is known. Differential measurements for the determination of individual resistances and photocurrents are also
applied by using different wavelengths for the laser beam pointed to the cells. This method offers high accuracy and a
great potential for developing an automatic system, but it also requires the use of laser systems that can be costly and
difficult to use, which makes the industrial large scale implementation of such technologies very hard.
The use of a projector is introduced by Alonso-Garcia et al in [3] where a DMD (digital micro-mirror device)
projector is used as a solar simulator for the characterization of PV modules and determination of imperfections. The
need for performing a spatial irradiance compensation is introduced, prior to the use of the system as a simulator, given
that the difference in the irradiances along the projected area is mostly dependent on the relative position of the
projector and the PV module. The compensation is performed by dividing the projected area into a 20 x 20 square
matrix. A system composed by 20 photo detectors that measure the irradiances for each position along the x-axis was
designed, and this photodetector array was moved down the y-axis so that every point was measured. A grey-scale
compensated image is finally applied so that uniformity of irradiance is achieved. This calibration method is emulated
in the present project with the difference that instead of using a one axis system, a two axis system is used.
A manual coordinate system has been developed so that the physical geometry of the PV modules could be fed
into the control software. This is crucial so that the partial shading patterns are correctly projected over the desired cell.
The projection area has been calibrated so that an irradiance uniformity of 5% is achieved over the complete projection
matrix, accomplishing the characteristics of uniformity of a class B solar simulator. In order to access individual cells,
different shading patterns were projected over the individual cells acquiring IV curves under different shading
conditions, which the software would later analyse and generate the series resistance values for each of the cells as well
as the PV module as a whole. The acquired results were then compared to those obtained by evaluating each of the cells
by direct connection.

2. METHODOLOGY
The methodology for the realization of the present project followed different stages prior to the realization of the
tests and measurements given that it was necessary to design and implement a computer program that could control the
shading pattern generation as well as the data acquisition software so that the data could be reliably acquired and stored
for the later processing and interpretation. Data analysis software was also implemented so that useful results are
produced. The projection system needed to be calibrated so that the irradiance along the projection area is uniform,
increasing this way the accuracy of the acquired data. The final stage was the theoretical revision and selection of the
individual series measurement so that the capabilities of the system were used to the maximum extent and the future
developments for the system could be explored.
2.1 Hardware Setup
The hardware setup used in the development of the project was composed by a Keithley 2040, an Acer DLP
projector and a custom made c-Si PV module. The Keithley source-meter had two main purposes, it served as voltage
source-current meter for the sweeping of the IV curve for each of the shading patterns and also worked as a data
acquisition device by transferring all the acquired data points to the LabVIEW master program. The communication
between the Keithley 2040 and the computer running the program was realized via a serial COM port at a speed of
57600 bauds.
The selected projector was an Acer P7605 DLP projector with a 370 W lamp capable of generating a brightness of
5000 ANSI lumens. The Digital Light Processing technology allows the projector to turn off pixels when they are
being programed to project colour black, allowing to achieve a 99.5% illumination difference between the white and the
black colour. This characteristic was determining for this project, given that it allows the system to project a black pixel
as it was a shaded spot in the PV module. Furthermore this projector has relatively high irradiance intensity compared
to other commercial products.
The PV module used in the project was custom assembled so that the terminals of each of the cells were extended
to the outside of the panel, allowing to directly measure the IV curve and the series resistance of each of the cells, as
every cell had its individual connections. This was made as a control function so that the results obtained from the
calculation of the resistances from the partial shading tests could be compared to those obtained directly from the cells
and so assess the validity and precision of the methods proposed. The PV module was composed by 6 series connected
crystalline silicon cells, each with a conversion efficiency of 18%. Table 1. Shows the main characteristics of the test
PV module obtained from the STC test, as well as the results obtained after testing each cell independently. A base was
also built with aluminium MBS frames to support the PV module at the right vertical position during the experiments
and provide stability of the sample during measurements. It also provided flexibility so that the sample can be moved
forward and backwards and can be inserted in and removed from the experimental setup easily.
2.2 Control Software Development
For the purpose of controlling all the different hardware equipment and data analysis requirements, a software was
designed in LabView that could control the Keithley source-meter and acquire and analyse the generated data. The
software also controlled the DLP projector for the projection of the shading patterns on the sample, by superimposing
them to the irradiance uniformity correction image. The control software was also able to finally extract the main
operational parameters (Isc, Voc, Impp, and Vmpp) and use them afterwards to perform the calculations of the series
resistances generated under the different scenarios. The information about the number, size and spacing of the cells had
to be manually introduced to the software so that it could effectively project the appropriate shading patterns on the
correct positions. In a future implementation, an automated system can be realised so that machine vision algorithms
could be used to automatically detect the number and position of the cells, this to avoid the manual feeding of the
information so that the initial configuration process can be realised in much less time.
The shading pattern generator was developed as part of the LabView control software. Its purpose is to generate a
random number of black pixels in accordance with the required shading value and the portion of the PV module that is
meant to be shaded. During the different tests that were executed as part of this project, the system had to be able to
project any percentage of shading on any of the cells, or onto the complete module, where 0% shading means that there
is no shading and 100% shading means all pixels of the specific shaded area are in the off state which means completely
dark.
2.3 Projection System Calibration
The calibration of the projection system was one of the most important stages of the setup process, given that the
quality of the results of the characterization system is strongly dependent on the irradiance uniformity of the projection
along the area of the PV module. For this reason calibration aimed to ensure that the system should comply with the

characteristics of a class B solar simulator regarding irradiance uniformity, where a maximum irradiance spatial nonuniformity of 5% is permitted.
The spatial irradiance measurement was realized by using a system developed at CREST in Loughborough
University, which allows to perform point by point precise irradiance measurements over a selected area by moving a
silicon photodetector over the predefined area. The system is composed by a photodetector attached to an x-y stage
system, which allows the photodetector to move along the two axis with a minimum step size of 1mm. The system also
comes with its own software in the LabView environment.
For the projects setup, the x-y stage was fixed between the projector and the sample, as is presented in figure 1b),
so that the projected image perceived by the x-y stage would be an exact scale representation of the image reaching the
PV module.
The XY stage was placed in such a position in front of the projector, so that all the uniformity test images were
considered under the same conditions and that each of the squares that composed the measuring matrix would remain
constant along the uniformity configuration. The distance between the projector and the x-y stage was 45 cm, which
allowed the 20x20 cm moving parts to scan the complete projection area. Using the uniformity scan results, greyscale
images were configured which had the structure of the inverse uniformity maps. By using this method the right
grayscale image is defined so that when projecting this image as a background, the irradiance is uniform across every
point of the projection.

a)

b)

Figure 1. a) Test PV module dimensions and layout b) General system layout with XY table.

2.4 Total module series resistance calculation methods.

The calculation of the series resistance of the complete PV module was realized by using the two I-V curve
method under different irradiance conditions as well as the slope at the V OC point method. The use of a DLP projector
makes the implementation of the two I-V curve method extremely easy, as reducing the irradiance of the projection is
done by just randomly inserting a percentage of dark pixels in random positions of the projection. As it was stated in an
earlier section, the apparent series resistance of a PV cell is strongly dependent on the irradiance levels to which the
module is being exposed to, especially in low irradiance conditions. This means that results under the low irradiance
intensity of the projector will differ from result acquired in STC conditions.
The series resistance using the slope method was calculated for three different cases; at an irradiance of 1000
w/m2 so that the series resistance at STC could be defined; at an approximate irradiance of 27.8 w/m2, which
corresponds to the maximum irradiance that the projector can deliver and finally at an approximate irradiance of 16.7
w/m2 which corresponds to the irradiance delivered by the projector under a 50% shading of the full module. This was
done to investigate the influence of irradiance on the series resistance measurement results.
2.5 Individual cell series resistance calculation methods when contacting single cells
The series resistances of the individual cells were evaluated under two different ways. Initially, they were
evaluated by direct electrical connections to each of the cells so that it was possible to evaluate just the desired cell and
discard the effect of the others. For each of the cells two different IV curves were extracted, one generated by projecting
on the cell the full irradiance, and the other one was extracted by projecting on the cell a 50% shading. Value of
individual cells series resistance were calculated from each of the slopes of the curves at V OC, as well as a value
extracted using the 2 I-V curve method defined earlier. This same process was realized for each of the cells, giving a set
of values that would be used as control values, so that the extraction of the parameters from the full module connection
through projected shading could be assessed and evaluated.

2.6 Individual cell series resistance evaluation methods when contacting the whole module
Two methods are used for evaluating the series resistance of individual cells in the PV module. The first
methodology followed for the extraction of the individual series resistance of the cells, is based on the work developed
by Kim et al in [5]. The method consists in the extraction of two IV curves of a module while partially shading the cell
under consideration, each IV realized with a different shading value for the same cell. Once the IV curves are extracted,
the differential resistance dV/dI for each of them is calculated, plotted against the current. The current values obtained
from each of the maximum dV /dI points are evaluated on the original IV curves for each shading ratio, and a voltage
value is extracted for each of the points. Then the V/I at this point gives the series resistance of the module excluding
the series resistance of the cell under measurement. Subtracting this value from the series resistance of the whole
module will result in acquiring the individual series resistance of the cell.
The second method for the determination of the individual series resistance was the two IV curve method, where a
modification was introduced to the original technique. The method originally states that two different irradiance levels,
one being full illumination, are to be projected uniformly over the complete module yielding the total serial resistance.
In this case instead of realizing the calculations between the full module unshaded and the full module shaded, they
were realized against each of the cells under 50% and 40% shading for the individual cell while the rest of the cells
were fully illuminated. This was made to guarantee that the generated current for each of the curves would be
completely driven by the shaded cell.

Figure 2. Graphical explanation of the differential method for individual Rs extraction.

3. RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Shading projection validation
Before the realisation of the experiments, it was necessary to validate the darkness level of the shaded pixels,
given that in theory they should be projected as completely absent of light, and the validity of the use of the projector
would be jeopardized by too illuminated dark pixels. For this matter a test was defined, where two I-V curves were
generated, one using a completely white background, which represents the illuminated condition, and another one
projecting a completely black background, which represented the simulation of a completely shaded condition. Both I-V
curves were later analysed and the short circuit current for both cases was extracted and compared, to verify the
darkness level of the projected shading. This test was ran 20 times and the resulting short circuit currents were
averaged. The obtained results are presented in Table 2. The resulting shading ratio of 0.3% is considered to be
acceptable so the effect of the lamp on the shaded pixels is neglected in this project.
Shading
Value
0%

Average Short
Circuit Current
253 mA

Shaded/unshade
d Ratio
0.3 %

100%
0.8 mA
Table 2. Irradiance ratio between shaded and unshaded pixels.

3.2 Variation of the Series resistance with Irradiance

As it was established by Lal et al in [21], the series resistance of a PV module has a nonlinear relationship with the
irradiance levels, leading to large differences on the Rs values extracted from IV curves realized at irradiances close to
the STC conditions, and the ones measured at very low irradiances. As it was stated in a previous section, the irradiance
levels achieved by the projector used in the project were around 5% of the standardly used 1000 W/m2, which led to
very high series resistance measurements, given that at the achievable irradiances by the projector used in this project

would only allow the semiconductors to work on the non-linear sections of the irradiance Vs. Resistance curve. Future
work realized with a projector system should be implemented with a system capable of generating higher irradiances so
that the calculated Rs values are extracted from the more linear parts of the curve. Figure 3 shows a logarithmic fitting
realized with the full module series resistance and the series resistances obtained with the projector under different
shading ratios. This is consistent with the behaviour observed in previous work on the topic [21].

Figure 3. Logarithmic fitting of the relationship between the full module Rs obtained at STC and with the projector.

3.3 Projection Uniformity Correction

As it was stated in the previous section, establishing a uniform irradiance along the projected area is essential for
the adequate execution of the project. Non-uniformities in the spatial distribution of incident light can yield errors in the
measurements that could affect the accuracy of the measured data For this reason a technique was designed that allowed
to normalize the spatial irradiance, this technique involves an x-y stage and the subsequent generation of a
compensation image.
The x-y stage was configured to realize 26 steps on each of the two axis (Y axis from top to bottom and X axis
from left to right) realizing 6mm steps on the Y axis and 8mm steps on the X axis. At the end of each run the control
software generated an excel file with the measured irradiance on each of the 676 squares that composed the measuring
matrix.
Figure 3 shows the irradiance map generated for the raw projection. The irradiance difference between the highest
and the lowest point was calculated to be 47%, which is a significantly value, mainly driven by the position of the
projector. The intercept between the Y and the X axis represents the top left corner of the projection, while the
irradiance peak around the bottom of the projection is explained as the region that is closer to the lamp, with an
incidence angle near 0. After acquiring the irradiance map, calibration was applied to make the projection uniform. The
difference between the irradiance of each of the points and the minimum irradiance point was calculated and converted
into a number between 0 and 255. This represents the full span of the grey-scale, being 0 the colour black and 255 the
colour white, allowing to assign a grey-scale value to each of the 675 measuring points that is in accordance to the
irradiance level measured in the point.
After each of the components of the matrix was compensated to match the irradiance measured in the lowest
point, an image was generated that would be used to apply the irradiance correction. the correction image was settled as
the background for the projection and irradiance measurements were repeated, allowing to observe how the irradiance
on each of the points had changed, and how had the maximum/minimum irradiance ratio changed. After the first
compensation images were used, the ratio fell from 47% to around 13%, being this difference still too high to comply as
a class B solar simulator so the process was repeated until this condition was met. After around 50 different
compensation images were generated, the ratio condition was met achieving an irradiance ratio of 4.96%. Figure 4
shows the uncompensated irradiance map (a), the compensation image (b) an the corrected irradiance map with a spatial
uniformity of 4.96%.

a)

b)

c)

Figure 4. a) Non-compensated irradiance map, b) Grey-scale irradiance compensation image, c) resulting spatial irradiance map.

3.4 Shading Pattern Generator

For the shading pattern generation a program was designed in labView that was based on the desired shading
value and the portion of the PV module that was meant to be shaded the software can randomly select the pixels that
are shaded and the pixels that are unshaded so that at the end the number of shaded pixels would match exactly the
desired percent of shading value The image generated over the PV module was 962 pixels wide and 641 pixels high,
meaning that when the image was projected over the PV module it had a pixel resolution of around 6x6 um. Figure 5
shows two different shading values, 70% and 10%, selected to be projected over the area of one cell.
The fact that the pixels were randomly selected was important given that the cells can present imperfections in
their surface or there could be irregular areas on the cover glass, so if the same pattern was being projected every time
the results could be affected by this imperfections. If instead the patterns are different each time, this imperfections can
be neglected given that the results would be less affected by them.

a)

b)

Figure 5. Generated image fot two different shading values, a) 70% and b) 10% for cell 1.
3.5 Correction of the effect of the colour wheel.
DLP projectors base their technology in the projection of a beam of white light, which is divided into its red, green
and blue spectrum by a colour wheel. The colour wheel is synchronized with a microchip that is composed by a matrix
of aluminium micro mirrors, that each one of them has an on and off state The colour wheel rotates at a frequency of 50
Hz while the micro-mirrors mix the colours faster than the eye can see, creating the required images through the
projection lens.
These special features represents a limitation for the present project, given that the colour white is represented as
an addition of all the spectrum. This variation was perceived by the PV module, generating large oscillations in the
measurements, which were represented as random deformations in the IV curves. Figure 6 a) shows the measured
oscillations due to the waveform variation for the white colour, measured by the photodetector of the X-Y stage over
one second, having sampling rate of 8000 samples per second. Each of the peaks observed on the graph is caused by the
passing of a different colour and the red square shown in figure 6 a) represents one period of the colour wheel in which
all of the colours are passing.

a)

b)

Figure 6. a) Waveform composition of the white colour generated by the projector becaue of the effect of the colour wheel. b)
structure of the six colour wheel.

In order to overcome this limitation each IV curve measurement was acquired 50 times, and then the program
calculated the average value for each point, after which it generated a filtered IV curve. Although this process
incremented the reliability and repeatability of the measured data, it also increased by 50 times the execution time. For
future developments with projection systems colour wheel can be removed, but taking into account that removing the

colour wheel would also eliminate the possibility to generate the greyscale palette used in the uniformity compensation.
Other options like laser-based DLP projectors or 2 chip DLP projectors could be considered for future systems.
3.6 Individual Cell Series Resistance Characterization, individually contacted
The individual cell characterization served as a control function to verify the results obtained from the full module
tests. The tests were realized by using direct connections to each cell. For each of the cells one IV curve was extracted
under unshaded condition, one under 40% shading and one under 50% shading. Series resistances were calculated using
the three methods stated in the previous section. The results obtained for each of the cells and with each of the methods
can be seen in table 2 and were used as the base to validate and assess the results obtained from the full module
connection tests.

Table 2. Series Resistance of independent cells obtained by different methods.

3.7 Determination of the series resistance under full module connection.

For the extraction of the individual cell series resistance from the I-V curves of the whole module, some
modifications were introduced to both of the originally selected methods, which according to the revised literature
would be directed into the extraction of the series resistance of individual cells. As highlighted in figure 9 b) the
resulting series resistance obtained from the modified 2-curve method, show good similarities
For the differential method originally, it was necessary to calculate the |dV/dI| for each curve and its maximum
value. In the practice, this procedure was not possible because the effects of the colour wheel, which generates
oscillations in the IV curve, that when derived generate swings in the dV/dI vs current graphs, that make it impossible
to determine the maximum point in an objective manner. Several attempts were made to determine this point, including
low pass filters to both the input current and the dV/dI function, but even though some of the plots exhibited some
points that appeared to be the maximum point, this results were not repeatable and in most cases were subjective and
different points could be selected as maximum for the same occasion. Given this situation, and in order to validate the
technique in a different way, each of the curves were evaluated at the current at maximum power point of the fully
shaded module for two reasons; first, most of the dV/dI curves showed a maximum point, that the related current was
very close, or at the same point of the current at the maximum power point of the fully shaded modules at the same
shading level as the individual cell; second, because even if it did not give the exact value of the series resistance of the
individual cells, since it was a fixed point that would be common to the evaluation of all the cells, it had a good
probability of generating a valid trend for its calculations. In Figure 7 the experimental data obtained from the
application of the method proposed by Kim et al [5] is presented. As can be observed from the graph, the point of
maximum dV/dI from the curves in the right is not easily definable, given that the data recorded in the I-V curves is not
completely stable due to the effect of the colour wheel. In future work a different technique, such as reconstructing the
I-V curve by fitting the parameters in the one diode model to provide smoother I-V curves, can be used to produce a
much cleaner dV/dI curve, which could allow to determine the maximum dV/dI points. Figure 7 also presents the
selected current values used to generate the series resistance of each of the cells. This values were extracted from the
fully shaded module curves, and then used to calculate an evaluation of Rs from V/I for these selected points. The
values obtained are representations of the series resistance rather than the exact values, given that the extraction of the
series resistance would only have been possible by calculating V/I for the points projected for the max dV/dI point of
each curve.
In figure 8 b), the relationship between the Isc under different shading conditions and connection methods is
established. The ISC measured directly for every cell under maximum illumination has identical trend with the ISC of
the module when shading the same individual cells while the rest of them are fully illuminated. This shows that the
performance of each individual cell in a module can be assessed using the proposed experimental configuration. This
also indicates that the partial shading on individual cells method could be used to extract the complete I-V curves of the
internal cells under direct connection, using the appropriate mathematical models. Figure 9 a) presents the inverse
relationship between the Short circuit current of the cells and their internal series resistance, proving that the best
performing cells in terms of current generation will also be the cells that present the lowest series resistance.

Figure 7. Experimental data obtained from the execution of the method proposed by Kim et al in [5].

The experimental results presented in figures 8 and 9, show that the values extracted from the full module connection
with partial shading through the projector, have a high degree of correlation with those obtained by directly measuring
the values on the cells. Even though the obtained results are not equal to the results, the trends presented by the
comparison of the different scenarios show that the internal parameters of the cells are being accessed and individual
cells of the module can be evaluated. This results represent an important milestone for the application of projectors in
the characterization of solar modules. If the flickering generated by the colour wheel could be reduced, by using
advanced digital signal processing or another technology such as laser DLP projectors, the fidelity of the results would
be significantly improved.

a)

b)

Figure 8. a) Comparison between the results obtained for the modified differential Rs and the direct cell measurement Rs. b)
comparison between the Isc obtained by direct connection unshaded and the full module connection 20% individual shading.

a)

b)

Figure 9. a) Correlation of the results obtained for full module connection 20% individual shading and the Rs from the slope at Voc
method, direct cell connection. b) comparison between the Rs obtained by direct connection unshaded and the full module connection
differential shading for individual cells.

4. CONCLUSIONS
This project shows that a DLP projector system can be satisfactorily used to access the series resistance of the
individual cells that form a PV module, through processes that can be executed automatically and in short periods of
time, avoiding the use of mechanical shading systems that can be time consuming and add uncertainties to the system.
Even though the system didnt provide exact values for the series resistance due to the variations introduced to the
irradiance intensity by the colour wheel and the low irradiance levels, it was proved that the results have a high level of
correlation with the actual series resistance of the cells, proving the validity of the method. In contrast, using a projector
as a source of shading patterns, has proved faster and more practical than other methods, and if used with a more
powerful light source it can allow to perform single cell characterization of encapsulated PV modules. A full scale
system would also allow manufactures of PV modules, to detect and correct imperfection introduced to the modules by
the equipment in the production lines.

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