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1. Introduction
And forgive us our trespasses
As we forgive those who trespass against us.
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ConflictResolutionAmongPeaceful Societies
405
406
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societies.
3.1 Self-restraint
The literatureexplicitly describes the ways that
the Ifaluk(Lutz, 1988), Tahitians(Levy, 1973),
Paliyan (Gardner, 1966, 1969, 1972), and
Toraja(Hollan, 1992) use variationsof self-restraintas a means of moving away from conflict
situations once they arise. (Their approach is
doubtless followed by other peaceful societies,
such as the Amish, Mennonites,and Hutterites,
though the literatureabout those peoples is not
as explicit on the subject.) These peoples feel
that heightenedemotional states lead quickly to
furthertrouble, so they actively try to dissipate
their emotions whenever a conflict seems possible. A first-stageapproachfor a Torajaindividual experiencing heated emotion is to remind
himself or herself that any open expression of
the feeling might be dangerous:the expression
of such feelings would be ridiculed,might lead
to hostile supernaturalactions, and would open
oneself to serious illness (Hollan, 1992).
3.2 Negotiation
Negotiation is often considered in a positive
light by Westernwriters(Rubin, 1994), particularly when it is broadly defined as the interaction between parties to a dispute who work
towardan agreementwithoutthe interventionof
third parties who might make compulsory decisions (Gulliver, 1979, p. 79). But the literature
on the peaceful societies, other than the
Montagnais-Naskapi (Lips, 1947), Semai
(Robarchek, 1977) and Amish (Cong, 1992),
has little to say aboutdirectnegotiationsby disputants.People in many of these societies do not
want to confront one anotherdirectly, and they
prefer indirection rather than assertion, inference ratherthan confrontation.The parties to a
conflict are encouragedto settle their problems
on an internal level, through self-restraint,but
not necessarily throughthe confrontationaltactics of direct negotiation. Other techniques are
more effective.
ConflictResolutionAmongPeaceful Societies
3.3 Separation
(Morris,
1982,
1992),
Nubians
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Bruce D. Bonta
grievances can be aired without fear of provoking others (Briggs, 1994). In the past, the Inuit
had song duels to resolve conflicts in a humorous fashion before they became serious enough
to provoke violence, and to laugh off animosities and returnto friendship,or at least restraint
(Eckert& Newmark, 1980).
These strategies seem to dissipate tensions
and resolve issues effectively when conflicts do
arise in the peaceful societies. In some societies
authority figures make judgments while in
others the people decide by consensus, but the
overall effect is the same - healing, continuation
of the community, or separation.Furthermore,
the traditionalforms that those strategies take
amongthese peoples appearto be importantfactors in their success. That is, peoples are conscious of their own traditionalways of handling
problems and seem able to keep the peace in
part through the force of their traditions. For
these peoples, the ways they resolve disputes
are logical and effective - and they seem to
work. When the traditionalways are not used,
conflicts can result.For instance,the failureof a
group of Buid to follow their traditionalmeeting-style of conflict resolution (called a tultulan) on one occasion resulted in tragedy
(Gibson, 1986).
4. ConflictIs a NormalAspect of All Societies
Some scholarshave maintainedthatconflict and
violence is the normal condition of small-scale
societies, which typically rely on a superior
state authority to prevent warfare (Ferguson,
1984, pp. 19-20). Othersarguethat all societies
have to contend with violence (Knauft, 1987,
1994). The literatureon the peaceful peoples
flatly contradictsthese assertions. While violence exists in very modest amounts in some of
these societies, in others it appearsto be rareor
completely absent.
There are a few basic differencesin strategies
for resolving conflicts among these 24 societies.
Some of the ones that experienceoccasional violence use moderatelyaggressivetechniquesfor
resolving disputes, such as stylized rhetorical
speaking referredto as 'talking' by some anthropologists.When the !Kungare discussing a
contentious issue and their emotions begin to
rise, they may pour out their thoughts at a very
rapidrate- a sudden,spontaneousdiscussionby
ConflictResolutionAmongPeaceful Societies
practices. As it turnsout, except for the punishment that parentsin a few of these societies use
for discipliningtheir children,these peoples use
very little adultpunishment.In fact, the absence
of punishmentappearsto be one of the defining
characteristicsof a peaceful society. These peoples seem to rely on the strengthof their other
mechanisms to prevent and resolve conflicts
peacefully and effectively. The threatof punishment is not needed, except for the practiceof ostracism, a form of punishment. Ostracism is
practiced by a range of societies worldwide to
enforce social standards,accordingto Gruter&
Masters(1986, p. 149), who define it in general
terms as 'the general process of social rejection
or exclusion'. From the perspective of the
peaceful peoples, ostracism may be defined as
complete banishmentfrom the society or, perhaps less severely, as rejectionby a people of an
individual's participationin some or all of the
group's activities. The societies that use it at all
use it quite infrequently,but the possibility is always there.
Probably the most dramatic practice of ostracism in this body of literatureis the Amish
strategyof shunning.If an Amish person has a
problem accepting one of the rules of their
church, and he or she refuses to give in to the
will of the group, the individual will be ostracized by all members of the community, including the spouse, children, parents, siblings,
and friends. No one may speak to the shunned
personor handfood or othergoods to him or her
- food or other articleswill be placed on a table
for the shunnedpersonto pick up (Gruter,1985;
Hostetler, 1980). The person may continue to
live at home and try to carryon a normallife thoughthat is, of course, nearlyimpossible. The
Hutteriteshave a similar style of excommunicating members without expelling them from
their colonies (Hostetler, 1974).
A comparable example can be found in
Ladakh,where again ostracismdoes not necessarily mean the person is sent away from the
community.If someone refusesto stop provocative or offensive behavior,the lamas may cease
serving the religious needs of the individual,
which would be highly demoralizing to a
Ladakhi.No one would visit the ostracizedperson; no one would help the offenderor his family in any endeavor;no one would offer food to,
or accept food from, the individual; and there
409
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411
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agencies of any kind, with the possible exception of the Mennonites,many of whom today no
longer feel the strict need to remain absolutely
separate from all government functions, particularly in Canada (Driedger & Kraybill,
1994).
In the peaceful societies, conflicts arehandled
by the individualparties to the conflict and by
the group - rarelyby outsiders.Individualsare
expected to deal with conflict situations by
walking away from them, by laughingthem off,
by displacing their feelings of anger in various
ways, by smiling and being pleasant to everyone, by actively socializing with people with
whom they may have unpleasantinnerfeelings,
and so on. Individualsshould try to solve their
problems internallyif they can.
When that doesn't work, the partiesto a conflict should resolve the issues between themselves, or, more frequently,bringthem to larger
groups of people or authorityfigures within the
society for discussion and resolution. But even
groupresolutionsof conflicts, such as the Semai
becharaa', rely on the groupto foster the dissipation of tensions so that individual, personal
controls may keep the peace. None of these societies rely on the power of people as a political
body to enforce the peace, with the sole exception of the threat of ostracism. But if the ultimate approachto resolving difficultconflicts for
Western peoples is outward,to the next larger
political or governmentalbody, as Boulding asserts, the ultimatefocus for the peaceful peoples
(and many othertraditionalsocieties) is inward,
towards individualsand the group.
8. World-viewof ConflictResolution
'Conflict is ...
ConflictResolutionAmongPeaceful Societies
413
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Bruce D. Bonta
ConflictResolutionAnmong
Peaceful Societies
415
educationalbeliefs are derived from this world- confrontingit, and resolving disputes by whatview of their own peacefulness.
ever nonviolent means possible is the highest
goal of society.
However, conflict resolution in the peaceful
9. Conclusion
societies relies on more thanjust strategiesand
Attitudesabout conflict and approachesto con- techniques. It is based on assumptions about
flict resolutionamong 24 of the earth'speaceful human relations and social patterns that are
peoples differ from those of the other societies quite different from those of modern societies.
on earth. Personal development and social life For instance, people in the peaceful societies
in the peaceful societies is based on striving for strongly believe they should avoid, and if they
- and achieving - an absence of conflicts and can't avoid then they should quickly resolve, all
violence. People in most of these societies do conflicts. They view nonviolence as absolutely
not view conflict as normal and productive,as essential to the proper functioning of their soWesternersoften do; they view it as harmfuland cieties. In contrast,Westernsocial scientists and
destructive.They avoid all types of conflicts if popular writers believe that conflict is an inthey possibly can, and if they can't they almost evitable, and to some extent productive,aspect
always resolve them quickly and nonviolently. of human societies which we must learn to
While these peoples resolve conflicts by manage effectively. The peaceful peoples settle
using techniques that other societies also use, conflicts with outsiders by using nonviolent
they emphasize certain strategies in unique strategies which are quite comparable to the
ways. For instance, direct negotiation between techniques they use for resolving internal disthe parties to a dispute, an importantapproach putes. Westernsocieties, in general, view force
in Westernsocieties, is not used too often by the and violence as a necessary,and at times justifipeaceful peoples. Instead of negotiating, most able, aspect of externalrelations.
of them rely on self-restraintto preventconflicts
Other ways that the peaceful societies conand to help people settle the disputes that do trast with the rest of the world are that they do
arise. People in many of the peaceful societies not punish those who violate social norms, expreferto avoid controversy,to walk away from cept for the occasional use of ostracism; and
conflicts, to separate families or communities they place very little reliance on political strucin order to circumvent hostilities. One-on-one tures larger than their own communities for
negotiation is too confrontationalfor many of achieving peace. The most peaceful of them
these peoples. Also, bystandersin several of the have ideologies that encourage meekness and
peaceful societies will interveneenthusiastically nonresistingbehavior.Most importantof all, the
to help resolve conflicts - a contrastto modem peacefulness in these societies - and their sucurban areas where strangersoften fear getting cess in resolving conflicts - is founded on
world-views which include nonviolence as one
involved in confrontations.
A numberof the peaceful societies dependon of the defining characteristics of humanity.
community meetings as a technique to help Their world-views are not just ideology: they
settle disputes, while Western societies settle include, and integrate,psychological, social, reconflicts by relying on formal courttrials to de- ligious, and ethical structuresthat constantlyretermine guilt or innocence, right from wrong. inforce their sharedbeliefs in living peacefully.
The peaceful community meetings exemplify The naturesof these structures,of course, vary
the importanceof preventingand resolving con- widely among all the peaceful societies.
How do the conflict-resolutionstrategiesand
flicts, while the Western belief in trials is
founded on abstract conceptions of justice. beliefs of the peaceful peoples relateto the comAlso, angry individuals in several peaceful so- plex societies of today's world? On a practical
cieties may talk out problems without specifi- level, professionals in the dispute resolution
cally addressing other people - a rhetorical field might find some of the techniquesused by
discussion of grievanceswith the communityat these societies to be applicableat times, such as
large which does not directlyconfrontthe other relying more on humor to defuse tensions, or
parties to the problems. To repeat, in these so- placing more emphasis on building up individcieties avoiding conflict is more importantthan ual restraintson hostility in conflict situations.
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Bruce D. Bonta
NOTES
1. Variationof the standardtext of Matthew 6.12, used in
some Protestant churches such as the Episcopal,
Methodist,Congregational,and others.
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BRUCE D. BONTA, b. 1941, MLS in Library Science (University of Maine, 1969); reference librarian at the
Library of Congress, Colby College (Waterville, ME), and the Pennsylvania State University (University Park,
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