INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING

Eur. J. Phys. 28 (2007) 3743

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

doi:10.1088/0143-0807/28/1/004

Noethers theorem in classical

mechanics revisited
Rubens M Marinho Jr
Departamento de Fsica, Instituto Tecnologico de Aeronautica, Brazil
E-mail: marinho@ita.br

Received 26 August 2006, in final form 25 September 2006

Published 30 October 2006
Online at stacks.iop.org/EJP/28/37
Abstract

A didatic approach to Noethers theorem in classical mechanics is derived and

used to obtain the laws of conservation.

1. Introduction

Noethers [1] theorem, presented in 1918, is one of the most beautiful theorems in physics.
It relates symmetries of a theory with its laws of conservation. Many modern textbooks
on quantum field theory present a pedagogical version of the theorem where its power is
demonstrated. The interested reader is referred to the detailed discussion due to Hill [2].
Despite the great generality of this theorem, few authors present its version for classical
mechanics. See for example the work of Desloge and Karch [3] using an approach inspired in
the work of Lovelock and Rund [4]. Several authors demonstrate Noethers theorem starting
from the invariance of the Lagrangian [5, 6], but in this case it is not possible to obtain the
energy conservation law in a natural way.
In this paper, the theorem is proved imposing invariance of the action under infinitesimal
transformation, opening the possibility of extending Noethers theorem in classical mechanics
to include the energy conservation.
In section 2, the EulerLagrange equation is rederived. In section 3, Noethers theorem
is proved, in section 4 several applications are presented and in section 5 Noethers theorem
is extended and energy conservation obtained.
2. The EulerLagrange equations

We rederive the EulerLagrange equations of motion for the sake of completeness and to
introduce notation.
Let us consider a system of particles with n degrees of freedom whose generalized
characterized by the Lagrangian
coordinates and velocities are, respectively, q and q,
t), where q is shorthand for q1 (t), q2 (t), . . . , qn (t), with the dot representing the
L(q, q,
c 2007 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK
0143-0807/07/010037+07$30.00

37

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R M Marinho
q

(t2 , q2 )

q(t)
q(t)

q (t)

(t1, q1 )
t

Figure 1. Varied path of the function q(t).

total time derivative. When necessary for clarification, the explicit time dependence will be
displayed. This simple system is used in order to place in evidence the main features of
Noethers theorem.
The most general formulation of mechanics is through the principle of least action or
Hamiltons principle [7, 8]: From among all functions q
(t) connecting the fixed end points
(q1 , t1 ) to (q2 , t2 ), see figure 1, the particular trajectory q(t) chosen by the dynamical system
is such that the action integral

t2
S=
L(q, q , t) dt
(2.1)
t1

is a minimum1 for the path q(t) of motion. In other words, the variation of the action S is
zero for this path. Taking the variation of (2.1) imposing the conditions that the variation at
the end points of the path t1 and t2 are zero,
q(t2 ) = q(t1 ) = 0,

(2.2)

we obtain the EulerLagrange equations of motion

d L
L

= 0.
(2.3)

dt qi
qi
The following should also be considered: as is well known, the action S is invariant if we
replace the Lagrangian, L, of the system by a new Lagrangian, L
, differing from the old one
by the total time derivative of a function, G(q, t), dependent only on the coordinates and the
time,

t2

t2
dG(q, t)




dt.
(2.4)
L dt =
L
S =
dt
t1
t1
Its variation can be written as

t2

t2
dG
dF


dt =
dt = S = 0.
(2.5)
S =
L
L
dt
dt
t1
t1
1 Actually, in order to obtain the equations of motion we can relax this restriction imposing only that S be an
extremum.

Noethers theorem in classical mechanics revisited

39

We conclude that if an infinitesimal transformation changing q to q + q is such that the

variation of the Lagrangian can be written as a total time derivative of the function F,
dF
L =
,
(2.6)
dt
then the action S is not affected by the transformation, i.e. S = 0, and q is called a symmetry
of the action.
3. Noethers theorem

If the action of a given system is invariant under the infinitesimal transformation that changes
q to q + q, then, corresponding to this transformation there exists a law of conservation, and
the conserved quantity, J , can only be obtained from the Lagrangian and the infinitesimal
transformation.
In fact, let us suppose that the infinitesimal transformation q
= q + q is a symmetry of
the action; then
L
dF
L
.
(3.1)
qi +
q i =
L =
qi
q i
dt
Rewriting this equation using the EulerLagrange equations of motion yields
d L
L d
dF
qi
= 0,
(3.2)
qi +
dt q i
q i dt
dt
but this equation can be put in the form


d L
qi F = 0.
(3.3)
dt q i
The expression inside the parentheses is a conserved quantity named Noethers current,
L
J =
qi F.
(3.4)
q i
4. Several applications of the theorem

We will examine three important cases of Noethers theorem: the conservation of momentum,
angular momentum and the movement of a particle in a constant gravitational field. In the
next section we will extend Noethers theorem to obtain energy conservation.
4.1. Momentum conservation

Momentum conservation is obtained from the freedom we have to choose the origin of the
system of coordinates. Let us consider the Lagrangian of a free point particle of mass m
moving with velocity x ,
L = 12 mx i x i .

(4.1)

Under infinitesimal space translation,



xi = xi + ai xi = ai ,
x i
= x i x i = 0,
the variation of the Lagrangian becomes
L
L
L =
xi +
x i = 0.
xi
x i

(4.2)

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R M Marinho

The first term is zero because L does not depend on xi and the second is zero because x i = 0.
In this case the variation of the Lagrangian can be put in the form of (2.6) if we choose F equal
to a constant c. Noethers current then results
L
xi c = mx i ai c = const pi ai = const.
(4.3)
J =
x i
As ai are arbitrary this is constant only if the momentum pi = const.
4.2. Angular momentum conservation

Angular momentum conservation is obtained from the freedom we have to choose the
orientation of the system of coordinates. Let us consider the Lagrangian of a free point
particle of mass m moving with velocity x in a plane,
L = 12 mx 2 + 12 my 2 .

(4.4)

Under infinitesimal rotation ,



x = cos x + sin y = x + y x = y,
y
= sin x + cos y = x + y y = x
and



x = x + y x = y,

y
= x + y y = x,

the variation of the Lagrangian becomes

L
L
L
L
y + my(

= 0.
x +
x +
y +
y = mx
x)
(4.5)
L =
x
x
y
y
Again the variation of the Lagrangian can be put in the form of (2.6) if we choose F = c.
Noethers current then results
L
L
x +
y c = const (xpy ypx ) = const.
J =
(4.6)
x
y
As the infinitesimal angle is arbitrary, the expression inside the parentheses, which is a
constant, can be recognized as the component Lz of the angular momentum.
4.3. A particle in a gravitational field

Consider a particle in a constant gravitational field described by the Lagrangian

L = 12 mz2 mgz.

(4.7)

Under the infinitesimal space transformation

z
= z + a z = a z = 0.
The variation of the Lagrangian becomes
L
L
z +
z = mga.
L =
z
z
The variation of the Lagrangian can be put in the form of (2.6) if we choose
F = mgat.

(4.8)

(4.9)

(4.10)

Noethers current then results

L
J =
z F = mza + mgat = const.
(4.11)
z
In the motion of a particle in a constant gravitational field, the quantity z + gt, which is the
initial velocity, is conserved.

Noethers theorem in classical mechanics revisited

41

5. Extension of the theorem

With the formalism of the preceding section it is not possible to obtain the energy conservation.
The reason comes from the fact that we have not yet defined what we mean by the variation,
t, in time, necessary to obtain the energy conservation. In order to define the variation in
time let us use another parametrization for the path described by the particles. If we use a new
parameter , the path q = q(t) can be written as
q = q(t ( )) = Q( ),

(5.1)

t = T ( ),

(5.2)

whose variations are

q = q
(t ( )) q(t ( )) = Q
( ) Q( ) = Q,

t = T ( ) T ( ) = T .
The action (2.1) can be written as

2

2

t2

dt
t) dt =
t) d =
L(q, q,
L(q, q,
L(Q, Q, T , T ) d,
S=
d
t1
1
1

(5.3)
(5.4)

(5.5)

where L, T and Q are defined by the relations

L = LT ,

dt
,
T =
d

(5.6)
(5.7)

dq d
Q
q =
= .
d dt
T

(5.8)

The Euler Lagrange equations for this action can be written as

d L
L
= 0,

d Q Q

(5.9)

L
d L
= 0.

d T
T

(5.10)

If an infinitesimal transformation leaves the action invariant, then the variation of the
Lagrangian can be written as a total derivative:
L =

L L
L dF
L
Q + Q +
T + T =
.
Q
T
d
Q
T

Using the Euler Lagrange equations, (5.9) and (5.10), results in



 
L dF
d L
d L
L
L =

Q
+
Q
+

T +
T =
d Q
d
d
Q
T
T
or


d L
L
= 0.
Q +
T F
d Q
T

(5.11)

(5.12)

(5.13)

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R M Marinho

Rewriting in terms of the old variables, using (5.6) and (5.7) we have



d (LT )
(LT )
Q +
T F T = 0.
dt
Q
T

(5.14)

With the help of (5.8) the following relations hold:

L q L
,
T =
q Q
q
Q
 
L L q L
Q
L

= q,
T =
T =
q T
q
q
T
T
L

T =

(5.15)

(5.16)

whose substitution in (5.14), recalling that Q and T are independent variables in the new
Lagrangian L, gives




d L
L
(5.17)
q + q + L t F = 0.
dt q
q
Recognizing the term inside the parentheses as minus the Hamiltonian results for Noethers
current
L
J =
q H t F = const.
(5.18)
q
5.1. Conservation of energy

Energy conservation is based on the freedom we have to choose the origin of the time. Let us
t) not dependent explicitly on time.
consider, as in general is the case, a Lagrangian L(q, q,
Under an infinitesimal time translation


q = q q = 0,
t
= t +  t = ,
the variation of the Lagrangian,
L
L
L
t = 0,
(5.19)
qi +
q i +
L =
qi
q i
t
so, again, the variation of the Lagrangian can be put in the form of (2.6) if we choose F = c.
The conserved current
L
J =
qi H t c = const H  = const.
(5.20)
q i
As  is an arbitrary quantity, in order that J be constant, H must be constant and can be
recognized as the energy of the system. In other words, if the Lagrangian is invariant under
time translation, then the energy is conserved.
6. Conclusion

The aim of this work was to present in a didatic way Noethers theorem in the framework of
classical mechanics. This theorem is not so important in classical mechanics as it is in field
theory. This is the reason that its didatic presentation generally comes in textbooks of field
theory. Even in books that treat the theorem in classical mechanics, such as Saletan [5] and
Arnold [6], they do not extend the theorem to include the case of energy conservation.
We hope that this work can bring the main ideas of this theorem to undergraduate students
in a clear way.

Noethers theorem in classical mechanics revisited

43

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]

Noether E 1918 Goett. Nachr. 235

Hill E L 1951 Rev. Mod. Phys. 23 253
Desloge E A and Karch R I 1977 Am. J. Phys. 45 336
Lovelock D and Rund H 1975 Tensor, Differential Forms and Variational Principles (New York: Wiley) p 201
Jos J V and Saletan E J 1998 Classical Dynamics: A Contemporary Approach (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press)
[6] Arnold V I 1978 Mathematical Methods of Classical Mechanics (Berlin: Springer)
[7] Goldstein H 1981 Classical Mechanics 2nd edn (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley) p 35
[8] Landau L and Lifchitz E 1966 Mecanique 2nd edn (Moscow: MIR) p 8