School of Science and Engineering

ENGR 339 (3209-81) Laboratory

Mondays lab
Foundry Processes: Sand Casting
Lab Report 1

Presented to: Dr. Mohamed Emara

Presented by:
Seif Elsaie

Abstract:

900112577

The main process used in this experiment is Sand casting. We created

the cast using the desired mold with the specific cavity needed for the
molten metal that we retained to be poured into the mold. The liquid metal
solidifies and the cast is cleaned. The procedure ensures an environment
friendly casting process because the mold can then be used a couple of
times. In this report, we will be summaries the steps into making a proper
cast and focusing on all the defaults we experienced in the lab and we will
conclude with the basic techniques needed to avoid these defects.

Table of Contents:
List of figures .4
Introduction ........6

Objectives .......7

Procedure ..........10

Results....... 11

Discussion......17

Conclusion & Recommendations......18

References.19

List of figures:
Figure 1....5
Figure 2............8
Figure 3 ...........8
Figure 4....9
Figure 5............9
Figure 6 ...........10
Figure 7....10
Figure 8............11
Figure 9 ...........11
Figure 10..12
Figure 11..........12
Figure 12 .........13
Figure 13..13
Figure 14..........14
Figure 15 .........14
Figure 16..19
Figure 17..........19
Figure 18..........20

Introduction:
The main steps in to making a sand cast is to determine and to know
the basic features of a closed mold. It must consist all the basic features as
seen in the diagram. Two things must be taken separately in this
experiment. We will start with the cope which is the top half of the pattern
which contains the riser, sprue and pouring cup and the drag is the bottom
half of the pattern. The molding material is prepared in each of the cope and
drag separately.
The molding material must ensure when the molten metal is poured
through the pouring cup, which is mainly to minimize splash and turbulence
as the metal flows. The molt falls through the gating system into the sprue,
which is the vertical part of the gating system (and it is recommended to be
designed at an angle). The molt then makes its way through the runners,
which is the horizontal portion of the gating system, and the mold must
ensure controlled entrances throughout the molt, which are the gates. This
entire system is the gating system that defines the network of connected
channels that deliver the molt.
The mold fills the mold cavity and the riser and its left to cool and
solidify and the riser will compensate for the shrinkage during solidification.
Before the pouring of the molt in the mold we must determine whether the
final design required will contain any internal features, after that it will give
us a clear image of what the core material will look like. We must ensure the
use of a core print that is probably higher in melting point to act as a support
to the core during the process.
There are two main design features that must be included to provide the
best possible shape for the cast without any defaults, which is the vent, and
draft design. The vents will ensure the escape of all gas entrapment and the
draft design for the pattern to be extracted without the damaging of the
mold.

Objectives:

Figure 1: Anatomy of mold used for a sand

The main aim

experiment is to:

of this

Create a sand cast in a step-by-step process (follow the procedure),

thus producing a final product, the mold.

We are also aiming at identifying the main defects that might occur in
the mold during the casting process.

The causes of these defects will be discussed and ways to eliminate or

avoid such defects will also be mentioned as well as analyzed
thoroughly.

Calculate the total heat that is necessary in order to elevate the

temperature of the metal to the most suitable pouring temperature

Calculate the mold filling time

Calculate the solidification shrinkage

Procedures:
Mold-Making Process:
1- Position the pattern on the molding board.
2- Place the drag (lower part of the mold) on the board and pin down in
order to be fixed in place.
3- Add a layer of sand around the pattern.
4- Ram the layer of sand.
5- Following the ramming of the sand layer process, remove the excess
sand on the rammed layer using a strike rod and ensure that the layer
of sand is leveled. Drill vent holes within a few millimeters of the
pattern allowing escape of the gases that are formed when the molten
metal is poured using a thin rod to ensure that the vent hole is not to
big.
6- Repeat the process of layering and ramming the sand until the drag is
completely full.
7- The drag is turned upside down and the molding board is removed,
exposing the pattern that was originally at the bottom of the drag.
8- The surface of the sand is flattened with a trowel and is then covered
with a fine coating of parting sand.
9- Place the cope on the drag and fix the two halves together using the
pins on both sides, holding them tightly in position.
10The sprue, gate and riser are placed in their proper locations.
11Layer and ram the cope with more sand as previously done with
the drag.
12After the sprue tube is surrounded by sand and rammed till the
surface is smooth, remove the sprue tube carefully creating a hollow
entrance for the molt to be added.

13Remove the cope half of the flask carefully and keep it aside.
14The pattern edges are then moistened with swab to be able to
remove and withdraw the pattern easily (tap the pattern gently on
each side to remove).
15The core is now prepared; place a metal rod vertically through
the core box and ensure that its located and the middle of the core so
that the sand surrounds the part compoletely. This is called a core print
and it acts as support for the core and to ensure that it doesnt melt it
must be higher than the melt in terms of melting point.
16Open the core box, remove the core tube and place it carefully in
the cavity of the pattern present in the drag box.
17Use a torch to apply heat onto the surface of the mold
(temperature 900 degrees Celsius), drying the water surface before
adding liquid metal.
18Assemble the two parts of the flask in preparation for casting
process.
Preparing and melting the metal:
1- The amount of metal needed to create the casting is calculated
(considering allowances and shrinkage).
2- Metal is super heated in a gas-fired furnace.
3- Degassing agents are added into the furnace with the metal.
Pouring the metal into the molds:
Pour the molten metal through the sprue gently at a steady rate to avoid any
splashes and turbulences that might be a future problem regarding the cast.
Cleaning the casting:
1- Following the solidification process, break the mold block obtaining the
required shape with the sprue and riser still attached.
2- The sprue and riser are then cut off and the final shape can be also be
machined to reduce defects.

Figure 2: Pattern exposed

Figure
after
3: Filling the cope with sand
drag is turned upsideafter
downplacing it on top of the drag

Figure 4: Ramming the final sand layer in the cope

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Figure 5: The drag and cope parts already filled

with sand and rammed, just before removing
each half of the pattern

Figure 6: Preparing the core of

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Figure 7: Using torch to apply heat on the surface

Figure 8: Pouring the molten metal from the furnace into

12

Figure 9: Pouring the molten metal into the

Figure 10: The final casting produced from the sand

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Figure 11: The initial pattern used to form

Figure 12: core inserted in the

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Results:

Figure 13: tools used in the casting

Dimensions:

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Figure 14: Initial dimensions of the wooden pattern (left) and final
dimensions of the final metal casting (right). All dimensions are in
mm.

Diamete
r = 3 cm

Figure 15: Final dimension of the core in the

Total heat required to raise the temperature of the metal to the

pouring temperature:
H = V {Cs (Tm T0) + Hf + Cl (Tp Tm)}
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Where:
H = total heat required to raise the temperature of the metal to the pouring temperature, J
= density g/cm^3
Cs = specific heat for the solid metal J/g C (the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 g of material by 1C)
Tm = melting temperature of the metal C
To = starting temperature, usually ambient C
Hf = heat of fusion J/g
Cl = specific heat for the liquid metal J/g C
Tp = pouring temperature C
V = volume of metal being heated cm^3
For Aluminum (metal used in the casting process):
= 2.7 g/cm^3
Cs = 0.9 J/g C
Tm = 660 C
To = 25 C
Hf = 398 J/g
Cl = 1.086 J/g C
Tp = 900 C
V = {(6.3/2)^2 * (1.9) + (4.5/2)^2 * (5.34) + (6.1/2)^2 * (1.65)} (3/2)^2 * (8.89) =
129.5cm^3
Therefore:
H = (2.7)(129.5){(0.9)(660 25) + 398 + (1.086)(900 660)} = 200548.775 J

Mold filling time:

v = 2gh
Where:
v = flow velocity cm/s
g = gravitational acceleration constant (981 cm/s^2)

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h = height of the sprue cm

Assuming the height of the sprue to be 12 cm:

g = 981 cm/s^2
h = 12 cm
Therefore:
v = 2(981)(12) = 153.44 cm/s

Q = vA
Where:
Q = volumetric flow rate cm^3/s
v = flow velocity cm/s
A = cross sectional area of the liquid cm^2

Assuming the diameter of the sprue to be uniform throughout and equal to 4

cm:
Q = (153.44)(*(4/2)^2) = 1928.18 cm^3/s

MFT = V/Q
Where:
MFT = mold filling time s
V = volume of mold cavity cm^3
Q = volume flow rate cm^3/s

MFT = 129.5/1928.18 = 0.67s

Discussion:

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During the sand-casting, several defects occur towards the final shape
that we casted. Examples of these defects are: open hole (blowhole), pinhole
porosity, entrapped air or other gases, shrinkage cavities, hot tear, misrun
(cold shut), inclusions, cut (wash), core shift, mold component shift, sand
fusion on the casting, metal penetration of mold sand.
In our experiment though, only some of these defects occurred. These
experimental defects included open blow (blowholes), pinhole porosity,
inclusions, hot tear, entrapped air or other gases, misrun or cold shut and
also shrinkage cavities.
Blowholes are one of the many defects that we encounter and it comes
from three main reasons. The first reason why the defect will appear on the
final casting is from the excess moisture in the molding sand, on chills, or
metal. Secondly, the core is not sufficiently baked which will finally cause
blowholes in the inner features of the casting. The final reason is the
permeability/ porosity of sand or if core too low. This allow for gas and
moisture entrapment, which will finally defect the final cast with an
indentation or a certain irregularity.
Pinhole porosity is the second defect encountered and it will come
through the molt if it over heated above 900 degrees Celsius approximately
and if gas dissolved in the alloy that is not properly degased.
Inclusions occur mainly due to human errors such as having faulty
gating or improper pouring of the molten metal into the downsprue. If the
molten metal is poured too quickly or at an unsteady rate will lead to
defects. Inclusions can be observed in the final casting as parts of slag inside
the metal casting. This defect is quite large and is easy to detect.
A hot tear occurs due to a faulty design creating stressed areas in the
final cast and also from insufficient collapsibility of core or mold. Hot tears
are also characterized as irregular internal or external cracks that usually
occur instantly following the solidification process. This defect was also
observed in the final casting of our experiment in the form of external cracks.
Entrapped air is a major defect that was observed on the cast, and
either having a porous mold or building vents avoids it. This can also be
counted on human errors for example whilst pouring the molt into the mold.
As the molt solidifies the entrapped air cause a big gap or void in the casting.
We notice how all defects are similar and how each one follows another.

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A misrun or cold shut defect creates a type of incomplete or unfinished

casting and the edge of the defect is usually smooth and round. This is
caused by several reasons such as having a faulty design that results in
having a very thin section, making it more prone to defect. Misruns can also
occur if the liquid metal is too viscous, if the pouring temperature of the
molten metal is too low, or if you have a faulty gating system.

The final type of defect that was seen in the final casting of our
experiment was shrinkage cavities. Shrinkage cavities can occur due too
many things for example a faulty gating system or misplacing the risers
location and the improper use of chills. The faulty design of the system may
cause alterations to the castings shape calling for isolated heavy sections
that the feed couldnt reach. Shrinkage cavities might be seen when the
shrinkage property of the casting metal is improper with the properties of the
mold.
There are many more defects that we havent witnessed including: cut
(wash) which could take place due to faulty gating, weak mold, insufficient
good facing material on mold cavity surface. Metal penetration of mold sand
could take place due to using large grain size sand, mold sand not
sufficiently rammed, weak mold or core, pouring temperature of molt too
high, insufficient good facing material on mold cavity. Sand fusion on the
casting is due to faulty gating, mold sand not sufficiently refractory, weak
mold or core sand, pouring temperature of molt too high, insufficient good
facing material on mold cavity. Core shift is due to improper support or
location, weak mold or core sand, faulty patterns or design. Mold component
shift is due to improper placement of guide pins, faulty pattern, faulty core
boxes, and faulty flask. These entire defects act towards the final casting
shape and it shows how each defect is connected with one another and the
slightest error will result with catastrophic changes towards the end.

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Inclusio
Misrun

Figure 16: Inclusion and Misrun defects in our

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Pinhole

Blowhole

Figure 17: Blowhole and Pinhole Porosity defects

Blowhol

Large

Shrinkage

Hot

Figure 18: Blowhole, hot tear, and shrinkage cavity defects in

the final casting

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Conclusion & Recommendations:

Finally all of these defects listed must be avoided to get the best
possible shape with minimum machining and near enough dimensions too
the pattern. Therefore, I have found that human error played the biggest role
in this entire experiment.
In order to avoid the formation of blowholes in the final casting product,
the content of moisture in the sand or metal should be controlled or
monitored carefully. Providing a ventilation system for the removal of any
unwanted gas. Moreover, during each layer of sand the sand should be
rammed enough to ensure that layers are tightly packed.
In order to avoid the pinhole porosity defect, several precautions have to
be taken into consideration when carrying out a sand casting process.
Aluminum alloys have a common defect against pinhole porosity which was
the metal used in this experiment. Inclusions are mainly due to the type of
mold/ sand used in this experiment and thats why the grade of sand must
be chosen carefully.
Hot tears can be reduced by proper guidance throughout the
experiment and following the instruction precisely because it is mainly due to
human error applying a proper means of directional solidification and a
steady rate of cooling of the mold, making sure the molten metal is poured
at the correct temperature and last but not least controlling the hardness of

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the mold, are all ways in which hot tears could be avoided completely or
drastically reduced.
Entrapped air and other gases could be reduced or avoided by correct
pouring of the molt will eventually reduce turbulence when the liquid metal
flows through the gates and building small vents with a specific location
according to the cavity in the mold and the specifications of the vent and
vent holes depend on the size of the material.
Finally shrinkage cavities is a very common defect and is usually mainly
due to human errors in carrying out the experiment. Shrinkage cavities can
be avoided by once more using a proper system for gating, pouring the liquid
metal at a suitable temperature, and carefully monitoring directional
solidification during the process.

References:

http://www.iron-foundry.com/casting-defects-pictures.html - Sand casting defects and causes

of each defect.

http://www.mechanicalengineeringblog.com/tag/sand-casting-defects/ - Sand casting

defects, causes of these defects and ways to reduce such defects.

http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/lib/exe/fetch.php?
w=&h=&cache=cache&media=sand_casting.png - Figure 1

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