Mmoire prsent
la Facult des tudes suprieures de lUniversit Laval
dans le cadre du programme de matrise en gnie de la mtallurgie
pour lobtention du grade de Matrise en Sciences (M.Sc.)
2010
Rsum
La dchirure chaud est un dfaut important observ lors de la coule de certains alliages
d'aluminium. Elle se produit au cours de la solidification lorsquune petite quantit de
phase liquide reste emprisonne dans la phase solide, affaiblissant la rsistance en tension
et conduisant la fissuration de lalliage. Dans le cas de la coule semi-continue dalliages
d'aluminium (coule avec refroidissement intensif et continue), la fissuration chaud
sinitie la surface des lingots de laminage, l o la microstructure est particulirement
vulnrable, cest--dire juste aprs la zone du refroidissement primaire. Afin d'tudier le
comportement thermomcanique de ces alliages lors de la fissuration chaud et l'impact de
lutilisation daffineurs de grains, des essais de traction ont t effectus de faibles taux de
dformation sur des chantillons solidifis dans un tat semi-solide (fraction solide ~9095% vol.) avec l'aide d'un appareil appel DCSS (Direct Chill Surface Simulator). Cet
appareil est constitu dun banc dessai reproduisant les conditions existantes pendant le
refroidissement primaire du procd de coule semi-continue dalliages daluminium.
Le comportement thermomcanique des chantillons partiellement solidifis sous
lapplication de charges en tension a t analys et la formation de fissures chaud a t
observe. La temprature diffrents endroits dans les chantillons, la charge applique et
la dformation en surface ont t mesures lors dessais de traction effectus sur les alliages
d'aluminium AA5182, AA6111 et AA3104. La microstructure de chaque spcimen a t
examine et analyse l'aide dun microscope optique afin dvaluer laspect colonnaire ou
quiaxe des grains et de son effet sur le comportement thermomcanique de l'alliage. Une
importance particulire a t porte sur l'valuation de la fraction solide prsente dans
chaque chantillon coul au dbut des essais de traction, tenant compte de la temprature
locale, du gradient thermique et des taux de refroidissement appliqus.
Il a t observ que des concentrations excessives daffineur de grains diminuaient la
rsistance mcanique en tension des coquilles solidifies en raison dune porosit plus
leve induite par une nuclation plus facile des nouvelles phases (gaz inclus). On a aussi
constat que les taux de refroidissement de lalliage augmentaient avec la quantit
ii
daffineur de grains, reli un phnomne associ au nombre plus lev des points de
contact avec la surface du moule causs par les nombreux petits grains quiaxes.
Finalement, la conception dun critre bas sur la contrainte thermomcanique pour
expliquer la fissuration chaud a t renforce par lobservation dune meilleure rsistance
mcanique en tension obtenue sur des coquilles avec des microstructures non affines pour
les alliages AA5182 et AA6111 ayant des fractions solides similaires, mais avec des tailles
de grain significativement diffrentes.
iii
Abstract
Hot tearing is a severe defect in aluminum castings which is produced during solidification
when a certain amount of liquid phase remains and weakens the tensile resistance of the
alloy. In direct chill casting of aluminum alloys, hot tears initiate at the surface of sheet
ingots just after the primary cooling zone, where the microstructure is particularly
vulnerable. In order to study the thermomechanical properties of these alloys and the effect
of grain refiners on their thermo-mechanical behaviour, tensile tests were carried out on
specimens in the semi-solid state (~90-95% solid fraction) and at low strain rates using an
apparatus called Direct Chill Surface Simulator (DCSS). This apparatus is an instrumented
rig test reproducing the conditions prevailing during the primary cooling stage of the DC
casting process.
The thermomechanical behavior of solidifying shells and the hot tear formation under
applied tensile loads was analyzed and the occurrence of hot tearing was observed. The
temperature in different locations of the casting, applied load and surface strain were
monitored during the tensile tests conducted on aluminum alloys AA5182, AA6111 and
AA3104. The microstructure of the tested specimens was examined using the optical
microscope to evaluate the columnar or equiaxed aspect of grains and their effect on the
thermomechanical response of the alloy. A special emphasis has been given to the
evaluation of the solid fraction existing in the castings at the start of the tensile tests, taking
into account the local temperature, thermal gradient and cooling rates experienced.
It was found that excessive grain refiner additions decreased the strength of solidifying
shells because of the increased level of porosity induced by easier nucleation of new phases
(gas included). It was also observed that cooling rates increased with the level of grain
refiner, a phenomenon that was associated to the higher number of contact points with the
mould obtained with numerous small equiaxed grains. Finally, the concept of a stress based
criterion for hot tearing was reinforced by the strengths obtained on not grain refined
AA5182 and AA6111 alloys showing similar solid fraction near the surface, but with
significantly different grain sizes.
Acknowledgement
I gratefully acknowledge the Chaire industrielle relative la solidification et la mtallurgie
de l'aluminium (CISMA) directed by Professor Andr Charette of UQAC, ALCAN
International Ltd and the Centre Qubcois de Recherche et de Dveloppement de
lAluminium (CQRDA) for their financial support.
I would like to gratefully acknowledge my director, Professor Daniel Larouche, for his
patience and kind guidance.
Thanks are also expressed to M. M. Andr Larouche, Claude Dupuis and Joseph Langlais
of the Arvida Research and Development Center (ARDC) for their help, to M. M. Sbastien
Duperr-Ct and Bernard Tougas for their assistance on tensile testing and Mrs. Maude
Larouche for the preparation of metallographic specimens.
I also acknowledge my numerous friends at the Department of Mining, Metallurgy, and
Materials Engineering at Laval University for the good times I shared with them at Qubec.
Finally, I wish to acknowledge the encouragement and support from my family, specially
my mother and my father.
Milad Mardan
July 2010
Qubec, QC
Canada
To My Parents
Table of Content
Rsum.....................................................................................................................................i
Abstract ................................................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................iv
Table of Content ....................................................................................................................vi
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... viii
Chapter 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 11
1.1
Aluminium ............................................................................................................ 11
1.2
Alliages d'aluminium ............................................................................................ 12
1.3
Coule semi-continue ........................................................................................... 13
1.4
Objectifs du projet ................................................................................................ 15
Chapter 2 Thorie et revue de la littrature ....................................................................... 18
2.1
Fissuration chaud ............................................................................................... 18
2.2
Indice de susceptibilit la dchirure chaud et paramtres dominants ............. 22
2.3
valuation de la susceptibilit la dchirure chaud .......................................... 26
2.3.1 Essai de l'anneau ............................................................................................... 26
2.3.2 Essai de doigt froid ........................................................................................... 28
2.3.3 Essai d'os de chien ............................................................................................ 29
2.4
Dchirure chaud: thories, critres, modles et mcanismes ............................. 30
2.4.1 Modles et critres mcaniques ........................................................................ 31
2.4.2 Critres et modles non-mcanique .................................................................. 39
2.4.3 Modles et critres mcaniques / non mcaniques ........................................... 41
2.4.4 Modles et critres bass sur dautres principes ............................................... 45
2.4.5 Rsum sur les modles et critres de la dchirure chaud ............................. 46
2.5
Affinage des grains dalliages d'aluminium.......................................................... 46
Chapter 3 Experimental procedure .................................................................................... 48
3.1
Direct Chill Surface Simulator (DCSS) ................................................................ 48
3.2
Properties of Alloys: AA5182, AA3104, AA6111 ............................................... 51
3.2.1 AA5182; UNS No. A95182 .............................................................................. 51
3.2.2 AA3104; UNS No. A93104 .............................................................................. 51
3.2.3 AA6111; UNS No. A96111 .............................................................................. 52
3.3
Setup Description .................................................................................................. 52
Chapter 4 Results and Discussion ..................................................................................... 60
4.1
Results ................................................................................................................... 60
4.1.1 Thermal Profile ................................................................................................. 60
4.1.2 Tensile Tests ..................................................................................................... 65
4.1.3 Fraction Solid Distribution ............................................................................... 66
4.1.4 Metallographic examination ............................................................................. 67
4.2
Discussion ............................................................................................................. 70
Chapter 5 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 75
Chapter 6 References ......................................................................................................... 76
Appendix A ProCASTTM ................................................................................................... 92
Appendix B Thermophysical properties of materials used in the solidification unit ...... 103
List of Tables
Table 3-1: Chemical composition of experimental alloys. ................................................... 52
Table 3-2: General experimental conditions. ........................................................................ 59
Table 4-1: Grain size and microporosity density (number of micropores or microcracks per
unit area) of experimental alloys having 300ppm or less of Al-TiB2. .......................... 70
Table A-1: Geometry properties of the model (Ex. alloy AA6111). ...................................93
Table A-2: Variation of the value h vs. time for alloys AA6111 (a) and AA5152 (b). .....101
Table B-1: Density (g/cc) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6111.104
Table B-2: Solid-liquid temperature interval for alloy AA6111. .......................................105
Table B-3: Enthalpy (kJ/kg) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6111. ...............................106
Table B-4: Solid fraction (%) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6111...............................107
Table B-5: Thermal conductivity (W/m/K) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6111.........108
Table B-6: Solid-liquid temperature interval for alloy AA5182. .......................................109
Table B-7: Density (g/cc) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA5182. ...................................110
Table B-8: Thermal conductivity (W/m/K) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA5182.........111
Table B-9: Specific heat (kJ/kg/K) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA5182. ....................111
Table B-10: Solid fraction (%) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA5182. ...........................112
Table B-11: Latent heat for alloy AA5182. .......................................................................112
Table B-12: Solid-liquid temperature interval for alloy AA3104. .....................................114
Table B-13: Thermal conductivity (W/m/K) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA3104.......114
Table B-14: Enthalpy (kJ/kg) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA3104. .............................115
Table B-15: Solid fraction (%) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA3104. ...........................116
Table B-16: Density (g/cc) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA3104. .................................117
Table B-17: Some constant values for alloy AA6061-T6. .................................................118
Table B-18: Specific heat (kJ/kg/K) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6061-T6. .............119
Table B-19: Viscosity-Newtonian (cP) vs. temperature (C). ...........................................119
Table B-20: Density (g/cc) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6061-T6. ...........................119
Table B-21: Solid fraction vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6061-T6. ............................119
Table B-22: Somme constant values for refractory IsoCast. .............................................119
Table B-23: Thermal conductivity (W/m/K) vs. temperature (C) for refractory IsoCast.120
Table B-24: Some constant values for insulating plaster. ..................................................120
List of Figures
Figure 1-1: Lingots de laminage typiques (gauche) et dextrusion (droite) utiliss dans la
fabrication des produits modernes daluminium corroy [7]........................................ 14
Figure 1-2: (a) Coule semi-continue (a) et section du moule (b) [8]. ................................. 14
Figure 1-3: Fissuration chaud dans un lingot [16]. ............................................................ 16
Figure 1-4: Fissuration chaud au centre dune billette daluminium observe dans le
procd de la coule semi-continue [16]. ..................................................................... 16
Figure 2-1: Illustration schmatique des trois rgimes de retrait: dans le liquide, au cours du
refroidissement et dans le solide [22]. .......................................................................... 19
Figure 2-2: Dfauts concernant la coul semi-continue (Avec quelques modifications) [48].
...................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 2-3: Susceptibilit la fissuration chaud de l'alliage Al-Cu en fonction de la
concentration en cuivre [45]. ........................................................................................ 23
Figure 2-4: Moule annulaire pour l'valuation de la fissuration (dchirure) chaud [29]. .. 27
Figure 2-5: quipement d'essai de demi-moule utilis par Guven et Hunt pour l'valuation
de la fissuration (dchirure) chaud [89]. .................................................................... 27
Figure 2-6: Moule d'essai de doigt froid pour l'estimation de la susceptibilit la dchirure
chaud [78]. ................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 2-7: Moule d'os de chien pour les essais de la dchirure chaud [29]...................... 29
Figure 2-8: Combinaison de plusieurs moules d'os de chien pour l'valuation de la
susceptibilit la dchirure chaud en variant la longueur (a) et le diamtre (b) des
chantillons (dimensions en mm) [29].......................................................................... 30
Figure 2-9: Distribution de la phase liquide aux joints de grains: (a) > 90 liquide aux
points triples, (b) > 60 liquide aux artes, et (c) = 0 liquide aux faces [106]. ..... 33
Figure 2-10: Modle de deux grains spars par un film liquide en assumant un mouillage
complet des grains par le liquide [107]. ........................................................................ 33
Figure 2-11: Contrainte et dformation la rupture d'une pice semi-solide calcules en
fonction de la fraction solide (a) et du diamtre des grains (b) pour une microstructure
colonnaire et quiaxe [1]............................................................................................... 36
Figure 2-12: Comparaison entre les relations contrainte-dformation calcules reprsentant
l'effet de la fraction solide moyen (gs) [110]. ............................................................... 38
Figure 2-13: Un schma de la formation d'une dchirure chaud entre les dendrites
colonnaires engendre par la dformation localise transmise par les dendrites
cohrentes (pm est la pression hydrostatique du mtal, pc est la pression de cavitation,
L est la distance entre la racine et lextrmit des dendrites, est la dformation
viscoplastique [43]. ....................................................................................................... 43
Figure 3-1: Direct Chill Surface Simulator (DCSS). ............................................................ 48
Figure 3-2: Picture of the mould and replaceable insert. ...................................................... 49
Figure 3-3: Tensile test device. ............................................................................................. 49
Figure 3-4: Solidification unit............................................................................................... 50
Figure 3-5: Replaceable mould insert in Wollite 45 (dimensions are in mm). ..................... 51
Figure 3-6: Poured liquid alloy in the refractory container and placed on DCSS. ............... 53
Figure 3-7: Position of the thermocouples in the solidification unit. Thermocouple (1) is 5
mm from the surface that estimate the temperature of the surface of liquid aluminum.
ix
Thermocouple (2) is 10 mm from the surface. When Thermocouple 2 indicates a
temperature that correspond to Fs 0.90-0,95, the chill plate displaces and the tensile
test starts. Thermocouple (3) is 15 mm from the surface.. The average error of the
distance of thermocouples from the surface is about 0.5 (+1.9) mm. ........................ 54
Figure 3-8: Chilling plate positioned on the refractory container. ....................................... 55
Figure 3-9: Solidification unit before (A) and after (B) the automatic rotation of unit. ....... 55
Figure 3-10: Rotation of the solidification unit. ................................................................... 56
Figure 3-11: Automatic installation of extensometer on the surface of sample after the
rotation of the container and translation of the chilling plate [110]. ............................ 56
Figure 3-12: Summary of tensile test: (a) refractory container positioned in the tensile test
section; (b) putting the screws in place; (c) chill plate put on top of the refractory
container; (d) solidification unit after rotation; (e) chill plate displacement upward,
opening a window where the alloy surface is exposed to air; and (f) connecting the
extensometer to the surface of the alloy and starting the tensile test. ........................... 58
Figure 3-13: Photograph showing the sample after the tensile test ...................................... 59
Figure 4-1: Cooling curves of alloy AA5182 without and with grain refiner (100 ppm)
obtained during the test on DCSS (plain lines) and from ProCAST simulation (dash
lines); green, red, and blue lines correspond to thermocouples #1, #2 and #3,
respectively. .................................................................................................................. 61
Figure 4-2: Cooling curves of alloy AA5182 with grain refiner (300 and 500 ppm) obtained
during the test on DCSS (plain lines) and from ProCAST simulation (dash lines);
green, red, and blue lines correspond to thermocouples #1, #2 and #3, respectively. .. 62
Figure 4-3: Cooling curves of alloy AA6111 without and with grain refiner (100 ppm)
obtained during the test on DCSS (plain lines) and from ProCAST simulation (dash
lines); green, red, and blue lines correspond to thermocouples #1, #2 and #3,
respectively. .................................................................................................................. 63
Figure 4-4: Cooling curves of alloy AA6111 with grain refiner (500 ppm) obtained during
the test on DCSS (plain lines) and from ProCAST simulation (dash lines); green, red,
and blue lines correspond to thermocouples #1, #2 and #3, respectively. .................... 64
Figure 4-5: Cooling curves of alloy AA3104 without grain refiner obtained during the test
on DCSS (plain lines) and from ProCAST simulation (dash lines); green, red, and blue
lines correspond to thermocouples #1, #2 and #3, respectively. .................................. 64
Figure 4-6: Load-strain curves of alloys AA6111 and AA3104 with and without grain
refiner obtained from tensile tests at temperature indicated in Table 3-2. ................... 65
Figure 4-7: Load-strain curves of alloy AA5182 with and without grain refiner obtained
from tensile tests at temperature indicated in Table 3-2. .............................................. 65
Figure 4-8: Calculated solid fraction distributions of AA5182 alloy with and without grain
refiner at the start of tensile testing using the thermal profile and ProCAST. .............. 66
Figure 4-9: Calculated solid fraction distributions of AA6111 and AA3104 alloys with and
without grain refiner at the start of tensile testing using the thermal profile and
ProCAST. ...................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 4-10: Typical microstructure of non-refined alloy AA5182 obtained after testing. . 67
Figure 4-11: Typical microstructure of alloy AA5182+100 ppm Al-5Ti-1B obtained after
testing. ........................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 4-12: Typical microstructure of alloy AA5182+300 ppm Al-5Ti-1B obtained after
testing. ........................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 4-13: Typical microstructure of non-refined alloy AA6111 obtained after testing. . 69
x
Figure 4-14: Typical microstructure of alloy AA6111+100 ppm Al-5Ti-1B obtained after
testing. ........................................................................................................................... 69
Figure 4-15: Solid fraction comparison for alloys AA5182 and AA6111 at the distance
from the chill plate. ....................................................................................................... 72
Figure 4-16: Tensile tests comparison for alloys AA5182 and AA6111. ............................ 72
Figure 4-17: Intergranular channels in large (a) and small (b) grain structures in the
coherency point. ............................................................................................................ 73
Figure 4-18: Schematic of intergranular channel and meniscus liquid with hemispherical
shape; Patm , Pliq , h h , and are atmospheric pressure, liquid pressure, channel width,
and applied stress, respectively [1]. .............................................................................. 74
Figure A-1: Adapted triangular mesh in the model. The zero of horizontal and vertical axes
(mm) are set at the surface of the cast specimen and at the center of the zone exposed
to the air, (center of the interface between zones 1 and 5). ..92
Figure A-2: Solidification unit at the initial condition of the test. .......................................95
Figure A-3: Cross section of solidification unit and their area boundaries. .........................95
Figure A-4: Thermal history from the starting point of the test. ..........................................97
Figure A-5: Solid fraction history from the starting point of the test. .................................98
Figure A-6: Time variation of h between zones 1 and 5 (a) and between zones 2 and 5 (b)
.99
Figure A-7: Time variation of h between zones 1 and 5 (a) and between zones 2 and 5 (b)
for alloy AA5182+100ppm Al-5Ti-1B. .....................................................................100
Figure B-1: Density and thermal conductivity vs. temperature of alloy AA6111..103
Figure B-2: Solid fraction and enthalpy vs. temperature of alloy AA6111....103
Figure B-3: Viscosity vs. temperature of alloy AA6111 ...........................104
Figure B-4: Density variation vs. temperature of alloy AA5182108
Figure B-5: Viscosity vs. temperature of alloy AA5182............................108
Figure B-6: Specific heat vs. temperature of alloy AA5182.......................109
Figure B-7: Solid fraction and enthalpy vs. temperature of alloy AA5182....109
Figure B-8: Thermal conductivity vs. temperature of alloy AA3104.....112
Figure B-9: Enthalpy vs. temperature of alloy AA3104.....................................................113
Figure B-10: Solid fraction and enthalpy vs. temperature of alloy AA3104......113
Figure B-11: Density vs. temperature of alloy AA3104.............................113
Figure B-12: Density and solid fraction vs. temperature for alloy AA6061-T6.....118
Figure B-13: Specific heat and viscosity vs. temperature for alloy AA6061-T6................118
Figure B-14: Thermal conductivity vs. temperature for refractory ISOCast..............120
Chapter 1
1.1
Introduction
Aluminium
12
1.2
Alliages d'aluminium
13
soudage. Les alliages de la srie 5xxx ont relativement de bonnes proprits mcaniques, de
bonnes capacits de soudage et une bonne rsistance la corrosion. Ils sont gnralement
utiliss comme lments structuraux. Les alliages purs sont pour leur part essentiellement
utiliss en lectronique et en optique [5, 6].
1.3
Coule semi-continue
14
Figure 1-1: Lingots de laminage typiques (gauche) et dextrusion (droite) utiliss dans la
fabrication des produits modernes daluminium corroy [7].
Figure 1-2: (a) Coule semi-continue (a) et section du moule (b) [8].
15
1.4
Objectifs du projet
La coule semi-continue (Direct Chill casting) des alliages d'aluminium est un procd qui
a t utilis depuis les soixante dernires annes. Cette technique permet de produire des
lingots d'aluminium de haute qualit pour les utiliser dans des procds de mise en forme
tels que le laminage et le forgeage par extrusion. Malgr les avantages de cette technique
pour les alliages d'aluminium (gnralement des alliages corroys), il arrive parfois que ce
procd gnre un dfaut trs svre quon appelle "la dchirure chaud" [9-11]. Le terme
"chaud" indique un intervalle de temprature o la fissuration se produit dans la zone
pteuse. Ce phnomne reprsente la formation d'une macro-fissure l'tat semi-solide de
la coule en lingotire (Figure 1-3). Ce problme limite la production de pices moules de
fonderie et affecte la productivit des procds tels que la coule semi-continue des alliages
d'aluminium [12].
La raison principale de la formation de fissures chaud est la gnration de contraintes et
de dformations aux fractions solides leves (95-98%) [13, 14] la suite de la variation
des conditions de refroidissement produisant des gradients thermiques lors de la
solidification [15]. Les refroidissements primaire et secondaire ayant cours lors de la coule
semi-continue induisent cet effet un gradient thermique macroscopique fort sur le lingot
qui peut occasionner des distorsions telles que le retroussement de lextrmit des lingots,
le resserrement des surfaces latrales et/ou la fissuration chaud. Au cours de la coule
semi-continue, il est important que dans un temps limit, une coquille solide suffisamment
forte se forme au contact du moule afin de retenir le bassin intrieur dalliage en fusion [9].
La fissuration chaud peut se produire sur la surface du lingot (Figure 1-3) ou au centre de
celui-ci (Figure 1-4) lors de la coule semi-continue des lingots de laminage et des billettes
dextrusion respectivement.
16
Figure 1-4: Fissuration chaud au centre dune billette daluminium observe dans le
procd de la coule semi-continue [16].
17
Le rle de la microstructure sur le comportement mcanique aux fractions solides leves
sera ainsi mis en vidence et permettra terme de mieux comprendre la formation de ce
dfaut important et irrcuprable. Pour atteindre cet objectif, un appareil sera prsent,
nomm "le simulateur de surface de la coule semi-continue" ou "Direct Chill Casting
Surface Simulator" (DCSS) afin d'tudier les proprits thermomcaniques de quelques
alliages d'aluminium. Cet appareil est capable de simuler l'volution thermique et les
contraintes de traction gnres lors de la solidification des alliages. Le DCSS sera dcrit
en dtail au troisime chapitre.
Chapter 2
2.1
Fissuration chaud
Associs la contraction de solidification et la diffrence de densit entre les phases solide et liquide.
19
Figure 2-1: Illustration schmatique des trois rgimes de retrait: dans le liquide, au cours du
refroidissement et dans le solide [22].
Lors de la coule semi-continue des alliages d'aluminium, les diffrents taux de
solidification imposent diffrents taux de contraction sur les couches du lingot. Par
consquent, les contraintes et les dformations sont inhomognes. Aussi longtemps que les
dformations et les contraintes mentionnes ci-dessus ne surpassent pas la rsistance
mcanique de la portion solidifie, presque rien ne se passera. Dautres dfauts peuvent tre
produits lors de la coule semi-continue mais ils ne font pas l'objet de ce mmoire.
Toutefois, ils sont prsents la Figure 2-2.
La ductilit de la portion solidifie est un autre facteur important qui joue un rle
significatif dans la formation de la fissuration chaud qui sera discut dans la Section 2.4.
Les paramtres principaux affectant la ductilit d'une portion semi-solide du matriau sont
la composition chimique [29] et le taux de dformation [30-34].
Au cours des dcennies [22, 29, 31, 35-47], de nombreux efforts ont t faits pour
comprendre ce phnomne. Les rsultats de ces travaux montrent que le point d'initiation
d'une fissure chaud se situe quelque part au-dessus du solide et peut se propager le long
des joints de grain au cours de la dernire tape de solidification.
20
Parmi les facteurs affectant la formation de la fissuration chaud, le liquide intergranulaire
est un autre facteur important. Les films liquides peuvent affaiblir ces rgions en entourant
les grains. Ce liquide est considr comme un concentrateur de contrainte.
Figure 2-2: Dfauts concernant la coul semi-continue (Avec quelques modifications) [48].
21
la permabilit du rseau dendritique est encore assez leve pour empcher la
formation de pores.
3. Sparation interdendritiques: la fraction solide est augmente et la permabilit du
rseau solide commence diminuer continuellement jusqu' ce que le flux du
liquide soit presque impossible. Ainsi, les zones liquides deviennent isoles entre
les sections solidifies. ce stade, par la contraction thermique de la proportion
solidifie et la contraction du liquide, un espace vide se forme entre le solide et le
liquide, conduisant la cration d'un pore et par consquent la formation dune
dchirure chaud.
4. Alimentation solide (fraction solide > 0.9): cette tape, le lingot a une rsistance
mcanique suffisante pour compenser en outre la contraction thermique.
La sparation interdendritique est l'tape principale dans laquelle le lingot est sensible la
formation de pores et l'occurrence de la dchirure chaud. Du point de vue temporel, un
long intervalle de solidification rend l'alliage sensible la dchirure chaud sil est plac
dans des conditions o la contrainte augmente continuellement. En d'autres termes, tant
l'tat pteux pour un temps plus long, la prsence de films liquides augmente la possibilit
de formation dune dchirure chaud [11, 53-57], car un tel alliage consacre plus de temps
durant l'tat de vulnrabilit dans lequel les films minces du liquide existent entre les
dendrites. L'intervalle de solidification et la dure d'existence des films liquides
intergranulaires sont influencs par la composition chimique de l'alliage. Il est aussi connu
quune structure avec des grains fins et des conditions de moulage contrles aident
prvenir la dchirure chaud [9]. Une microstructure grains fins et quiaxes est moins
sensible la dchirure chaud [11, 53-57]. Aussi, la temprature et la vitesse plus leve
de coule contribuent la formation de la dchirure chaud [11, 58-60]. Il existe quelques
autres paramtres qui rgissent la formation de la dchirure chaud lors de la coule semicontinue mentionns dans la littrature, comme la vitesse de coule, la dimension du
moule, la composition de l'alliage et les conditions de refroidissement qui peuvent affecter
l'occurrence de la dchirure chaud. En pratique, l'interactivit de tous ces facteurs et
paramtres rend la prvision de dchirure chaud complexe et difficile. Les effets de ces
facteurs et quelques-unes des techniques physiques et mcaniques [39, 61-63] qui ont t
22
utilises pour mesurer quantitativement et pour prdire la susceptibilit du dchirement
chaud [39, 63] seront revus dans ce chapitre.
2.2
La tendance la dchirure chaud d'un alliage est souvent exprime par la longueur de
fissure ou par la longueur de la fissure divise par une certaine longueur de la pice coule.
Chaque famille d'alliages d'aluminium a une tendance plus ou moins importante la
fissuration chaud selon la teneur en soluts [29, 54]. Cette tendance est illustre par une
courbe montrant une volution en forme de lambda majuscule ( ) [64] (Figure 2-3). L'effet
de la composition chimique des alliages sur la sensibilit du dchirement chaud n'est pas
vident pour tous les alliages d'aluminium et il n'y a pas de loi gnrale pour ce cas. Mais, il
est vident que l'augmentation des lments d'alliage rend lintervalle de solidification plus
grand et par consquent, augmente la susceptibilit la fissuration chaud. Donc, la
susceptibilit maximale de la dchirure chaud correspond souvent un intervalle de
solidification maximal. Par exemple, la Figure 2-3 illustre la susceptibilit la dchirure
chaud en fonction de la composition pour les alliages Al-Cu telle que mesure par Spittle et
al.[45]. Pour l'aluminium pur, la susceptibilit la dchirure chaud est trs faible parce
que le temps de solidification est trop court. Il augmente brusquement pour les alliages
faiblement allis et atteint un maximum pour une composition autour de 1%poids Cu. Pour
la composition de plus de 3-4%poids Cu, la susceptibilit la dchirure chaud diminue.
En plus, Suytno et al. [65] n'ont pas observ de fissure avec 4%poids de cuivre ou plus
pendant la coule semi-continue. Cela peut tre justifi par la combinaison d'un intervalle
de solidification plus court, une faible contraction thermique [28] et une plus grande
quantit disponible de liquide pour la post-alimentation des interstices proche de la
temprature de solidification [66]. Ce type dalimentation rend l'alliage moins propice la
fissuration chaud.
23
Dans la littrature, la cohrence est dfinie comme la temprature correspondante une fraction solide o
les grains solides commencent se toucher en interagissant et en sentremlant ensemble sous forme d'un
rseau tortueux. En coule semi-continue, la rgion situe entre le point de cohrence et le liquide est dfinie
comme la zone coulis et la rgion entre le point de cohrence et le solide est dfinie comme la zone pteuse.
Plus prs du solide, dans la zone pteuse, il y a une autre temprature importante au cours de laquelle un
rseau de grains solides est produit. Ce rseau permet de transfrer la contrainte et par consquent le matriau
pteux acquiert une meilleure rsistance mcanique. Cette temprature s'appelle la temprature de rigidit.
24
paramtre important est le taux de refroidissement qui dtermine inversement lintervalle
de solidification de l'alliage. Avec un taux de refroidissement plus lev, la microstructure
de l'alliage sera plus fin, la distance entre les branches des dendrites seront plus faibles [73]
et il y aura moins de porosit [74]. En ce qui concerne le temps de solidification, un
intervalle de solidification plus grand mne une solidification plus longue et au
grossissement des branches des dendrites. Laugmentation du temps de la surfusion (dlai
avant le moulage) transforme les grains ramifis en grains surface lisse. En effet, plus le
dlai de surfusion augmente, plus les grains peuvent dvelopper leurs branches et devenir
gros [29]. En outre, lintervalle entre le liquidus et le solidus crot cause de l'augmentation
de la vitesse de moulage tandis que la distance entre les branches des dendrites devient plus
troite [65].
La quantit de liquide eutectique (dernier liquide se solidifier) dans les dernires tapes de
la solidification est trs importante. Celle-ci empche la formation d'une cavit rsultant du
retrait de solidification, la dformation due la contraction thermique et la libration des
gaz [37, 39, 41]. Avec la prsence dun liquide eutectique en quantit suffisante, les cavits
(ou pores) peuvent tre remplies. De l, une situation de cicatrisation par laquelle les pores
ne peuvent pas se propager. Une preuve de la cicatrisation de fissure a t observe par
Suyitno et al. [75] au cours de laquelle un parcours deutectique (riche en solut) existe tout
au long des joints de grains et au bout de la fissure dans le lingot [65]. Une quantit
insuffisante deutectique empche la formation continue du film liquide pour couvrir les
joints de grains. Par consquent, en absence de film liquide intergranulaire, la coalescence
des grains commence par la formation de ponts entre eux. Les fissures intergranulaires
devraient se propager travers ces ponts.
Dans le moulage, les rles de la taille du grain et de la microstructure de l'alliage sont bien
connus. Les alliages avec une microstructure fine sont moins assujettis la fissuration
chaud. Pour les grains dendritiques quiaxes [45, 76], la susceptibilit la fissuration
chaud augmente avec laugmentation de la taille des grains. Par exemple, la petite taille des
grains a pour effet de rduire la dchirure chaud en affectant le mode de distribution
eutectique dans les alliages Al-Mg-Zn [62, 77]. En effet, par la prsence de liquide
25
eutectique aux joints de grains, laccommodation de la contraction volumtrique est
facilite et la possibilit de formation de fissuration chaud est rduite. Vu que lexistence
des petits grains mne une distribution plus uniforme du liquide eutectique aux joints de
grains, la susceptibilit la dchirure chaud sera plus faible. D'autres tudes [62, 78-80]
montrent que le raffinage des grains n'a pas d'effet sur la sensibilit de certains alliages
(7xxx) mais certains autres (Al-Mg) sont plus sensibles la formation de la dchirure
chaud malgr une microstructure avec des grains fins. Ces cas ont t expliqus par la
faible rsistance gnrale de l'alliage en cours de solidification [79, 80]. Surtout, lorsque les
contraintes en traction sont normales leur direction de croissance, les grains colonnaires
sont trs sensibles la fissuration chaud [70, 81].
L'existence de porosit dans les matriaux en cours de solidification joue un rle important
dans la formation de la dchirure chaud. Une grande quantit d'hydrogne augmente la
porosit de lalliage de l'aluminium liquide [82] et elle augmente aussi le nombre de sites
de nuclation potentiellement susceptibles la formation de la dchirure chaud. Il est
gnralement admis que l'hydrogne augmente la susceptibilit la fissuration chaud
[22]. Mais, en mesurant les diverses quantits d'hydrogne dans les alliages Al-(1,6%)Si,
Barnett et al. [83] ont constat que les teneurs leves d'hydrogne peuvent rduire
considrablement la susceptibilit la dchirure chaud. C'est probablement d
laccommodation partielle de la dformation lors de la solidification par des porosits qui
augmentent la ductilit ou facilite la dformation de la portion pteuse.
Lnergie de la surface solide-liquide est un autre facteur qui peut affecter la forme du film
eutectique liquide [84] et la coalescence des grains solides [85]. La tension surfacique du
liquide interdendritiques empche l'alimentation du liquide travers les canaux
interdendritiques, ce qui augmente la rsistance la dchirure chaud [86, 87].
26
2.3
27
capable de mesurer simultanment les contraintes et les dformations produites pendant et
aprs la solidification.
Figure 2-4: Moule annulaire pour l'valuation de la fissuration (dchirure) chaud [29].
Figure 2-5: quipement d'essai de demi-moule utilis par Guven et Hunt pour l'valuation
de la fissuration (dchirure) chaud [89].
28
Figure 2-6: Moule d'essai de doigt froid pour l'estimation de la susceptibilit la dchirure
chaud [78].
29
Figure 2-7: Moule d'os de chien pour les essais de la dchirure chaud [29].
30
2.4
Dchirure
mcanismes
chaud:
thories,
critres,
modles
et
Les critres et les mcanismes proposs dans la littrature lis l'initiation et la formation
de la dchirure chaud sont diviss en trois grandes catgories: les critres mcaniques,
thermiques et mcaniques-thermiques.
31
32
pas. La prsence de petites quantits de liquide intergranulaire peut conduire la formation
de fissures chaud. Ce film liquide intergranulaire peut diminuer la ductilit du mtal
solidifi. Cet effet est nomm "la fragilisation du mtal liquide". Dautres recherches ont
montr que l'adsorption de mtal liquide par la pice solidifie mne l'affaiblissement des
liaisons atomiques dans le matriau et la nuclation des dislocations qui se dplacent sous
l'accumulation des contraintes [96-100]. La dissolution peut galement favoriser la
nuclation des cavits qui peuvent se dvelopper sous les contraintes et conduire la
rupture ductile de la pice solidifie.
Pour la premire fois, Smith [101] a tudi l'influence des forces superficielles en tension
sur la fragilisation du mtal liquide. L'nergie de surface travers une interface ou
autrement dit, la tension superficielle l'interface, est un indicateur de l'nergie requise la
formation d'une aire unitaire de la nouvelle surface l'interface. La tension superficielle est
le rsultat de liaisons intermolculaires ou de forces cohsives entre les atomes et les
molcules d'un liquide. En gnral, quand le liquide touche la surface d'une autre substance
comme le mtal solide, il y a une attraction entre les deux lments. Dans ce cas, il y aura
une comptition entre les forces d'adhsion l'interface liquide-mtal solide et les forces de
cohsion du liquide. Un liquide contenant des liaisons de cohsion faibles et une attraction
forte pour un autre lment (autrement dit, la tendance crer des liaisons adhsives) aura
tendance lenrober. Les liquides ayant des liaisons de cohsion plus fortes et des forces
d'adhsives plus faibles en contact avec un solide auront tendance former une gouttelette
la surface du solide [102]. L'nergie de surface
est la
tension de surface et A est la surface [103]. La distribution du film liquide est dtermine
par un angle de distribution de liquide appel l'angle didre . Cet angle dpend du ratio
sl
ss
2cos( 2) ,
sl
ss
tant lnergie interfaciale libre entre deux grains solides [104]. Lorsque la tension
superficielle est faible, l'angle didre est faible et le liquide aura tendance s'tendre sur la
surface des joints de grains conduisant un bon mouillage. Ce bon mouillage rduit
fortement la cohrence de la microstructure, affaiblit le constituant pteux et peut mener
la formation de dchirure chaud. En outre, les couches d'oxyde sur les surfaces peuvent
33
rduire la tension superficielle [105]. Avec un grand angle didre, le liquide doit rester sous
forme de gouttelettes aux points triples (joints de grains) (Figure 2-9). Dans les alliages
mtalliques, plus la diffrence entre les compositions chimiques du liquide et des phases
solides est grande, plus l'angle didre sera grand. Pour les alliages d'aluminium, l'angle
didre est gnralement infrieure 20-25 [44].
Figure 2-9: Distribution de la phase liquide aux joints de grains: (a) > 90 liquide aux
points triples, (b) > 60 liquide aux artes, et (c) = 0 liquide aux faces [106].
(2.1)
Figure 2-10: Modle de deux grains spars par un film liquide en assumant un mouillage
complet des grains par le liquide [107].
34
Toutefois, la relation 2.1 ne tient pas compte de l'angle de mouillabilit et de la viscosit du
liquide. En considrant la viscosit du liquide, Dickhaus et al. [107] ont propos un modle
qui exprime la contrainte ncessaire () pour dtacher deux plaques parallles (comme les
grains) spares par un film liquide. Ce modle est reprsent par l'quation suivante:
R4 1
( 2
8t
b1
1
),
b22
(2.2)
o est la viscosit dynamique du liquide; R est le rayon d'une plaque circulaire, t est le
temps requis pour augmenter l'paisseur du film de b1 b2 et F est la charge ncessaire pour
la sparation des plaques.
Novikov [29] a propos un modle mcanique qui considre la ductilit des alliages semisolide non-ferreux (y compris les alliages d'aluminium). Dans ce modle, la dformation
drive par le retrait lors de la solidification est la base pour la dtermination de la
susceptibilit la fissuration chaud. Dans ce critre, l'effet du liquide rsiduel la
dernire tape de solidification a galement t tudi. La dformation plastique dans
l'intervalle de solidification a t exprime par le glissement des joints de grains et la
tendance la dchirure chaud a t considre par l'allongement la rupture dun
spcimen en cours de solidification proportionnelle au retrait linaire qui impose la
dformation ncessaire la dformation plastique. Selon les rsultats obtenus, comme la
quantit du film liquide intergranulaire diminue, la dformation du spcimen solidifi ne se
produit pas facilement cause de la friction entre les grains. Par consquent, l'allongement
la rupture sera rduit. Mais, en prsence de plus de liquide intergranulaire et selon la
ductilit de l'alliage, l'allongement la rupture augmente continuellement. Donc, la
susceptibilit la dchirure chaud sera faible et l'alliage sera moins sensible la
formation de fissuration chaud. De plus, Novikov [29] a trouv que la formation de la
fissuration chaud ne dpend pas de la vitesse de moulage.
Modle de Prokhorov
Dans son modle, Prokhorov [42] a considr la dformation produite dans l'intervalle de
fragilit lors de la solidification. Cette dformation survient la suite du retrait et de la
35
contraction thermique au cours de la solidification. Il a postul que si la dformation et la
vitesse de dformation dpassent la vitesse de dformation accommode par le corps semisolide, la dchirure chaud se produira.
fr
et la dformation
(2.3)
fr
l g
3h
f sm
1 f sm
(2.4)
36
o
est la contrainte qui initie la rupture, l/g l'nergie de surface liquide/grain, h est
l'paisseur du film liquide entre les grains et m = 1/2 pour les structures colonnaires et 1/3
pour les structures quiaxes. Ils ont calcul la contrainte et la dformation qui conduisent
la rupture dun spcimen semi-solide par rapport la fraction solide et la taille des grains.
La contrainte de rupture du spcimen semi-solide sera
sera
et la dformation correspondante
. Ils ont montr que lorsque la fraction solide augmente, la contrainte la rupture
calcule par la relation (2.4) pour une dformation donne augmente rapidement avec la
fraction solide lorsque celle-ci approche 0,96 alors que la dformation la rupture diminue
dans les microstructures quiaxes et colonnaires (Figure 2-11a). Aux fractions solides
basses, si le liquide intergranulaire est suffisant, la dformation se fait par le glissement des
grains. La Figure 2-11b montre qu'avec l'augmentation de la taille de grains, la contrainte
la rupture diminue. Ceci est en accord avec l'effet positif des petits grains sur l'amlioration
de rsistance d'une microstructure la dchirure chaud. Selon la Figure 2-11b, la taille du
grain n'a aucun effet sur la contrainte la rupture.
Plus tard, Larouche et al. [110] ont amlior le modle de Lahaie et Bouchard [1] en
effectuant des essais de traction sur un alliage Al-Cu avec un simulateur de surface de la
coule semi-continue prs du solidus en tenant compte des facteurs comme l'paisseur du
37
canal liquide et la contrainte visqueuse. Ils ont propos trois mcanismes pour la
compensation de la dformation impose un spcimen de structure colonnaire en cours de
solidification: 1) lorsque le liquide intergranulaire est suffisant, la dformation a lieu par
coulement de liquide entre les grains[1]; 2) quand il y a coalescence des grains avec un
grand angle de dsorientation, le glissement se ralise ds que la contrainte impose lors de
la solidification est suprieure une valeur critique creep, laquelle est dduite d'une loi de
fluage [36] et 3) quand il y coalescence des grains avec un petit angle de dsorientation, le
glissement des grains sera difficile. Dans la dernire situation, les joints de grains seront
dforms de manire plastique par une contrainte gale la limite lastique yield du
matriau solidifi. Dans ce modle, la contrainte visqueuse qui induit l'coulement du
liquide a aussi t prise en compte. Cette contrainte est petite pour une grande paisseur du
canal intergranulaire et augmente trs rapidement lorsque lpaisseur du canal diminue
des niveaux correspondant des fractions solides locales proches de 0,96. Ils ont donc
propos une quation constitutive pour l'alliage semi-solide prs du solidus et pour des
grains colonnaires, comme suit:
creep
htrans
0
ln . dh
K 0 exp
pQ
RT T
htrans
0
ln . dh,
(2.5)
la vitesse de dformation
38
AVL1/2
(2.6)
39
de grains qui facilite la croissance des fissures via le liquide, pour donner la relation
suivante:
fr
16G
1
1
,
0.07 D 0.47 AVL1/2 0.37 D1/2VL1/4
(2.7)
o D est la taille des grains. Ce modle n'est pas utile pour dcrire l'effet de la taille des
grains sur la contrainte la rupture mais permet de prdire l'effet de la composition
chimique de l'alliage sur la contrainte la rupture [113].
Modle de Pellini
Pellini [41] a propos une thorie de la fissuration chaud base sur l'accumulation de la
dformation sur les points chauds, c'est dire les zones qui se solidifient aux dernires
tapes de la solidification. Selon ce modle, la dchirure chaud se produit un peu audessus du solidus lorsque les dendrites interconnectes sont entoures par un film liquide
rsiduel. Si la contrainte accumule dans les points chauds atteint une valeur critique, la
dchirure chaud se produit. Dodd [114] et Metz et Flemings [31] ont aussi pris en compte
le film liquide comme un accumulateur de contrainte. Ces derniers ont expliqu
l'augmentation de la tendance la dchirure chaud par la sgrgation des composants
faible temprature de fusion lors de la solidification, tant donn que ces composants
peuvent prolonger la dure de la solidification du film liquide qui favorise l'accommodation
de la contrainte.
40
chaud commencent s'initier si le liquide rsiduel nest pas suffisant pour compenser le
retrait et lorsque la permabilit est faible. Il a introduit deux expressions: 1) SPV: le dbit
volumique maximal du liquide (liquide disponible pour l'alimentation) travers le rseau
dendritique et 2) SRG: le retrait volumique de solidification rsultant de la diffrence entre
les densits des phases solide et liquide. D'aprs ce modle, la formation de la dchirure
chaud sera possible si SPV < SRG, c'est--dire, le volume du liquide rsiduel disponible
pour l'alimentation est plus faible que le volume du retrait. Niyama [115] a postul lide
que la dchirure chaud se produit si la vitesse de dformation produite lors de la
solidification atteint une valeur critique laquelle le liquide ne peut pas remplir les cavits
intergranulaires cres par la dformation. Dans cette approche, la formation d'une cavit a
t considre comme le point de dpart de la formation de la fissuration chaud. Il en
rsulte que la susceptibilit la dchirure chaud est plus leve au centre du lingot en
coule semi-continue et quelle est plus basse au bord du lingot. Ce modle dtermine aussi
que l'alliage est plus susceptible la formation de la dchirure chaud lorsque la vitesse de
moulage est grande [47].
HCS
tV
tR
t0.99 t0.9
,
t0.9 t0.4
(2.8)
41
Ces priodes de temps pour les deux modes ont t estimes en utilisant l'quation de
Scheil qui dcrit la redistribution de solut lors de la solidification d'un alliage et relie la
temprature avec la fraction liquide [44]. Suyitno et al. [47] ont soulign que le critre de
Clyne et Davies ne montre aucune sensibilit la vitesse de moulage dans le cas de la
coule semi-continue. Par contre, ce modle est capable de faire la prdiction de la
dpendance la formation de fissuration chaud avec la composition chimique de l'alliage.
Ce modle donne donc un indice qualitatif pour la susceptibilit dchirure chaud [49].
Modle de Katgerman
Par la combinaison des aspects thoriques du modle de Clyne-Davies [62] et celui de
Feurer [38], Katgerman [39] a propos un autre modle visant prdire la susceptibilit la
fissuration chaud des alliages d'aluminium au cours de la coule semi-continue. Dans ce
modle, les effets de la vitesse de moulage des lingots, le diamtre du lingot et la
composition chimique de l'alliage sont considrs. On dfinit la susceptibilit la dchirure
chaud comme suit:
HCS
t0.99 tcr
,
tcr tcoh
(2.9)
o t0.99 est le moment o la fraction volumique de solide est de 0,99, tcoh le temps o la
fraction solide est au point de cohrence et tcr le temps dtermine par le critre de Feurer
[38] lorsque SPV
42
fraction solide sur la formation de la dchirure chaud. Ce modle considre la formation
d'une cavit ou pore dans la profondeur de la pice en cours de solidification comme le
point d'initiation d'une dchirure chaud. Une cavit peut tre produite cause dune
diffrence de pression entre la pression mtallostatique pm
gh au front de la
solidification lextrmit des dendrites et une pression critique (pc) aux racines des
dendrites qui peuvent occasionner la formation d'une fissure chaud. Ils ont fait l'hypothse
que la croissance des dendrites survient dans un gradient thermique G et une vitesse de
refroidissement VT donnes. Le gradient thermique est considr comme la diffrence de
temprature entre lextrmit des dendrites et leur racine (Figure 2-13). Selon ce gradient
thermique, le liquide doit s'couler travers les canaux interdendritiques afin de compenser
le retrait de solidification. Si une dformation due la traction s'induit perpendiculairement
la direction de la croissance des dendrites, plus de liquide sera ncessaire pour remplir les
cavits formes par la dformation ou les espaces vides formes par le retrait afin d'viter la
formation de cavits.
En considrant une balance de masse sur les phases liquide et solide, ce critre introduit une
pression critique ( p ) ncessaire la formation d'une dchirure chaud:
pmax
psh
pm
pc ,
(2.10)
psh et
dformation. Rappaz et al. ont driv les contributions de la chute de pression associe au
retrait et la dformation induite par l'coulement du liquide comme suit:
psh
T
180
G
T
2
2
1 L f s2 (T )dT
o A=
; B
T TS (1 f s (T ))2
A (1
T
(2.11)
) B,
1 L f s2 (T ) E (T )dT
; E (T )
T TS (1 f s (T ))3
1
f s (T ) (T )dT
G Ts
43
dans lesquelles,
Figure 2-13: Un schma de la formation d'une dchirure chaud entre les dendrites
colonnaires engendre par la dformation localise transmise par les dendrites cohrentes
(pm est la pression hydrostatique du mtal, pc est la pression de cavitation, L est la distance
entre la racine et lextrmit des dendrites, est la dformation viscoplastique [43].
Drezet et al. [116] ont calcul la pression de cavitation gale 2 kPa. Donc, pour avoir une
cavit, aux racines des dendrites, la chute de pression doit tre au-dessus de 2 kPa. Ce
44
critre explique de faon adquate l'initiation de la premire dchirure chaud, mais il ne
peut pas dcrire le comportement de la matire pteuse la propagation de la fissure.
e
l
2
P PM
a 3 C
K (T , f s )
1
m
PC
e 2
,
2
l(
a) L
(2.12)
chaud, e l'paisseur du film liquide, l la longueur entre repres, la moiti de la taille des
grains, a la longueur de la dchirure, PC la pression de cavitation, PM la pression
mtallostatique, K un paramtre constitutif en fonction de la temprature T et la fraction
solide fs, m la sensibilit de la vitesse de dformation, la permabilit de la zone pteuse
et L la viscosit du liquide. Les termes de droite de l'quation (2.12) dcrivent
respectivement le comportement du constituant solide et du flux de liquide. En supposant
que a = 0, l'quation (2.12) donne la vitesse de dformation critique qui mne la
nuclation de la dchirure chaud et pour certaines longueurs de dchirure chaud, la
vitesse de dformation minimale laquelle la dchirure chaud peut se propager. La
vitesse de dformation critique augmente avec l'augmentation de la fraction liquide due
une plus grande permabilit de la portion pteuse. Selon la modlisation de Suyitno et
al.[47] le modle de Braccini n'est pas sensible la procdure de rampe lors du dmarrage
de la coule semi-continue, c'est--dire, il ne prdit pas l'effet positif dune monte plus
douce de la vitesse de coule qui permet de rduire substantiellement loccurrence de la
dchirure chaud.
45
46
2.5
Les recherches sur la dchirure chaud ont montr qu'une microstructure quiaxe tait
moins susceptible la formation de ce dfaut [124, 125]. Pour obtenir ce type de
microstructure, les affineurs de grains sont largement utiliss dans le moulage des alliages
corroys ou couls d'aluminium en les ajoutant directement dans le bain liquide lors du
moulage. L'objectif recherch est de gnrer de nombreux sites de nuclation de cristaux
pour la formation des grains. Aprs une courte priode, lorsque la solidification commence,
ces cristaux commencent interagir et entrer en collision les uns avec les autres pour
empcher leur croissance. D'autre part, dans le cas dune structure avec de gros grains
dendritiques non raffins avec de nombreuses branches, les dformations produites lors de
la solidification ne peuvent pas tre accommodes en raison de lenchevtrement des
branches les unes dans les autres. Cet emmlement empche le rarrangement des grains et
47
compromet la compensation des dformations. Alors que dans une structure avec des grains
raffins, ce processus se ralise plus facilement [9]. Dans une structure avec de petits
grains, la temprature de cohrence est plus basse, ce qui rend l'alliage moins susceptible
la dchirure chaud [31, 126, 127].
Dans lindustrie, la substance la plus utilise dans le processus d'affinage de grains des
alliages d'aluminium est sous la forme dalliages-mres d'Al-Ti-B ou dAl-Ti-C. Deux
mcanismes ont t considrs comme tant prdominants dans le processus daffinage des
grains l'aide de ces alliages-mres: 1) la thorie du borure et/ou du carbure et 2) la thorie
pritectique. La thorie du borure et/ou du carbure a t propose en 1949 par Cibula [128].
Selon cette thorie, les particules de TiB2 et/ou de TiC seraient responsables de la
formation de faon htrogne des noyaux ou de germes d'aluminium solide. Selon la
thorie pritectique propose par Crossley et Mondolfo en 1951 [129], des particules de
TiAl3 se formeraient au sein du liquide et serviraient de germes la formation de
l'aluminium solide via une raction pritectique sexprimant comme suit:
Liquid
TiAl3
aluminium,
(2.13)
Il est gnralement admis que les particules TiAl3 rencontrent toutes les conditions
ncessaires [130] pour leur utilisation dans le processus d'affinage de grains. TiA13 est un
noyau actif dans l'aluminium liquide parce que les particules de TiAl3 se trouvent au centre
des grains d'aluminium [131]. Les alliages-mres d'Al-Ti-B qui contiennent gnralement
de 3 10% (poids) de Ti et un ratio de Ti:B entre 3 50, incluent les particules solubles de
TiAl3 et les particules insolubles de borure dans une matrice d'aluminium. Un ratio lev de
Ti:B indique l'efficacit du Ti pour l'affinage de grains [132].
Dans ce projet, Al-5Ti-1B a t utilis sous forme de tige contenant deux phases
intermtalliques actives (TiAl3 et TiB2) afin d'tudier son effet sur les proprits
thermomcaniques et structurales des alliages lors des tests [124]).
Chapter 3
Experimental procedure
3.1
In this project, in order to study the thermomechanical properties of three aluminum alloys,
tensile tests were carried out with the Direct Chill Surface Simulator (DCSS) developed by
Langlais and Gruzleski [133]. The DCSS is a solidification unit mounted on an electromechanical tensile apparatus, instrumented and computer controlled. The DCSS consists of
three main sections: tensile test, control box and data acquisition devices (Figure 3-1). The
tensile test section consists of the following components (Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3):
1. Load generator;
2. Load cell to measure the load produced by the cast metal during solidification and
tensile test;
3. Refractory container and replaceable insert;
4. Extensometer to measure the deformation of the sample surface;
5. Air actuator for the rotation of the refractory container;
6. Hoses for the transmission of water to the chill plate and air for the mechanical
operations (displacement and rotation).
Chilling Plate
Load
Generator
Control Box
49
Jaws
Thermocouple
s
Screw
Water Hoses
Air Hoses
Load Cell
(Torque
transducer)
Piston
Extensometer
Thermocouples
50
The control box is a communication system between the computer and the machine. All the
control and measurement signals, e.g. tensile launch and temperature readings, pass via this
equipment to give the orders from the program to the tensile table vice versa. The program
which is used by the computer was developed by Devicom, Saguenay, QC, Canada. This
software uses data, which are entered manually as inputs depending of the alloy, and
controls the operations of DCSS, e.g. the tensile test launch. Furthermore, after each tensile
test, the program outputs the acquired data from the operations. This program allows
controlling the displacement of the chilling plate automatically, the rotation of the
refractory container (mould), and the traction velocity. Moreover, the software acquires the
temperatures of metal, of the water in the chill plate, of the plate, the displacement of the
screw and the applied load during the tensile test.
The solidification unit is shown in Figure 3-4 with the embedded screws in the solidifying
specimen to transmit the load. This unit was essentially the same as the one used in a
previous study by Larouche et al. [110], except that some modifications were made on the
refractory container to cast specimens having improved tolerances on the size and geometry
of the test zone. This was accomplished by using a replaceable insert made in Wollite 45
(Figure 3-5), which is a phosphate bonded foam insulation material mainly composed of
calcium silicate (CaSiO3). Wollite 45 is a trademark of Pyrotek Inc, Saguenay, QC,
Canada.
51
3.2
52
max, 0.050 V max, 0.050 other (each) max, 0.15 others (total) max, and Al bal. In this
alloy, manganese is the principal alloying element [134].
3.3
Setup Description
For the three alloys under study, pure alloying elements were used except for the base
aluminum ingots which were of commercial purity. The alloys used in this project were
prepared in a silicon carbide (bilge shape) crucible in quantities of about 2.5 kg. Alloy
composition is shown in Table 3-1. The addition of grain refiner (Al-TiB2 rod), in the
castings was performed under similar conditions. Before pouring the liquid alloy in the
refractory container, grain refiner master alloy Al-5%Ti-1%B was added to the liquid in the
crucible in flake shapes in quantities ranging from 100, 300 and 500 ppm, and was stirred
for two minutes to achieve complete dilution. An average of 0.18wt% Fe was found in our
samples analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Mg
Mn
4.504
4.500
4.503
4.502
1.050
0.750
0.750
0.750
0.350
0.351
0.350
0.351
1.101
0.275
0.275
0.275
Element (wt%)
Cu
Si
Al-5Ti-1B
0.150
0.700
0.701
0.701
0.850
0.850
0.850
0.010
0.030
0.050
0.010
0.050
Al
Bal.
Bal.
Bal.
Bal.
Bal.
Bal.
Bal.
Bal.
53
The refractory container and replaceable insert were installed according to Figure 3-6,
preheated until 750-760C with another furnace. Before inserting the refractory container
and replaceable insert in the furnace, the surfaces between them were insulated and coated
with QF-150 coating cement (Ceramic Fiber-Fiberfrax, Niagara Falls, NY, USA). Pouring
temperature of the liquid alloy in the mould was about 790-800C in order to have enough
time to assemble the equipment for the test. The time taken to pour the liquid metal into the
mould and to place the mould in position on the DCSS, was roughly the same from test to
test.
Ceramic Fiber
Ceramic Fiber Blankets
Liquid Aluminium
Alloy (simulated)
Figure 3-6: Poured liquid alloy in the refractory container and placed on DCSS.
Three type-K thermocouples had been previously installed in the container in order to be at
around 5, 10 and 15 mm away from the chill plate (Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-7), once the
latter was locked on top of the container. These thermocouples were used to record the
thermal history of the solidifying metal near the surface of the chilling plate and to trig
further actions. After pouring the liquid metal into the mould, once the thermocouple
54
number three (15 mm from the surface) shows the temperature of 750C in the liquid metal,
the container was placed from the furnace to the rotary plateau of the DCSS; (Figure 3-6).
Figure 3-7: Position of the thermocouples in the solidification unit. Thermocouple (1) is 5
mm from the surface that estimate the temperature of the surface of liquid aluminum.
Thermocouple (2) is 10 mm from the surface. When Thermocouple 2 indicates a
temperature that correspond to Fs 0.90-0,95, the chill plate displaces and the tensile test
starts. Thermocouple (3) is 15 mm from the surface.. The average error of the distance of
thermocouples from the surface is about 0.5 (+1.9) mm.
Then the two screws (112 mm) were inserted in the mould and the chill plate was set in
place with ceramic fiber blankets in order to prevent liquid metal leaking and also allowing
the displacement of the solidifying body in the container due to applied tensile load. The
thermocouples were placed in the lower corner of the mould at the right hand side of the
container in order to avoid likely effect of loads derived from the traction on the
thermocouples. Next, the chill plate was positioned on the refractory container and locked
with a clamp fixture (Figure 3-8). A water pump (Model: 3E-34N, Little Giant Pump Co.)
was used for the circulation of water in the chill plate channels. The water flow in all tests
was about 2000 LPH (litres per hour) and the temperature of cooling water in the reservoir
was around 30C.
55
Figure 3-9: Solidification unit before (A) and after (B) the automatic rotation of unit.
56
Figure 3-11: Automatic installation of extensometer on the surface of sample after the
rotation of the container and translation of the chilling plate [110].
The temperatures at which these actions occurred were set according to the alloy tested.
After a while, when the temperature indicates the target temperature corresponding to
57
approximately 95% solid fraction (for each alloy), the tensile test was started and resumed
after 10 s. During this process, the extensometer (Epsilon, Jackson, WY, USA),
connected to the surface of sample, measured the deformation at the surface of the sample.
Figure 3-12 shows an outline of these operations. A summary of general conditions of the
tests and other process characterization is shown in Table 3-2. When the tensile test is
finished, the rotary plateau returns to its initial position. Figure 3-13 shows the surface of a
sample after the tensile test. The recorded data were used to obtain the load-deformation
curve and the thermal history at 3 locations, from which solid fraction distribution could be
extrapolated.
For each alloy, the temperature of tensile test was chosen according to data available in
literature [137-140] where the solid fraction in the solidifying material is about 90-95%. It
is important to note that the necessary condition for an alloy to be tested for mechanical
properties is the ability to retain the shape and to transfer stresses. In the lower part of the
solidification range, the alloy is in the mushy state and therefore can be mechanically
tested.
58
Figure 3-12: Summary of tensile test: (a) refractory container positioned in the tensile test
section; (b) putting the screws in place; (c) chill plate put on top of the refractory container;
(d) solidification unit after rotation; (e) chill plate displacement upward, opening a window
where the alloy surface is exposed to air; and (f) connecting the extensometer to the surface
of the alloy and starting the tensile test.
59
Table 3-2: General experimental conditions.
Process
AA5182
Alloy
AA3104
AA6111
~740-745
~740-745
~740-745
725
725
725
585
608
588
580
605
583
0.16
0.16
0.16
Figure 3-13: Photograph showing the sample after the tensile test
Chapter 4
4.1
Results
Beside the experimental works in this project, a simulation was carried out using the
ProCASTTM software [141]. ProCAST simulates industrial casting processes and consists
of tools calculating thermal, fluid, stress, and microstructure prediction issues. By using the
Finite Element Method (FEM), this software, can capture most of the physic characteristics
of the casting process. The description of the simulation used in this project is presented in
Appendix A.
61
Figure 4-1: Cooling curves of alloy AA5182 without and with grain refiner (100 ppm)
obtained during the test on DCSS (plain lines) and from ProCAST simulation (dash lines);
green, red, and blue lines correspond to thermocouples #1, #2 and #3, respectively.
62
Figure 4-2: Cooling curves of alloy AA5182 with grain refiner (300 and 500 ppm) obtained
during the test on DCSS (plain lines) and from ProCAST simulation (dash lines); green,
red, and blue lines correspond to thermocouples #1, #2 and #3, respectively.
63
Figure 4-3: Cooling curves of alloy AA6111 without and with grain refiner (100 ppm)
obtained during the test on DCSS (plain lines) and from ProCAST simulation (dash lines);
green, red, and blue lines correspond to thermocouples #1, #2 and #3, respectively.
64
Figure 4-4: Cooling curves of alloy AA6111 with grain refiner (500 ppm) obtained during
the test on DCSS (plain lines) and from ProCAST simulation (dash lines); green, red, and
blue lines correspond to thermocouples #1, #2 and #3, respectively.
Figure 4-5: Cooling curves of alloy AA3104 without grain refiner obtained during the test
on DCSS (plain lines) and from ProCAST simulation (dash lines); green, red, and blue
lines correspond to thermocouples #1, #2 and #3, respectively.
65
Figure 4-6: Load-strain curves of alloys AA6111 and AA3104 with and without grain
refiner obtained from tensile tests at temperature indicated in Table 3-2.
Figure 4-7: Load-strain curves of alloy AA5182 with and without grain refiner obtained
from tensile tests at temperature indicated in Table 3-2.
66
Figure 4-8: Calculated solid fraction distributions of AA5182 alloy with and without grain
refiner at the start of tensile testing using the thermal profile and ProCAST.
Figure 4-9: Calculated solid fraction distributions of AA6111 and AA3104 alloys with and
without grain refiner at the start of tensile testing using the thermal profile and ProCAST.
67
Figure 4-10: Typical microstructure of non-refined alloy AA5182 obtained after testing.
68
Figure 4-11: Typical microstructure of alloy AA5182+100 ppm Al-5Ti-1B obtained after
testing.
Figure 4-12: Typical microstructure of alloy AA5182+300 ppm Al-5Ti-1B obtained after
testing.
69
Figure 4-13: Typical microstructure of non-refined alloy AA6111 obtained after testing.
Figure 4-14: Typical microstructure of alloy AA6111+100 ppm Al-5Ti-1B obtained after
testing.
70
Table 4-1: Grain size and microporosity density (number of micropores or microcracks per
unit area) of experimental alloys having 300ppm or less of Al-TiB2.
4.2
Alloy
Grain size
(m)
Microporosity density
(mm-2)
AA5182
AA5182+100ppm Al-TiB2
AA5182+300ppm Al-TiB2
AA6111
AA6111+100ppm Al-TiB2
204.72
116.76
105.20
306.32
242.58
0.41
1.76
3.72
0.80
1.79
Discussion
In the thermal evolution curves (Figure 4-1 to Figure 4-5), a good concordance between
theoretical and experimental results obtained from ProCAST and experiments can be seen.
In these curves two reheating phenomena can be observed. The first is due to the translation
of the chill plate that exposes the surface of sample to the air by a 9 cm 1 cm window.
The second one, close to the end of curves, is due to the onset of the tensile test. As the
tensile test starts, thereafter, a crack appears on the surface of sample and then, this crack
transforms into an opening tear. In this situation, the liquid flows toward the surface of
sample through the channels created by the tear and reaches to the position of the
thermocouples which produces an increase of temperature. This is why second reheating in
the cooling curves occurs. Another aspect of these curves is the reduction of solidification
velocity in result of the increase of grain refiner quantity which accelerates the occurrence
of the first reheating and the delay of the second one. This can be justified by the effect of
grain refiner. Table 4-1 shows the decrease of grain size by adding more quantity of grain
refiner. With equiaxed grains, small in size and more in numbers at the surface of sample,
there will be numerous grains contacting the chill plate which favor the thermal conduction
between the sample and the chill plate. In other words, the presence of such grains at the
interface increased the heat transfer or reduced the thermal resistance.
In a sample having a microstructure with small grains, there will be more intergranular
liquid channels toward the surface and then more liquid present near or at the surface of
71
sample, i.e. a greater liquid fraction at this position indeed. On the other side, a large
portion of liquid cannot easily flow through a coarse grains microstructure toward the
surface since there are not enough liquid channels. Then such alloy has less liquid at its
surface. That is why alloys without grain refiner behave as alloys having highest strength
(Figure 4-6 and Figure 4-7) and in these cases, near the surface (1 cm distance from the
chill plate) the solid fraction is high (Figure 4-8 and Figure 4-9). The alloy AA3104
(without grain refiner) has the steepest increase of load with strain in the tensile test curve
(Figure 4-6).
Among all the studied alloys, AA5182 with 500 ppm Al-5Ti-1B had the shortest period in
the semi-solid state (Figure 4-7). In other word, the cooling time of this alloy was shorter in
comparison to the others. In this case, the percentage of solid fraction, for example at 3 cm
from the surface, is decreased. This is why by using this additive material, the tensile yield
stress of the alloys is turned down. With lower solid fraction, i.e. more intergranular liquid
fraction, the alloy will be easily deformable. Therefore, less force is required to produce the
irreversible deformation. Alloy with more grain refiner contents has less strength. In these
alloys, the applied load during the test is decreased and the deformation rate is increased.
At 1 cm from the chill plate in the sample, alloy AA6111 without grain refiner has a higher
fraction solid than alloy AA5182 without grain refiner in the similar position (Figure 4-6
and Figure 4-7). Hence, it was expected that alloy AA6111 must have more strength at
distances above 1 cm from the chill plate comparing to alloy AA5182; but results show a
different behaviour. In order to focusing on this case, these two alloys are compared sideby-side in Figure 4-15 and Figure 4-16.
Alloy AA6111 without grain refiner has a lower strength comparing to alloy AA5182
without Al-5Ti-1B. The solid fraction argumentation cannot justify completely this
behaviour (Figure 4-16). The last clue which may be helps is the analysis of the
microstructure effect on the tensile test behaviour in hot tearing situations. It was thus
decided to focus on the metallographic examinations of alloys AA5182 and AA6111 for the
tests at which the distribution of solid fraction is very close one to each other. It is worthy
to recall the effect of the grain refiner on the microstructure of the studied alloys (Figure
72
4-10 and Figure 4-14). Adding more grain refiner to the alloy produces smaller grains and
higher microporosity density (Table 4-1). In a structure with large grains, the intergranular
channels (e.g. liquid channels) are wider at comparable solid fraction and the intergranular
tortuousity is low comparing to a small grains structure (Figure 4-17).
Figure 4-15: Solid fraction comparison for alloys AA5182 and AA6111 at the distance
from the chill plate.
Figure 4-16: Tensile tests comparison for alloys AA5182 and AA6111.
73
Figure 4-17: Intergranular channels in large (a) and small (b) grain structures in the
coherency point.
In the case of alloys AA5182 and AA6111 without grain refiner, the two specimens had
similar fractions of solid near the chill plate. This explains why both microstructures had
similar load-strain behaviour at low strains. With a similar fraction solid at the surface, a
larger grain size with a larger channel thickness for alloy AA6111, the microstructure has a
lower strength according to the stress criterion proposed by Lahaie and Bouchard [1] and
Rogberg [142] and Dickhaus et al. [107]. In agreement with their description of the hot
tearing resistance, the required critical stress to separate two surfaces bonded by capillary
forces is inversely related to the channel thickness:
l g
hh , where
l g
is the
liquid/gas surface tension and hh is the liquid channel thickness measured parallel to the
direction of the tensile force (Figure 4-18). Therefore, for a small grain structure with
narrower intergranular channels, a lower load will be needed to separate, for example, two
adjacent grains. This is particularly true in the case of columnar microstructures, like those
obtained without grain refiners under unidirectional solidification condition, because if the
microstructure is dendritic with many branches, the entrapped liquid will be higher in large
grains than in refined grains.
In this point of view, if the morphology and quantity of the solid and liquid phases are the
only factors that affect the behaviour of hot tearing (formation and propagation), then the
acquired strength in the case of alloys AA5182 and AA6111 without grain refiner can
74
support the stress based criterion at which a critical stress will be need for the formation of
hot tear. Ignoring the Scheil-Gulliver assumption [49], the alloy AA6111 does not disprove
this statement since back diffusion must increase slightly the solid content, reinforcing
more the concept of the stress based criterion.
Another effect, considered as an opposite effect of adding grain refiner is the reduction of
the strength of alloy with the grain size. Our experiments showed that by adding more grain
refiner, the level of microporosity is increased making the alloy more susceptible to the
formation of hot tearing, in agreement with the RDGs criterion [43]. This effect is obvious
in metallographs (Figure 4-4Figure 4-10 to Figure 4-14). It seems that the presence of
smaller grains cannot be responsible for the decrease in strength but by adding more
quantity of grain refiner leads to the enhancement of the level of porosity. Therefore,
according to the experiments with 100 ppm of Al-5Ti-1B grain refiner, this quantity is too
much for an advantageous effect on hot tearing for alloys AA5182 and AA6111. However,
in DC casting of sheet ingots, the quantity of grain refiner is about 1 ppm Ti (~20 ppm Al5Ti-1B) that results in the formation of a cellular microstructure which is more likely
susceptible than the basaltic microstructure to accommodate some deformation at high
stresses [110].
Figure 4-18: Schematic of intergranular channel and meniscus liquid with hemispherical
shape; Patm , Pliq , h h , and are atmospheric pressure, liquid pressure, channel width, and
applied stress, respectively [1].
Chapter 5
Conclusions
Although the inhomogeneous shape of our samples, the apparatus Direct Chilled Surface
Simulator (DCSS) allowed us in-situ measurements of applied load and deformation on a
solidifying shell. It was indeed possible to better understand the tensile behaviour of
solidifying shells of different aluminum alloys in conditions relevant to hot tearing
situations by using inverse modeling. The experimental procedure developed with the
DCSS has proven to be able to discriminate the mechanical behaviour of alloys above their
solidus depending of the level of grain refiner added. It can discriminate also alloys having
different solid-liquid intervals as this was clearly demonstrated by comparing the behaviour
of the low alloyed AA3104 specimens with the more alloyed AA6111 and AA5182
specimens.
The grain refiners, in high quantity, have negative effect on the tensile strength of
solidifying shells. In this work, the low resistance of the grain refined alloys is probably
due to the premature cracks generated at the low stress condition. High quantity of grain
refiner was used in order to obtain a complete equiaxed microstructure. Thus, the
viscoplastic straining and the strengthening mechanism proposed by Larouche et al. [1]
could not be confirmed in the present study because of the too high content of grain refiner,
necessary to obtain a complete equiaxed grain morphology, which promoted microporosity
and premature hot tearing.
On the other hand, the concept of a stress criterion for hot tearing was reinforced in alloys
without grain refiner. These result are in accordance with the expected behaviour of a solid
network composed of large grains (e.g. alloy AA6111) which is more susceptible to be
affected by the larger weak zones containing thick liquid phase films present in such a
microstructure.
Chapter 6
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Appendix A ProCASTTM
The model used in this project is a 2D model with ProCAST to perform the simulation of
thermal evolution. In a standard ProCAST calculation, i.e. a "direct" calculation, which is
used in this project, is performed in three steps: inputs, FEM calculation, and outputs:
1.
Inputs:
Geometry
The adapted mesh in (Figure A-1) used in this simulation is a triangular mesh except for the
zone 1. This mesh was used in order to estimate the temperature at three points or three
nodes; i.e. at the location of three thermocouples used during the tests.
Figure A-1: Adapted triangular mesh in the model. The zero of horizontal and vertical axes
(mm) are set at the surface of the cast specimen and at the center of the zone exposed to the
air, (center of the interface between zones 1 and 5).
93
In some regions, the triangular elements were made smaller to allow more precision in the
thermal profile estimation of these regions. The geometry of the model is divided in seven
zones (Figure A-1) as represented in Table A-1.
Material
Volume (mm3)
1
2
3 and 4
5
6
2529.90
54495.54
123808.20
14090.41
22299.55
Plaster (insulator)
1633.26 (up),
489.98 (down)
Thermophysical properties
The ambient temperature in the laboratory environment was set to 30C. The enthalpy and
density of alloys AA6111 and AA3104 were determined according to the mass fraction and
composition of phases present at the specific temperature. These quantities were calculated
with the Thermo-Calc software. The thermal conductivity of alloy AA3104 was calculated
by applying the rule of mixture. The influence of solute elements on the thermal
conductivity of the primary fcc and the liquid phase was taken into account through their
effect on the electrical conductivity, applying a correction factor derived from the
Wiedemann-Franz law for metallic substances [143]. Electrical conductivity data for
aluminum alloys with solute elements were taken from references [144, 145]. For alloy
AA6111, the same procedure did not allow to fit adequately the experimental cooling
curves in the solidification interval, so the thermal conductivity was adjusted to reproduce
the thermal gradients observed. For an alloy like AA5182 with a relatively large amount of
solute, the Scheil-Gulliver assumption is not very accurate to predict fraction of phases
since back diffusion is sufficiently important to prevent the formation of low melting
eutectic phases [49]. Thus, the solid fraction curve from the reference [137] was used. Heat
capacity, density and thermal conductivity were determined by the rule of mixture in the
94
solidification interval. Thermal conductivity of the primary fcc and liquid phase was
determined as described above, while their heat capacity and density were given values
according to compositions obtained using the Scheil-Gulliver assumption. This
simplification produced a negligible error for these properties. The details of
thermophysical properties of the alloys under the test (zones 1 and 2) and constituents of
the solidification unit are presented in Appendix B.
Boundary and initial conditions
Constant natural heat transfer coefficients (h) were given between the model and the
surroundings. For the red surfaces shown in Figure A-2 (a), h was set to 10 W/m2/K with an
ambient temperature of 20C. For the water channels shown in Figure A-2 (c), h was set to
15000 W/m2/K with a water temperature of 30C. Adiabatic heat boundary condition was
set over the red regions shown in Figure A-2 (b). In fact the model is a 3D slice simulating
a pseudo 2D geometry.
The contact heat transfer coefficient between the sample and the chill plate was adjusted to
obtain the best fit between experimental and theoretical cooling curves. For the other sides,
between the sample and the insulators, the heat transfer was made equal to 1000 W/m2/K.
All solid-solid interfaces were given a heat transfer coefficient of 200 W/m2/K.
The simulation was divided in two parts. A first simulation was performed in order to
determine the temperature field before the rotation of the unit by adjusting the heat transfer
coefficient at the interface between zones 1-2 and 5, simulating air convection in a closed
space. The initial temperatures used for this first simulation are presented in Figure A-3.
For the interface between zones 2-4 and 7-5, the value of h was adjusted to 1000 W/m2/K
and 200 W/m2/K, respectively. The resulted initial temperature at the interface 1-5 was
725C.
95
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure A-2: Cross section of solidification unit and their area boundaries.
96
2.
Once the temperature distribution was calculated as described above, a new simulation was
started by assuming a contact between the metal and the chill plate. These new conditions
were representing the case after the solidification unit was rotated. Boundary heat transfer
conditions between the model and the surroundings were not changed in these simulations.
3.
Output:
Finally, the results of ProCAST as the output are presented in Figure 4-1 to Figure 4-5. As
another output of ProCAST, the thermal and solid fraction evolutions through the sample
from the start point of the test are presented in Figure A-4 and Figure A-5, respectively.
97
Figure A-4: Thermal history from the starting point of the test.
98
Figure A-5: Solid fraction history from the starting point of the test.
99
Figure A-6 represents the variation of h for the alloy AA6111 at two positions: alloy-air
(window) and alloy-chill plate interfaces, respectively (Figure A-1). In these two curves,
before 60 s, decreasing rate of h is the same. During this period, the zones 1 and 2 are in
contact with the chill plate (zone 5). At 60 s, the translation of the chill plate occurs. This
sudden translation makes zone 1 in contact with the air (window) and consequently, h is
decreased. After 70 s, at the interface of zones 2 and 5, the extracted heat from the surface
of the sample is increased, which means that h starts to increase (Figure A-6b). The value
of h between zones 1 and 5 (Figure A-6a) remains low, because there is no contact between
the chill plate and the alloy; although, it is increased not significantly after a while. This
behavior is almost similar for alloy AA5182+100ppm Al-Ti-B (Figure A-7).
Figure A-6: Time variation of h between zone 1 and 5 (a) and between zones 2 and 5 (b) for
alloy AA6111.
100
Figure A-7: Time variation of h between zones 1 and 5 (a) and between zones 2 and 5 (b)
for alloy AA5182+100ppm Al-5Ti-1B.
101
Table A-2: Variation of the value h vs. time for alloys AA6111 (a) and AA5152 (b).
Between zones 2 & 5
Time (s)
H (W/m2/K)
0.00
6000.00
4.00
4000.00
10.00
2500.00
15.00
1800.00
30.00
1250.00
40.00
1000.00
50.00
750.00
58.00
750.00
59.00
40.00
70.00
40.00
75.00
500.00
100.00
450.00
113.00
500.00
119.00
550.00
(a)
Between zones 2 & 5
2
Time (s)
H (W/m /K)
0
4
9
13
20
35
65
95
96
104
105
160
0
4
9
13
20
35
65
95
96
104
105
160
205
4500
3300
2200
1200
1050
950
650
620
40
40
100
100
(b)
4500
3300
2200
1200
1050
950
650
620
430
430
650
650
300
Figure B-1: Density and thermal conductivity vs. temperature of alloy AA6111.
Figure B-2: Solid fraction and enthalpy vs. temperature of alloy AA6111.
104
Table B-1: Density (g/cc) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6111.
Temperature
Density
0
50
104
150
200
250
2.69
2.689
2.687
2.683
2.679
2.673
300
350
400
450
500
509
2.666
2.659
2.65
2.64
2.629
2.627
510
511
512
513
514
515
2.624
2.623
2.623
2.623
2.623
2.622
516
517
518
519
520
521
2.622
2.622
2.622
2.621
2.621
2.621
522
523
2.62
2.62
524
525
526
527
528
2.62
2.62
2.619
2.619
2.619
549
552
555
558
560
2.61
2.609
2.608
2.607
2.606
529
530
531
532
533
534
2.618
2.618
2.618
2.617
2.617
2.617
563
566
569
572
575
578
2.604
2.603
2.602
2.6
2.599
2.597
535
536
536.8
537
538
539
2.616
2.616
2.615
2.615
2.615
2.614
581
584
587
590
593
596
2.595
2.593
2.592
2.59
2.588
2.586
540
540.6
541
542
543
544
2.614
2.613
2.613
2.613
2.612
2.612
599
602
605
608
611
614
2.584
2.581
2.579
2.576
2.573
2.569
545
546
547
548
2.612
2.611
2.611
2.611
617
619.4
622
625
2.565
2.561
2.557
2.55
105
628
631
634
2.544
2.537
2.528
642
643
644
2.49
2.482
2.474
648
649
649.3
2.426
2.409
2.408
637
640
641
2.517
2.502
2.496
645
646
647
2.464
2.454
2.441
649.5
760
2.408
2.3641
649.3 C
Solidus
509 C
Table B-3: Enthalpy (kJ/kg) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6111.
Temperature
Enthalpy
0
50
104
200
-29.63
15.03
64.94
157.12
250
300
350
400
450
500
206.71
257.35
309.03
361.76
415.59
470.68
509
510
511
512
513
514
480.75
487.65
488.91
490.17
491.43
492.71
515
516
517
518
519
520
494
495.3
496.62
497.94
499.29
500.65
521
522
523
524
525
526
502.02
503.43
504.85
506.3
507.78
509.3
527
528
529
530
531
510.86
512.47
514.14
515.87
517.68
532
533
534
519.59
521.62
523.8
593
596
599
626.95
632.92
639.2
535
536
536.8
537
538
539
526.18
528.81
531.32
531.65
533.91
536.32
601
604
607
610
613
616
643.58
650.49
657.88
665.87
674.59
684.23
540
540.6
541
542
543
544
538.91
539.89
540.5
541.96
543.44
544.93
619
621
624
627
630
633
695.06
703.11
716.81
730.92
746.91
766
545
546
547
548
549
552
546.43
547.95
549.49
551.04
552.62
557.45
636
637
638
639
640
641
789.46
798.58
808.49
819.33
831.26
844.45
555
558.8
560
563
566
569
562.5
569.29
571.26
575.76
580.35
585.03
642
643
644
645
646
647
859.13
875.59
894.18
915.39
939.81
968.24
572
575
578
581
584
587
589.83
594.75
599.81
605.04
610.38
615.71
648
649
649.3
649.5
650
760
1001.8
1041.98
1044.11
1044.34
1044.92
1173.35
590
621.22
Table B-4: Solid fraction (%) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6111.
Temperature
Solid fr.
509
510
511
512
1
0.9868
0.9865
0.9862
513
514
515
516
517
518
0.9859
0.9856
0.9853
0.9849
0.9846
0.9842
519
520
521
522
523
524
0.9837
0.9833
0.9827
0.9822
0.9816
0.981
525
526
527
528
529
530
0.9803
0.9795
0.9786
0.9777
0.9766
0.9754
531
532
533
534
535
536
0.9741
0.9725
0.9708
0.9687
0.9662
0.9633
536.8
537
538
539
540
0.9602
0.9599
0.9575
0.9548
0.9517
540.6
541
542
0.951
0.9507
0.95
619.4
620
621
0.7929
0.7885
0.7812
543
544
545
546
547
550
0.9492
0.9484
0.9476
0.9467
0.9459
0.943
622
623
624
625
626
627
0.7735
0.7652
0.7562
0.7473
0.7387
0.7295
553
556
558.8
561
564
567
0.9397
0.9359
0.9319
0.9297
0.9271
0.9243
628
629
630
631
632
633
0.7197
0.7091
0.6978
0.6856
0.6725
0.6583
570
573
576
579
582
585
0.9213
0.9179
0.9143
0.9104
0.9061
0.9016
634
635
636
637
638
639
0.6428
0.626
0.6076
0.5874
0.5651
0.5406
587
590
591
594
597
600
0.8985
0.8935
0.8918
0.8861
0.8797
0.8726
640
641
642
643
644
645
0.5132
0.4827
0.4483
0.4095
0.3652
0.3142
603
606
609
612
615
618
0.8646
0.8554
0.8449
0.8328
0.8185
0.8016
646
647
648
649
649.3
0.2551
0.1859
0.1036
0.0045
0
619
0.7953
Table B-5: Conductivity (W/m/K) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6111.
Temperature
Conductivity
0
510
650
760
50
50
93
98
109
633 C
Solidus
482 C
110
Table B-7: Density (g/cc) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA5182.
Temperature
Density
559
2.61
2.67
562
2.61
50
2.67
575
2.60
104
2.67
588
2.59
150
2.66
600
2.57
200
2.66
614
2.53
250
2.65
625
2.48
300
2.65
631
2.44
350
2.64
633
2.39
400
2.63
638
2.39
440
2.62
740
2.35
482
2.62
760
2.34
550
2.62
Table B-8: Thermal conductivity (W/m/K) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA5182.
Conductivity
550
145
119
559
144
50
122
562
143
104
126
575
141
150
129
588
138
200
132
600
134
250
135
614
125
300
138
625
114
350
141
631
103
400
144
633
93
440
147
638
93
482
149
740
97
Temperature
Table B-9: Specific heat (kJ/kg/K) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA5182.
Temperature
Specific heat
559
1.10
0.90
562
1.10
50
0.93
575
1.10
104
0.96
588
1.11
150
0.98
600
1.11
200
1.00
614
1.13
250
1.02
625
1.14
300
1.04
631
1.16
350
1.07
633
1.17
400
1.09
638
1.17
440
1.10
740
1.18
482
1.10
760
1.18
550
1.10
Table B- 10: Solid fraction (%) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA5182.
Temperature
Solid fr.
482
1.00
550
0.98
559
0.96
562
0.94
575
0.90
588
0.85
600
0.77
614
0.60
625
0.40
631
0.20
633
0.00
350 J/kg
113
114
Table B-12: Solid-liquid temperature interval for alloy AA3104.
Liquidus
653 C
Solidus
350 C
Table B-13: Thermal conductivity (W/m/K) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA3104.
Temperature
Conductivity
577
124.88
135.41
580
124.73
50
135.72
583
124.57
200
135.19
586
124.40
350
132.48
589
124.23
500
128.12
592
124.06
508
127.82
595
123.87
511
127.71
598
123.66
514
127.60
601
123.47
517
127.48
604
123.25
520
127.36
607
123.01
523
127.25
610
122.75
526
127.13
613
122.45
529
127.01
616
122.14
532
126.89
619
121.79
535
126.76
622
121.41
538
126.64
625
120.96
541
126.52
628
120.44
544
126.39
631
119.82
547
126.26
634
119.05
550
126.13
637
118.06
553
126.00
640
116.74
556
125.87
643
114.87
559
125.74
646
111.96
562
125.60
649
106.87
565
125.46
652
98.07
568
125.32
655
93.73
571
125.18
700
95.72
574
125.03
760
98.22
115
Table B-14: Enthalpy (kJ/kg) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA3104.
Temperature
Enthalpy
577
559.73
-36.27
580
563.65
50
8.48
583
567.63
200
150.81
586
571.67
350
302.96
589
575.77
500
467.48
592
579.95
508
476.63
595
584.22
511
480.08
598
589.07
514
483.54
601
593.10
517
487.01
604
597.76
520
490.48
607
602.61
523
493.98
610
607.68
526
497.48
613
613.02
529
500.99
616
618.55
532
504.52
619
624.45
535
508.06
622
630.84
538
511.62
625
637.88
541
515.19
628
645.82
544
518.77
631
655.00
547
522.38
634
666.00
550
526.00
637
679.77
553
529.64
640
698.01
556
533.31
643
724.07
559
536.99
646
765.38
562
540.70
649
841.75
565
544.44
652
974.03
568
548.21
655
1035.29
571
552.01
700
1087.99
574
555.85
760
1158.28
116
Table B-15: Solid fraction (%) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA3104.
Temperature
Solid fr.
580
0.98
350
1.00
583
0.98
500
0.99
586
0.98
508
0.99
589
0.97
511
0.99
592
0.97
514
0.99
595
0.97
517
0.99
598
0.97
520
0.99
601
0.97
523
0.99
604
0.96
526
0.99
607
0.96
529
0.99
610
0.96
532
0.99
613
0.95
535
0.99
616
0.95
538
0.99
619
0.94
541
0.99
622
0.93
544
0.99
625
0.92
547
0.99
628
0.91
550
0.99
631
0.90
553
0.98
634
0.88
556
0.98
637
0.85
559
0.98
640
0.82
562
0.98
643
0.76
565
0.98
646
0.66
568
0.98
649
0.48
571
0.98
652
0.15
574
0.98
653
0.00
577
0.98
117
Table B-16: Density (g/cc) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA3104.
Temperature
Density
577
2.61
2.69
580
2.61
50
2.69
583
2.61
200
2.68
586
2.61
350
2.66
589
2.61
500
2.63
592
2.61
508
2.63
595
2.61
511
2.63
598
2.60
514
2.63
601
2.60
517
2.63
604
2.60
520
2.63
607
2.60
523
2.63
610
2.60
526
2.63
613
2.60
529
2.63
616
2.60
532
2.63
619
2.59
535
2.63
622
2.59
538
2.62
625
2.59
541
2.62
628
2.58
544
2.62
631
2.58
547
2.62
634
2.58
550
2.62
637
2.57
553
2.62
640
2.56
556
2.62
643
2.55
559
2.62
646
2.53
562
2.62
649
2.49
565
2.62
652
2.43
568
2.62
655
2.41
571
2.61
700
2.39
574
2.61
760
2.37
118
II.
Figure B-12: Density and solid fraction vs. temperature for alloy AA6061-T6.
Figure B-13: Specific heat and viscosity vs. temperature for alloy AA6061-T6.
Table B-17: Some constant values for alloy AA6061-T6.
Latent heat (kJ/kg)
Thermal conductivity (W/m/K)
Liquidus (C)
Solidus (C)
397.5
167
652
582
119
Table B-18: Specific heat (kJ/kg/K) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6061-T6.
Temperature
Specific heat
298
300
400
500
0.903
0.905
0.95
0.998
600
700
800
900
933.2
1000
1.043
1.09
1.135
1.181
1.086
1.086
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1.086
1.086
1.086
1.086
1.086
Viscosity
700
2.9
725
750
775
800
2.525
2.15
1.775
1.4
Table B- 20: Density (g/cc) vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6061-T6.
Temperature
Density
25
2.702
656
664
700
900
2.54
2.38
2.369
2.315
Table B-21: Solid fraction vs. temperature (C) for alloy AA6061-T6.
Temperature
Solid fr.
931.2
933.2
III.
The data for the refractory materials were taken from the ProCAST database.
Table B-22: Somme constant values for refractory IsoCast.
Density (kg/m3)
1310
0.74
Table B-23: Thermal conductivity (W/m/K) vs. temperature (C) for refractory IsoCast.
Temperature
Conductivity
25
150
0.16
0.23
280
415
537
662
800
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.31
0.36
IV.
0.00
1.10
0.20