11
Thermal Properties of Food
11.1
Thermal Conductivity
In the heat transfer by conduction processes under steady state, the flow of
heat transmitted (Q) through a solid is directly proportional to the transmission area (A) and to the increase of temperature (T), and is inversely proportional to the thickness of the solid (e). The proportionality constant is
called thermal conductivity:
Q=k
A T
e
Heat conduction under steady state has been used in different experiments
to calculate the thermal conductivity of food, although experiments under
unsteady state can also be used. Either way, mathematical relationships are
sought that allow calculation of the thermal conductivity of a given food as
a function of temperature and composition.
An equation that allows calculation of the thermal conductivity of sugar
solutions, fruit juices, and milk is (Riedel, 1949):
)(
m
k = 326.8 + 1.0412 T 0.00337 T 2 0.44 + 0.54 XWATER
1.73 103 (11.1)
m
is the mass fraction
in which k is expressed in J/(smC); T in C, and XWATER
of water. This equation is valid for a temperature range between 0 and 180C.
Sweat (1974) gives the following equation for different fruits and vegetables:
m
k = 0.148 + 0.493 XWATER
(11.2)
valid for water contents higher than 60%, although it cannot be used with
low-density foods or with foods that have pores (e.g., apples).
309
2003 by CRC Press LLC
310
In the case of milk, FernndezMartn (1982) gives a second order polynomial expression with respect to temperature.
k = A + BT + CT 2
(11.3)
in which the parameters A, B, and C are a function of the fat and nonfat
content of milk.
An equation that allows one to obtain the thermal conductivity of cream
(Gromov, 1974) is:
k=
1 0.0041 T 30
(11.4)
][ (
(11.5)
(k X )
i
V
i
(11.6)
X im
(11.7)
311
TABLE 11.1
Thermal Conductivity of Some Foods
Water
Content (%)
Product
Oil
Olive
13.2
83
Soybean
Vegetable and animal
Sugars
Cod
Meats
Pork
Perpendicular to the fibers
75.1
75.9
Fatty meat
Lamb
Perpendicular to the fibers
71.8
71.0
Veal
Perpendicular to the fibers
75
75
Beef
Freeze-dried
1000 mm Hg
0.001 mm Hg
Lean
Perpendicular to the fibers
Parallel to the fibers
Fatty
Strawberries
Peas
11.2
78.9
78.9
78.7
78.7
Temperature
(C)
Thermal Conductivity
(J/smC)
15
100
710
4187
2962
2.8
0.189
0.163
0.069
0.169
0.0870.22
0.544
6
60
4
61
25
0.488
0.54
0.443
0.489
0.152
5
61
5
61
0.45
0.478
0.415
0.422
6
62
5
60
0.476
0.489
0.441
0.452
0
0
0.065
0.035
7
62
8
61
2438
1425
317
0.476
0.485
0.431
0.447
0.19
0.675
0.312
Specific Heat
(11.8)
312
TABLE 11.2
Equations for Calculating Thermal Properties
Thermal
Property
Equation as a
Function of Temperature
Component
k (W/mC)
106 (m2/s)
(kg/m3)
C P (kJ/kgC)
Carbohydrate
Ash
Fiber
Fat
Protein
Carbohydrate
Ash
Fiber
Fat
Protein
Carbohydrate
Ash
Fiber
Fat
Protein
Carbohydrate
Ash
Fiber
Fat
Protein
T2
T2
T2
T2
T2
TABLE 11.3
Equations to Calculate Thermal Properties of Water and Ice
Temperature Functionsa
Water
(W/mC)
(m2/s)
(kg/m3)
(kJ/kgC)
(kJ/kgC)
Ice
(W/mC)
(m2/s)
(kg/m3)
(kJ/kgC)
m
m
C P = 2.309 XGF
+ 1.256 Xsm + 4.187 XWATER
(11.9)
313
in which X mGF and X ms are the mass fractions of fat and solids, respectively.
For milk at temperatures higher than the final point of fusion of milk fat,
the following expression can be used (FernndezMartn, 1972a):
m
m
C P = XWATER
+ 0.238 + 0.0027 T XTS
(11.10)
)(
m
m
C P = 4.187 XWATER
+ 16.8 T 3.242 1 XWATER
(11.11)
expressing the specific heat in J/(kg.K), temperature T in Kelvin, for the 272
to 353 K range, and the fat content between 9 and 40%.
Manohar et al. (1991) gave the following equation for tamarind juices:
(11.12)
(C
Pi
X im
(11.13)
where C Pi is the specific heat of the component i, while X mi is the mass fraction
of the component i.
The specific heat values of different foods are listed in Table 11.4. Table 11.2
also presents expressions for the calculation of the specific heat of pure
components as a function of temperature, while in Table 11.3, equations that
allow calculation of the specific heat of water and ice as a function of temperature are given.
11.3
Density
Density is defined as the relation between the mass of a given sample and
its volume. Different expressions for the calculation of food density can be
found in the literature. Thus, for fruit juices, density can be expressed as a
function of the refraction index according to the expression (Riedel, 1949):
2003 by CRC Press LLC
314
Product
Meats
Bacon
Beef
Lean beef
Roast beef
Hamburger
Veal
Prawns
Eggs
Yolk
Milk
Pasteurized, whole
Skim
Butter
Apples (raw)
Cucumbers
Potatoes
Fish
Fresh
Cheese (fresh)
Sardines
Carrots (fresh)
Specific heat
(kJ/kg.K)
49.9
2.01
71.7
60.0
68.3
68.0
66.2
3.433
3.056
3.520
3.223
3.014
49.0
2.810
87.0
90.5
15.5
84.4
96.1
79.8
75.0
80.0
76.0
65.0
57.4
88.2
3.852
3.9774.019
2.0512.135
3.7264.019
4.103
3.517
3.517
3.600
3.600
3.265
3.014
3.8103.935
s2 1
s+2
64.2
16.0185
0.206
(11.14)
(11.15)
WATER
0.992417 3.7391 103 X
(11.16)
315
However, Aguado and Ibarz (1988) gave different expressions for clarified
apple juices in the 5 to 70C temperature range and in the 10 to 71Brix
concentration range. One of these expressions is:
= 0.98998 5.050 104 T + 5.1709 103 C + 0.0308 105 C 2
(11.17)
(11.18)
Alvarado and Romero (1989) presented the following expression for different juices, for temperatures from 20 to 40C and for concentrations from
5 to 30Brix:
= 1002 + 4.61 C 0.460 T + 7.001 103 T 2 + 9.175 105 T 3
(11.19)
C + 330.872
= 0.524484 exp
170, 435
(11.20)
(11.21)
(11.22)
316
For temperatures higher than the boiling point, the equation of Berstsch
et al. (1982) can be used:
= 1040.51 0.2655 T 0.01 T 2
(11.23)
(11.24)
1
X im
(11.25)
11.4
Thermal Diffusivity
k
C P
(11.26)
The value of the thermal diffusivity of a given food can be calculated if the
thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat are known. However, some
mathematical expressions allow calculation of the thermal diffusivity according to water content. Thus, Martens (1980) reported the following equation:
317
m
= 5.7363 108 XWATER
+ 2.8 1010 T
(11.27)
m
is the water mass fraction,
where is the thermal diffusivity in m2/s, XWATER
and T is the temperature in Kelvin.
On the other hand, Dickerson (1969) presented an expression in which the
foods thermal diffusivity is a function only of the water content and its
thermal diffusivity:
m
m
= 8.8 108 1 XWATER
+ WATER XWATER
(11.28)
= i X Vi
i
(11.29)
where i is the thermal diffusivity of the component i and XVi is the volumetric fraction of such component.
Table 11.5 presents thermal diffusivity values for some foods. Tables 11.2
and 11.3 show the expressions that allow calculation of the thermal diffusivities of pure components:
TABLE 11.5
Thermal Diffusivity for Some Foods
Product
Fruits, Vegetables
Avocado (pulp)
Seed
Whole
Sweet potato
Cherries (pulp)
Squash
Strawberries (pulp)
Beans (pure)
Peas (pure)
String beans (cooked)
Limes
Apples
Applesauce
Water
(%)
Temperaturea
(C)
Thermal Diffusivity
105 (m2/s)
92
85
37
37
80
80
24 (0)
24 (0)
41 (0)
35
55
70
30 (0)
47 (0)
5
26122
26128
4122
40 (0)
030
5
65
5
65
26129
1.24
1.29
1.54
1.06
1.39
1.91
1.32
1.71
1.27
1.80
1.82
1.68
1.07
1.37
1.05
1.12
1.22
1.40
1.67
318
Water
(%)
Temperaturea
(C)
Thermal Diffusivity
105 (m2/s)
27 (4)
48 (0)
1.39
1.34
78
76
76
25
5
5
65
1.70
1.23
1.18
1.42
88.8
72.2
14 (60)
4.26
1.27
1.09
1.26
1.48
81
81
76
65
65
64
64
5
65
4065
5
65
5
4065
1.22
1.42
1.47
1.32
1.18
1.18
1.38
66
71
68
4065
4065
4065
30
65
0
1.23
1.33
1.32
1.48
1.60
11.82
The first temperature is the initial one, and that in parentheses is the one
of the surroundings.
Data are applicable if the juices exuded during storage remain in foods.
TABLE 11.6
Values of the Parameters of Equation 11.22
T
(C)
5
20
35
50
60
1.0000
0.9982
0.9941
0.9881
0.9806
Skim Milk
b 103
c 105
3.616
3.519
3.504
3.568
3.601
1.827
1.782
1.664
1.366
1.308
Whole Milk (c = 0)
a
b 103
1.0010
1.0080
1.0137
0.9953
2.55
2.09
1.66
2.11
319
Problems
11.1
Determine the density, thermal conductivity, specific heat, and thermal diffusivity, at 25C, of a food product that has been chemically analyzed, and
whose weight composition is: 77% water, 19% carbohydrate, 3% protein,
0.2% fat, and 0.8% ash.
The method of Choi and Okos is used; therefore, the thermal properties
of each component at 25C are previously calculated. The following table
contains the results obtained.
C Pi
Component
i
(kg/m3)
ki
(W/mC)
(kJ/kgC)
i 107
(m2/s)
Water
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat
Ash
994.91
1591.34
1316.94
915.15
2416.78
0.6110
0.2334
0.2070
0.2496
0.3628
4.1773
1.5942
2.0376
2.0180
1.1375
1.458
0.927
0.797
1.019
1.332
X iv
0.77
0.19
0.03
0.002
0.008
0.8398
0.1296
0.0247
0.0024
0.0036
Component
Water
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat
Ash
(k X ) = 0.55 W (m C) = 5.5 10
i
v
i
kJ ( s.m.C)
1
= 1085 kg m 3
X im
i
i
C P = C Pi X im = 3.594 kJ kg C
i
320
= i X Vi = 1.37 107 m2 s
i
k
= 1.41 107 m2 s
C P