Historical burdens on physics

33 Electronic shells
Subject:
To explain various properties of the atom, as for instance the periodicity of
atomic radii or ionization energies with increasing atomic number, one
makes use of the shell model. In order to substantiate the existence of
shells, one often represents r2 (r), i.e. the electron density of a many
electron atom, multiplied by r2 as a function of the distance r from the nucleus. The corresponding graphical representation also shows, so it is said,
that the probability of finding the electron in the region occupied by the nucleus is extremely small.
Deficiencies:
Whereas the electron probability density decreases monotonically as r increases, Fig. 1a, the function r2 (r) is zero at the center, i.e. in the region
of the nucleus and has several maxima for increasing r. Finally for great
values of r it tends to zero again, Fig. 1b. The function of Fig. 1b is not the
normal spatial probability density, but the probability per radius interval dr.
Some textbooks point out that a trick is used, others do not. Anyway, it is
hardly avoidable that the reader mistakes the expression corresponding to
the vertical axis for the density itself. Our experience with physics students
r2

Fig. 1. (a). Probability density in an atom. (b) Density integrated over solid angle

at the university showed us that the students memorize the shape of the
diagram and that the vertical axis represents the probability density. In particular they believe that the probability density is zero at the center and that
there are shell-shaped regions where the density is particularly high.
The following example shows that a representation of r2 (r) can indeed
disconcert when trying to get an idea about a density distribution. We ask
for the mass distribution of a massive glass sphere. We plot both its mass
density (r), Fig. 2a, and the expression r2 (r), Fig. 2b as a function of r
(the distance from the center). Obviously, in order to get an idea about the
mass distribution in the sphere, it is better to look at Fig. 2a.
r2

Fig. 2. (a). Mass density in a massive spherical object. (b) Mass density integrated over
solid angle

The claim that it is much less probable to find an electron within the nucleus
than further outwards, is of the same kind as the following statement: It is
much less probable to find a winner of a lottery prize in Berkeley than in
Nevada. In statistics one refers to this error as biased sampling.
Origin:
Apparently some physicists are not satisfied with disposing of a convenient
model which makes some correct predictions. They seek to recognize the
shells in the density distribution. Moreover, they seem to have problems
with the idea that the probability of finding an electron inside the nucleus is
not zero.
Disposal:
The representation of r2 (r) does not have a substantial advantage, but is
the cause of misconceptions. We recommend to represent only the density
(r).
Friedrich Herrmann, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology