My Passion

my passion
Contents
1
International Mobile Station Equipment Identity
1.1
IMEI and the law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Blacklists of stolen devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3
Lawful interception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structure of the IMEI and IMEISV (IMEI Software Version) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
Check digit computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Usage on satellite phone networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
3GPP
2.1
History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Organizational Partners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
Market Representation Partners
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5
Specication groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6
Standardization process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7
Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
International Telecommunication Union
3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2
ITU sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3
Legal framework of ITU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
3.4
Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
3.5
Directors and Secretaries-General of ITU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
3.6
Membership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
3.6.1
Regional groupings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
World Summit on the Information Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
3.7
ii
CONTENTS
3.8
World Conference on International Telecommunications 2012 (WCIT-12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
3.8.1
Changes to International Telecommunication Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
3.8.2
Proposed Changes to the Treaty And Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
3.8.3
WCIT-12 Conference Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
H.331
15
4.1
15
3.9
ICANN
16
5.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
5.2
Notable events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
5.3
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
5.3.1
Governmental Advisory Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
5.3.2
Democratic input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
5.4.1
Proposed elimination of public DNS whois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
5.5.1
IBSA proposal (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
5.5.2
Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
5.5.3
Global Multistakeholder Meeting on the Future of Internet Governance (2013) . . . . . . .
21
5.5.4
NetMundial Initiative (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
5.5.5
.sucks domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
5.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
5.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
5.8
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
5.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
5.4
5.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
American Registry for Internet Numbers
26
6.1
Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
6.1.1
Registration services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
6.1.2
Organization services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
6.1.3
Policy development services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
Organizational structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
6.2.1
Board of trustees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
6.2.2
Advisory council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
6.3
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
6.4
Service Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
6.4.1
Former service regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
6.2
6.5
CONTENTS
iii
6.6
28
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre
29
7.1
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
7.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
7.3
LACNIC meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
7.4
Countries - LACNIC region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
7.5
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
7.5.1
Organisational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
7.5.2
Executive Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
7.6
Membership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
7.7
LACNIC cooperation agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
7.8
The Number Resource Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
7.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
7.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
3G
33
8.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
8.1.1
Break-up of 3G systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
Market penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
8.2
History
8.3
Adoption
8.3.1
8.4
Patents
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
8.5
Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
8.5.1
Data rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
8.5.2
Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
8.5.3
Applications of 3G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
8.6
Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
8.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
8.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
TD-SCDMA
38
9.1
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
9.2
Deployment and usage
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
9.3
Technical highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
9.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
9.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
9.6
Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
9.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
10 TD-CDMA
41
10.1 Standardized implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
10.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
iv
CONTENTS
11 Time division multiple access
42
11.1 TDMA characteristics
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
11.2 TDMA in mobile phone systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
11.2.1 2G systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
11.2.2 3G systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
11.3 TDMA in wired networks
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
11.4 Comparison with other multiple-access schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
11.5 Dynamic TDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
11.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
11.7 References
44
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12 Bluetooth
45
12.1 Name and logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
12.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
12.2.1 Communication and connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
12.3 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
12.3.1 Bluetooth proles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
12.3.2 List of applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
12.3.3 Bluetooth vs. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
12.3.4 Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
12.4 Computer requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
12.4.1 Operating system implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
12.5 Specications and features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
12.5.1 Bluetooth v1.0 and v1.0B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
12.5.2 Bluetooth v1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
12.5.3 Bluetooth v1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
12.5.4 Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
12.5.5 Bluetooth v2.1 + EDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
12.5.6 Bluetooth v3.0 + HS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
12.5.7 Bluetooth v4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
12.5.8 Bluetooth v4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
12.5.9 Bluetooth v4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
12.6 Technical information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
12.6.1 Bluetooth protocol stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
12.6.2 Baseband error correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
12.6.3 Setting up connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
12.6.4 Pairing and bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
12.6.5 Air interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
12.7 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
12.7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
12.7.2 Bluejacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
12.7.3 History of security concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
CONTENTS
12.7.4 Mitigation
v
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
12.8 Health concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
12.9 Interference caused by USB 3.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
12.10Bluetooth award programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
12.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
12.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
12.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
13 IEEE 802.16
61
13.1 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
13.1.1 Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
13.2 802.16e-2005 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
13.2.1 PHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
13.2.2 MAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
13.3 Certication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
13.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
13.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
13.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
14 Wireless broadband
63
14.1 The term broadband . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
14.2 Technology and speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
14.3 Development of Wireless Broadband in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
14.3.1 Residential Wireless Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
14.3.2 Business Wireless Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
14.3.3 Demand for spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
14.4 Mobile wireless broadband . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
14.5 Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
14.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
14.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
14.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
15 IEEE 802
66
15.1 Working groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
15.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
15.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
15.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
16 Media access control
67
16.1 Functions performed in the MAC sublayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
16.2 Addressing mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
16.3 Channel access control mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
16.4 Common multiple access protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
vi
CONTENTS
16.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
16.6 References
68
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 Logical link control
69
17.1 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
17.2 Application examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
17.2.1 X.25 and LAPB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
17.2.2 Local area network (LAN) and metropolitan area network (MAN) protocols . . . . . . . .
69
17.2.3 HDLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
17.2.4 PPP and modems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
17.2.5 Cellular systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
17.2.6 Power lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
17.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
18 HiperLAN
71
18.1 HiperLAN/1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
18.2 HiperLAN/2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
18.3 Failure in the Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
18.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
18.5 References
72
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19 Ubiquiti Networks
73
19.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
19.2 Voice over IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
19.3 Stock market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
19.4 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
19.5 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
19.5.1 Accusations Regarding Crooks Utilizing Hacked AirOS Routers for Cybercrime . . . . . .
74
19.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
20 Evolved HSPA
75
20.1 Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
20.2 All-IP architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
20.3 Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
20.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
20.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
20.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
21 W-CDMA (UMTS)
77
21.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
21.1.1 Rationale for W-CDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
21.2 Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
21.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
CONTENTS
vii
21.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
21.4.1 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
22 3.5G
79
22.1 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23 High Speed Packet Access
79
80
23.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
23.2 High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
23.3 High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
23.4 Evolved High Speed Packet Access (HSPA+)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
23.5 Dual-carrier HSDPA (DC-HSDPA)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
23.6 Dual-carrier HSUPA (DC-HSUPA)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
23.7 Multi-carrier HSPA (MC-HSPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
23.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
23.9 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
23.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
23.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
24 Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
83
24.1 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
24.1.1 Transmission techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
24.1.2 EDGE modulation and coding scheme (MCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
24.1.3 Evolved EDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
24.2 Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
24.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
24.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
24.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
25 Phase-shift keying
85
25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
25.1.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
25.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
25.3 Binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
25.3.1 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
25.3.2 Bit error rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
25.4 Quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
25.4.1 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
25.4.2 Bit error rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
25.4.3 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
25.5 Higher-order PSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
25.5.1 Bit error rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
25.6 Dierential phase-shift keying (DPSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
viii
CONTENTS
25.6.1 Dierential encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
25.6.2 Demodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
25.6.3 Example: Dierentially encoded BPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
25.7 Channel capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
25.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
25.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
25.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
26 Minimum-shift keying
95
26.1 Mathematical representation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.2 Gaussian minimum-shift keying
95
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
26.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
26.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
26.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
27 Constellation diagram
97
27.1 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
27.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
28 General Packet Radio Service
99
28.1 Technical overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28.1.1 Services oered
99
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
28.1.2 Protocols supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
28.1.3 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

28.1.4 Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
28.2 Coding schemes and speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
28.2.1 Multiple access schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
28.2.2 Channel encoding
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
28.2.3 Multislot Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

28.3 Usability
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
28.4 History of GPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

28.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
28.6 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
28.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

29 Spectral eciency
103
29.1 Link spectral eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

29.2 System spectral eciency or area spectral eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
29.3 Comparison table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
29.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
29.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
30 Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
106
CONTENTS
ix
30.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

30.2 DECT 6.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
30.3 VoIP/IP-DECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
30.4 DECT ULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
30.5 Standards history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
30.6 Technical features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
30.6.1 Technical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
30.6.2 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
30.7 DECT for data networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
30.7.1 Radio links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
30.8 XDECT R
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
30.9 Health and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

30.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
30.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
30.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
30.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
31 WiMAX
112
31.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

31.2 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
31.2.1 Internet access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
31.2.2 Middle-mile backhaul to ber networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
31.2.3 Triple-play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
31.3 Connecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
31.3.1 Gateways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
31.3.2 External modems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
31.3.3 Mobile phones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
31.4 Technical information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
31.4.1 The IEEE 802.16 Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
31.4.2 Physical layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
31.4.3 Media access control layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
31.4.4 Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
31.4.5 Integration with an IP-based network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
31.4.6 Spectrum allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
31.4.7 Spectral eciency and Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
31.4.8 Inherent limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
31.4.9 Silicon implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
31.4.10 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
31.5 Conformance testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
31.6 Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
31.6.1 WiMAX Forum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
31.6.2 WiMAX Spectrum Owners Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
CONTENTS
31.6.3 Telecommunications Industry Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
31.7 Competing technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
31.7.1 Harmonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
31.7.2 Comparison with other mobile Internet standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
31.8 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
31.9 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
31.10Deployments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
31.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
31.12Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
31.13References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
31.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
32 5G
122
32.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

32.2 Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
32.3 Research & Development projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
32.4 Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
32.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
32.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
32.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
32.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
33 Virtual retinal display
33.1 Mechanics
129
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
33.2 Comparison to LCDs and other display devices
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
33.3 Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

33.4 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
33.5 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

33.5.1 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
33.5.2 LED enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
33.6 Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
33.6.1 Military utilities
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
33.7 Manufacturers and commercial uses
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
33.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

33.9 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
33.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

34 2G
133
34.1 2G technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

34.2 Capacities, advantages, and disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
34.2.1 Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
34.2.2 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
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xi
34.2.3 Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

34.3 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
34.3.1 2.5G (GPRS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
34.3.2 2.75G (EDGE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
34.4 2G Shut Down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
34.4.1 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
34.4.2 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
34.4.3 Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
34.4.4 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
34.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
34.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
35 LTE (telecommunication)
136
35.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

35.2 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
35.3 Voice calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
35.3.1 Enhanced voice quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
35.4 Frequency bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
35.5 Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
35.6 Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
35.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
35.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
35.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
35.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
35.10.1 White papers and other technical information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
36 4G
143
36.1 Technical understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

36.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
36.3 IMT-Advanced requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
36.4 System standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
36.4.1 IMT-2000 compliant 4G standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
36.4.2 Forerunner versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
36.4.3 Discontinued candidate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
36.5 Data rate comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
36.6 Principal technologies in all candidate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
36.6.1 Key features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
36.6.2 Multiplexing and access schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
36.6.3 IPv6 support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
36.6.4 Advanced antenna systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
36.6.5 Open-wireless Architecture and Software-dened radio (SDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
36.7 History of 4G and pre-4G technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
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36.7.1 Deployment plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
36.8 Beyond 4G research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
36.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
36.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
36.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
37 IP Multimedia Subsystem
165
37.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

37.2 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
37.2.1 Access network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
37.2.2 Core network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
37.2.3 NGN interconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
37.2.4 Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
37.2.5 IMS-Based PES Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
37.2.6 Interfaces description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
37.3 Session handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
37.3.1 Initial lter criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
37.4 Security aspects of early IMS and non-3GPP systems
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
37.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

37.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
37.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
37.8 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
38 IS-95
173
38.1 Protocol revisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

38.2 Protocol details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
38.2.1 Physical layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
38.2.2 Layer 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
38.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
38.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
38.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
39 CDMA2000
176
39.1 1X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
39.2 1xEV-DO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
39.3 1X Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
39.4 Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
39.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
39.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
39.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
40 Service layer
178
40.1 Service layer in IMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
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xiii
40.1.1 Elements of the IMS service layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

40.1.2 SIP Application Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
40.1.3 OSA Service Capability Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
40.1.4 IM-SSF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
40.2 Service layer in SOA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
40.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
40.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
41 Open Mobile Alliance
180
41.1 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

41.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
41.3 Relation to other standards bodies
41.4 Standard specications
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
41.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

41.6 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
41.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

42 Telecoms & Internet converged Services & Protocols for Advanced Networks
182
42.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

42.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
43 GSM services
183
43.1 Accessing a GSM network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

43.2 Voice all calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
43.2.1 All Outgoing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
43.2.2 Incoming calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
43.2.3 Voice charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
43.2.4 How speech is encoded during mobile phone calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
43.3 Data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
43.3.1 Circuit-switched data protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
43.3.2 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
43.3.3 Short Message Service (SMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
43.4 Supplementary Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
43.5 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
43.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

44 Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
188
44.1 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

44.2 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
44.2.1 Air interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
44.2.2 Radio access network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
44.2.3 Core network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
44.3 Spectrum allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
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44.4 Interoperability and global roaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
44.4.1 Handsets and modems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
44.5 Other competing standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
44.6 Migrating from GSM/GPRS to UMTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
44.7 Problems and issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
44.7.1 Security issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
44.8 Releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
44.8.1 Release '99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
44.8.2 Release 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
44.8.3 Release 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
44.8.4 Release 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
44.8.5 Release 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
44.8.6 Release 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
44.8.7 Release 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
44.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
44.10Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
44.11References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
44.11.1 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

44.11.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
44.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
45 iDEN
196
45.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

45.2 Operating frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
45.3 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
45.4 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
45.4.1 iDEN network operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
45.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
45.6 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
45.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

46 Satellite phone
198
46.1 Satellite phone network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

46.1.1 Geosynchronous satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
46.1.2 Low Earth orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
46.2 Countries with bans or restrictions on use of satellite phones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
46.3 Security concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
46.4 One-way services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
46.5 Cost of a satellite phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
46.6 Virtual country codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
46.7 Calling cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
46.8 Use in disaster response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
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xv
46.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

46.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
46.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
47 Smartphone
203
47.1 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
47.1.1 Early years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

47.1.2 Forerunner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
47.1.3 PDAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
47.1.4 Mass adoption
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
47.1.5 Android and iOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

47.1.6 Recent technological developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
47.1.7 Future possible developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
47.2 Mobile operating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
47.2.1 Android . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
47.2.2 iOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
47.2.3 Windows Phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
47.2.4 BlackBerry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
47.2.5 Firefox OS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
47.2.6 Sailsh OS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
47.2.7 Tizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
47.2.8 Ubuntu Touch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
47.3 Discontinued mobile operating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
47.3.1 Symbian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
47.3.2 Windows Mobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
47.3.3 Bada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
47.3.4 Palm OS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
47.3.5 webOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
47.4 Application stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
47.5 Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
47.6 Market share . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
47.6.1 Smartphone usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
47.6.2 By manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
47.6.3 By operating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
47.7 Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
47.7.1 Battery life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
47.7.2 Social . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
47.7.3 Legal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
47.7.4 Medical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
47.7.5 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
47.7.6 Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
47.8 Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
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47.9 Other terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
47.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
47.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
47.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
48 Subscriber identity module
216
48.1 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
48.2 Design
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
48.3 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

48.3.1 ICCID
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
48.3.2 International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
48.3.3 Authentication key (K) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

48.3.4 Location area identity
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
48.3.5 SMS messages and contacts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
48.4 Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

48.4.1 Full-size SIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
48.4.2 Mini-SIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
48.4.3 Micro-SIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
48.4.4 Nano-SIM
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
48.4.5 Embedded-SIM / Embedded Universal Integrated Circuit Card (eUICC) . . . . . . . . . . 220

48.5 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
48.6 Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
48.7 Usage in mobile phone standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
48.8 SIM and carriers
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
48.9 Multiple-SIM devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

48.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
48.11References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
48.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

49 Luhn algorithm
224
49.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

49.2 Strengths and weaknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
49.3 Implementation of standard Mod 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
49.3.1 Verication of the check digit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
49.3.2 Calculation of the check digit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
49.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
49.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
49.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
50 International mobile subscriber identity
227
50.1 Examples of IMSI numeric presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

50.2 IMSI analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
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50.2.1 Example of outside World Area 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

50.2.2 Example inside World Area 1 (North America) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
50.3 Home Network Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
50.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
50.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
50.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
51 Mobile equipment identier
229
51.1 Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

51.2 Display formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
51.3 pESN conicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
51.4 Code to convert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
51.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
51.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
52 SIM lock
231
52.1 Unlocking technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

52.1.1 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
52.1.2 Box breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
52.1.3 Unlocking services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
52.2 Laws and practices
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
52.2.1 Andorra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

52.2.2 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
52.2.3 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
52.2.4 Belgium
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
52.2.5 Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

52.2.6 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
52.2.7 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
52.2.8 Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
52.2.9 Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
52.2.10 Croatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
52.2.11 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
52.2.12 Ecuador
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
52.2.13 European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

52.2.14 Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
52.2.15 France
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
52.2.16 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

52.2.17 Honduras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
52.2.18 Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
52.2.19 India
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
52.2.20 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

52.2.21 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
xviii
CONTENTS
52.2.22 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
52.2.23 New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
52.2.24 Pakistan
52.2.25 Peru
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
52.2.26 Portugal
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
52.2.27 Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

52.2.28 Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
52.2.29 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
52.2.30 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
52.2.31 Thailand
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
52.2.32 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

52.2.33 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
52.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
52.4 References
53 Mobile phone
53.1 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
240
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
53.2 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

53.2.1 Sound quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
53.2.2 Text messaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
53.2.3 SIM card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
53.2.4 Multi-card hybrid phones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
53.2.5 Kosher phones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
53.3 Mobile phone operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
53.4 Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
53.5 Use of mobile phones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
53.5.1 In general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
53.5.2 Smartphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
53.5.3 For distributing content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
53.5.4 While driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
53.5.5 Mobile banking and payments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
53.5.6 Tracking and privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
53.5.7 Thefts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
53.6 Health eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
53.7 Future evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
53.8 Environmental impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
53.9 Conict minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
53.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
53.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
53.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
53.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
CONTENTS
xix
54 Cellular frequencies
251
54.1 Frequency bands recommended by ITU (UMTS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

54.2 United States Carrier Frequency Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
54.3 Frequency bands by region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
54.3.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
54.3.2 Other Regions
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
54.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

54.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
54.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
55 Tethering
254
55.1 Mobile devices OS support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

55.2 Operating system support for tethering by the receiving devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
55.3 In carriers contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
55.3.1 New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
55.3.2 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
55.3.3 United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
55.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
55.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
56 Mobile phone accessories
257
56.1 Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

56.2 Anti-lost and seles wireless companions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
56.3 Mass storage
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
56.4 Chargers and external batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

56.5 Photo accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
56.6 HDMI and Projector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
56.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
56.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
56.9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
56.9.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
56.9.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
56.9.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Chapter 1
International Mobile Station Equipment

Identity
The International Mobile Station Equipment Identity
or IMEI /ami/[1] is a number, usually unique,[2][3] to
identify 3GPP (i.e., GSM, UMTS and LTE) and iDEN
mobile phones, as well as some satellite phones. It is
usually found printed inside the battery compartment
of the phone, but can also be displayed on-screen on
most phones by entering *#06# on the dialpad, or alongside other system information in the settings menu on
smartphone operating systems.
encouraged to take measures such as the immediate suspension of service and the replacement of SIM cards in
case of loss or theft.[6]
There is a misunderstanding amongst some regulators
that the existence of a formally allocated IMEI number
range for a GSM terminal implies that the terminal is approved or complies with regulatory requirements. This
is not the case. The linkage between regulatory approval
and IMEI allocation was removed in April 2000, with the
introduction of the European R&TTE Directive.[7] Since
that date, IMEIs have been allocated by BABT (or one of
several other regional administrators acting on behalf of
the GSM Association) to legitimate GSM terminal manufacturers without the need to provide evidence of approval.
The IMEI number is used by a GSM network to identify valid devices and therefore can be used for stopping
a stolen phone from accessing that network. For example, if a mobile phone is stolen, the owner can call his or
her network provider and instruct them to blacklist the
phone using its IMEI number. This renders the phone
useless on that network and sometimes other networks
too, whether or not the phones SIM is changed.
1.1.1 Blacklists of stolen devices
The IMEI is only used for identifying the device and

has no permanent or semi-permanent relation to the subscriber. Instead, the subscriber is identied by transmission of an IMSI number, which is stored on a SIM card
that can (in theory) be transferred to any handset. However, many network and security features are enabled by
knowing the current device being used by a subscriber.
When mobile equipment is stolen or lost, the owner can

contact their local operator with a request that it should be
blocked from the operators network, and the operator can
be expected to do so if required by law in the operators
jurisdiction. If the local operator possesses an Equipment
Identity Register (EIR), it then may put the device IMEI
into it, and can optionally communicate this to shared
registries, such as the Central Equipment Identity Reg1.1 IMEI and the law
ister (CEIR) which blacklists the device in switches of
other operators that use the CEIR. With this blacklisting
Many countries have acknowledged the use of the IMEI in place the device becomes unusable on any operator that
in reducing the eect of mobile phone theft. For exam- uses the CEIR, making theft of mobile equipment a useple, in the United Kingdom, under the Mobile Telephones less business proposition, unless for parts.
(Re-programming) Act, changing the IMEI of a phone, or The IMEI number is not supposed to be easy to change,
possessing equipment that can change it, is considered an making the CEIR blacklisting eective. However this
oence under some circumstance.[4][5]
is not always the case: a phones IMEI may be easy
IMEI blocking is not the only approach available for combating phone theft. For example, mobile operators in
Singapore are not required by the regulator to implement
phone blocking or tracing systems, IMEI-based or other.
The regulator has expressed its doubts on the real eectiveness of this kind of system in the context of the mobile market in Singapore. Instead, mobile operators are
to change with special tools. In addition, IMEI is an

un-authenticated mobile identier (as opposed to IMSI,
which is routinely being authenticated by home and serving mobile networks.) Spoofed IMEI can thwart all efforts to track handsets, or target handsets for Lawful Intercept. Australia was rst to implement IMEI blocking
across all GSM networks, in 2003.[8]
1
CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MOBILE STATION EQUIPMENT IDENTITY
In the UK, a voluntary charter operated by the mobile networks ensures that any operators blacklisting of a handset
is communicated to the Central Equipment Identity Register (CEIR) and subsequently to all other networks. This
ensures the handset will be unusable for calls often quite
quickly and, in any case, within 48 hours.
All UK Police forces including the Metropolitan Police
Service actively check IMEI numbers of phones found
involved in crime, against the National Mobile Property
Register (NMPR).The NMPR draws its information from
many property databases. One of the databases consulted
is Immobilise,[9] which allows optional (and free) registration of devices by the public. Such registration ensures
that a device coming into Police possession may be easily
reunited with its registered keeper.
gin, model, and serial number of the device. The structure of the IMEI/SV are specied in 3GPP TS 23.003.
The model and origin comprise the initial 8-digit portion of the IMEI/SV, known as the Type Allocation Code
(TAC). The remainder of the IMEI is manufacturerdened, with a Luhn check digit at the end. For the IMEI
format prior to 2003, the GSMA guideline was to have
this Check Digit always transmitted to the network as
zero. This guideline seems to have disappeared for the
format valid from 2003 and onwards.[17]
As of 2004, the format of the IMEI is AA-BBBBBBCCCCCC-D, although it may not always be displayed this
way. The IMEISV drops the Luhn check digit in favour of
an additional two digits for the Software Version Number
(SVN), making the format AA-BBBBBB-CCCCCC-EE
In New Zealand the NZ Telecommunications Forum Inc

[10]
provide a blocked IMEI lookup service for New
Zealand consumers. The service allows up to 3 lookups
per day [11] and checks against a database that is updated daily by the 3 major mobile network operators. A
blocked IMEI cannot be connected to any of these 3 operators.
Prior to 2002, the TAC was six digits long and was followed by a two-digit Final Assembly Code (FAC), which
was a manufacturer-specic code indicating the location
of the devices construction. From January 1, 2003 until
that April 1, 2004, the FAC for all phones was 00. After
April 1, 2004, the Final Assembly Code ceased to exist
and the Type Allocation Code increased to eight digits in
In some countries, such blacklisting is not customary. In length.
2012, major network companies in the United States, In any of the above cases, the rst two digits of the TAC
under government pressure, committed to introduce a are the Reporting Body Identier, which identies the
blacklisting service, but its not clear whether it will in- GSMA-approved group that allocated the TAC. The RBI
teroperate with the CEIR.[12][13] GSM carriers AT&T numbers are allocated by the Global Decimal Adminisand T-Mobile began blocking newly reported IMEIs in trator. IMEI numbers being decimal allows them to be
November 2012.[14] (Thefts reported prior to November distinguished from an MEID, which is hexadecimal and
2012 were not added to the database.)
always has 0xA0 or larger as its rst two digits.
It is unclear whether local barring of IMEI has any pos- For example, the old style IMEI code 35-209900itive eect as it may result in international smuggling of 176148-1 or IMEISV code 35-209900-176148-23 tells
stolen phones.[15]
us the following:
1.1.2
Limitations
IMEIs can sometimes be unlisted depending on local arrangements. This would typically include quoting a password which was chosen at the time the blacklisting was
applied.
1.1.3
Lawful interception
TAC: 35-2099 - issued by the BABT (code

35) with the allocation number 2099
FAC: 00 - indicating the phone was made during the transition period when FACs were being removed.
SNR: 176148 - uniquely identifying a unit of
this model
CD: 1 so it is a GSM Phase 2 or higher
SVN: 23 - The software version number
identifying the revision of the software installed on the phone. 99 is reserved.
A target for lawful interception (wiretapping) can be

specied by its IMEI number as well as IMSI and
MSISDN.[16]
By contrast, the new style IMEI code 49-015420-323751
has an 8-digit TAC of 49-015420.
new CDMA Mobile Equipment Identier (MEID)
1.2 Structure of the IMEI and The
uses the same basic format as the IMEI.
IMEISV (IMEI Software Version)
1.2.1 Check digit computation
The IMEI (15 decimal digits: 14 digits plus a check digit) See also: Luhn algorithm
or IMEISV (16 digits) includes information on the ori-
1.5. REFERENCES
The last number of the IMEI is a check digit calculated
using the Luhn algorithm, as dened in the IMEI Allocation and Approval Guidelines:
The Check Digit shall be calculated according to Luhn formula (ISO/IEC 7812).
(See GSM 02.16 / 3GPP 22.016). The Check
Digit is a function of all other digits in the
IMEI. The Software Version Number (SVN)
of a mobile is not included in the calculation.
The purpose of the Check Digit is to help
guard against the possibility of incorrect entries
to the CEIR and EIR equipment.
The presentation of the Check Digit both
electronically and in printed form on the label
and packaging is very important. Logistics (using bar-code reader) and EIR/CEIR administration cannot use the Check Digit unless it is
printed outside of the packaging, and on the
ME IMEI/Type Accreditation label.
The check digit is not transmitted over the
radio interface, nor is it stored in the EIR
database at any point. Therefore, all references
to the last three or six digits of an IMEI refer
to the actual IMEI number, to which the check
digit does not belong.
The check digit is validated in three steps:
3
Luhn algorithm
Mobile Equipment Identier
Mobile phone
SIM lock
1.5 References
[1] 3GPP TS 22.016: International Mobile Equipment Identities (IMEI)" (ZIP/DOC; 36 KB). 2009-10-01. Retrieved 2009-12-03.
[2] Phone rms defend security record. BBC News. January 8, 2002. Retrieved August 25, 2011.
[3] GSM Europe, GSME proposals regarding mobile theft
and IMEI security, 2003-06
[4] Mobile Telephones (Re-programming) Act 2002. Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved on 2013-09-18.
[5] http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/
Likumi/The_Criminal_Law.doc
[6] IMEI Specications
1. Starting from the right, double every other digit

(e.g., 7 14).
[7] R&TTE Directive
2. Sum the digits (e.g., 14 1 + 4).
[8] FAQs on mobile security. Amta.org.au. Retrieved on

2013-09-18.
3. Check if the sum is divisible by 10.

[9] Immobilise
Conversely, one can calculate the IMEI by choosing the

check digit that would give a sum divisible by 10. For the [10]
example IMEI 49015420323751?,
[11]
To make the sum divisible by 10, we set ? = 8, so the

IMEI is 490154203237518.
[12] Carriers to allow Customers to Brick Stolen Phones by
Shani Hilton, Apr. 10, 2012, Washington City Paper
1.3 Usage on satellite phone networks
[13] Wireless carriers partner with FCC, police on database

of stolen cellphones. The Washington Post (2011-02-28).
Retrieved on 2013-09-18.
The BGAN, Iridium and Thuraya satellite phone net- [14] http://www.checkmend.com/us/latest_news. Accessed:
2012-12-26. (Archived by WebCite at http://www.
works all use IMEI numbers on their transceiver units as
webcitation.org/6DDHr0G1D)
well as SIM cards in much the same way as GSM phones
do. The Iridium 9601 modem relies solely on its IMEI
number for identication and uses no SIM card; however, [15] http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/13/
smartphone-black-market_n_3510341.html. Accessed:
Iridium is a proprietary network and the device is incom2013-10-13.
patible with regular GSM networks.
1.4 See also

International Mobile Subscriber Identity
[16] TR 33.107, Lawful interception architecture and functions

[17] GSM Association, IMEI Allocation and Approval Guidelines, Version 5.0, 2010-09-01, chapter 2.1.5 vs. D.1.6
CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MOBILE STATION EQUIPMENT IDENTITY
1.6 External links

IMEI Allocation & Approval Guidelines from the
GSM Association
Identify phone model and manufacturer by IMEI or
TAC - mobile identication
Analysis of IMEI numbers
Chapter 2
3GPP
The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is a
collaboration between groups of telecommunications associations, known as the Organizational Partners. The
initial scope of 3GPP was to make a globally applicable third-generation (3G) mobile phone system specication based on evolved Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) specications within the scope of the
International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 project
of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
The scope was later enlarged to include the development
and maintenance of:[1]
Wireless Internet. AT&T Wireless, poised to evolve

its network in the United States, took a strong interest
in Wireless Internet and its promise of Internet Protocol
(with Nortel Networks as the potential supplier). Within
12 months or so, AT&T launched a global initiative that
they named 3GIP, a third generation wireless standard
that was natively Internet Protocol based.[5] Initially,
principal participants included British Telecom, France
Telecom, Telecom Italia, and Nortel Networks, but were
eventually joined by NTT DoCoMo, BellSouth, Telenor,
and Lucent, Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia, and others.[6] A
3GIP standards forum was instituted and standards began
to be developed. The forum progressed into the 2000
time frame, up until AT&T Wireless and British Telecom formed a strategic partnership project to facilitate
global roaming between U.S. and European markets.
With this business arrangement, GSM, the prevailing European standard was adopted as the basis of AT&T Wireless network evolution for North America. Very specically, this included the deployment of GSM data capabilities, i.e. GPRS, EDGE, and its evolution to UMTS. With
this, the original acronym 3GIP morphed into 3GPP,
a 3rd Generation Partnership Project for dening the
next generation wireless network that was fundamentally
capable of supporting Internet Protocol based wireless
communications. 3GPP became the industry standards
forum that dened UMTS and more recently LTE.
GSM and related "2G" and "2.5G" standards including GPRS and EDGE
UMTS and related "3G" standards including HSPA
LTE and related "4G" standards
An evolved IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) developed in an access independent manner
3GPP standardization encompasses Radio, Core Network and Service architecture.[2] The project was established in December 1998 and should not be confused with
3rd Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2), which
species standards for another 3G technology based on
IS-95 (CDMA), commonly known as CDMA2000.[3]
The 3GPP support team (also known as the Mobile Competence Centre) is located at the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) headquarters in Sophia-Antipolis (France).[4]
2.2 Organizational Partners

The seven 3GPP Organizational Partners are from Asia,
Europe and North America. Their aim is to determine
the general policy and strategy of 3GPP and perform the
following tasks:
2.1 History
The 3rd Generation Partnership Project initiative eventually arose from a strategic initiative between Nortel
Networks and AT&T Wireless. In 1998 AT&T Wireless was operating an IS-136 (TDMA) wireless network
in the United States. In 1997 Nortel Networks Wireless R&D center in Richardson, Texas, the wireless division of Bell Northern Research had developed a vision
for an all Internet Protocol (IP)" wireless network that
went under the internal name Cell Web. As the concept progressed, Nortel launched the industry vision as
The approval and maintenance of the 3GPP scope;

The maintenance of the Partnership Project Description;
Take the decision to create or cease a Technical
Specication Groups, and approve their scope and
terms of reference;
5
CHAPTER 2. 3GPP
The approval of Organizational Partner funding re- provide insight into how the cellular industry works. They
quirements;
cover not only the radio part ("Air Interface") and Core
Network, but also billing information and speech cod The allocation of human and nancial resources pro- ing down to source code level. Cryptographic aspects
vided by the Organizational Partners to the Project (authentication, condentiality) are also specied in deCo-ordination Group;
tail. 3GPP2 oers similar information about its system.
Act as a body of appeal on procedural matters referred to them.
2.5 Specication groups
Together with the Market Representation Partners

(MRPs) perform the following tasks:
The 3GPP specication work is done in Technical Specication Groups (TSGs) and Working Groups (WGs).[16]
The maintenance of the Partnership Project Agree- There are four Technical Specications Groups:
ment;
The approval of applications for 3GPP partnership;
Take the decision against a possible dissolution of
3GPP.
2.3 Market Representation Partners

The 3GPP Organizational Partners can invite a Market
Representation Partner to take part in 3GPP, which:
Has the ability to oer market advice to 3GPP and
to bring into 3GPP a consensus view of market requirements (e.g., services, features and functionality) falling within the 3GPP scope;
GERAN (GSM/EDGE Radio Access Network):

GERAN species the GSM radio technology, including GPRS and EDGE. It is composed of three
working groups.
RAN (Radio Access Network): RAN species the
UTRAN and the E-UTRAN. It is composed of ve
working groups.
SA (Service and System Aspects): SA species the
service requirements and the overall architecture of
the 3GPP system. It is also responsible for the coordination of the project. SA is composed of ve
working groups.
CT (Core Network and Terminals): CT species the
core network and terminal parts of 3GPP. It includes
the core network - terminal layer 3 protocols. It is
composed of four working groups.
Does not have the capability and authority to dene,

publish and set standards within the 3GPP scope,
The 3GPP structure also includes a Project Coordination
nationally or regionally;
Group, which is the highest decision-making body. Its
Has committed itself to all or part of the 3GPP missions include the management of overall timeframe
scope;
and work progress.
Has signed the Partnership Project Agreement.
As of November 2013 the Market Representation Partners are:
2.4 Standards
2.6 Standardization process

3GPP standardization work is contribution-driven. Companies (individual members) participate through their
membership to a 3GPP Organizational Partner. As of
April 2011, 3GPP is composed of more than 370 individual members.[17]
3GPP standards are structured as Releases. Discussion

[18]
of 3GPP thus frequently refers to the functionality in one Specication work is done at WG and at TSG level:
release or another.
the 3GPP WGs hold several meetings a year. They
Each release incorporates hundreds of individual stanprepare and discuss change requests against 3GPP
dards documents, each of which may have been through
specications. A change request accepted at WG
many revisions. Current 3GPP standards incorporate the
level is called agreed.
latest revision of the GSM standards.
The documents are available freely on 3GPPs Web site.
While 3GPP standards can be bewildering to the newcomer, they are remarkably complete and detailed, and
the 3GPP TSGs hold plenary meetings quarterly.

The TSGs can approve the change requests that
were agreed at WG level. Some specications are
2.9. REFERENCES
under the direct responsibility of TSGs and therefore, change requests can also be handled at TSG
level. The approved change requests are subsequently incorporated in 3GPP specications.
7
GSM services
Telecoms & Internet converged Services & Protocols for Advanced Networks (TISPAN)
Open Mobile Alliance
3GPP follows a three-stage methodology as dened in

ITU-T Recommendation I.130:[19]
stage 1 specications dene the service requirements
from the user point of view.
stage 2 specications dene an architecture to support the service requirements.
stage 3 specications dene an implementation of the
architecture by specifying protocols in details.
Test specications are sometimes dened as stage 4, as
they follow stage 3.
Specications are grouped into releases. A release consists of a set of internally consistent set of features and
specications.
Timeframes are dened for each release by specifying
freezing dates. Once a release is frozen, only essential
corrections are allowed (i.e. addition and modications
of functions are forbidden). Freezing dates are dened
for each stage.
Service layer
European Telecommunications Standards Institute
2.9 References
[1] 3GPP Scope and Objectives, 31 August 2007
[2] About The Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
[3] 3rd Generation Partnership Project 2
[4] Mobile Competence Centre
[5] 3G.IP Mission Statement. 3G.IP. 2000. Archived from
the original on 2000-08-31. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
[6] 3G.IP Membership List. 3G.IP. 2000. Archived from
the original on 2000-08-31. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
[7] Releases
[8] 3GPP Specications - Releases (and phases and stages)
[9] Overview of 3GPP Release 99, Summary of all Release
99 Features. ETSI Mobile Competence Centre, Version
xx/07/04
The 3GPP specications are transposed into deliverables

[10] Overview of 3GPP Release 4, Summary of all Release 4
by the Organizational Partners.
Features, v.1.1.0 (draft) ETSI Mobile Competence Centre

2004
2.7 Deployment
[11] Summary of all Release 5 Features, ETSI Mobile Competence Centre, Version 9 September 2003
3GPP systems are deployed across much of the established GSM market.[20][21] They are primarily Release
6 systems, but as of 2010, growing interest in HSPA+
and LTE is driving adoption of Release 7 and its successors. Since 2005, 3GPP systems were seeing deployment in the same markets as 3GPP2 systems (for example, North America[22] ). With LTE the ocial successor
to 3GPP2s CDMA systems, 3GPP-based systems will
eventually become the single global mobile standard.
[12] Overview of 3GPP Release 6, Summary of all Release

6 Features, Version TSG #33, ETSI Mobile Competence
Centre 2006
[13] Review of the Work Plan at Plenaries #31, 3GPP, SP060232 3GPP TSG SA#31 Sanya, 1316 March 2006
[14] Highlights of 3GPP Release 12. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
[15] Release 13 priorities. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
[16] Specication Groups
2.8 See also

Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS)
3GPP Long Term Evolution
Evolution to 3G
IP Multimedia Subsystem
3GP
3GPP2 - The 3GPPs counterpart in the
CDMA2000 sphere.
[17] 3GPP membership

[18] 3GPP TR 21.900 Technical Specication Group working
methods
[19] ITU-T Recommendation I.130
[20] GSM/3G Fast Facts. GSM Suppliers Association, 10 December 2006
[21] Resources: 3G/UMTS Commercial Deployments, Table
listing commercially launched 3G/UMTS networks based
on WCDMA technology, UMTS Forum
[22] Cingular to Deliver 3G Wireless Broadband Services,
Press Release, Cingular Wireless, MediaRoom 30
November 2004
CHAPTER 2. 3GPP
2.10 External links

3GPP website
3GPP Standards List of Acronyms & Terminology
3GPP freely published, detailed technical specications
3GPP releases descriptions
ETSI GSM UMTS 3GPP Numbering Cross Reference
TS/TR
specication numbering
Tool for visualizing multiple inter-related 3gpp standards
Tool for visualizing, decoding, encoding network
protocol messages dened by 3gpp
Chapter 3
International Telecommunication Union

ITU redirects here. For other uses, see ITU (disambiguation).
For the hospital department, see Intensive care unit.
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU;
ITU also organizes worldwide and regional exhibitions

and forums, such as ITU TELECOM WORLD, bringing
together representatives of government and the telecommunications and ICT industry to exchange ideas, knowledge and technology.
ITU, based in Geneva, Switzerland, is a member of the
United Nations Development Group.[2] ITU has been
an intergovernmental public-private partnership organization since its inception. Its membership includes 193
Member States and around 700 public and private sector
companies as well as international and regional telecommunication entities, known as Sector Members and Associates, which undertake most of the work of each
Sector.[3]
3.1 History
ITU was formed in 1865 at the International Telegraph
Convention. ITU became a United Nations specialized
agency in 1947.
Monument in Bern, Switzerland. The text reads: Union Tlgraphique Internationale fonde Paris en 1865 sur l'initiative
du gouvernement franais. rig par dcision de l'Union Tlgraphique prise la confrence internationale de Lisbonne en
1908. (In English: International Telegraph Union founded at
Paris in 1865 on the initiative of the French government. [This
monument] erected by a decision of the Telegraph Union made
at the international conference at Lisbon in 1908.)
3.2 ITU sectors

The ITU comprises three sectors, each managing a different aspect of the matters handled by the Union, as
well as ITU Telecom.[4] The sectors were created during the restructuring of ITU at its 1992 Plenipotentiary
Conference.[5]
French: Union Internationale des Tlcommunications),

originally the International Telegraph Union (French:
Union Tlgraphique Internationale), is a specialized
agency of the United Nations (UN) that is responsible for
issues that concern information and communication technologies.[1]
Radiocommunication (ITU-R) Established in 1927 as

The ITU coordinates the shared global use of the radio
the International Radio Consultative Committee or
spectrum, promotes international cooperation in assignCCIR (from its French name Comit consultatif
ing satellite orbits, works to improve telecommunication
international pour la radio), this sector manages the
infrastructure in the developing world, and assists in the
international radio-frequency spectrum and satellite
development and coordination of worldwide technical
orbit resources. In 1992, the CCIR became the ITUstandards. The ITU is active in areas including broadR.
band Internet, latest-generation wireless technologies,
aeronautical and maritime navigation, radio astronomy, Standardization (ITU-T) Standardization was the original purpose of ITU since its inception. Established
satellite-based meteorology, convergence in xed-mobile
in 1956 as the International Telephone and Telephone, Internet access, data, voice, TV broadcasting, and
graph Consultative Committee or CCITT (from its
next-generation networks.
9
10
CHAPTER 3. INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION

French name Comit consultatif international tlphonique et tlgraphique), this sector standardizes
global telecommunications (except for radio).[5] In
1993, the CCITT became the ITU-T.
of the ITU was the 1865 International Telegraph Convention, which has since been amended several times and
is now entitled the Constitution and Convention of the
International Telecommunication Union. In addition to
the Constitution and Convention, the consolidated basic
Development (ITU-D) Established in 1992, this sector texts include the Optional Protocol on the settlement of
helps spread equitable, sustainable and aordable disputes, the Decisions, Resolutions and Recommendaaccess to information and communication technolo- tions in force, as well as the General Rules of Confergies (ICT).
ences, Assemblies and Meetings of the Union.
ITU TELECOM ITU Telecom organizes major events
for the worlds ICT community. ITU Telecom
World 2011[6] is ITU Telecoms 40th Anniversary
with the rst event in 1971.
3.4 Leadership
The ITU is headed by a Secretary-General, who is elected

A permanent General Secretariat, headed by the Secre- to a four-year term by the member states at the ITU
tary General, manages the day-to-day work of the Union Plenipotentiary Conference.
and its sectors.
On 23 October 2014 Houlin Zhao was elected 19th
Secretary-General of the ITU at the Plenipotentiary Conference in Busan, Republic of Korea. His four-year mandate
started on 1 January 2015, and he was formally in3.3 Legal framework of ITU
augurated on 15 January 2015.[9]
3.5 Directors and

General of ITU
Secretaries-
3.6 Membership
International Telecommunication Union anniversary 125

years. Post of USSR, 1990.
International Telecommunication Union member states
Membership of ITU is open to governments, which may

join the Union as Member States, as well as to private organizations like carriers, equipment manufacturers, funding bodies, research and development organizations and international and regional telecommunication
organizations, which can join ITU as non-voting Sector
Members.[10]
International Telecommunication Union anniversary 150

years. Post of Azerbaijan, 2015.
There are 193 member states of the ITU, which includes

192 UN member states (all except Palau) and Vatican
City.[11] The most recent member state to join the ITU
is South Sudan, which became a member on 14 July
2011.[12]
The Republic of China (Taiwan) was blocked from memThe basic texts of the ITU[7] are adopted by the ITU bership by the Peoples Republic of China, but neverPlenipotentiary Conference.[8] The founding document theless received a country code, being listed as Tai-
3.8. WORLD CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS 2012 (WCIT-12)
11
wan, China.[13] Palestine was admitted as an observer governments to shut down the internet if there is the bein 2010.[14]
lief that it may interfere in the internal aairs of other
states or that information of a sensitive nature might be
shared.[19]
3.6.1
Regional groupings
Telecommunications ministers from 193 countries at[19]

Member states of the ITU are organized into six regional tended the conference in Dubai.
groups:
Asia-Pacic Telecommunity (APT)
Arab Spectrum Management Group (ASMG)
African Telecommunications Union (ATU)
European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT)
Inter-American Telecommunication Commission
(CITEL)
Regional Commonwealth in the Field of Communications (RCC - representing former Soviet republics)
3.7
3.8.1 Changes to International Telecommunication Regulations

The current regulatory structure was based on voice
telecommunications, when the Internet was still in its
infancy.[20] In 1988, telecommunications operated under
regulated monopolies in most countries. As the Internet
has grown, organizations such as ICANN have come into
existence to manage key resources such as Internet addresses and Domain Names. Some outside the United
States believe that the United States exerts too much inuence over the governance of the Internet.[21]
3.8.2 Proposed Changes to the Treaty And

Concerns
World Summit on the Informa-
tion Society
Main article: World Summit on the Information Society
The ITU was one of the UN agencies responsible for
convening the World Summit on the Information Society
(WSIS), along with UNESCO, UNCTAD and UNDP.[15]
The Summit was held as two conferences in 2003 and
2005 in Geneva and Tunis, respectively, with the aim of
bridging the digital divide.
3.8 World Conference on International Telecommunications

2012 (WCIT-12)
Current proposals look to take into account the prevalence of data communications. Proposals under consideration would establish regulatory oversight by the UN
over security, fraud, trac accounting as well as trac
ow, management of Internet Domain Names and IP addresses, and other aspects of the Internet that are currently governed either by community-based approaches
such as Regional Internet Registries, ICANN, or largely
national regulatory frameworks.[22] The move by the ITU
and some countries has alarmed many within the United
States and within the Internet community.[23][24] Indeed,
some European telecommunication services have proposed a so-called sender pays model that would require
sources of Internet trac to pay destinations, similar to
the way funds are transferred between countries using the
telephone.[25][26]
The WCIT-12 activity has been attacked by Google,

which has characterized it as a threat to the "...free and
In December 2012, the ITU facilitated The World
[27]
Conference on International Telecommunications 2012 open internet.
WCIT-12 was a treaty- On 22 November 2012, the European Parliament passed
(WCIT-12) in Dubai.
level conference to address International Telecom- a resolution urging member states to prevent ITU WCITmunications Regulations, the international rules for 12 activity that would negatively impact the internet, its
telecommunications, including international taris.[16] architecture, operations, content and security, business
The previous conference to update the Regulations relations, internet governance and the free ow of infor(ITRs) was held in Melbourne in 1988.[17]
mation online.[28] The resolution asserted that the ITU
body to assert regulatory auIn August 2012, ITU called for a public consultation on a [...] is not the appropriate
[29]
thority
over
the
internet.
[18]
draft document ahead of the conference. It is claimed
the proposal would allow government restriction or blocking of information disseminated via the internet and create a global regime of monitoring internet communications, including the demand that those who send and receive information identify themselves. It would also allow
On 5 December 2012, the lower chamber of the United

States Congress passed a resolution opposing U.N. governance of the Internet by a rare unanimous 3970 vote.
The resolution warned that "... proposals have been put
forward for consideration at the [WCIT-12] that would
12
fundamentally alter the governance and operation of the

Internet ... [and] would attempt to justify increased government control over the Internet ..., and stated that the
policy of the United States is "... to promote a global Internet free from government control and preserve and advance the successful Multistakeholder Model that governs
the Internet today. The same resolution had previously
been passed unanimously by the upper chamber of the
Congress in September.[30]
On 14 December 2012, an amended version of the
Regulations was signed by 89 of the 152 countries. Countries that did not sign included the United States, Japan,
Canada, Germany, New Zealand, India and the United International Telecommunications Union, Geneva
Kingdom. The Head of the U.S. Delegation, Terry
Kramer, said We cannot support a treaty that is not sup Internet Society
portive of the multistakeholder model of Internet governance. [31][32][33] The disagreement appeared to be
H.331
over some language in the revised ITRs referring to ITU
roles in addressing unsolicited bulk communications, net ITU Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R)
work security, and a resolution on Internet governance
that called for government participation in Internet topics
ITU Telecommunication Development Sector (ITUat various ITU forums.[34] Despite the signicant numD)
ber countries not signing, the ITU organisation came out
ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector
with a press release: "New global telecoms treaty agreed
(ITU-T)
in Dubai".
ITU-R Recommendations
3.8.3
WCIT-12 Conference Participation
The conference itself was managed by the International

Telecommunication Union (ITU). While certain parts of
civil society and industry were able to advise and observe,
active participation was restricted to member states.[35]
The Electronic Frontier Foundation expressed concern
at this, calling for a more transparent multi-stakeholder
process.[36] Some leaked contributions can be found on
the wcitleaks.org web site. Google-aliated researchers
have suggested that the ITU should completely reform its
processes to align itself with the openness and participation of other multistakeholder organizations concerned
with the Internet.[37]
3.9 See also

Internet Engineering Task Force
Internet Governance Forum
ICANN
American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN)
RIPE
ITU-T Recommendations
X.509
Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG)
Child Online Protection (COP)
3.10 References
[1] International Telecommunication Union
[2] UNDG Members. Undg.org. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
[3] About ITU. International Telecommunication Union.
Retrieved 2011-03-20.
[4] Sector Members, Associates and Academia. ITU. Retrieved 15 May 2014.
[5] Deutsches Institut fr Normung (1998). An Introduction
to Standards and Standardization. Beuth Verlag. p. 266.
ISBN 9783410141495. Retrieved 15 May 2014.
[6] Welcome to ITU TELECOM WORLD 2011 | ITU
TELECOM WORLD 2011. Itu.int. 27 October 2011.
Retrieved 9 July 2012.
AfriNIC
[7] Basic texts of the International Telecommunication

Union. Itu.int. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
Latin America and Caribbean Network Information

Centre (LACNIC)
[8] PP10contributions. 2010 Plenipotentiary Conference.

Itu.int. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
3.11. EXTERNAL LINKS
[9] ITU Management team inauguration on 15 January

2015. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
[10] Constitution of ITU: Chapter I Basic Provisions. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
[11] International Telecommunication Union Member
States.
International Telecommunication Union.
13
[29] European Parliament resolution on the forthcoming

World Conference on International Telecommunications (WCIT-12) of the International Telecommunication
Union, and the possible expansion of the scope of international telecommunication regulations. 22 November
2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
[30] House approves resolution to keep Internet control out of
UN hands. The Hill. 5 December 2012.
[12] New Country, New Number Country code 211 ocially

assigned to South Sudan ITU Pressroom, 14 July 2011
[31] U.S. Rejects Telecommunications Treaty. The New

York Times. 14 December 2012.
[13] ITU-T : International Numbering Resources : National

Numbering Plans : China, Taiwan. Itu.int. 26 January
2007. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
[32] Japan, West snub rules for Net curbs. Japan Times. 16
December 2012.
[14] Palestine ITU status. Itu.int. 20 October 2010. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
[33] WCIT-12 Final Acts Signatories.

International
Telecommunication Union. Retrieved 16 December
2012.
[15] World Summit on the Information Society. itu.int. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
[34] Siy, Sherwin. (14 December 2012) On the Results at the

WCIT. Public Knowledge. Retrieved on 28 April 2014.
[16] World Conference on International Telecommunications

2012. Itu.int. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
[35] Convention of the ITU. Itu.int. Retrieved 12 October

2012.
[17] International Telecommunication Regulations (PDF).

Retrieved 12 October 2012.
[36] EFF Joins Coalition Denouncing Secretive WCIT Planning Process. E.org. 17 May 2012. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
[18] ITU opens public consultation on internet regulation

treaty. 16 August 2012. Retrieved November 2012.
[19] United Nations wants control of web kill switch.
news.com.au. 12 November 2012. Retrieved November
2012.
[20] Global Internet usage
[21] Russia calls for internet revolution. Indrus.in. 29 May
2012. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
[22] Internet Society. International Telecommunication Regulations
[37] Ryan/Glick: The ITU Treaty Negotiations: A Call for

Openness and Participation. Ssrn.com. Retrieved 12
October 2012.
3.11 External links

Ocial website
History of ITU Portal (ocial site)
ITU Telecom World 2011
[23] Mcdowell, Robert M. (21 February 2012). Robert

McDowell:The U.N. Threat to Internet Freedom. The
Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
Protect Global Internet Freedom Coalition
[24] L. Gordon Crovitz (17 June 2012). Crovitz: The U.N.'s

Internet Power Grab. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved
12 October 2012.
U.N. Summit to Focus on Internet Washington Post

article about ICANN and the United Nations ITU
relationship
[25] McCullagh, Declan (7 June 2012). "CNET:U.N. could

tax U.S.-based Web sites, leaked docs show<". CNET.
Ryan/Glick: The ITU Treaty Negotiations: A Call

for Openness and Participation
[26] Trivedi, Shamik (28 June 2012). FOR APPLE AND

GOOGLE, IS AN UNAVOIDABLE U.N. 'TAX' COMING?". Tax Notes Today 2012 TNT 126-5.
ITU denes the future of mobile communications
Renda, Andrea. The U.N., Internet Regulator?, The

Wall Street Journal, 25 April 2012. Retrieved 29
May 2012.
[27] Google attacks UN net conference. BBC News. 21

November 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
Thierer, Adam. Does the Internet Need a Global

Regulator?, Forbes magazine, 6 May 2012. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
[28] European Parliament warns against UN internet control.

BBC News. 22 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November
2012.
Cerf, Vinton. Keep the Internet Open, The New

York Times, 24 May 2012. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
14
ITU headquarters, Geneva
Harrington, Matt. House lawmakers to consider

proposal for United Nations to Regulate the Internet, syracuse.com, 29 May 2012. Retrieved 30 May
2012.
Peterson, Josh. Deadline approaches for Russia and
China-led U.N. Internet takeover, dailycaller.com,
24 May 2012. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
C-SPAN. Coverage of Free State Foundation, 30
May 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
Kang, Cecilia. U.S. tech companies warn of threat
to Internet from foreign governments, The Washington Post, 31 May 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
Shaw, Stephen. Putting the United Nations in charge
of the Internet is the best idea ever, ZDNet. 30 May
2012. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
Chapter 4
H.331
H.331 is part of the ITU suite of standards for Video
Teleconferencing. This standard is used for broadcast of
videoconferences, as opposed to point-to-point links.[1]
A standard H.320 terminal (i.e. ISDN endpoint) can
be modied to provide one-way point-to-multipoint data
transmissions (broadcasts). These broadcasts can be
likened to television broadcasts. H.331 species how
H.320 terminals act in situations where there is no data
path from receivers back to transmitters, making normal
two-way negotiation impossible. In such a situation no
MCU is needed.
Standard applications include:
Educational Broadcasts (Classes, Campus Events...)
Corporate Broadcasts (Shareholder Meetings, Public Relations...)
Political Broadcasts
Often low-bit-rate digital satellite transmission is used for
such services, with one uplink site sending H.320 video
and many receiving stations.
4.1 References
[1] EBU Technical Review EBU, 1999. Retrieved 5 January 2012.
http://www.tml.tkk.fi/Opinnot/Tik-111.590/2002/
Jerry D. Gibson (ed.), Multimedia Communications - Directions & Innovations, Academic Press, 2001 ISBN 012-282160-2
15
Chapter 5
ICANN
ICANN was created on September 18, 1998, and incorporated on September 30, 1998.[3] It is headquartered
in the Playa Vista section of Los Angeles, California.
On September 29, 2006, ICANN signed a new agreement with the United States Department of Commerce
(DOC) that moves the organization further towards a
solely multistakeholder governance model.[4]
On October 1, 2009 the U.S. Department of Commerce
gave up its control of ICANN, completing ICANNs
transition.[5]
5.1 History
ICANN headquarters in Playa Vista, Los Angeles, California.
The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and

Numbers (ICANN /akn/ EYE-kan) is a nonprot
organization that is responsible for the coordination
of maintenance and methodology of several databases
of unique identiers related to the namespaces of the
Internet, and ensuring the networks stable and secure
operation.[1]
Most visibly, much of its work has concerned the Internets global Domain Name System, including policy development for internationalization of the DNS system, introduction of new generic top-level domains (TLDs), and
the operation of root name servers. The numbering facilities ICANN manages include the Internet Protocol address spaces for IPv4 and IPv6, and assignment of address blocks to regional Internet registries. ICANN also
maintains registries of Internet protocol identiers.
ICANN performs the actual technical maintenance work
of the central Internet address pools and DNS Root registries pursuant to the IANA function contract.
ICANNs primary principles of operation have been described as helping preserve the operational stability of the
Internet; to promote competition; to achieve broad representation of the global Internet community; and to develop policies appropriate to its mission through bottomup, consensus-based processes.[2]
Before the establishment of ICANN, the IANA function

of administering registries of Internet protocol identiers
(including the distributing top-level domains and IP addresses) was performed by Jon Postel, a Computer Science researcher who had been involved in the creation
of ARPANET, rst at UCLA and then at the University
of Southern Californias Information Sciences Institute
(ISI).[6][7] In 1997 Postel testied before Congress that
this had come about as a side task to this research work
[8]
The Information Sciences Institute was funded by the
U.S. Department of Defense, as was SRI Internationals
Network Information Center, which also performed some
assigned name functions.[9]
As the Internet grew and expanded globally, the U.S. Department of Commerce initiated a process to establish a
new organization to take over the IANA functions. On
January 30, 1998, the National Telecommunications and
Information Administration (NTIA), an agency of the
U.S. Department of Commerce, issued for comment, A
Proposal to Improve the Technical Management of Internet Names and Addresses. The proposed rule making,
or "Green Paper", was published in the Federal Register
on February 20, 1998, providing opportunity for public
comment. NTIA received more than 650 comments as
of March 23, 1998, when the comment period closed.[10]
The Green Paper proposed certain actions designed to
privatize the management of Internet names and addresses in a manner that allows for the development of
robust competition and facilitates global participation in
16
5.2. NOTABLE EVENTS

Internet management. The Green Paper proposed for
discussion a variety of issues relating to DNS management including private sector creation of a new notfor-prot corporation (the new corporation) managed
by a globally and functionally representative Board of
Directors.[11] ICANN was formed in response to this policy. ICANN manages the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA) under contract to the United States
Department of Commerce (DOC) and pursuant to an
agreement with the IETF.[12]
17
the IANA and VeriSign.[24]
On October 1, 2009 the U.S. Department of Commerce
gave up its control of ICANN.[5]
5.2 Notable events
On March 18, 2002, publicly elected At-Large Representative for North America board member Karl Auerbach
sued ICANN in Superior Court in California to gain acICANN was incorporated in California on September 30,
cess to ICANNs accounting records without restriction.
1998, with entrepreneur and philanthropist Esther Dyson
Auerbach won.[25]
as founding chairwoman.[3] It is qualied to do business
in the District of Columbia.[13] ICANN was established In September and October 2003, ICANN played a cruin California due to the presence of Jon Postel, who was cial role in the conict over VeriSign's wild card DNS
a founder of ICANN and was set to be its rst CTO prior service Site Finder. After an open letter from ICANN
to his unexpected death. ICANN formerly operated from issuing an ultimatum to VeriSign, later supported by the
[26]
the company voluntarily shut down the service
the same Marina del Rey building where Postel formerly IAB,
worked, which is home to an oce of the Information on October 4, 2003. Following this action, VeriSign led
Sciences Institute at the University of Southern Califor- a lawsuit against ICANN on February 27, 2004, claiming
nia. However, ICANNs headquarters is now located in that ICANN had overstepped its authority. In this lawsuit, VeriSign sought to reduce ambiguity about ICANNs
the nearby Playa Vista section of Los Angeles.
authority. The antitrust component of VeriSigns claim
Per its original Bylaws, primary responsibility for policy
was dismissed in August 2004. VeriSigns broader chalformation in ICANN was to be delegated to three suplenge that ICANN overstepped its contractual rights is
porting organizations (Address Supporting Organization,
currently outstanding. A proposed settlement already apDomain Name Supporting Organization, and Protocol
proved by ICANNs board would resolve VeriSigns chalSupporting Organization), each of which was to develop
lenge to ICANN in exchange for the right to increase
and recommend substantive policies and procedures for
pricing on .com domains. At the meeting of ICANN in
the management of the identiers within their respective
Rome, which took place from March 2 to March 6, 2004,
scope. They were also required to be nancially indepenICANN agreed to ask approval of the US Department of
[14]
dent from ICANN. As expected, the Regional Internet
Commerce for the Waiting List Service of VeriSign.
Registries and the IETF agreed to serve as the Address
Supporting Organization and Protocol Supporting Orga- On May 17, 2004, ICANN published a proposed budget
nization respectively,[15][16] and ICANN issued a call for for the year 2004-05. It included proposals to increase
interested parties to propose the structure and composi- the openness and professionalism of its operations, and
tion of the Domain Name Supporting Organization.[17] greatly increased its proposed spending from US $8.27
On 4 March 1999, the ICANN Board, based in part on million to $15.83 million. The increase was to be funded
the DNSO proposals received, decided instead on an al- by the introduction of new top-level domains, charges
ternate construction for the DNSO which delineated spe- to domain registries, and a fee for some domain name
cic constituencies bodies within ICANN itself,[18][19] registrations, renewals and transfers (initially USD 0.20
thus adding primary responsibility for DNS policy de- for all domains within a country-code top-level domain,
velopment to ICANNs existing duties of oversight and and USD 0.25 for all others). The Council of European
National Top Level Domain Registries (CENTR), which
coordination.
represents the Internet registries of 39 countries, rejected
On July 26, 2006, the United States government rethe increase, accusing ICANN of a lack of nancial prunewed the contract with ICANN for performance of the
dence and criticizing what it describes as ICANNs "unreIANA function for an additional one to ve years.[20] The
alistic political and operational targets". Despite the critcontext of ICANNs relationship with the U.S. governicism, the registry agreement for the top-level domains
ment was claried on September 29, 2006 when ICANN
jobs and travel includes a US $2 fee on every domain the
signed a new Memorandum of understanding with the
licensed companies sell or renew.[27]
[21]
United States Department of Commerce (DOC). This
document does give the DoC a nal, unilateral oversight After a second round of negotiations in 2004, the TLDs
eu, asia, travel, jobs, mobi, and cat were introduced in
over some of the ICANN operations.[21][22]
2005.
In July 2008, the U.S. Department of Commerce reiter[23]
ated an earlier statement that it has no plans to tran- On February 28, 2006, ICANNs board approved a
sition management of the authoritative root zone le to settlement with VeriSign in the lawsuit resulting from
ICANN. The letter also stresses the separate roles of SiteFinder that involved allowing VeriSign (the registry)
to raise its registration fees by up to 7% a year.[28] This
18
CHAPTER 5. ICANN
tion and implementation process.[34]
On October 1, 2008, ICANN issued Breach Notices
against Joker and Beijing Innovative Linkage Technology
Ltd.[35] after further researching reports and complaints
issued by KnujOn. These notices gave the Registrars 15
days to x their Whois investigation eorts.
In 2010, ICANN approved a major review of its policies
with respect to accountability, transparency, and public
participation by the Berkman Center for Internet and Society at Harvard University.[36] This external review was
in support of the work of ICANNs Accountability and
Transparency Review team.[37]
ICANN meeting, Los Angeles USA, 2007. The sign refers to Vint
Cerf, then Chairman of the Board of Directors, who is working
on the Interplanetary Internet.
On February 3, 2011, ICANN announced that it had distributed the last batch of its remaining IPv4 addresses
to the worlds ve Regional Internet Registries, the organizations that manage IP addresses in dierent regions.
was criticised by some people in the US House of Repre- These Registries began assigning the nal IPv4 addresses
within their regions until they ran out completely.[38]
sentatives' Small Business committee.[29]
In February 2007, ICANN began the steps to remove accreditation of one of their registrars, RegisterFly amid
charges and lawsuits involving fraud, and criticism of
ICANNs handling of the situation. ICANN has been the
subject of criticism as a result of its handling of RegisterFly, and the harm caused to thousands of clients as a
result of what has been called ICANNs laissez faire attitude toward customer allegations of fraud".[30] Backend
cybercrime detection within the ICANN sphere of inuence is also lacking.
On May 23, 2008, ICANN issued Enforcement Notices against 10 Accredited Registrars and announced this
through a press release entitled: Worst Spam Oenders Notied by ICANN, Compliance system working
to correct Whois and other issues.[31] This was largely
in response to a report issued by KnujOn called The 10
Worst Registrars in terms of spam advertised junk product sites and compliance failure.[32] The mention of the
word spam in the title of the ICANN memo is somewhat
misleading since ICANN does not address issues of spam
or email abuse. Website content and usage are not within
ICANNs mandate. However the KnujOn Report details how various registrars have not complied with their
contractual obligations under the Registrar Accreditation
Agreement (RAA).[33] The main point of the KnujOn
research was to demonstrate the relationships between
compliance failure, illicit product trac, and spam. The
report demonstrated that out of 900 ICANN accredited
Registrars fewer than 20 held 90% of the web domains
advertised in spam. These same Registrars were also
most frequently cited by KnujOn as failing to resolve
complaints made through the Whois Data Problem Reporting System (WDPRS).
On June 26, 2008, the ICANN Board started a new process of TLD naming policy to take a signicant step
forward on the introduction of new generic top-level domains. This program envisions the availability of many
new or already proposed domains, as well a new applica-
On June 20, 2011, the ICANN board voted to end most

restrictions on the names of generic top-level domains
(gTLD).[39][40][41] Companies and organizations became
able to choose essentially arbitrary top level Internet domain names. The use of non-Latin characters (such as
Cyrillic, Arabic, Chinese, etc.) will also be allowed in
gTLDs. ICANN began accepting applications for new
gTLDS on January 12, 2012.[39] The initial price to apply for a new gTLD is $185,000.[42] The renewal or the
annual fee of the domain will further be $25,000.[43][44]
It is anticipated that many corporations will apply for
gTLDs based on their brands. ICANN expects the new
rules to signicantly change the face of the Internet. Peter
Thrush, chairman of ICANNs board of directors stated
after the vote: Todays decision will usher in a new Internet age. We have provided a platform for the next generation of creativity and inspiration. Unless there is a good
reason to restrain it, innovation should be allowed to run
free.[45] Some would argue that the innovative freedom
Peter Thrush refers to starts at $185,000, and thus is not
accessible to everyone.[46]
The 2013 NSA spying scandal has led to ICANN endorsing the Montevideo Statement.
5.3 Structure
At present ICANN is formally organized as a non-prot
corporation for charitable and public purposes under
the California Nonprot Public Benet Corporation Law.
It is managed by a 16-member Board of Directors composed of eight members selected by a nominating committee on which all the constituencies of ICANN are represented; six representatives of its Supporting Organizations, sub-groups that deal with specic sections of the
policies under ICANNs purview; an At-Large seat lled
by an At-Large Organization; and the President / CEO,
appointed by the Board.[47]
5.3. STRUCTURE
19
There are currently three Supporting Organizations.

The Generic Names Supporting Organization (GNSO)
deals with policy making on generic top-level domains
(gTLDs). The Country Code Names Supporting Organization (ccNSO) deals with policy making on countrycode top-level domains (ccTLDs). The Address Supporting Organization (ASO) deals with policy making on IP
addresses.[48]
Council of Europe
ICANN also relies on some advisory committees and

other advisory mechanisms to receive advice on the interests and needs of stakeholders that do not directly participate in the Supporting Organizations.[49] These include
the Governmental Advisory Committee (GAC), which
is composed of representatives of a large number of national governments from all over the world; the At-Large
Advisory Committee (ALAC), which is composed of individual Internet users from around the world selected
by each of the Regional At-Large Organizations (RALO)
and Nominating Committee; the Root Server System Advisory Committee, which provides advice on the operation of the DNS root server system; the Security and Stability Advisory Committee (SSAC), which is composed
of Internet experts who study security issues pertaining
to ICANNs mandate; and the Technical Liaison Group
(TLG), which is composed of representatives of other international technical organizations that focus, at least in
part, on the Internet.[50]
European Space Agency
5.3.1
Governmental Advisory Committee
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)

European Broadcasting Union
European Organization for Nuclear Research
(CERN)
International Labour Oce

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL)
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
Latin American Association of Telecom Regulatory
Agencies (REGULATEL)
League of Arab States
New Partnership
(NEPAD)
for
Africas
Development
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

The Organization for Islamic Cooperation
Organization of American States
Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie
(OIF)
Pacic Islands Forum
Secretariat of the Pacic Community (SPC)
Governmental Advisory Committee representatives
The Governmental Advisory Committee has representatives from 111 states (108 UN members, the Holy See,
Cook Islands, Niue and Taiwan), Hong Kong, Bermuda,
Montserrat, the European Commission and the African
Union Commission.[51]
In addition the following organizations are GAC
Observers:[52]
African Telecommunications Union
Asia-Pacic Telecommunity
Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU)
Commonwealth Telecommunications Organisation
(CTO)
Inter-American Telecommunication Commission

(CITEL)
International Criminal Court
United Nations Educational Scientic and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO)
Universal Postal Union
World Bank
World Health Organization (WHO)
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
World Meteorological Organization
World Trade Organization
20
5.3.2
CHAPTER 5. ICANN
Democratic input
In the Memorandum of Understanding that set up the

relationship between ICANN and the U.S. government,
ICANN was given a mandate requiring that it operate
in a bottom up, consensus driven, democratic manner.
However, the attempts that ICANN have made to set
up an organizational structure that would allow wide input from the global Internet community did not produce results amenable to the current Board. As a result,
the At-Large constituency and direct election of board
members by the global Internet community were soon
abandoned.[53]
has now become known as the Uniform Dispute Resolution Policy (UDRP). This policy essentially attempts to
provide a mechanism for rapid, cheap and reasonable resolution of domain name conicts, avoiding the traditional
court system for disputes by allowing cases to be brought
to one of a set of bodies that arbitrate domain name disputes. According to ICANN policy, a domain registrant
must agree to be bound by the UDRPthey cannot get a
domain name without agreeing to this.
A look at the UDRP decision patterns has led some[57]

to conclude that compulsory domain name arbitration is
less likely to give a fair hearing to domain name owners
asserting defenses under the First Amendment and other
ICANN holds periodic public meetings rotated between laws, compared to the federal courts of appeal in particcontinents for the purpose of encouraging global par- ular.
ticipation in its processes. Resolutions of the ICANN
Board, preliminary reports, and minutes of the meetings, are published on the ICANN website, sometimes 5.4.1 Proposed elimination of public DNS
in real time. However, there are criticisms from ICANN
whois
constituencies including the Noncommercial Users Constituency (NCUC) and the At-Large Advisory Committee The initial report of ICANNs Expert Working Group
(ALAC) that there is not enough public disclosure and has recommended that the present form of Whois, a utilthat too many discussions and decisions take place out of ity that allows anyone to know who has registered a dosight of the public.
main name on the Internet, be scrapped. It recommends
In the early 2000s, there had been speculation that
the United Nations might signal a takeover of
ICANN,[54] followed by a negative reaction from
the US government[23] and worries about a division of
the Internet.[55] The World Summit on the Information
Society in Tunisia in November 2005 agreed not to get
involved in the day-to-day and technical operations of
ICANN. However it also agreed to set up an international
Internet Governance Forum, with a consultative role
on the future governance of the Internet. ICANNs
Government Advisory Committee is currently set up
to provide advice to ICANN regarding public policy
issues and has participation by many of the worlds
governments.[56]
it be replaced with a system that keeps most registration information secret (or gated) from most Internet
users, and only discloses information for permissible
purposes.[58][59] ICANNs list of permissible purposes
includes Domain name research, Domain name sale and
purchase, Regulatory enforcement, Personal data protection, Legal actions, and Abuse mitigation.[60] Whois has
been a key tool of investigative journalists interested in
determining who was disseminating information on the
Internet.[61] The use of whois by the free press is not included in the list of permissible purposes in the initial
report.
Some have attempted to argue that ICANN was never

given the authority to decide policy, e.g., choose new
TLDs or shut out other interested parties who refuse to
pay ICANNs US$185,000 fee, but was to be a technical caretaker. Critics suggest that ICANN should not be
allowed to impose business rules on market participants,
and that all TLDs should be added on a rst-come, rstserved basis and the market should be the arbiter of who
succeeds and who does not.
5.5 Criticism
5.4 Activities
Since its creation, ICANN has been the subject of criticism and controversy.[62][63] In 2000, professor Michael
Froomkin of the University of Miami School of Law argued that ICANNs relationship with the U.S. Department of Commerce is illegal, in violation of either the
Constitution or federal statutes.[64] In 2009, the new Afrmation of Commitments agreement between ICANN
and the U.S. Department of Commerce, that aimed to
create international oversight, ran into criticism.[65]
In December 2011, the Federal Trade Commission stated

ICANN had long failed to provide safeguards that protect
[66]
One task that ICANN was asked to do was to address the consumers from online swindlers.
issue of domain name ownership resolution for generic Also in 2011, seventy-nine companies, including The
top-level domains (gTLDs). ICANNs attempt at such a Coca-Cola Company, Hewlett-Packard, Samsung and
policy was drafted in close cooperation with the World In- others, signed a petition against ICANNs new TLD
tellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and the result program (sometimes referred to as a commercial
5.5. CRITICISM
landgrab[67] ), in a group organized by the Association
of National Advertisers.[68] As of September 2014, this
group, the Coalition for Responsible Internet Domain
Oversight, that opposes the rollout of ICANNs TLD expansion program, has been joined by 102 associations and
79 major companies.[69] Partly as a response to this criticism, ICANN initiated an eort to protect trademarks in
domain name registrations, which eventually culminated
in the establishment of the Trademark Clearinghouse.
5.5.1
IBSA proposal (2011)
21
5.5.3 Global Multistakeholder Meeting on

the Future of Internet Governance
(2013)
In October 2013, Fadi Chehad, current President and
CEO of ICANN, met with Brazilian President Dilma
Rousse in Brasilia. Upon Chehad's invitation, the two
announced that Brazil would host an international summit
on Internet governance in April 2014.[77] The announcement came after the 2013 disclosures of mass surveillance by the U.S. government, and President Rousses
speech at the opening session of the 2013 United Nations General Assembly, where she strongly criticized the
American surveillance program as a breach of international law. The "Global Multistakeholder Meeting on
the Future of Internet Governance (NET mundial)" will
include representatives of government, industry, civil society, and academia.[78] At the IGF VIII meeting in Bali in
October 2013 a commenter noted that Brazil intends the
meeting to be a "summit" in the sense that it will be high
level with decision-making authority.[79] The organizers
of the NET mundial meeting have decided that an online forum called "/1net, set up by the I* group, will be
a major conduit of non-governmental input into the three
committees preparing for the meeting in April.[76][80][81]
One controversial proposal, resulting from a September

2011 summit between India, Brazil, and South Africa
(IBSA), would seek to move Internet governance into
a UN Committee on Internet-Related Policy (UNCIRP).[70][71] The move was a reaction to a perception
that the principles of the 2005 Tunis Agenda for the Information Society have not been met.[71][72] The statement called for the subordination of independent technical organizations such as ICANN and the ITU to a political organization operating under the auspices of the
United Nations.[71] After outrage from Indias civil society and media, the Indian government backed away from The Obama administration that had joined critics of
the proposal.[73]
ICANN in 2011[82] announced in March 2014 that they
intended to transition away from oversight of the IANA
functions contract. The current contract that the United
States Department of Commerce has with ICANN will
5.5.2 Montevideo Statement on the Future expire in 2015, in its place the NTIA will transition oversight of the IANA functions to the 'global multistakeof Internet Cooperation (2013)
holder community'.[83]
On 7 October 2013 the Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation was released by the leaders
of a number of organizations involved in coordinating the
Internets global technical infrastructure, loosely known
as the I*" (or I-star) group. Among other things, the
statement expressed strong concern over the undermining of the trust and condence of Internet users globally due to recent revelations of pervasive monitoring
and surveillance and called for accelerating the globalization of ICANN and IANA functions, towards an environment in which all stakeholders, including all governments, participate on an equal footing. This desire to move away from a United States centric approach
is seen as a reaction to the ongoing NSA surveillance
scandal. The statement was signed by the heads of
the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the Internet Engineering Task Force, the
Internet Architecture Board, the World Wide Web Consortium, the Internet Society, and the ve regional Internet address registries (African Network Information
Center, American Registry for Internet Numbers, AsiaPacic Network Information Centre, Latin America and
Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry, and Rseaux IP
Europens Network Coordination Centre).[74][75][76]
5.5.4 NetMundial Initiative (2014)

The NetMundial Initiative is a plan for international governance of the Internet that was rst proposed at the
Global Multistakeholder Meeting on the Future of Internet Governance (GMMFIG) conference (2324 April
2014)[42][84][85] and later developed into the NetMundial
Initiative by ICANN CEO Fadi Chehade along with representatives of the World Economic Forum (WEF)[86]
and the Brazilian Internet Steering Committee (Comit
Gestor da Internet no Brasil), commonly referred to as
CGI.br.[87]
The meeting produced a nonbinding statement in favor of consensus-based decision-making. It reected a
compromise and did not harshly condemn mass surveillance or include the words net neutrality, despite initial support for that from Brazil. The nal resolution
says ICANN should be under international control by
September 2015.[88] A minority of governments, including Russia, China, Iran and India, were unhappy with
the nal resolution and wanted multi-lateral management
for the Internet, rather than broader multi-stakeholder
22
CHAPTER 5. ICANN
management.[89]
A month later, the Panel On Global Internet Cooperation
and Governance Mechanisms (convened by the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)
and the World Economic Forum (WEF) with assistance
from The Annenberg Foundation), supported and included the NetMundial statement in its own report.[90]
In June 2014, France strongly attacked ICANN, saying
ICANN is not a t venue for Internet governance and that
alternatives should be sought.[91]
5.5.5
.sucks domain
ICANN has banked more than $60 million from gTLD

auctions,[92] and has accepted the highly controversial domain names ".xxx" and ".sucks.[93] When the .sucks registry announced their pricing model, most brand owners
were upset and felt like they were being penalized by having to pay more to protect their brands.[94] The .sucks
domain registrar has been described as predatory, exploitive and coercive by the Intellectual Property Constituency that advises the ICANN board.[93]
Because of the low utility of the ".sucks domain, it is expected that most of the fees will come from Brand Protection customers registering their trademarks to prevent domains being registered.[95] Virginia member of
Congress Bob Goodlatte says that trademark holders
are being shaken down by the registrys fees.[96] Jay
Rockefeller says that .sucks is a a predatory shakedown
scheme and Approving '.sucks, a gTLD with little or
no public interest value, will have the eect of undermining the credibility ICANN has slowly been building with
skeptical stakeholders.[93]
Steve DelBianco says that businesses are very concerned
about what they consider extortionist pricing. Canadian
brands had complained that they were being charged exorbitant prices to register their trademarks as premium
names. FTC chair Edith Ramirez has written to ICANN
to say the agency will take action against the .sucks owner
if we have reason to believe an entity has engaged in
deceptive or unfair practices in violation of Section 5 of
the FTC Act.[97] The Register reported that intellectual
property lawyers are infuriated that the dot-sucks registry was charging trademark holders $2,500 for .sucks
domains and everyone else $10.[98]
5.6 See also

Alternative DNS root
Domain Name System
Domain name
Domain name registrar
Internationalized domain name
Top-level domain
Country code top-level domain
Generic top-level domain
Geographic top-level domain (GeoTLD)
Domain slamming
IEEE Registration Authority
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
InterNIC
List of ICANN meetings
Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation
NetMundial Initiative, a plan for international governance of the Internet rst proposed at the Global
Multistakeholder Meeting on the Future of Internet
Governance (GMMFIG) conference, 2324 April
2014).
Network Solutions
OpenNIC
Trademark Clearinghouse
Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy
WHOIS
5.7 References
[1] ICANN Bylaws. 30 July 2014. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
[2] Memorandum of understanding between the U.S. Department of Commerce and Internet Corporation for assigned names and numbers. 25 November 1998. Retrieved 2009-09-30.
[3] California Secretary of State, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. Accessed 2009.09.18.
[4] ICANN-DOC JPA 09-29-2006
[5] US Government nally lets ICANN go, Eileen Yu,
ZDNet, 30 September 2009.
[6] V. Cerf (October 17, 1998). I REMEMBER IANA.
IETF. RFC 2460. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2460.
[7] Zittrain, Jonathan. No, Barack Obama Isn't Handing
Control of the Internet Over to China. The New Republic. Retrieved 31 March 2014.
[8] http://commdocs.house.gov/committees/science/
hsy268140.000/hsy268140_0.HTM
[9] DeNardis, Laura (2009). Protocol Politics: The Globalization of Internet Governance. ISBN 978-0-262-04257-4.
[10] Management of Internet Names and Addresses. Dept
of Commerce/NTIA. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
5.7. REFERENCES
[11] Weil, Nancy. New U.S. policy turns 'Net governance

over to private sector. SunWorld. Retrieved 21 April
2015.
[12] B. Carpenter, F. Baker, M. Roberts (June 2000). MoU
Between IETF and ICANN concerning IANA. IETF. RFC
2860. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2860.
[13] D.C. Department of Consumer and Regulatory Aairs,
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers.
Accessed 2009.09.18.
[14] Executive Summary of DNS/ICANN Issues. Berkman
Center. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
[15] Santiago Resolutions.
ICANN Board Resolutions.
ICANN. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
[16] Executive Summary of DNS/ICANN Issues. Harvard
Cyberlaw Brieng Book. Berkman Center. Retrieved 21
May 2012.
[17] DNSO Application Timetable. DNSO. Retrieved 21
May 2012.
[18] ICANN Board. DNSO Singapore Statement. ICANN.
Retrieved 21 May 2012.
[19] DNSO Formation Concepts. ICANN. Retrieved 21
May 2012.
[20] United States cedes control of the Internet - but what
now?". The Register. July 27, 2006.
[21] Wolfgang Benedek; Veronika Bauer; Matthias C. Kettemann (2008). Internet Governance and the Information
Society: Global Perspectives and European Dimensions.
Eleven International Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 978-9077596-56-2. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
[22] Rebecca MacKinnon (31 January 2012). Consent of the
Networked: The Worldwide Struggle For Internet Freedom.
Basic Books. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-465-02442-1. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
[23] Bush administration annexes Internet. The Register.
July 1, 2005.
[24] U.S. DoC letter to ICANNs Chairman. 2008-07-30.
[25] Court Grants Access to Net Regulatory Corp Records,
Media Release, Electronic Frontier Foundation (EEF), 29
July 2002
[26] Geo Huston (2003-10-17). Wildcard entries in DNS
entries. IAB. Retrieved 2008-06-23.
[27] ICANN imposes $2 Internet tax. The Register. March
31, 2005.
[28] ICANN Board Approves VeriSign Settlement Agreements, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN), 28 February 2006, retrieved November 1, 2006
[29] CNET: Domain name price hikes come under re
23
[30] The Register, Burke Hansen Of ICANN and the Registery meltdown, March 3, 2007
[31] "'Worst Spam Oenders Notied by ICANN, News
release, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN), 23 May 2008
[32] 2008 ICANN Registrar Report, KnujOn.com
[33] Registrar Accreditation Agreement, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), 17 May
2001 with updates 2002-2006
[34] 32nd International Public ICANN Meeting. ICANN.
2008-06-22.
[35] http://www.icann.org/en/announcements/
announcement-01oct08-en.htm
[36] Accountability and Transparency Review Team Selection of Independent Expert and Update on ATRT Review, News release, Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers (ICANN), 10 August 2010
[37] The First AART (Accountability and Transparency Review Team) Review was Completed in December 2010,
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
(ICANN), 17 January 2012
[38] Available Pool of Unallocated IPv4 Internet Addresses
Now Completely Emptied, News release, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), 3
February 2011
[39] New Internet Name Rule Opens Door to Huge Changes.
Voice of America, June 20, 2011. Accessed June 20,
2011
[40] Internet minders OK vast expansion of domain names,
Associated Press, June 20, 2011. Accessed June 20, 2011
[41] Icann to allow any word as a domain, ZDNet, June 20,
2011. Accessed June 20, 2011
[42] Future of the internet debated at NetMundial in Brazil.
BBC News. 2014-04-23. Retrieved 2014-06-02.
[43] ICANN Approves Historic Change to Internets Domain
Name System Board Votes to Launch New Generic TopLevel Domains, News release, Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), 20 June 2001
[44] ICANN Approves New Top-Level Domains, So Prepare
For .Whatever, Stan Schroeder, Mashable Tech, 20 June
2011
[45] Icann announces huge expansion of web domain names
from 2012, The Guardian, June 20, 2011. Accessed June
20, 2011
[46] When free markets make it worse: new TLDs. A smart
bear. 18 July 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
[47] BYLAWS FOR INTERNET CORPORATION FOR ASSIGNED NAMES AND NUMBERS | A California Nonprot Public-Benet Corporation. ICANN. Retrieved on
2014-04-28.
24
CHAPTER 5. ICANN
[48] Bylaws For Internet Corporation For Assigned Names

And Numbers. icann.org. Go to Governance, Bylaws,
ARTICLE VIII-Article X. 25 February 2012.
[65] Gross, Grant (1 October 2009). New ICANN Agreement Runs Into Criticism. PC World. Retrieved 20
September 2014.

ARTICLE XI and ARTICLE XI-A. 25 February 2012.
[66] Milian, Mark (21 December 2011). Keepers of the Internet face their greatest challenges ever. CNN. Retrieved 20 September 2014.

ARTICLE XI and ARTICLE XI-A, Section 2. 25 February 2012.
[67] Arthur, Charles (13 June 2012). Icann criticised over

'commercial landgrab' of internet. The Guardian. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
[51] https://gacweb.icann.org/display/gacweb/GAC+
Representatives GAC Representatives
[68] Chappell, Bill (14 June 2012). ICANNs Call For New
Domain Names Brings Criticism, And $357 Million.
NPR. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
[52] https://gacweb.icann.org/display/gacweb/GAC+
Observers GAC Observers
[69] Coalition for Responsible Internet Domain Oversight

(CRIDO)". ANA. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
[53] ICANN decided to reduce direct public (at large) participation on March 14, 2002, at a public meeting in Accra,
Ghana.
[70] Bamzai, Sandeep (20 October 2012). Muzzlers of the

Free Internet. London: Mail Today (New Delhi, India).
Retrieved 15 March 2013.
[54] U.N. Summit to Focus on Internet. Washington Post.

December 5, 2003.
[71] Recommendations from the IBSA (India-Brazil-South

Africa) Multistakeholder meeting on Global Internet Governance, 12 September 2011, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
[55] Power grab could split the net. CNET. October 3, 2005.
Archived from the original on July 12, 2012.
[56] ICANN Government Advisory Committee
[57] Hannibal Travis, The Battle for Mindshare: the Emerging
Consensus that the First Amendment Protects Corporate
Criticism and Parody on the Internet, 10 Virginia Journal
of Law and Technology 3, 32-34 (2005), Vjolt.net
[58] Initial Report from the Expert Working Group on gTLD
Directory Services: A Next Generation Registration Directory Service (PDF). ICANN Expert Working Group.
Retrieved 23 September 2013.
[72] Tunis Agenda for the Information Society, World Summit on the Information Society, 18 November 2005
[73] Kaul, Mahima. India changes its internet governance position backs away from UN proposal. UNCUT. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
[74] Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation, ICANN, 7 October 2013. Retrieved 12 October
2013.
[75] Brazils anti-NSA prez urged to SNATCH keys to the
internet from America, Rik Myslewski, The Register, 11
October 2013. Retrieved 11 October 2013.
[59] Murphy, Kevin (13 June 2014). Whois killer is a

recipe for a clusterfuck. Domain Incite. Retrieved 21
June 2014.
[76] Milton Mueller (2013-11-19). Booting up Brazil. IGP

Blog. Retrieved 2014-02-11.
[60] Intellectual Property Solutions & Legal Support Services.

CPA Global. Retrieved on 2014-04-28.
[77] Entrevista com Fadi Chehad: Brasil sediar encontro

mundial de governana da internet em 2014, Palcio do
Planalto, 9 October 2013. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
[61] Sjmc: Common Sense Journalism. Jour.sc.edu. Retrieved on 2014-04-28.

[62] Fuller, Kathleen E. (14 February 2001). ICANN: The
Debate Over Governing the Internet (PDF). Duke Law
& Technology Review (Duke University). Retrieved 20
September 2014.
[63] Malcolm, Jeremy (2008). 2.1.3. Criticisms. MultiStakeholder Public Policy Governance and its Application
to the Internet Governance Forum (Ph.D.). Murdoch University. OCLC 436943765. Retrieved 20 September
2014.
[64] Froomkin, Michael (Oct 2000). Wrong Turn in Cyberspace (PDF). Duke Law Journal (Duke University
School of Law) 50 (17). ISSN 0012-7086. LCCN
sf82007022. OCLC 1567016. Retrieved 20 September
2014.
[78] Brazil to host global internet summit in ongoing ght

against NSA surveillance, RT News, 10 October 2013.
Retrieved 5 November 2013.
[79] Chairs Summary, Eighth Meeting of the Internet Governance Forum (IGF), Bali, Indonesia, 2225 October
2013. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
[80] CENTR: Internet Governance in 2013 and Whats Coming Up in 2014. CircleID. 2014-01-27. Retrieved 201402-11.
[81] Paul Wilson (2013-11-29). What Is 1net to Me. CircleID blog. Retrieved 2014-02-11.
[82] Shapira, Ian (1 March 2011). Obama administration
joins critics of U.S. nonprot group that oversees Internet. The Washington Post. Retrieved 20 September
2014.
5.9. EXTERNAL LINKS
[83] NTIA Announces Intent to Transition Key Internet Domain Name Functions. NTIA. NTIA. Retrieved 25 October 2014.
[84] NETmundial Multistakeholder Statement Concludes Act
One of 2014 Internet Governance Trifecta. CircleID.
2014-05-03. Retrieved 2014-06-02.
[85] ICANN Releases Roadmap, Timeline for Future Management of Internet. PC Tech Magazine. 2014-05-21.
[86] NETmundial Initiative - Debrief with Founding Partners. Retrieved 2014-06-02.
25
Par, Daniel J. Internet Governance in Transition,
ISBN 0-7425-1846-9
Mueller, Milton L. Ruling the Root, ISBN 0-26213412-8
Froomkin, A. Michael Wrong Turn in Cyberspace:
Using ICANN to Route Around the APA and the
Constitution, 50 Duke Law Journal17 (2000)
5.9 External links
[87] Public Declaration on the NETmundial Initiative issued

by members of the board of CGI.br. Retrieved 2014-0602.
Ocial website
[88] At NETmundial, the U.S. Kept Its Companies on the

Global Stage. Businessweek. 2014-04-30. Retrieved
2014-06-02.
ICANN FY12 board member report of payments
[89] The future of the internet. Business Standard. 2014-0503. Retrieved 2014-06-02.
[90] Towards a Collaborative, Decentralized Internet Governance Ecosystem - report by the Panel On Global Internet
Cooperation and Governance Mechanisms. 2014-05-20.
[91] France attacks ICANN as unt for internet governance.
Yahoo! News. Agence France-Presse. 25 June 2014. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
[92] ICANN banked $60m from dot-word auctions. Just what
exactly is it going to spend it all on?". The Register. 17
Aprr 2015. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[93] ICANN urges US, Canada: Help us stop the 'predatory'
monster we created ... dot-sucks!". The Register. 10 Apr
2015.
[94] Is .SUCKS Pricing Model Gaining Traction With Other
Registries?". CircleID. 25 Jun 2015.
[95] 19 Jun 2015. Mirror.co.uk.
[96] A Debate Over the Domain .sucks". Wall Stree Journal.
19 May 2015.
[97] Canada weighs in on .sucks debate. IP Pro. 19 June
2015.
[98] Canada to ICANN in dot-sucks dot-rumble: Take o,
you hoser!". The Register. 15 Jun 2015.
5.8 Further reading

Brito, Jerry. "ICANN vs. the World. TIME. March
5, 2011. Retrieved on March 6, 2011.
Franda, Marcus, The Emergence of an International
Regime, ISBN 1-55587-999-3
Wass, Erica, Addressing the World, ISBN 0-74252809-X
ICANN DNS Operations
ICANNWiki.com (wiki with people and companies

related to ICANN)
National Telecommunications & Information Administration: ICANN
ICANNWatch (co-founded by David J. Farber)
the icannatlarge community at the Wayback Machine (archived December 30, 2010) (site advocating the return of public representation in ICANN apparently oine since April 2011)
DomainTools: DailyChanges.com (free website reporting daily DNS changes and web hosting activity)
The Guardian: Who holds the seven keys to the internet? video
Chapter 6
American Registry for Internet Numbers

ARIN redirects here. For other uses, see Arin (disam- 6.1.1 Registration services
biguation).
Registration services pertain to the technical coordination
and inventory management of Internet number resources.
The American Registry for Internet Numbers
Services include:
(ARIN) is the Regional Internet Registry (RIR) for
Canada, the United States, and many Caribbean and
IPv4 address allocation and assignment
North Atlantic islands. ARIN manages the distribution
of Internet number resources, including IPv4 and IPv6
IPv6 address allocation and assignment
address space and AS numbers. ARIN opened its doors
AS number assignment
for business on December 22, 1997[1] after incorporating
on April 18, 1997.[2] ARIN is a nonprot corporation
Directory services including:
with headquarters in Chantilly, Virginia, USA.[3][4]
Registration
transaction
information
ARIN is one of ve Regional Internet Registries (RIRs)
(WHOIS)
in the world. Like the other RIRs, ARIN:
Routing information (Internet Routing Registry)
Provides services related to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources
DNS (Reverse)
Facilitates policy development by its members and
stakeholders
For information on requesting Internet number resources
from ARIN, see https://www.arin.net/resources/index.
Participates in the international Internet community
html. This section includes the request templates, specic distribution policies, and guidelines for requesting
Is a nonprot, community-based organization
and managing Internet number resources.
Is governed by an executive board elected by its
membership
6.1.2 Organization services
6.1 Services
ARIN provides services related to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources. The
nature of these services is described in ARINs mission
statement:
Applying the principles of stewardship, ARIN,
a nonprot corporation, allocates Internet Protocol resources; develops consensus-based policies; and facilitates the advancement of the Internet through information and educational outreach.
Organization services pertain to interaction between

stakeholders, ARIN members, and ARIN. Services include:
Elections
Members meetings
Information publication and dissemination
Education and training
6.1.3 Policy development services
Policy development services facilitate the development of

These services are grouped in three areas: Registration, policy for the technical coordination and management of
Internet number resources.
Organization, and Policy Development.
26
6.3. HISTORY
All ARIN policies are set by the community. Everyone is
encouraged to participate in the policy development process at public policy meetings and on the Public Policy
Mailing List. The ARIN Board of Trustees raties policies only after:
1. discussion on mailing lists and at meetings;
2. ARIN Advisory Council recommendation;
27
6.2.2 Advisory council

In addition to the BoT, ARIN has an advisory council that
advises ARIN and the BoT on IP address allocation policy
and related matters. Adhering to the procedures in the
Internet Resource Policy Evaluation Process, the advisory
council forwards consensus-based policy proposals to the
BoT for ratication. The advisory council consists of 15
elected members consisting of a Chair, Vice Chair, and
others.[6]
3. community consensus in favor of the policy; and

4. full legal and scal review.
6.3 History
The organization was formed in December 1997 to provide IP registration services as an independent, nonprot
corporation. Until this time, IP address registration (outside of RIPE and APNIC regions) was done in accordance with policies set by the IETF[7] by Network Solutions corporation as part of the InterNIC project. The NaMembership is not required to participate in ARINs tional Science Foundation approved the plan for the crepolicy development process or to apply for Internet ation of the not-for-prot organization to give the users
number resources.
of IP numbers (mostly Internet service providers, corporations and other large institutions) a voice in the policies
Services include:
by which they are managed and allocated within the North
American region..[8][9] As part of the transition, Network
Maintaining discussion e-mail lists
Solutions corporation transitioned these tasks as well as
initial sta and computer infrastructure to ARIN.[10]
Conducting public policy meetings
The initial Board of Trustees consisted of Scott Bradner,
John Curran, Kim Hubbard, Don Telage, Randy Bush,
Publishing policy documents
Raymundo Vega Aguilar, and Jon Postel (IANA) as an
ex-ocio member.[11]
The community develops policies by following a formal
Policy Development Process as outlined at https://www.
arin.net/policy/pdp.html. The Number Resource Policy
Manual, ARINs complete set of current policies, is available at https://www.arin.net/policy/nrpm.html.
The rst president of ARIN was Kim Hubbard, from

1997 until 2000. Kim was succeeded by Raymond Ray
Plzak until the end of 2008. Trustee John Curran was
ARIN consists of the Internet community within its re- acting President until July 1 of 2009 when he assumed
gion, its members, a 7-member Board of Trustees, a 15- the CEO role permanently.
member Advisory Council, and a professional sta of
about 50. The Board of Trustees and Advisory Council Until late 2002 it served Mexico, Central America, South
America and all of the Caribbean. LACNIC now handles
are elected by ARIN members for three-year terms.
parts of the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and
South America. Also, Sub-Saharan Africa was part of
its region until April 2005, when AfriNIC was ocially
6.2.1 Board of trustees
recognized by ICANN as the fth Regional Internet Registry.
The ARIN membership elects the Board of Trustees
(BoT), which has ultimate responsibility for the business aairs and nancial health of ARIN, and manages
ARINs operations in a manner consistent with the guid- 6.4 Service Region
ance received from the Advisory Council and the goals
set by the registrys members. The BoT is responsible for The countries in the ARIN service region are:[12]
determining the disposition of all revenues received to ensure all services are provided in an equitable manner. The
BoT raties proposals generated from the membership 6.4.1 Former service regions
and submitted through the Advisory Council. Executive
decisions are carried out following approval by the BoT. ARIN formerly covered Angola, Botswana, Burundi,
The BoT consists of 7 members consisting of a President Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa,
and CEO, a Chairman, a Treasurer, and others.[5]
6.2 Organizational structure
28
CHAPTER 6. AMERICAN REGISTRY FOR INTERNET NUMBERS
Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe until

AfriNIC was formed.
ARIN formerly covered Argentina, Aruba, Belize,
Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Dutch West Indies, Ecuador, El
Salvador, Falkland Islands (UK), French Guiana,
Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, South Georgia
and the South Sandwich Islands, Suriname, Trinidad and
Tobago, Uruguay, and Venezuela until LACNIC was
formed.
6.5 References
[1] About ARIN
[2] Articles of Incorporation
[3] "Contact Us. American Registry for Internet Numbers.
Retrieved on September 16, 2009.
[4] "Chantilly CDP, Virginia. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved
on September 16, 2009.
[5] Board of Trustees. ARIN.
[6] Advisory Council Advisory Council. ARIN.
[7] Network Information Services Manager(s) for NSFNET
and the NREN: INTERNIC Registration Services. National Science Foundation. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
[8] NSF Press Release regarding ARIN formation
[9] Strickling, Lawrence. United States Governments Internet Protocol Numbering Principles. USG/NTIA. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
[10] Amendment 7 to Cooperative Agreement Between NSI
and U.S. Government. ICANN. Retrieved 16 March
2013.
[11] Former Board Members
[12] ARIN Region, countries list
6.6 External links

ARIN Home Page
ARIN Advisory Council
ARIN Board of Trustees
Chapter 7
Latin America and Caribbean Network

Information Centre
Reverse DNS delegations
Representing the interests of the Latin American
and Caribbean Internet community on the global
stage
7.2 History
The oce building that houses LACNIC in Montevideo, Uruguay.
The Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre[1] (LACNIC, Spanish: Registro de Direcciones de Internet para Amrica Latina y Caribe, Portuguese: Registro de Endereamento da Internet para
Amrica Latina e Caribe) is the Regional Internet Registry for the Latin American and Caribbean regions.
LACNIC[2] provides number resource allocation and registration services that support the global operation of
the Internet. It is a not-for-prot, membership-based
organisation whose members include Internet Service
Providers, and similar organisations.
LACNIC has been allocated the IPv4 address blocks
177.0.0.0/8, 179.0.0.0/8, 181.0.0.0/8, 186.0.0.0/8,
187.0.0.0/8, 189.0.0.0/8, 190.0.0.0/8, 191.0.0.0/8,
200.0.0.0/8, and 201.0.0.0/8 and IPv6 blocks
2001:1200::/23 and 2800:0000::/12.[3][4]
Since 1993, academic organizations in Latin America

like ENRED Foro de Redes de Amrica Latina y el
Caribe, discussed the need of a register for Latin America. In 1998 during an ENRED meeting in Panam
including NIC-MX, this theme was discussed and they
learned that another group formed by commercial organizations like CABASE Cmara Argentina de Base
de Datos y Servicio en Lnea and e-COMLAC (Latin
America and Caribbean Federation for Internet and Electronic Commerce), were also discussing the idea of a
Latin American registry.
On January 30, 1998, Ira Magaziner, then the senior adviser to President Clinton for policy development, released a discussion paper, known as the green paper
after the DNS root authority incident. A revised version
known as the white paper was released on June 5. This
paper proposed a new organization to handle internet resources (that later became ICANN). Following this release, a number of groups organized conferences to discuss its proposal and make suggestions, among them, the
IFWP or International Forum for the White Paper.
IFWP organized four meetings, the last one in Buenos

Aires, where several South Americans distinguished persons and organizations participated and got to know each
7.1 Functions
other. Among them Oscar Messano, Anthony Harris
and Edmundo Valiente from CABASE, Fabio Marinho,
member of the Brazilian Internet Steering Committee
LACNICs main functions are:
(CGI.br) and President of ASSESPRO Associao
Allocating IPv4 and IPv6 address space, and Brasileira de Empresas de Software Servios de Informtica e Internet, Raimundo Beca - AHCIET AssoAutonomous System Numbers
ciation Hispanoamericana de Centros de Investigacion y
Maintaining the public Whois Database for the Latin Empresas de Telecomunicaciones, Brasil, NIC Mxico American and Caribbean region
Oscar Robles and German Valdez, y Julian Dunayevich,
29
30
CHAPTER 7. LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN NETWORK INFORMATION CENTRE
Raul Echeverria, ENRED.

Those organizations joined by eCOMLAC Federacin
Latino Americana y Caribea para Internet y el Comercio Electrnico, argumented that Latin American IPs addresses could be handled by a local entity and reached
an agreement for its creation. Others persons participated in these early discussion, among the Eliezer Cadenas (ENRED), Fidel Vienegas (AHCIET), Raphael Mandarino (CGI.br).
LACNIC XIII - May 16 to 21, 2010 - Willemstad,

Curaao, Netherlands Antilles
7.4 Countries - LACNIC region

7.5 Structure
Finally, the agreement for creation of LACNIC (Latin 7.5.1 Organisational

American and Caribbean IP Address Regional Registry),
was signed in Santiago de Chile on August 22, 1999 dur- The LACNIC consists of:
ing the second ICANN meeting.
Members
An Interim Board was dened with six members:
Members can directly inuence the LACNICs
activities and services. Members are responsi AHCIET Raimundo Beca;
ble for nominating and electing candidates to
CABASE Jorge Plano, later substituted by Oscar
the LACNIC Executive Board and for acceptMessano;
ing the LACNIC charging scheme and approving the LACNIC Financial Report each year.
CGI.br Jos Luis Ribeiro;
Members also give input to, and feedback on,
the activities carried out and the services pro ENRED Julian Dunayerich; later substituted by
vided by LACNIC.
Raul Echeverria;
NIC.mx German Valdez;
ECOMLAC Fabio Marinho;
Next step, this LACNIC Interim Board submitted on August 26, 1999, this agreement to Esther Dyson, then Chair
of ICANN Interim Board for ICANN approval.
A Business Plan of this new organization was developed
and presented to ARIN, the organization responsible for
this region at that moment. Statutes were created and
it was decided that LACNIC headquarters would be in
Montevideo, with technical people and equipment in So
Paulo, in NIC.br premises.
Executive Board
LACNIC members nominate and elect the
Executive Board. The Board consists of six
members and is responsible for appointing the
LACNICs Executive Directo and for the overall nancial situation of LACNIC.
LACNIC Sta
Sta members perform the activities of LACNIC, provide services to its members and provide administrative support to LACNIC.
LACNIC, being in full conformance with the criteria[5]

7.5.2 Executive Board
for a new Regional Internet Registry as set forth by the
Internet Registry community and ICANN, was formally
recognized by ICANN during its Shanghai meeting in
2002.[6]
Former Directors
LACNIC was established in 2001, with administrative
oces in Montevideo, Uruguay and technical facilities
German Valdez (1999-2003)
provided by CGI.br[7] of So Paulo.
Raimundo Beca (1999-2004)
7.3 LACNIC meetings
Jesus Martinez (2004-2006)

Carlos Neira (20072009)
LACNIC XI 26-30 May 2008 - Salvador, Bahia, Fabio Marinho (1999-2010)

Brazil
LACNIC Caribbean - Curaao, Netherlands Antilles - July 22 and 23, 2008
7.6 Membership
LACNIC XII - May 25 to 29, 2009 - Panam City, Organizations that receive IP addresses directly from
Panam
LACNIC automatically become members. According
7.8. THE NUMBER RESOURCE ORGANIZATION
31
the size of the address space each organization admin- and relevance, resulting in a greater degree of involveisters, there are dierent member categories and levels. ment and eect on policy denition and global resource
Membership is open to any interested person or organi- management of the network at international level.
zation; this means that those organizations that do not receive IP addresses directly from LACNIC can also apply
NIC-BR - LACNIC Agreement
for membership.
NIC-MX - LACNIC Agreement
It is not necessary to become a member of LACNIC prior
to applying for IP address space (or any other resource),
CLARA - LACNIC Cooperation Agreement
nor will doing so make it easier to obtain them.
ECOM-LAC - LACNIC Cooperation Agreement
For detailed information about member categories, rights,
and obligations see the LACNIC webpage.[8]
LACTLD - LACNIC Cooperation Agreement
7.7 LACNIC cooperation agreements

Since its creation, LACNIC has adopted an active cooperation policy seeking to consolidate itself as an organization, to strengthen its involvement in the growth and
development of the Internet within the region, and to satisfy its primary purpose of Internet resource management
for the region of Latin America and the Caribbean.
An example of this are the initial agreements signed
with Comite Gestor do Internet Brazil and NIC Mexico.
Through the rst agreement it was possible to have the
technical infrastructure and human resources necessary
for LACNICs operational center in the city of So Paulo
during the rst two years of its existence. In the case of
the agreement with NIC Mexico, it was possible to implement LACNICs training plans at the expense of said
organization, through the preparation of material and the
organization of meetings in dierent countries of our region.
These two agreements have had a very important role in
LACNICs achievement of stability and viability during
its initial stages.
Likewise, we believe that by generating dierent cooperation agreements and activities LACNIC can make a
signicant contribution to the strengthening of the institution as well as to the growth and development of the
Internet community within the region.
LACNICs participation in each agreement is varied and
depends on the capabilities that are available in each case,
but the intention is always to complement the resources
and actions of each organization. For this reason, in some
cases it participates by using its own funds or obtaining
funds from outside the region, in others by facilitating the
institutionalization of regional organizations, integrating
and co-participating in the organization of forums and
other events as well as supporting research on strategic
issues.
Thus, although it is not its primary role, LACNIC contributes to the growth and evolution of the regional Internet community, enhancing its international presence
ICA-IDRC - LACNIC Agreement (FRIDA Program)

ISC - LACNIC Agreement (Project +RAICES)
ORT University - LACNIC Agreement
University of the Republic (School of Engineering)
- LACNIC Agreement
Exchange Programs with other RIRs
Support and Participation in Regional Events and
other Forums
7.8 The Number Resource Organization

With the other RIRs, LACNIC is a member of the
Number Resource Organization (NRO), which exists to
protect the unallocated number resource pool, to promote
and protect the bottom-up policy development process,
and to be the focal point for input into the RIR system.
7.9 External links

Lacnic.net - ocial site.
About LACNICs membership, lacnic.net
Development of the Regional Internet Registry System, nro.net
7.10 References
[1] Memorandum of Understanding between LACNIC (the
Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre, referred to here as LACNIC) and Internet Systems
Consortium, Inc. (referred to here as ISC)" (PDF). lacnic.net. 1 April 2004.
[2] LACNICs Board of Directors Elections. lacnic.net.
[3] IANA.org IPv4
32
CHAPTER 7. LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN NETWORK INFORMATION CENTRE
[4] IANA.org IPv6

[5] ICANN ICP-2 criteria.
[6] Regular Meeting of the Board Minutes. ICANN. 31
October 2002. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
[7] Inicio do processo eleitoral do CGI.br (in Portuguese).
CG.org.br. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
[8] LACNIC.net
Chapter 8
3G
For other uses, see 3G (disambiguation).
smartphones and mobile modems in laptop computers.

The following standards are typically branded 3G:
3G, short form of third generation, is the third generation of mobile telecommunications technology.[1]
This is based on a set of standards used for mobile devices and mobile telecommunications use services and
networks that comply with the International Mobile
Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) specications
by the International Telecommunication Union.[2] 3G
nds application in wireless voice telephony, mobile Internet access, xed wireless Internet access, video calls
and mobile TV.
3G telecommunication networks support services that
provide an information transfer rate of at least 200 kbit/s.
Later 3G releases, often denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also
provide mobile broadband access of several Mbit/s to
smartphones and mobile modems in laptop computers.
This ensures it can be applied to wireless voice telephony, mobile Internet access, xed wireless Internet access, video calls and mobile TV technologies.
A new generation of cellular standards has appeared approximately every tenth year since 1G systems were introduced in 1981/1982. Each generation is characterized by new frequency bands, higher data rates and non
backward-compatible transmission technology. The rst
3G networks were introduced in 1998 and fourth generation "4G" networks in 2008.
the UMTS system, rst oered in 2001, standardized by 3GPP, used primarily in Europe, Japan,
China (however with a dierent radio interface) and
other regions predominated by GSM 2G system infrastructure. The cell phones are typically UMTS
and GSM hybrids. Several radio interfaces are offered, sharing the same infrastructure:
The original and most widespread radio interface is called W-CDMA.
The TD-SCDMA radio interface was commercialized in 2009 and is only oered in
China.
The latest UMTS release, HSPA+, can provide
peak data rates up to 56 Mbit/s in the downlink
in theory (28 Mbit/s in existing services) and
22 Mbit/s in the uplink.
the CDMA2000 system, rst oered in 2002, standardized by 3GPP2, used especially in North America and South Korea, sharing infrastructure with the
IS-95 2G standard. The cell phones are typically
CDMA2000 and IS-95 hybrids. The latest release
EVDO Rev B oers peak rates of 14.7 Mbit/s downstream.
The above systems and radio interfaces are based on

spread spectrum radio transmission technology. While
8.1 Overview
the GSM EDGE standard (2.9G), DECT cordless
phones and Mobile WiMAX standards formally also fulSeveral telecommunications companies market wireless
ll the IMT-2000 requirements and are approved as 3G
mobile Internet services as 3G, indicating that the adstandards by ITU, these are typically not branded 3G, and
vertised service is provided over a 3G wireless network.
are based on completely dierent technologies.
Services advertised as 3G are required to meet IMT2000 technical standards, including standards for reliabil- The following common standards comply with the
ity and speed (data transfer rates). To meet the IMT-2000 IMT2000/3G standard:
standards, a system is required to provide peak data rates
EDGE, a revision by the 3GPP organization to the
of at least 200 kbit/s (about 0.2 Mbit/s). However, many
services advertised as 3G provide higher speed than the
older 2G GSM based transmission methods, utilizing the same switching nodes, base station sites and
minimum technical requirements for a 3G service. Refrequencies as GPRS, but new base station and cellcent 3G releases, often denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also
provide mobile broadband access of several Mbit/s to
phone RF circuits. It is based on the three times as
33
34
CHAPTER 8. 3G
ecient 8PSK modulation scheme as supplement to
the original GMSK modulation scheme. EDGE is
still used extensively due to its ease of upgrade from
existing 2G GSM infrastructure and cell-phones.
EDGE combined with the GPRS 2.5G technology is called EGPRS, and allows peak data
rates in the order of 200 kbit/s, just as the
original UMTS WCDMA versions, and thus
formally fullls the IMT2000 requirements on
3G systems. However, in practice EDGE is
seldom marketed as a 3G system, but a 2.9G
system. EDGE shows slightly better system
spectral eciency than the original UMTS and
CDMA2000 systems, but it is dicult to reach
much higher peak data rates due to the limited
GSM spectral bandwidth of 200 kHz, and it is
thus a dead end.
CDMA2000 1x Rev. E has an increased voice

capacity (in excess of three times) compared
to Rev. 0 EVDO Rev. B oers downstream
peak rates of 14.7 Mbit/s while Rev. C enhanced existing and new terminal user experience.
While DECT cordless phones and Mobile WiMAX standards formally also fulll the IMT-2000 requirements,
they are not usually considered due to their rarity and unsuitability for usage with mobile phones.
8.1.1 Break-up of 3G systems
The 3G (UMTS and CDMA2000) research and development projects started in 1992. In 1999, ITU approved ve radio interfaces for IMT-2000 as a part of the
EDGE was also a mode in the IS-135 TDMA ITU-R M.1457 Recommendation; WiMAX was added
in 2007.[4]
system, today ceased.
Evolved EDGE, the latest revision, has peaks There are evolutionary standards (EDGE and CDMA)
of 1 Mbit/s downstream and 400 kbit/s up- that are backward-compatible extensions to pre-existing
stream, but is not commercially used.
2G networks as well as revolutionary standards that
require all-new network hardware and frequency allo The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, cations. The cell phones utilise UMTS in combination
created and revised by the 3GPP. The family is a with 2G GSM standards and bandwidths, but do not
full revision from GSM in terms of encoding meth- support EDGE.[5] The latter group is the UMTS family,
ods and hardware, although some GSM sites can which consists of standards developed for IMT-2000, as
be retrotted to broadcast in the UMTS/W-CDMA well as the independently developed standards DECT and
format.
WiMAX, which were included because they t the IMT2000 denition.
W-CDMA is the most common deployment,
commonly operated on the 2,100 MHz band.
A few others use the 850, 900 and 1,900 MHz [1] Can also be used as an upgrade to PDC or D-AMPS.
bands.
[2] development halted in favour of LTE.[7]
HSPA is an amalgamation of several up[3] also known as FOMA;[8] UMTS is the common name for
grades to the original W-CDMA standard
a standard that encompasses multiple air interfaces.
and oers speeds of 14.4 Mbit/s down
and 5.76 Mbit/s up. HSPA is backward- [4] also known as UTRA-FDD; W-CDMA is sometimes used
compatible with and uses the same freas a synonym for UMTS, ignoring the other air interface
options.[8]
quencies as W-CDMA.
HSPA+, a further revision and upgrade [5] also known as UTRA-TDD 3.84 Mcps high chip rate
of HSPA, can provide theoretical peak
(HCR)
data rates up to 168 Mbit/s in the downlink and 22 Mbit/s in the uplink, using [6] also known as UTRA-TDD 1.28 Mcps low chip rate
(LCR)
a combination of air interface improvements as well as multi-carrier HSPA and
MIMO. Technically though, MIMO and While EDGE fullls the 3G specications, most
DC-HSPA can be used without the "+" GSM/UMTS phones report EDGE (2.75G) and UMTS
enhancements of HSPA+
(3G) functionality.
The CDMA2000 system, or IS-2000, including
CDMA2000 1x and CDMA2000 High Rate Packet
Data (or EVDO), standardized by 3GPP2 (diering 8.2 History
from the 3GPP), evolving from the original IS-95
CDMA system, is used especially in North America, 3G technology is the result of research and development
China, India, Pakistan, Japan, South Korea, South- work carried out by the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) in the early 1980s. 3G specications and
east Asia, Europe and Africa.[3]
8.3. ADOPTION
standards were developed in fteen years. The technical specications were made available to the public under
the name IMT-2000. The communication spectrum between 400 MHz to 3 GHz was allocated for 3G. Both the
government and communication companies approved the
3G standard.[9] The rst pre-commercial 3G network was
launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 1998,[10] branded
as FOMA. It was rst available in May 2001 as a prerelease (test) of W-CDMA technology.[11] The rst commercial launch of 3G was also by NTT DoCoMo in Japan
on 1 October 2001, although it was initially somewhat
limited in scope;[12][13] broader availability of the system
was delayed by apparent concerns over its reliability.[14]
The rst European pre-commercial network was an
UMTS network on the Isle of Man by Manx Telecom,
the operator then owned by British Telecom, and the rst
commercial network (also UMTS based W-CDMA) in
Europe was opened for business by Telenor in December
2001 with no commercial handsets and thus no paying
customers.
The rst network to go commercially live was by SK
Telecom in South Korea on the CDMA-based 1xEV-DO
technology in January 2002. By May 2002 the second
South Korean 3G network was by KT on EV-DO and
thus the South Koreans were the rst to see competition
among 3G operators.
35
penses of upgrading transmission hardware, especially
for UMTS, whose deployment required the replacement
of most broadcast towers. Due to these issues and diculties with deployment, many carriers were not able to
or delayed acquisition of these updated capabilities.
In December 2007, 190 3G networks were operating in
40 countries and 154 HSDPA networks were operating
in 71 countries, according to the Global Mobile Suppliers Association (GSA). In Asia, Europe, Canada and
the USA, telecommunication companies use W-CDMA
technology with the support of around 100 terminal designs to operate 3G mobile networks.
Roll-out of 3G networks was delayed in some countries
by the enormous costs of additional spectrum licensing
fees. (See Telecoms crash.) The license fees in some
European countries were particularly high, bolstered by
government auctions of a limited number of licenses and
sealed bid auctions, and initial excitement over 3Gs potential.
The 3G standard is perhaps well known because of a
massive expansion of the mobile communications market post-2G and advances of the consumer mophone. An
especially notable development during this time is the
smartphone (for example, the iPhone, and the Android
family), combining the abilities of a PDA with a mobile
phone, leading to widespread demand for mobile internet
connectivity. 3G has also introduced the term "mobile
broadband" because its speed and capability make it a viable alternative for internet browsing, and USB Modems
connecting to 3G networks are becoming increasingly
common.
The rst commercial United States 3G network was by

Monet Mobile Networks, on CDMA2000 1x EV-DO
technology, but this network provider later shut down operations. The second 3G network operator in the USA
was Verizon Wireless in July 2002 also on CDMA2000
1x EV-DO.[15] AT&T Mobility is also a true 3G UMTS
network, having completed its upgrade of the 3G network
8.3.1
to HSUPA.
The rst pre-commercial demonstration network in the
southern hemisphere was built in Adelaide, South Australia by m.Net Corporation in February 2002 using
UMTS on 2,100 MHz. This was a demonstration network
for the 2002 IT World Congress. The rst commercial 3G
network was launched by Hutchison Telecommunications
branded as Three or 3 in June 2003.[16]
Market penetration
See also: 3G adoption
By June 2007, the 200 millionth 3G subscriber had been

connected of which 10 million were in Nepal and 8.2
million in India. This 200 millionth is only 6.7% of the
3 billion mobile phone subscriptions worldwide. (When
counting CDMA2000 1x RTT customersmax bitrate
72% of the 200kbit/s which denes 3Gthe total size of
the nearly-3G subscriber base was 475 million as of June
2007, which was 15.8% of all subscribers worldwide.) In
the countries where 3G was launched rst Japan and
South Korea 3G penetration is over 70%.[17] In Europe
the leading country for 3G penetration is Italy with a third
of its subscribers migrated to 3G. Other leading countries for 3G use include Nepal, UK, Austria, Australia
and Singapore at the 32% migration level.
Nepal Telecom adopted 3G Service for the rst time in

Asia. However its 3G was relatively slow to be adopted
in Nepal. In some instances, 3G networks do not use
the same radio frequencies as 2G so mobile operators
must build entirely new networks and license entirely new
frequencies, especially so to achieve high data transmission rates. Other countries delays were due to the ex-
According to ITU estimates,[18] as of Q4 2012 there were

2096 million active mobile-broadband subscribers worldwide out of a total of 6835 million subscribersthis is
just over 30%. About half the mobile-broadband subscriptions are for subscribers in developed nations, 934
million out of 1600 million total, well over 50%. Note
however that there is a distinction between a phone with
mobile-broadband connectivity and a smart phone with
Emtel launched the rst 3G network in Africa.
8.3 Adoption
36
CHAPTER 8. 3G
a large display and so onalthough according[19] to the

ITU and informatandm.com the USA has 321 million
mobile subscriptions, including 256 million that are 3G
or 4G, which is both 80% of the subscriber base and 80%
of the USA population, according[18] to ComScore just a
year earlier in Q4 2011 only about 42% of people surveyed in the USA reported they owned a smart phone.
In Japan, 3G penetration was similar at about 81%, but
smart phone ownership was lower at about 17%.[18] In
China, there were 486.5 million 3G subscribers in June
2014,[20] in a population of 1,385,566,537 (2013 UN estimate).
3G networks oer greater security than their 2G predecessors. By allowing the UE (User Equipment) to authenticate the network it is attaching to, the user can be
sure the network is the intended one and not an impersonator. 3G networks use the KASUMI block cipher instead of the older A5/1 stream cipher. However, a number of serious weaknesses in the KASUMI cipher have
been identied.[27]
In addition to the 3G network infrastructure security, endto-end security is oered when application frameworks
such as IMS are accessed, although this is not strictly a
3G property.
8.4 Patents
8.5.3 Applications of 3G
It has been estimated that there are almost 8,000 patents

declared essential (FRAND) related to the 483 technical specications which form the 3GPP and 3GPP2 The bandwidth and location information available to 3G
standards.[21][22] Twelve companies accounted in 2004 devices gives rise to applications not previously available
for 90% of the patents (Qualcomm, Ericsson, Nokia, to mobile phone users. Some of the applications are:
Motorola, Philips, NTT DoCoMo, Siemens, Mitsubishi,
Fujitsu, Hitachi, InterDigital, and Matsushita).
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Even then, some patents essential to 3G might have not
Location-based services
been declared by their patent holders. It is believed that
Nortel and Lucent have undisclosed patents essential to
these standards.[22]
Mobile TV
Furthermore, the existing 3G Patent Platform Partnership
pool has little impact on FRAND protection, because it
excludes the four largest patents owners for 3G.[23][24]
Telemedicine
Video Conferencing
8.5 Features
8.5.1
Data rates
ITU has not provided a clear denition of the data rate

that users can expect from 3G equipment or providers.
Thus users sold 3G service may not be able to point to a
standard and say that the rates it species are not being
met. While stating in commentary that it is expected
that IMT-2000 will provide higher transmission rates: a
minimum data rate of 2 Mbit/s for stationary or walking
users, and 384 kbit/s in a moving vehicle,[25] the ITU
does not actually clearly specify minimum required rates,
nor required average rates, nor what modes of the interfaces qualify as 3G, so various data rates are sold as '3G'
in the market. Compare with 3.5G and 4G.
Video on demand
8.6 Evolution
Both 3GPP and 3GPP2 are working on extensions to
3G standard that are based on an all-IP network infrastructure and using advanced wireless technologies such
as MIMO. These specications already display features
characteristic for IMT-Advanced (4G), the successor of
3G. However, falling short of the bandwidth requirements
for 4G (which is 1 Gbit/s for stationary and 100 Mbit/s for
mobile operation), these standards are classied as 3.9G
or Pre-4G.
3GPP plans to meet the 4G goals with LTE Advanced,

whereas Qualcomm has halted development of UMB in
In India, 3G is dened by telecom service providers as
favour of the LTE family.[7]
[26]
minimum 2 Mbit/s to maximum 28 Mbit/s.
On 14 December 2009, Telia Sonera announced in an
ocial press release that We are very proud to be the
rst operator in the world to oer our customers 4G
8.5.2 Security
services.[28] With the launch of their LTE network, iniSee also: Mobile security Attacks based on the GSM tially they are oering pre-4G (or beyond 3G) services in
networks
Stockholm, Sweden and Oslo, Norway.
8.8. REFERENCES
8.7 See also

List of mobile phone generations
Mobile radio telephone (also known as 0G)
Mobile broadband
1G
2G
4G
5G
LTE (telecommunication)
8.8 References
[1] ITU (4 July 2002). IMT-2000 Project - ITU. Retrieved
8 April 2013.
[2] Clint Smith, Daniel Collins. 3G Wireless Networks,
page 136. 2000.
[3] CDG. CDG Market Trends and Facts (PDF). Retrieved
13 September 2011.
[4] ITU. ITU Radiocommunication Assembly approves new
developments for its 3G standards. press release.
Archived from the original on 19 May 2009. Retrieved
1 June 2009.
[5] ITU. What really is a Third Generation (3G)(3G) Mobile
Technology (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on
12 June 2009. Retrieved 1 June 2009.
[6] ITU-D Study Group 2. Guidelines on the smooth transition of existing mobile networks to IMT-2000 for developing countries (GST); Report on Question 18/2 (PDF).
Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 June 2009. Retrieved 1 June 2009.
[7] Qualcomm halts UMB project, Reuters, 13 November
2008
[8] 3GPP notes that there currently existed many dierent
names for the same system (e.g. FOMA, W-CDMA,
UMTS, etc); Draft summary minutes, decisions and
actions from 3GPP Organizational Partners Meeting#6,
Tokyo, 9 October 2001 (PDF). p. 7.
[9] 3G cellular standards and characteristics.
[10] A Brand New Mobile Millennium Ericsson/CATT/DoCoMo jointly demonstrate pioneering
W-CDMA technology at PT/Wireless | Press Center |
NTT DOCOMO Global. Nttdocomo.com. 9 November
[11] The history of UMTS and 3G development.
[12] Worlds rst 3G launch on 1 October severely restricted
(hktdc.com)".
37
[13] "broadbandmag.co.uk/3G grinds to a start.

[14] DoCoMo Delays 3G Launch. Wired. 24 April 2001.
[15] Verizon Wireless Launching New High-Speed 3G Wireless Network.
[16] About Hutchison. Hutchison Telecommunications
(Australia) Limited. 11 June 2008. Retrieved 2012-0407.
[17] Plus 8 Star presentation, Is 3G a Dog or a Demon
Hints from 7 years of 3G Hype in Asia"". Plus8star.com.
11 June 2008. Retrieved 2010-09-06.
[18] Global mobile statistics 2013 Part A: Mobile subscribers;
handset market share; mobile operators. mobiThinking.
May 2013. Retrieved 2013-10-15.
[19] The 100 million club: the top 10 mobile markets by number of mobile subscriptions. mobiThinking. 2012-1213. Retrieved 2013-10-15.
[20] Steven Millward (2014-07-29). China now has 486.5
million 3G subscribers, but only 14 million on new 4G
network. Tech In Asia. Retrieved 2014-08-04.
[21] 3G CELLULAR STANDARDS AND PATENTS. engpaper.com. 13 June 2005. Retrieved 2012-06-24.
[22] David J. Goodman (13 June 2005). 3G CELLULAR
STANDARDS AND PATENTS (PDF). IEEE Wireless
com. Polytechnic Institute of New York University. Retrieved 2012-06-24.
[23] Study on the Interplay between Standards and Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)" (PDF). European Commission. 18 July 2009. Retrieved 2012-06-24. Pools that
cover only a fraction of the actual IPR for a standard are
not very useful. It is essential that the large licensees sign
up. Examples of pools that have little impact are the 3G
Licensing pool (which excludes the four largest IPR owners
for 3G) and the 802.11 pool by ViaLicensing.
[24] Possible 'showstoppers shadow 3G patent pool. eetimes.com. 21 May 1999. Retrieved 2012-06-24. Even
so, Qualcomm (San Diego) is still a wild card in the patentpooling eort. Qualcomm was a member of the UMTS
group when it was formed in February 1998, but deactivated its membership last September.
[25] Cellular Standards for the Third Generation. ITU. 1
December 2005. Archived from the original on 24 May
2008.
[26] Reliance 3G FAQs. Rcom.co.in. Retrieved 2014-0716.
[27] Security for the Third Generation (3G) Mobile System
(PDF). Network Systems & Security Technologies.
[28] rst in the world with 4G services. TeliaSonera. 14 December 2009. Retrieved 2010-09-06.
Chapter 9
TD-SCDMA
Time Division Synchronous Code Division Multiple
Access (TD-SCDMA) or UTRA TDD 1.28 mcps low
chip rate (UTRA-TDD LCR)[1][2] is an air interface[1]
found in UMTS mobile telecommunications networks in
China as an alternative to W-CDMA.
2008.[6]
On January 7, 2009, China granted a TD-SCDMA 3G
licence to China Mobile.[7]
On September 21, 2009, China Mobile ocially announced that it had 1,327,000 TD-SCDMA subscribers
The term TD-SCDMA is misleading. While it suggests as of the end of August, 2009.[8]
covering only a channel access method, it is actually the
common name for the whole air interface specication.[2] While TD is primarily a China-only system, it may well
be exported to developing countries. It is likely to be
Together with TD-CDMA, it is one of the two time- replaced with a newer TD-LTE system over the next 5
division duplex (TDD) UMTS air interfaces (UTRAs), years.
known commonly as UMTS-TDD or more formally as
IMT-2000 CDMA-TDD or IMT 2000 Time-Division
(IMT-TD).[1][3] Both air interfaces use a combination
of two channel access methods, code division multi- 9.2 Deployment and usage
ple access (CDMA) and time division multiple access
(TDMA): the frequency band is divided into time slots
On January 20, 2006, Ministry of Information Industry
(TDMA), which are further divided into channels using
of the Peoples Republic of China formally announced
CDMA spreading codes. These air interfaces are classithat TD-SCDMA is the countrys standard of 3G mobile
ed as TDD, because time slots can be allocated to either
telecommunication. On February 15, 2006, a timeline for
uplink or downlink trac.
deployment of the network in China was announced, stating pre-commercial trials would take place starting after
completion of a number of test networks in select cities.
These trials ran from March to October, 2006, but the
9.1 Objectives
results were apparently unsatisfactory. In early 2007, the
TD-SCDMA was developed in the Peoples Republic of Chinese government instructed the dominant cellular carChina by the Chinese Academy of Telecommunications rier, China Mobile, to build commercial trial networks in
Technology (CATT), Datang Telecom, and Siemens AG eight cities, and the two xed-line carriers, China Telein an attempt to avoid dependence on Western technol- com and China Netcom, to build one each in two other
ogy. This is likely primarily for practical reasons, since cities. Construction of these trial networks was schedother 3G formats require the payment of patent fees to a uled to nish during the fourth quarter of 2007, but delays meant that construction was not complete until early
large number of Western patent holders.[4]
2008.
TD-SCDMA proponents also claim it is better suited for
since Rel-4,
densely populated areas.[1] Further, it is supposed to cover The standard has been adopted by 3GPP [1]
known
as
UTRA
TDD
1.28Mbps
Option.
all usage scenarios, whereas W-CDMA is optimised for
symmetric trac and macro cells, while TD-CDMA is On March 28, 2008, China Mobile Group announced
best used in low mobility scenarios within micro or pico TD-SCDMA commercial trials for 60,000 test users in
cells.[1]
eight cities from April 1, 2008. Networks using other 3G
TD-SCDMA is based on spread spectrum technology standards (WCDMA and CDMA2000 EV/DO) had still
which makes it unlikely that it will be able to completely not been launched in China, as these were delayed until
escape the payment of license fees to western patent hold- TD-SCDMA was ready for commercial launch.
ers. The launch of a national TD-SCDMA network was In January 2009 the Ministry of Industry and Informainitially projected by 2005[5] but only reached large scale tion Technology (MIIT) in China took the unusual step
commercial trials with 60,000 users across eight cities in of assigning licences for 3 dierent third-generation mo38
9.5. REFERENCES
bile phone standards to three carriers in a long-awaited
step that is expected to prompt $41 billion in spending
on new equipment. The Chinese-developed standard,
TD-SCDMA, was assigned to China Mobile, the worlds
biggest phone carrier by subscribers. That appeared to be
an eort to make sure the new system has the nancial
and technical backing to succeed. Licences for two existing 3G standards, W-CDMA and CDMA2000 1xEVDO, were assigned to China Unicom and China Telecom, respectively. Third-generation, or 3G, technology
supports Web surng, wireless video and other services
and the start of service is expected to spur new revenue
growth.
Currently in China, China Mobile have access
to the following frequency band for TD-SCDMA
deployment.[9][10][11][12]
9.3 Technical highlights

TD-SCDMA uses TDD, in contrast to the FDD scheme
used by W-CDMA. By dynamically adjusting the number
of timeslots used for downlink and uplink, the system can
more easily accommodate asymmetric trac with dierent data rate requirements on downlink and uplink than
FDD schemes. Since it does not require paired spectrum
for downlink and uplink, spectrum allocation exibility
is also increased. Using the same carrier frequency for
uplink and downlink also means that the channel condition is the same on both directions, and the base station
can deduce the downlink channel information from uplink channel estimates, which is helpful to the application
of beamforming techniques.
TD-SCDMA also uses TDMA in addition to the CDMA
used in WCDMA. This reduces the number of users
in each timeslot, which reduces the implementation
complexity of multiuser detection and beamforming
schemes, but the non-continuous transmission also reduces coverage (because of the higher peak power
needed), mobility (because of lower power control frequency) and complicates radio resource management algorithms.
The S in TD-SCDMA stands for synchronous, which
means that uplink signals are synchronized at the base
station receiver, achieved by continuous timing adjustments. This reduces the interference between users of
the same timeslot using dierent codes by improving
the orthogonality between the codes, therefore increasing
system capacity, at the cost of some hardware complexity
in achieving uplink synchronization.
9.4 See also
39
Dynamic TDMA
Telecommunications industry in China
Communications in China
Standardization in China
9.5 References
[1] Siemens (2004-06-10). TD-SCDMA Whitepaper: the
Solution for TDD bands (PDF). TD Forum. pp. 6
9. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2014-03-30. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
pp. 4, 2528. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
[3] Forkel et al. (2002). Performance Comparison Between
UTRA-TDD High Chip Rate And Low Chip Rate Operation. Retrieved 2009-02-16.
[4] 3G Licensing introduces the W-CDMA Patent Licensing
Programme at the Low Cost 3G Devices conference, London, March 13, 2007
[5] 3G in China still held up, EE Times Asia, Global Sources
[6] China Mobile to Test Td-scdma on 60,000 Phones from
April 1,, Cellular News
[7] China issues 3G licences to main carriers The Reuters UK
[8]
[9] https://books.google.com.au/books?id=
dzHABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA824
[10] http://www.xgpforum.com/new_XGP/en/001/TDD_
band.html
[11] http://www.datangmobile.cn/en/p_rru.aspx
[12] http://wenku.baidu.com/view/
5f43e16eaf1ffc4ffe47ac84.html
[13] http://www.cnii.com.cn/wireless/2015-06/25/content_
1589363.htm
9.6 Documentation
TS 25.201 Physical Layer General Description
Describes basic dierences between FDD and TDD.
TS 25.221 Physical channels and mapping of transport channels onto physical channels (TDD)
TS 25.222 Multiplexing and channel coding (TDD)
TS 25.223 Spreading and modulation (TDD)
W-CDMA
TS 25.224 Physical layer procedures (TDD)
TD-CDMA
TS 25.225 Physical layer Measurements (TDD)
40
9.7 External links

TD-SCDMA Forum
TD-SCDMA Industry Alliance
China will not interfere in 3G standard selection
China will provide 3G Service in cities where
Olympic Games 2008 are held
CHAPTER 9. TD-SCDMA
Chapter 10
TD-CDMA
TD-CDMA, an acronym for Time-division-Code division multiple access, is a channel access method
based on using spread spectrum multiple access (CDMA)
across multiple time slots (TDMA). TD-CDMA is the
channel access method for UTRA-TDD HCR, which is
an acronym for UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access-Time
Division Duplex High Chip Rate.[1]
10.1 Standardized
tions
implementa-
TD-CDMA is used in IMT-2000's 3G air interface,

dened as IMT-TD Time-Division, and is one of the
three UMTS air interfaces (UTRAs), as standardized
by the 3GPP in UTRA-TDD HCR. UTRA-TDD HCR
is closely related to W-CDMA (UMTS), and provides
the same types of channels where possible. UMTSs
HSDPA/HSUPA enhancements are also implemented
under TD-CDMA.[2]
10.2 References
[2] IPWireless Ships First Commercial 3GPP Chipset with
Full HSDPA Implementation. ipwireless.com. Archived
from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2008-02-28.
41
Chapter 11
Time division multiple access

This article is about the channel access method.
The name TDMA is also commonly used in the
United States to refer to Digital AMPS, which is
an obsolete mobile telephone standard that uses
TDMA to control channel access.
bile phone can move around and vary the timing advance
required to make its transmission match the gap in transmission from its peers.
11.1 TDMA characteristics

Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for shared medium networks. It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into dierent time slots. The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using
its own time slot. This allows multiple stations to share
the same transmission medium (e.g. radio frequency
channel) while using only a part of its channel capacity.
TDMA is used in the digital 2G cellular systems such
as Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM),
IS-136, Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) and iDEN, and
in the Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
(DECT) standard for portable phones. It is also used extensively in satellite systems, combat-net radio systems,
and PON networks for upstream trac from premises to
the operator. For usage of Dynamic TDMA packet mode
communication, see below.
Shares single carrier frequency with multiple users

Non-continuous transmission makes hando simpler
Slots can be assigned on demand in dynamic TDMA
Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra cell interference
Higher synchronization overhead than CDMA
Advanced equalization may be necessary for high
data rates if the channel is frequency selective and
creates Intersymbol interference
Cell breathing (borrowing resources from adjacent
cells) is more complicated than in CDMA
Frequency/slot allocation complexity
Pulsating power envelope: interference with other
devices
11.2 TDMA in mobile phone systems

11.2.1 2G systems
Most 2G cellular systems, with the notable exception
of IS-95, are based on TDMA. GSM, D-AMPS, PDC,
TDMA frame structure showing a data stream divided into
iDEN, and PHS are examples of TDMA cellular sysframes and those frames divided into time slots.
tems. GSM combines TDMA with Frequency Hopping
TDMA is a type of time-division multiplexing, with the and wideband transmission to minimize common types
special point that instead of having one transmitter con- of interference.
nected to one receiver, there are multiple transmitters. In In the GSM system, the synchronization of the mobile
the case of the uplink from a mobile phone to a base sta- phones is achieved by sending timing advance commands
tion this becomes particularly dicult because the mo- from the base station which instructs the mobile phone
42
11.4. COMPARISON WITH OTHER MULTIPLE-ACCESS SCHEMES
43
to transmit earlier and by how much. This compensates trol.

for the propagation delay resulting from the light speed
velocity of radio waves. The mobile phone is not allowed
to transmit for its entire time slot, but there is a guard
interval at the end of each time slot. As the transmission
moves into the guard period, the mobile network adjusts
the timing advance to synchronize the transmission.
Initial synchronization of a phone requires even more
care. Before a mobile transmits there is no way to actually
know the oset required. For this reason, an entire time
slot has to be dedicated to mobiles attempting to contact
the network; this is known as the random-access channel
(RACH) in GSM. The mobile attempts to broadcast at the
beginning of the time slot, as received from the network.
If the mobile is located next to the base station, there will
be no time delay and this will succeed. If, however, the
mobile phone is at just less than 35 km from the base station, the time delay will mean the mobiles broadcast arrives at the very end of the time slot. In that case, the mobile will be instructed to broadcast its messages starting
nearly a whole time slot earlier than would be expected
otherwise. Finally, if the mobile is beyond the 35 km cell
range in GSM, then the RACH will arrive in a neighbouring time slot and be ignored. It is this feature, rather than
limitations of power, that limits the range of a GSM cell
to 35 km when no special extension techniques are used.
By changing the synchronization between the uplink and
downlink at the base station, however, this limitation can
be overcome.
11.2.2
3G systems
11.4 Comparison
with
other
multiple-access schemes
In radio systems, TDMA is usually used alongside Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) and
Frequency division duplex (FDD); the combination is referred to as FDMA/TDMA/FDD. This is the case in both
GSM and IS-136 for example. Exceptions to this include
the DECT and PHS micro-cellular systems, UMTS-TDD
UMTS variant, and Chinas TD-SCDMA, which use
Time Division duplexing, where dierent time slots are
allocated for the base station and handsets on the same
frequency.
A major advantage of TDMA is that the radio part of

the mobile only needs to listen and broadcast for its
own time slot. For the rest of the time, the mobile can
carry out measurements on the network, detecting surrounding transmitters on dierent frequencies. This allows safe inter frequency handovers, something which is
dicult in CDMA systems, not supported at all in IS95 and supported through complex system additions in
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS).
This in turn allows for co-existence of microcell layers
with macrocell layers.
CDMA, by comparison, supports soft hand-o which

allows a mobile phone to be in communication with up to
6 base stations simultaneously, a type of same-frequency
handover. The incoming packets are compared for quality, and the best one is selected. CDMAs cell breathing
characteristic, where a terminal on the boundary of two
congested cells will be unable to receive a clear signal, can
While the most popular form of the UMTS 3G system often negate this advantage during peak periods.
uses CDMA and frequency division duplexing (FDD) instead of TDMA, TDMA is combined with CDMA and A disadvantage of TDMA systems is that they create
Time Division Duplexing in two standard UMTS UTRA interference at a frequency which is directly connected to
the time slot length. This is the buzz which can sometimes be heard if a TDMA phone is left next to a radio or speakers.[1] Another disadvantage is that the dead
11.3 TDMA in wired networks
time between time slots limits the potential bandwidth
of a TDMA channel. These are implemented in part beThe ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed lo- cause of the diculty in ensuring that dierent terminals
cal area networking over existing home wiring (power transmit at exactly the times required. Handsets that are
lines, phone lines and coaxial cables) is based on moving will need to constantly adjust their timings to ena TDMA scheme. In G.hn, a master device al- sure their transmission is received at precisely the right
locates Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities time, because as they move further from the base station,
(CFTXOP) to other slave devices in the network. Only their signal will take longer to arrive. This also means that
one device can use a CFTXOP at a time, thus avoiding the major TDMA systems have hard limits on cell sizes
collisions. FlexRay protocol which is also a wired netin terms of range, though in practice the power levels rework used for safety-critical communication in modern quired to receive and transmit over distances greater than
cars, uses the TDMA method for data transmission con- the supported range would be mostly impractical anyway.
Although most major 3G systems are primarily based
upon CDMA, time division duplexing (TDD), packet
scheduling (dynamic TDMA) and packet oriented multiple access schemes are available in 3G form, combined
with CDMA to take advantage of the benets of both
technologies.
44
11.5 Dynamic TDMA

In dynamic time division multiple access, a scheduling
algorithm dynamically reserves a variable number of time
slots in each frame to variable bit-rate data streams, based
on the trac demand of each data stream. Dynamic
TDMA is used in
Intelbras WISP+ Radios - iPoll(tm) is TDMA based
protocol
Ubiquiti airMAX Radios
HIPERLAN/2 broadband radio access network.
IEEE 802.16a WiMax
Bluetooth
The Packet radio multiple access (PRMA) method
for combined circuit switched voice communication
and packet data.
TD-SCDMA
ITU-T G.hn
11.6 See also

Channel access methods (CAM)
Time-division multiplex (TDM)
Duplex (telecommunications) (FDD,TDD)
Link 16
11.7 References
[1] Minimize GSM buzz noise in mobile phones. EETimes.
July 20, 2009. Retrieved November 22, 2010.
CHAPTER 11. TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
Chapter 12
Bluetooth
This article is about a wireless technology standard. alds initials.
For the medieval king of Denmark, see Harald Bluetooth.
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using short-wavelength
UHF radio waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485
GHz[4] ) from xed and mobile devices, and building
personal area networks (PANs). Invented by telecom
vendor Ericsson in 1994,[5] it was originally conceived as
a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can connect several devices, overcoming problems of synchronization.
Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 25,000 member
companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics.[6] The IEEE
standardized Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but no longer
maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specication, manages the qualication
program, and protects the trademarks.[7] A manufacturer
must make a device meet Bluetooth SIG standards to
market it as a Bluetooth device.[8] A network of patents
apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual
qualifying devices.
12.1 Name and logo

The name Bluetooth is an Anglicised version of the
Scandinavian Bltand/Bltann, (Old Norse bltnn) the
epithet of the tenth-century king Harald Bluetooth who
united dissonant Danish tribes into a single kingdom and,
according to legend, introduced Christianity as well. The
idea of this name was proposed in 1997 by Jim Kardach who developed a system that would allow mobile
phones to communicate with computers. At the time of
this proposal he was reading Frans G. Bengtsson's historical novel The Long Ships about Vikings and King Harald
Bluetooth.[9][10] The implication is that Bluetooth does
the same with communications protocols, uniting them
into one universal standard.[11][12][13]
12.2 Implementation
Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2400 and
2483.5 MHz (including guard bands of 2 MHz at the
bottom end and 3.5 MHz at the top).[14] This is in the
globally unlicensed (but not unregulated) Industrial, Scientic and Medical (ISM) 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency band. Bluetooth uses a radio technology called
frequency-hopping spread spectrum. Bluetooth divides
transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet
on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels. Each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. Bluetooth 4.0 uses 2
MHz spacing, which accommodates 40 channels. The
rst channel starts at 2402 MHz and continues up to 2480
MHz in 1 MHz steps. It usually performs 1600 hops
per second, with Adaptive Frequency-Hopping (AFH)
enabled.[14]
Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK)
modulation was the only modulation scheme available.
Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2.0+EDR, /4DQPSK (Dierential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying)
and 8DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible devices. Devices functioning with GFSK are said
to be operating in basic rate (BR) mode where an instantaneous data rate of 1 Mbit/s is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) is used to describe /4-DPSK
and 8DPSK schemes, each giving 2 and 3 Mbit/s respectively. The combination of these (BR and EDR) modes
in Bluetooth radio technology is classied as a BR/EDR
radio.
Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master-slave

structure. One master may communicate with up to seven
slaves in a piconet. All devices share the masters clock.
Packet exchange is based on the basic clock, dened by
the master, which ticks at 312.5 s intervals. Two clock
ticks make up a slot of 625 s, and two slots make up
a slot pair of 1250 s. In the simple case of single-slot
packets the master transmits in even slots and receives in
odd slots. The slave, conversely, receives in even slots and
The Bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging the Younger
transmits in odd slots. Packets may be 1, 3 or 5 slots long,
Futhark runes (Hagall) ( ) and (Bjarkan) ( ), Har- but in all cases the masters transmission begins in even
45
46
CHAPTER 12. BLUETOOTH
slots and the slaves in odd slots.

The above is valid for classic BT. Bluetooth Low Energy, introduced in the 4.0 specication, uses the same
spectrum but somewhat dierently; see Bluetooth low
energy#Radio interface.
12.2.1
Communication and connection
A master Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices in a piconet (an ad-hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not
all devices reach this maximum. The devices can switch
roles, by agreement, and the slave can become the master (for example, a headset initiating a connection to a
phone necessarily begins as masteras initiator of the
connectionbut may subsequently operate as slave).
congurations and battery conditions. Most Bluetooth

applications are for indoor conditions, where attenuation
of walls and signal fading due to signal reections make
the range far lower than specied line-of-sight ranges of
the Bluetooth products. Most Bluetooth applications are
battery powered Class 2 devices, with little dierence
in range whether the other end of the link is a Class 1
or Class 2 device as the lower powered device tends to
set the range limit. In some cases the eective range
of the data link can be extended when a Class 2 device
is connecting to a Class 1 transceiver with both higher
sensitivity and transmission power than a typical Class 2
device.[16] Mostly however the Class 1 devices have a similar sensitivity to Class 2 devices. Connecting two Class
1 devices with both high sensitivity and high power can
allow ranges far in excess of the typical 100m, depending on the throughput required by the application. Some
such devices allow open eld ranges of up to 1 km and
beyond between two similar devices without exceeding
legal emission limits.[17][18][19]
The Bluetooth Core Specication provides for the connection of two or more piconets to form a scatternet, in
which certain devices simultaneously play the master role
The Bluetooth Core Specication mandates a range of not
in one piconet and the slave role in another.
less than 10 metres (33 ft), but there is no upper limit
At any given time, data can be transferred between the on actual range. Manufacturers implementations can be
master and one other device (except for the little-used tuned to provide the range needed for each case.[3]
broadcast mode.) The master chooses which slave device
to address; typically, it switches rapidly from one device
to another in a round-robin fashion. Since it is the mas- 12.3.1 Bluetooth proles
ter that chooses which slave to address, whereas a slave is
(in theory) supposed to listen in each receive slot, being Main article: Bluetooth prole
a master is a lighter burden than being a slave. Being a
master of seven slaves is possible; being a slave of more
To use Bluetooth wireless technology, a device must be
than one master is dicult. The specication is vague as
able to interpret certain Bluetooth proles, which are defto required behavior in scatternets.
initions of possible applications and specify general beMany USB Bluetooth adapters or dongles are available, haviours that Bluetooth-enabled devices use to communisome of which also include an IrDA adapter.
cate with other Bluetooth devices. These proles include
settings to parametrize and to control the communication
from start. Adherence to proles saves the time for transmitting the parameters anew before the bi-directional link
12.3 Uses
becomes eective. There are a wide range of Bluetooth
proles that describe many dierent types of applications
Bluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communica- or use cases for devices.[20][21]
tions protocol primarily designed for low-power consumption, with a short range based on low-cost
transceiver microchips in each device.[15] Because the 12.3.2 List of applications
devices use a radio (broadcast) communications system,
they do not have to be in visual line of sight of each
Wireless control of and communication between a
other, however a quasi optical wireless path must be
mobile phone and a handsfree headset. This was one
viable.[6] Range is power-class-dependent, but eective
of the earliest applications to become popular.[22]
ranges vary in practice; see the table on the right.
Wireless control of and communication between a
Ocially Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1 metre (3
mobile phone and a Bluetooth compatible car stereo
ft), Class 2, most commonly found in mobile devices, 10
system.
metres (33 ft), and Class 1, primarily for industrial use
cases,100 metres (300 ft).[3] Bluetooth Marketing qualies that Class 1 range is in most cases 2030 metres (66
98 ft), and Class 2 range 510 metres (1633 ft).[2]
Wireless control of and communication with tablets

and speakers such as iOS and Android devices.
The eective range varies due to propagation conditions,

material coverage, production sample variations, antenna
Wireless Bluetooth headset and Intercom. Idiomatically, a headset is sometimes called a Bluetooth.
12.3. USES
47
Real-time location systems (RTLS), are used to
track and identify the location of objects in real-time
using Nodes or tags attached to, or embedded in
the objects tracked, and Readers that receive and
process the wireless signals from these tags to determine their locations.[29]
A typical Bluetooth mobile phone headset.
Wireless streaming of audio to headphones with[23]

or without[24] communication capabilities.
Wireless networking between PCs in a conned
space and where little bandwidth is required.[25]
Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being the mouse,
keyboard and printer.
Personal security application on mobile phones for

prevention of theft or loss of items. The protected
item has a Bluetooth marker (e.g., a tag) that is in
constant communication with the phone. If the connection is broken (the marker is out of range of the
phone) then an alarm is raised. This can also be
used as a man overboard alarm. A product using
this technology has been available since 2009.[30]
Calgary, Alberta, Canada's Roads Trac division
uses data collected from travelers Bluetooth devices to predict travel times and road congestion for
motorists.[31]
Wireless transmission of audio,[32] (a more reliable
alternative to FM transmitters)
Transfer of les, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices with OBEX. 12.3.3
Bluetooth vs. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
Replacement of previous wired RS-232 serial communications in test equipment, GPS receivers, med- Bluetooth and Wi-Fi (the brand name for products using
ical equipment, bar code scanners, and trac con- IEEE 802.11 standards) have some similar applications:
setting up networks, printing, or transferring les. Witrol devices.
Fi is intended as a replacement for high speed cabling
for general local area network access in work areas. This
For controls where infrared was often used.
category of applications is sometimes called wireless lo For low bandwidth applications where higher USB cal area networks (WLAN). Bluetooth was intended for
bandwidth is not required and cable-free connection portable equipment and its applications. The category of
applications is outlined as the wireless personal area netdesired.
work (WPAN). Bluetooth is a replacement for cabling
Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth- in a variety of personally carried applications in any setenabled advertising hoardings to other, discover- ting, and also works for xed location applications such
as smart energy functionality in the home (thermostats,
able, Bluetooth devices.[26]
etc.).
Wireless bridge between two Industrial Ethernet
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are to some extent complementary
(e.g., PROFINET) networks.
in their applications and usage. Wi-Fi is usually access
Three seventh and eighth generation game consoles, point-centered, with an asymmetrical client-server conNintendo's Wii.[27] and Sony's PlayStation 3, use nection with all trac routed through the access point,
while Bluetooth is usually symmetrical, between two
Bluetooth for their respective wireless controllers.
Bluetooth devices. Bluetooth serves well in simple ap Dial-up internet access on personal computers or plications where two devices need to connect with miniPDAs using a data-capable mobile phone as a wire- mal conguration like a button press, as in headsets and
remote controls, while Wi-Fi suits better in applications
less modem.
where some degree of client conguration is possible
Short range transmission of health sensor data from and high speeds are required, especially for network acmedical devices to mobile phone, set-top box or cess through an access node. However, Bluetooth access
points do exist and ad-hoc connections are possible with
dedicated telehealth devices.[28]
Wi-Fi though not as simply as with Bluetooth. Wi-Fi Di Allowing a DECT phone to ring and answer calls on rect was recently developed to add a more Bluetooth-like
behalf of a nearby mobile phone.
ad-hoc functionality to Wi-Fi.
48
12.3.4
Devices
An internal notebook Bluetooth card (14364 mm).
A Bluetooth USB dongle with a 100 m range.
desktop computers and most recent laptops come with

a built-in Bluetooth radio, others require an external
adapter, typically in the form of a small USB "dongle.
Unlike its predecessor, IrDA, which requires a separate

adapter for each device, Bluetooth lets multiple devices
Bluetooth exists in many products, such as telephones,
communicate with a computer over a single adapter.[36]
tablets, media players, robotics systems, handheld, laptops and console gaming equipment, and some high definition headsets, modems, and watches.[33] The technology is useful when transferring information between two
or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth 12.4.1 Operating system implementation
situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound
data with telephones (i.e., with a Bluetooth headset) or For more details on this topic, see Bluetooth stack.
byte data with hand-held computers (transferring les).
Bluetooth protocols simplify the discovery and setup of
services between devices.[34] Bluetooth devices can advertise all of the services they provide.[35] This makes using services easier, because more of the security, network
address and permission conguration can be automated
than with many other network types.[34]
12.4 Computer requirements
Apple products have worked with Bluetooth since Mac

OS X v10.2, which was released in 2002.[37]
For Microsoft platforms, Windows XP Service Pack 2
and SP3 releases work natively with Bluetooth v1.1,
v2.0 and v2.0+EDR.[38] Previous versions required users
to install their Bluetooth adapters own drivers, which
were not directly supported by Microsoft.[39] Microsofts
own Bluetooth dongles (packaged with their Bluetooth
computer devices) have no external drivers and thus require at least Windows XP Service Pack 2. Windows
Vista RTM/SP1 with the Feature Pack for Wireless or
Windows Vista SP2 work with Bluetooth v2.1+EDR.[38]
Windows 7 works with Bluetooth v2.1+EDR and Extended Inquiry Response (EIR).[38]
The Windows XP and Windows Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth stacks support the following Bluetooth proles natively: PAN, SPP, DUN, HID, HCRP. The Windows XP
stack can be replaced by a third party stack that supports
more proles or newer Bluetooth versions. The Windows Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth stack supports vendorsupplied additional proles without requiring that the Microsoft stack be replaced.[38]
Linux has two popular Bluetooth stacks, BlueZ and Afx. The BlueZ stack is included with most Linux kernels
and was originally developed by Qualcomm.[40] The Ax
A typical Bluetooth USB dongle.
stack was developed by Nokia. FreeBSD features BlueA personal computer that does not have embedded Blue- tooth since its v5.0 release. NetBSD features Bluetooth
tooth can use a Bluetooth adapter that enables the PC since its v4.0 release. Its Bluetooth stack has been ported
to communicate with Bluetooth devices. While some to OpenBSD as well.
12.5. SPECIFICATIONS AND FEATURES
49
12.5 Specications and features
12.5.3 Bluetooth v1.2
The development of the short link radio technology, later Major enhancements include the following:
named Bluetooth, was initiated by Nils Rydbeck CTO at
Faster Connection and Discovery
Ericson Mobile in Lund. The purpose was to create a
wireless headset, according to two inventions, presented
Adaptive frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH),
in 1989, SE 8902098-6, issued 1989-06-12 and 1992 SE
which improves resistance to radio frequency inter9202239, issued 1992-07-24 by Dr. Johan Ullman. Nils
ference
by avoiding the use of crowded frequencies
Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and Jaap
in
the
hopping
sequence.
Haartsen and Sven Mattisson with developing, who were
[41]
working for Ericsson in Lund, Sweden. The specica Higher transmission speeds in practice, up to 721
tion is based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum techkbit/s,[44] than in v1.1.
nology.
Extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO), which
The specications were formalized by the Bluetooth Speimprove voice quality of audio links by allowing recial Interest Group (SIG). The SIG was formally antransmissions of corrupted packets, and may optionnounced on 20 May 1998. Today it has a membership
[42]
ally increase audio latency to provide better concurof over 20,000 companies worldwide.
It was estabrent data transfer.
lished by Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Toshiba and Nokia, and
later joined by many other companies.
All versions of the Bluetooth standards support downward
compatibility. That lets the latest standard cover all older
versions.
The Bluetooth Core Specication Working Group
(CSWG) produces mainly 4 kinds of specications
Host Controller Interface (HCI) operation with

three-wire UART.
Ratied as IEEE Standard 802.15.12005[45]
Introduced Flow Control and Retransmission Modes
for L2CAP.
The Bluetooth Core Specication, release cycle is

12.5.4
typically a few years in between
Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR
Core Specication Addendum (CSA), release cycle This version of the Bluetooth Core Specication was released in 2004. The main dierence is the introduction
can be as tight as a few times per year
of an Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) for faster data trans Core Specication Supplements (CSS), can be refer. The nominal rate of EDR is about 3 Mbit/s, although the practical data transfer rate is 2.1 Mbit/s.[44]
leased very quickly
EDR uses a combination of GFSK and Phase Shift Key Errata
ing modulation (PSK) with two variants, /4-DQPSK
and 8DPSK.[46] EDR can provide a lower power consumption through a reduced duty cycle.
12.5.1
Bluetooth v1.0 and v1.0B
Versions 1.0 and 1.0B had many problems and manufacturers had diculty making their products interoperable.
Versions 1.0 and 1.0B also included mandatory Bluetooth
hardware device address (BD_ADDR) transmission in
the Connecting process (rendering anonymity impossible
at the protocol level), which was a major setback for certain services planned for use in Bluetooth environments.
The specication is published as Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR,

which implies that EDR is an optional feature. Aside
from EDR, the v2.0 specication contains other minor
improvements, and products may claim compliance to
Bluetooth v2.0 without supporting the higher data rate.
At least one commercial device states Bluetooth v2.0
without EDR on its data sheet.[47]
12.5.5 Bluetooth v2.1 + EDR

12.5.2
Bluetooth v1.1
Ratied as IEEE Standard 802.15.12002
[43]
Bluetooth Core Specication Version 2.1 + EDR was

adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 26 July 2007.[46]
The headline feature of v2.1 is secure simple pairing

Many errors found in the v1.0B specications were (SSP): this improves the pairing experience for Bluetooth
xed.
devices, while increasing the use and strength of security.
See the section on Pairing below for more details.[48]
Added possibility of non-encrypted channels.
Version 2.1 allows various other improvements, including
Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI).
Extended inquiry response (EIR), which provides more
50
information during the inquiry procedure to allow better

ltering of devices before connection; and sni subrating, which reduces the power consumption in low-power
mode.
12.5.6
received. Additionally, a go straight to maximum

power request has been introduced. This is expected to deal with the headset link loss issue typically observed when a user puts their phone into a
pocket on the opposite side to the headset.
Bluetooth v3.0 + HS
Ultra-wideband
Version 3.0 + HS of the Bluetooth Core Specication[46]

was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 21 April 2009.
Bluetooth v3.0 + HS provides theoretical data transfer
speeds of up to 24 Mbit/s, though not over the Bluetooth
link itself. Instead, the Bluetooth link is used for negotiation and establishment, and the high data rate trac is
carried over a colocated 802.11 link.
The main new feature is AMP (Alternative MAC/PHY),
the addition of 802.11 as a high speed transport. The
High-Speed part of the specication is not mandatory,
and hence only devices that display the "+HS logo actually support Bluetooth over 802.11 high-speed data transfer. A Bluetooth v3.0 device without the "+HS sux
is only required to support features introduced in Core
Specication Version 3.0[49] or earlier Core Specication
Addendum 1.[50]
The high speed (AMP) feature of Bluetooth v3.0 was

originally intended for UWB, but the WiMedia Alliance,
the body responsible for the avor of UWB intended for
Bluetooth, announced in March 2009 that it was disbanding, and ultimately UWB was omitted from the Core v3.0
specication.[51]
On 16 March 2009, the WiMedia Alliance announced

it was entering into technology transfer agreements for
the WiMedia Ultra-wideband (UWB) specications. WiMedia has transferred all current and future specications, including work on future high speed and power
optimized implementations, to the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), Wireless USB Promoter Group and
the USB Implementers Forum. After successful completion of the technology transfer, marketing, and related administrative items, the WiMedia Alliance ceased
[52][53][54][55][56][57]
L2CAP Enhanced modes Enhanced Retransmission operations.
Mode (ERTM) implements reliable L2CAP chan- In October 2009 the Bluetooth Special Interest Group
nel, while Streaming Mode (SM) implements suspended development of UWB as part of the alternaunreliable channel with no retransmission or tive MAC/PHY, Bluetooth v3.0 + HS solution. A small,
ow control. Introduced in Core Specication but signicant, number of former WiMedia members
Addendum 1.
had not and would not sign up to the necessary agreements for the IP transfer. The Bluetooth SIG is now in
Alternative MAC/PHY Enables the use of alternative
the process of evaluating other options for its longer term
MAC and PHYs for transporting Bluetooth prole
roadmap.[58][59][60]
data. The Bluetooth radio is still used for device discovery, initial connection and prole conguration.
However, when large quantities of data must be sent,
the high speed alternative MAC PHY 802.11 (typically associated with Wi-Fi) transports the data.
See also: Bluetooth low energy
This means that Bluetooth uses proven low power
connection models when the system is idle, and the
faster radio when it must send large quantities of The Bluetooth SIG completed the Bluetooth Core Specidata. AMP links require enhanced L2CAP modes. cation version 4.0 (called Bluetooth Smart) and has been
adopted as of 30 June 2010. It includes Classic BlueUnicast Connectionless Data Permits sending service tooth, Bluetooth high speed and Bluetooth low energy prodata without establishing an explicit L2CAP chan- tocols. Bluetooth high speed is based on Wi-Fi, and Clasnel. It is intended for use by applications that re- sic Bluetooth consists of legacy Bluetooth protocols.
quire low latency between user action and reconnec[61]
tion/transmission of data. This is only appropriate Bluetooth low energy, previously known as Wibree, is
a subset of Bluetooth v4.0 with an entirely new protocol
for small amounts of data.
stack for rapid build-up of simple links. As an alternative
Enhanced Power Control Updates the power control to the Bluetooth standard protocols that were introduced
feature to remove the open loop power control, and in Bluetooth v1.0 to v3.0, it is aimed at very low power
also to clarify ambiguities in power control intro- applications running o a coin cell. Chip designs allow
duced by the new modulation schemes added for for two types of implementation, dual-mode, single-mode
EDR. Enhanced power control removes the ambi- and enhanced past versions.[62] The provisional names
guities by specifying the behaviour that is expected. Wibree and Bluetooth ULP (Ultra Low Power) were abanThe feature also adds closed loop power control, doned and the BLE name was used for a while. In late
meaning RSSI ltering can start as the response is 2011, new logos Bluetooth Smart Ready for hosts and
12.6. TECHNICAL INFORMATION
51
Bluetooth Smart for sensors were introduced as the

general-public face of BLE.[63]
Train Nudging and Generalized Interlaced Scanning
In a single-mode implementation, only the

low energy protocol stack is implemented.
STMicroelectronics,[64] AMICCOM,[65] CSR,[66]
Nordic Semiconductor[67] and Texas Instruments[68]
have released single mode Bluetooth low energy
solutions.
L2CAP Connection Oriented and Dedicated Channels with Credit Based Flow Control
Low Duty Cycle Directed Advertising
Dual Mode and Topology

LE Link Layer Topology
802.11n PAL
In a dual-mode implementation, Bluetooth Smart

Audio Architecture Updates for Wide Band Speech
functionality is integrated into an existing Clas Fast Data Advertising Interval
sic Bluetooth controller. As of March 2011,
the following semiconductor companies have an Limited Discovery Time[72]
nounced the availability of chips meeting the standard: Qualcomm-Atheros, CSR, Broadcom[69][70] Notice that some features were already available in a
and Texas Instruments. The compliant architecture Core Specication Addendum (CSA) before the release
shares all of Classic Bluetooths existing radio and of v4.1.
functionality resulting in a negligible cost increase
compared to Classic Bluetooth.
Cost-reduced single-mode chips, which enable highly integrated and compact devices, feature a lightweight Link
Layer providing ultra-low power idle mode operation,
simple device discovery, and reliable point-to-multipoint
data transfer with advanced power-save and secure encrypted connections at the lowest possible cost.
Bluetooth v4.2 was released on December 2, 2014. It Introduces some key features for IoT. Some features, such
as Data Length Extension, require a hardware update.[73]
But some older Bluetooth hardware may receive some
Bluetooth v4.2 features, such as privacy updates via
rmware.[74]
General improvements in version 4.0 include the changes

necessary to facilitate BLE modes, as well the Generic The major areas of improvement are:
Attribute Prole (GATT) and Security Manager (SM)
LE Data Packet Length Extension
services with AES Encryption.
LE Secure Connections
Core Specication Addendum 2 was unveiled in December 2011; it contains improvements to the audio Host
Controller Interface and to the High Speed (802.11) Protocol Adaptation Layer.
Link Layer Privacy
Core Specication Addendum 3 revision 2 has an adoption date of 24 July 2012.
IP connectivity for Bluetooth Smart devices to become available soon after the introduction of BT
v4.2 via the new Internet Protocol Support Prole
(IPSP).
Core Specication Addendum 4 has an adoption date of

12 February 2013.
12.5.8
Bluetooth v4.1
The Bluetooth SIG announced formal adoption of the

Bluetooth v4.1 specication on 4 December 2013. This
specication is an incremental software update to Bluetooth Specication v4.0, and not a hardware update. The
update incorporates Bluetooth Core Specication Addenda (CSA 1, 2, 3 & 4) and adds new features that improve consumer usability. These include increased coexistence support for LTE, bulk data exchange rates
and aid developer innovation by allowing devices to support multiple roles simultaneously.[71]
New features of this specication include:
Mobile Wireless Service Coexistence Signaling
Link Layer Extended Scanner Filter Policies
IPSP adds an IPv6 connection option for Bluetooth

Smart, to support connected home and other IoT implementations.
12.6 Technical information

12.6.1 Bluetooth protocol stack
Main articles: Bluetooth stack and Bluetooth protocols
Bluetooth is dened as a layer protocol architecture consisting of core protocols, cable replacement protocols,
telephony control protocols, and adopted protocols.[75]
Mandatory protocols for all Bluetooth stacks are: LMP,
L2CAP and SDP. In addition, devices that communicate
with Bluetooth almost universally can use these protocols:
HCI and RFCOMM.
52
Applications/Profiles
Service
Other
RFcomm Telephony
discovery
LLC
Control
Logical link control adaptation protocol
Link manager
Application
layer
Middleware
layer
Data
link
layer
Physical
layer
SDP
The Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) allows a device to

discover services oered by other devices, and their assoBaseband
ciated parameters. For example, when you use a mobile
Physical radio
phone with a Bluetooth headset, the phone uses SDP to
determine which Bluetooth proles the headset can use
(Headset Prole, Hands Free Prole, Advanced Audio
Bluetooth Protocol Stack
Distribution Prole (A2DP) etc.) and the protocol multiplexer settings needed for the phone to connect to the
headset using each of them. Each service is identied
LMP
by a Universally Unique Identier (UUID), with ocial
The Link Management Protocol (LMP) is used for set-up services (Bluetooth proles) assigned a short form UUID
and control of the radio link between two devices. Im- (16 bits rather than the full 128).
plemented on the controller.
Audio
RFCOMM
L2CAP
Radio Frequency Communications (RFCOMM) is a cable

replacement protocol used to generate a virtual serial data
stream. RFCOMM provides for binary data transport and
emulates EIA-232 (formerly RS-232) control signals over
the Bluetooth baseband layer, i.e. it is a serial port emulation.
The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol

(L2CAP) Used to multiplex multiple logical connections
between two devices using dierent higher level protocols. Provides segmentation and reassembly of on-air
packets.
RFCOMM provides a simple reliable data stream to the
In Basic mode, L2CAP provides packets with a payload user, similar to TCP. It is used directly by many telephony
congurable up to 64 kB, with 672 bytes as the default related proles as a carrier for AT commands, as well as
MTU, and 48 bytes as the minimum mandatory sup- being a transport layer for OBEX over Bluetooth.
ported MTU.
Many Bluetooth applications use RFCOMM because of

In Retransmission and Flow Control modes, L2CAP can its widespread support and publicly available API on most
be congured either for isochronous data or reliable data operating systems. Additionally, applications that used a
per channel by performing retransmissions and CRC serial port to communicate can be quickly ported to use
RFCOMM.
checks.
Bluetooth Core Specication Addendum 1 adds two additional L2CAP modes to the core specication. These BNEP
modes eectively deprecate original Retransmission and
Flow Control modes:
The Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol (BNEP)
is used for transferring another protocol stacks data via
an L2CAP channel. Its main purpose is the transmission
Enhanced Retransmission Mode (ERTM): This of IP packets in the Personal Area Networking Prole.
mode is an improved version of the original re- BNEP performs a similar function to SNAP in Wireless
transmission mode. This mode provides a reliable LAN.
L2CAP channel.
AVCTP
Streaming Mode (SM): This is a very simple mode,
with no retransmission or ow control. This mode
The Audio/Video Control Transport Protocol (AVCTP) is
provides an unreliable L2CAP channel.
used by the remote control prole to transfer AV/C commands over an L2CAP channel. The music control butReliability in any of these modes is optionally and/or tons on a stereo headset use this protocol to control the
additionally guaranteed by the lower layer Bluetooth music player.
BDR/EDR air interface by conguring the number of retransmissions and ush timeout (time after which the raAVDTP
dio ushes packets). In-order sequencing is guaranteed
by the lower layer.
The Audio/Video Distribution Transport Protocol
Only L2CAP channels congured in ERTM or SM may (AVDTP) is used by the advanced audio distribution
prole to stream music to stereo headsets over an L2CAP
be operated over AMP logical links.

channel intended for video distribution prole in the
bluetooth transmission.
TCS
53
List of services
Technical information (for example: device features, manufacturer, Bluetooth specication used,
clock oset)
The Telephony Control Protocol Binary (TCS BIN)

is the bit-oriented protocol that denes the call control
signaling for the establishment of voice and data calls
between Bluetooth devices. Additionally, TCS BIN
denes mobility management procedures for handling
groups of Bluetooth TCS devices.
Any device may perform an inquiry to nd other devices

to connect to, and any device can be congured to respond
to such inquiries. However, if the device trying to connect
knows the address of the device, it always responds to
direct connection requests and transmits the information
shown in the list above if requested. Use of a devices
TCS-BIN is only used by the cordless telephony prole, services may require pairing or acceptance by its owner,
which failed to attract implementers. As such it is only of but the connection itself can be initiated by any device
and held until it goes out of range. Some devices can be
historical interest.
connected to only one device at a time, and connecting
to them prevents them from connecting to other devices
Adopted protocols
and appearing in inquiries until they disconnect from the
other device.
Adopted protocols are dened by other standards-making
organizations and incorporated into Bluetooths protocol Every device has a unique 48-bit address. However, these
stack, allowing Bluetooth to code protocols only when addresses are generally not shown in inquiries. Instead,
friendly Bluetooth names are used, which can be set by
necessary. The adopted protocols include:
the user. This name appears when another user scans for
devices and in lists of paired devices.
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP): Internet standard
protocol for transporting IP datagrams over a point- Most cellular phones have the Bluetooth name set to
the manufacturer and model of the phone by default.
to-point link.
Most cellular phones and laptops show only the Bluetooth
TCP/IP/UDP: Foundation Protocols for TCP/IP names and special programs are required to get additional
protocol suite
information about remote devices. This can be confusing
as, for example, there could be several cellular phones in
Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX): Session-layer
range named T610 (see Bluejacking).
protocol for the exchange of objects, providing a
model for object and operation representation
Wireless Application Environment/Wireless
Application Protocol (WAE/WAP): WAE
species an application framework for wireless
devices and WAP is an open standard to provide
mobile users access to telephony and information
services.[75]
12.6.4 Pairing and bonding

Motivation
Many services oered over Bluetooth can expose private

data or let a connecting party control the Bluetooth device. Security reasons make it necessary to recognize specic devices, and thus enable control over which devices
can connect to a given Bluetooth device. At the same
12.6.2 Baseband error correction
time, it is useful for Bluetooth devices to be able to estabDepending on packet type, individual packets may be lish a connection without user intervention (for example,
protected by error correction, either 1/3 rate forward er- as soon as in range).
ror correction (FEC) or 2/3 rate. In addition, packets To resolve this conict, Bluetooth uses a process called
with CRC will be retransmitted until acknowledged by bonding, and a bond is generated through a process called
automatic repeat request (ARQ).
pairing. The pairing process is triggered either by a specic request from a user to generate a bond (for example,
the user explicitly requests to Add a Bluetooth device),
12.6.3 Setting up connections
or it is triggered automatically when connecting to a service where (for the rst time) the identity of a device is
Any Bluetooth device in discoverable mode transmits the
required for security purposes. These two cases are refollowing information on demand:
ferred to as dedicated bonding and general bonding respectively.
Device name
Pairing often involves some level of user interaction.
Device class
This user interaction conrms the identity of the devices.
54
When pairing successfully completes, a bond forms between the two devices, enabling those two devices to connect to each other in the future without repeating the pairing process to conrm device identities. When desired,
the user can remove the bonding relationship.
Implementation
During pairing, the two devices establish a relationship by
creating a shared secret known as a link key. If both devices store the same link key, they are said to be paired or
bonded. A device that wants to communicate only with
a bonded device can cryptographically authenticate the
identity of the other device, ensuring it is the same device it previously paired with. Once a link key is generated, an authenticated Asynchronous Connection-Less
(ACL) link between the devices may be encrypted to protect exchanged data against eavesdropping. Users can
delete link keys from either device, which removes the
bond between the devicesso it is possible for one device to have a stored link key for a device it is no longer
paired with.
Bluetooth services generally require either encryption or
authentication and as such require pairing before they let a
remote device connect. Some services, such as the Object
Push Prole, elect not to explicitly require authentication
or encryption so that pairing does not interfere with the
user experience associated with the service use-cases.
Pairing mechanisms
Pairing mechanisms changed signicantly with the introduction of Secure Simple Pairing in Bluetooth v2.1. The
following summarizes the pairing mechanisms:
Legacy pairing: This is the only method available in
Bluetooth v2.0 and before. Each device must enter a
PIN code; pairing is only successful if both devices
enter the same PIN code. Any 16-byte UTF-8 string
may be used as a PIN code; however, not all devices
may be capable of entering all possible PIN codes.
Limited input devices: The obvious example
of this class of device is a Bluetooth Handsfree headset, which generally have few inputs.
These devices usually have a xed PIN, for example 0000 or 1234, that are hard-coded
into the device.
Numeric input devices: Mobile phones are
classic examples of these devices. They allow
a user to enter a numeric value up to 16 digits
in length.
user must be aware of the input limitations on

the other device, there is no mechanism available for a capable device to determine how it
should limit the available input a user may use.
Secure Simple Pairing (SSP): This is required by
Bluetooth v2.1, although a Bluetooth v2.1 device
may only use legacy pairing to interoperate with
a v2.0 or earlier device. Secure Simple Pairing
uses a form of public key cryptography, and some
types can help protect against man in the middle, or
MITM attacks. SSP has the following characteristics:
Just works: As the name implies, this method
just works, with no user interaction. However,
a device may prompt the user to conrm the
pairing process. This method is typically used
by headsets with very limited IO capabilities,
and is more secure than the xed PIN mechanism this limited set of devices uses for legacy
pairing. This method provides no man-in-themiddle (MITM) protection.
Numeric comparison: If both devices have
a display, and at least one can accept a binary yes/no user input, they may use Numeric
Comparison. This method displays a 6-digit
numeric code on each device. The user should
compare the numbers to ensure they are identical. If the comparison succeeds, the user(s)
should conrm pairing on the device(s) that
can accept an input. This method provides
MITM protection, assuming the user conrms
on both devices and actually performs the
comparison properly.
Passkey Entry: This method may be used between a device with a display and a device with
numeric keypad entry (such as a keyboard),
or two devices with numeric keypad entry. In
the rst case, the display is used to show a 6digit numeric code to the user, who then enters
the code on the keypad. In the second case,
the user of each device enters the same 6-digit
number. Both of these cases provide MITM
protection.
Out of band (OOB): This method uses an
external means of communication, such as
Near Field Communication (NFC) to exchange some information used in the pairing
process. Pairing is completed using the Bluetooth radio, but requires information from the
OOB mechanism. This provides only the level
of MITM protection that is present in the OOB
mechanism.
Alpha-numeric input devices: PCs and smart- SSP is considered simple for the following reasons:
phones are examples of these devices. They
In most cases, it does not require a user to generate
allow a user to enter full UTF-8 text as a PIN
a passkey.
code. If pairing with a less capable device the
12.7. SECURITY
For use-cases not requiring MITM protection, user
interaction can be eliminated.
55
12.7 Security
For numeric comparison, MITM protection can be 12.7.1 Overview

achieved with a simple equality comparison by the
See also: Mobile security Attacks based on communiuser.
cation networks
Using OOB with NFC enables pairing when devices
simply get close, rather than requiring a lengthy dis- Bluetooth implements condentiality, authentication and
covery process.
key derivation with custom algorithms based on the
Security concerns
Prior to Bluetooth v2.1, encryption is not required and
can be turned o at any time. Moreover, the encryption
key is only good for approximately 23.5 hours; using a
single encryption key longer than this time allows simple
XOR attacks to retrieve the encryption key.
Turning o encryption is required for several normal operations, so it is problematic to detect if encryption is disabled for a valid reason or for a security attack.
Bluetooth v2.1 addresses this in the following ways:
Encryption is required for all non-SDP (Service Discovery Protocol) connections
A new Encryption Pause and Resume feature is used
for all normal operations that require that encryption
be disabled. This enables easy identication of normal operation from security attacks.
The encryption key must be refreshed before it expires.
SAFER+ block cipher. Bluetooth key generation is generally based on a Bluetooth PIN, which must be entered
into both devices. This procedure might be modied if
one of the devices has a xed PIN (e.g., for headsets or
similar devices with a restricted user interface). During
pairing, an initialization key or master key is generated,
using the E22 algorithm.[77] The E0 stream cipher is used
for encrypting packets, granting condentiality, and is
based on a shared cryptographic secret, namely a previously generated link key or master key. Those keys, used
for subsequent encryption of data sent via the air interface, rely on the Bluetooth PIN, which has been entered
into one or both devices.
An overview of Bluetooth vulnerabilities exploits was
published in 2007 by Andreas Becker.[78]
In September 2008, the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) published a Guide to Bluetooth Security as a reference for organizations. It describes Bluetooth security capabilities and how to secure Bluetooth technologies eectively. While Bluetooth
has its benets, it is susceptible to denial-of-service attacks, eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle attacks, message modication, and resource misappropriation. Users
and organizations must evaluate their acceptable level
of risk and incorporate security into the lifecycle of
Bluetooth devices. To help mitigate risks, included in
the NIST document are security checklists with guidelines and recommendations for creating and maintaining secure Bluetooth piconets, headsets, and smart card
readers.[79]
Link keys may be stored on the device le system, not

on the Bluetooth chip itself. Many Bluetooth chip manufacturers let link keys be stored on the devicehowever,
if the device is removable, this means that the link key Bluetooth v2.1 nalized in 2007 with consumer devices
rst appearing in 2009 makes signicant changes to
moves with the device.
Bluetooths security, including pairing. See the pairing
mechanisms section for more about these changes.
12.6.5
Air interface
The protocol operates in the license-free ISM band at

2.4022.480 GHz.[76] To avoid interfering with other
protocols that use the 2.45 GHz band, the Bluetooth protocol divides the band into 79 channels (each 1 MHz
wide) and changes channels, generally 1600 times per
second. Implementations with versions 1.1 and 1.2 reach
speeds of 723.1 kbit/s. Version 2.0 implementations feature Bluetooth Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) and reach 2.1
Mbit/s; this comes with a concomitant higher power consumption. In some cases, the higher data rate is expected
to oset this increased drain.
12.7.2 Bluejacking
Main article: Bluejacking
Bluejacking is the sending of either a picture or a message
from one user to an unsuspecting user through Bluetooth
wireless technology. Common applications include short
messages, e.g., You've just been bluejacked!".[80] Bluejacking does not involve the removal or alteration of any
data from the device. Bluejacking can also involve taking control of a mobile device wirelessly and phoning a
56
premium rate line, owned by the bluejacker. Security ad- published results of their actual implementation of pasvances have alleviated this issue.
sive attacks against the PIN-based pairing between commercial Bluetooth devices. They conrmed that attacks
are practicably fast, and the Bluetooth symmetric key establishment method is vulnerable. To rectify this vul12.7.3 History of security concerns
nerability, they designed an implementation that showed
that stronger, asymmetric key establishment is feasible for
20012004
certain classes of devices, such as mobile phones.[88]
In 2001, Jakobsson and Wetzel from Bell Laborato- In June 2005, Yaniv Shaked[89] and Avishai Wool[90] pubries discovered aws in the Bluetooth pairing proto- lished a paper describing both passive and active methods
col and also pointed to vulnerabilities in the encryption for obtaining the PIN for a Bluetooth link. The passive
scheme.[81] In 2003, Ben and Adam Laurie from A.L. attack allows a suitably equipped attacker to eavesdrop on
Digital Ltd. discovered that serious aws in some poor communications and spoof, if the attacker was present at
implementations of Bluetooth security may lead to dis- the time of initial pairing. The active method makes use
closure of personal data.[82] In a subsequent experiment, of a specially constructed message that must be inserted
Martin Herfurt from the trinite.group was able to do at a specic point in the protocol, to make the master
a eld-trial at the CeBIT fairgrounds, showing the im- and slave repeat the pairing process. After that, the rst
portance of the problem to the world. A new attack method can be used to crack the PIN. This attacks macalled BlueBug was used for this experiment.[83] In 2004 jor weakness is that it requires the user of the devices
the rst purported virus using Bluetooth to spread itself under attack to re-enter the PIN during the attack when
among mobile phones appeared on the Symbian OS.[84] the device prompts them to. Also, this active attack probThe virus was rst described by Kaspersky Lab and re- ably requires custom hardware, since most commercially
quires users to conrm the installation of unknown soft- available Bluetooth devices are not capable of the timing
ware before it can propagate. The virus was written as necessary.[91]
a proof-of-concept by a group of virus writers known as
29A and sent to anti-virus groups. Thus, it should be re- In August 2005, police in Cambridgeshire, England, isgarded as a potential (but not real) security threat to Blue- sued warnings about thieves using Bluetooth enabled
tooth technology or Symbian OS since the virus has never phones to track other devices left in cars. Police are adspread outside of this system. In August 2004, a world- vising users to ensure that any mobile networking conif laptops and other devices are
record-setting experiment (see also Bluetooth sniping) nections are de-activated
[92]
left
in
this
way.
showed that the range of Class 2 Bluetooth radios could
be extended to 1.78 km (1.11 mi) with directional antennas and signal ampliers.[85] This poses a potential security threat because it enables attackers to access vul- 2006
nerable Bluetooth devices from a distance beyond expectation. The attacker must also be able to receive infor- In April 2006, researchers from Secure Network and Fmation from the victim to set up a connection. No at- Secure published a report that warns of the large number
tack can be made against a Bluetooth device unless the of devices left in a visible state, and issued statistics on
and the ease of
attacker knows its Bluetooth address and which channels the spread of various Bluetooth services
[93]
spread
of
an
eventual
Bluetooth
worm.
to transmit on, although these can be deduced within a
few minutes if the device is in use.[86]
2007
2005
In October 2007, at the Luxemburgish Hack.lu Security

Conference, Kevin Finistere and Thierry Zoller demonstrated and released a remote root shell via Bluetooth on
Mac OS X v10.3.9 and v10.4. They also demonstrated
the rst Bluetooth PIN and Linkkeys cracker, which is
based on the research of Wool and Shaked.
In January 2005, a mobile malware worm known as

Lasco.A began targeting mobile phones using Symbian
OS (Series 60 platform) using Bluetooth enabled devices
to replicate itself and spread to other devices. The worm
is self-installing and begins once the mobile user approves
the transfer of the le (velasco.sis) from another device.
Once installed, the worm begins looking for other Bluetooth enabled devices to infect. Additionally, the worm 12.7.4 Mitigation
infects other .SIS les on the device, allowing replication to another device through use of removable media Options to mitigate against Bluetooth security attacks
(Secure Digital, Compact Flash, etc.). The worm can ren- include:[94][95]
der the mobile device unstable.[87]
In April 2005, Cambridge University security researchers
Enable Bluetooth only when required
12.11. SEE ALSO
57
Enable Bluetooth discovery only when necessary, most innovative products and applications available toand disable discovery when nished
day, prototypes coming soon, and student-led projects in
the making.
Do not enter link keys or PINs when unexpectedly
prompted to do so
Remove paired devices when not in use
Regularly update rmware on Bluetooth-enabled
devices
12.11 See also

Bluesniping
BlueSoleil proprietary driver
12.8 Health concerns

Main article: Wireless electronic devices and health
Bluetooth uses the microwave radio frequency spectrum
in the 2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz range.[76] Maximum
power output from a Bluetooth radio is 100 mW for class
1, 2.5 mW for class 2, and 1 mW for class 3 devices.
Even the maximum power output of class 1 is a lower
level than the lowest powered mobile phones.[96] UMTS
& W-CDMA outputs 250 mW, GSM1800/1900 outputs
1000 mW, and GSM850/900 outputs 2000 mW.
12.9 Interference caused by USB

3.0
USB 3.0 devices, ports and cables have been proven to interfere with Bluetooth devices due to the electronic noise
they release falling over the same operating band as Bluetooth. The close proximity of Bluetooth and USB 3.0
devices can result in a drop in throughput or complete
connection loss of the Bluetooth device/s connected to a
computer.[97]
Various strategies can be applied to resolve the problem,
ranging from simple solutions such as increasing the distance of USB 3.0 devices from any Bluetooth devices or
purchasing better shielded USB cables. Other solutions
include applying additional shielding to the internal Bluetooth components of a computer.[98]
12.10 Bluetooth award programs

The Bluetooth Innovation World Cup, a marketing initiative of the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), was
an international competition that encouraged the development of innovations for applications leveraging the Bluetooth low energy wireless technology in sports, tness and
health care products. The aim of the competition was to
stimulate new markets.[99]
Bluetooth wireless headsets

Continua Health Alliance
DASH7
iBeacon
Java APIs for Bluetooth
Li-Fi
MyriaNed
Near eld communication
RuBee secure wireless protocol alternative
Tethering
ZigBee low-power lightweight wireless protocol in
the ISM band
12.12 References
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[3] Basics | Bluetooth Technology Website. Bluetooth.com.
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2013.
[5] Bluetooth traveler. hoovers.com. Retrieved 9 April
2010.
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The Bluetooth Innovation World Cup morphed into the

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[15] How Bluetooth Technology Works. Bluetooth SIG.
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[18] BluBear Industrial Long Range Bluetooth 2.1 Module
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[19] OEM Bluetooth Serial Port Module OBS433.
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2013.
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Part 15.1: Wireless Medium Access Control (MAC)
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without ultrawideband. zdnet.co.uk. Retrieved 22 April
2009.
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59
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2009.
[77] Juha T. Vainio (25 May 2000). Bluetooth Security
(PDF). Helsinki University of Technology. Retrieved 1
January 2009.
[78] Andreas Becker (16 August 2007). Bluetooth Security
& Hacks (PDF). Ruhr-Universitt Bochum. Retrieved
10 October 2007.
[79] Scarfone, K., and Padgette, J. (September 2008). Guide
to Bluetooth Security (PDF). National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
[80] John Fuller. What is bluejacking?". howstuworks. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
[81] Security Weaknesses in Bluetooth. RSA Security Conf.
Cryptographers Track. CiteSeerX: 10.1.1.23.7357.
[82] Bluetooth. The Bunker. Archived from the original on
26 January 2007. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
[83] BlueBug. Trinite.org. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
[84] John Oates (15 June 2004). Virus attacks mobiles via
Bluetooth. The Register. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
[85] Long Distance Snarf. Trinite.org. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
[86] Dispelling Common Bluetooth Misconceptions. SANS.
[87] F-Secure Malware Information Pages: Lasco.A. FSecure.com. Retrieved 5 May 2008.
[65] http://www.amiccom.com.tw/
[66] CSR.com. CSR. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
[67] Nordicsemi.com. Nordic Semiconductor. Retrieved 7
April 2011.
[68] TI.com. Texas Instruments. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
[69] iFixit MacBook Air 13 Mid 2011 Teardown.
iFixit.com. Retrieved 27 July 2011.
[70] Broadcom.com BCM20702 Single-Chip Bluetooth
4.0 HCI Solution with Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) Support. Broadcom. Retrieved 27 July 2011.
[71] Press Releases Detail | Bluetooth Technology Website.
Bluetooth.com. 2013-12-04. Retrieved 2014-05-13.
[72] Adopted Specication; Bluetooth Technology Website.
Bluetooth.com. 2013-12-04. Retrieved 2014-05-14.
[73] Redmondpie.
[74] DailyTech.
[75] Stallings, William. (2005). Wireless communications &
networks.'=' Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice
Hall.
[88] Ford-Long Wong, Frank Stajano, Jolyon Clulow (April

2005). Repairing the Bluetooth pairing protocol
(PDF). University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2007. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
[89] http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~{}shakedy
[90] Avishai Wool - " . tau.ac.il. Retrieved 4 June
2015.
[91] Yaniv Shaked, Avishai Wool (2 May 2005). Cracking the
Bluetooth PIN. School of Electrical Engineering Systems, Tel Aviv University. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
[92] Phone pirates in seek and steal mission. Cambridge
Evening News. Archived from the original on 17 July
2007. Retrieved 4 February 2008.
[93] Going Around with Bluetooth in Full Safety (PDF). FSecure. May 2006. Retrieved 4 February 2008.
[94] Marsh, Jennifer. Bluetooth Hacking Understanding
Risks. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
[95] Elaina Chai, Ben Deardor, and Cathy Wu. Hacking
Bluetooth (PDF). Retrieved 26 April 2015.
60
[96] M. Hietanen, T. Alanko (October 2005). Occupational

Exposure Related to Radiofrequency Fields from Wireless
Communication Systems (PDF). XXVIIIth General Assembly of URSI Proceedings. Union Radio-Scientique
Internationale. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2006. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
[97] USB 3.0* Radio Frequency Interference Impact on 2.4 GHz
Wireless Devices (PDF)
[98] A guide to resolving Bluetooth and USB 3.0 interference
issues
[99] Bluetooth Innovation World Cup. Bluetooth.com. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
[100] Bluetooth Breakthrough Awards. bluetooth.org. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
12.13 External links

Ocial website
Specications at Bluetooth SIG
Chapter 13
IEEE 802.16
IEEE 802.16 is a series of wireless broadband standards
written by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The IEEE Standards Board established
a working group in 1999 to develop standards for broadband for wireless metropolitan area networks. The Workgroup is a unit of the IEEE 802 local area network and
metropolitan area network standards committee.
media access control (MAC) layer. This section provides

an overview of the technology employed in these two layers in the mobile 802.16e specication.
13.2.1 PHY
802.16e uses scalable OFDMA to carry data, supporting

channel bandwidths of between 1.25 MHz and 20 MHz,
with up to 2048 subcarriers. It supports adaptive modulation and coding, so that in conditions of good signal, a
highly ecient 64 QAM coding scheme is used, whereas
when the signal is poorer, a more robust BPSK coding mechanism is used. In intermediate conditions, 16
QAM and QPSK can also be employed. Other PHY feaThe 802.16e-2005 amendment version was announced tures include support for multiple-input multiple-output
as being deployed around the world in 2009.[1] The ver- (MIMO) antennas in order to provide good non-linesion IEEE 802.16-2009 was amended by IEEE 802.16j- of-sight propagation (NLOS) characteristics (or higher
2009.
bandwidth) and hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ)
for good error correction performance.
Although the 802.16 family of standards is ocially
called WirelessMAN in IEEE, it has been commercialized under the name "WiMAX" (from Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) by the WiMAX
Forum industry alliance. The Forum promotes and certies compatibility and interoperability of products based
on the IEEE 802.16 standards.
Although the standards allow operation in any band from

2 to 66 GHz, mobile operation is best in the lower bands
which are also the most crowded, and therefore most
Projects publish draft and proposed standards with the expensive.[3]
letter P prexed, which gets dropped and replaced by
a dash and year when the standards are ratied and pub13.2.2 MAC
lished.
13.1 Standards
13.1.1
Projects
The 802.16 MAC describes a number of Convergence

Sublayers which describe how wireline technologies such
as Ethernet, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and
Internet Protocol (IP) are encapsulated on the air interface, and how data is classied, etc. It also describes
how secure communications are delivered, by using secure key exchange during authentication, and encryption
using Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) or Data Encryption Standard (DES) during data transfer. Further
features of the MAC layer include power saving mechanisms (using sleep mode and idle mode) and handover
mechanisms.
A key feature of 802.16 is that it is a connection-oriented

technology. The subscriber station (SS) cannot transmit
data until it has been allocated a channel by the base staThe 802.16 standard essentially standardizes two aspects tion (BS). This allows 802.16e to provide strong support
of the air interface the physical layer (PHY) and the for quality of service (QoS).
13.2 802.16e-2005 Technology
61
62
QoS
Quality of service (QoS) in 802.16e is supported by allocating each connection between the SS and the BS (called
a service ow in 802.16 terminology) to a specic QoS
class. In 802.16e, there are 5 QoS classes:
The BS and the SS use a service ow with an appropriate QoS class (plus other parameters, such as bandwidth
and delay) to ensure that application data receives QoS
treatment appropriate to the application.
CHAPTER 13. IEEE 802.16
13.6 External links

The IEEE 802.16 Working Group on Broadband
Wireless Access Standards. Ocial web site.
802.16: Broadband Wireless MANs. Get IEEE
802 ocial standards download.
IEEE Std 802.16-2004
IEEE Std 802.16e-2005
IEEE Std 802.16-2009
IEEE Std 802.16-2012
13.3 Certication
Because the IEEE only sets specications but does not
test equipment for compliance with them, the WiMAX
Forum runs a certication program wherein members pay
for certication. WiMAX certication by this group is
intended to guarantee compliance with the standard and
interoperability with equipment from other manufacturers. The mission of the Forum is to promote and certify
compatibility and interoperability of broadband wireless
products.
13.4 See also

WiBro
WiMAX
WiBAS
WiMAX MIMO
Wireless mesh network
4G LTE
13.5 References
[1] WiMAX operators and vendors from around the world
announce new deployments, growing commitments at the
2nd Annual WiMAX Forum Global Congress. News
release (WiMAX Forum). June 4, 2009. Retrieved August 20, 2011.
[2] IEEE Approves IEEE 802.16m Advanced Mobile
Broadband Wireless Standard. News release (IEEE Standards Association). March 31, 2011. Retrieved August
20, 2011.
[3] Michael Richardson; Patrick Ryan (March 19, 2006).
WiMAX: Opportunity or Hype?". Advances in Telecom: Proceedings of the Fourth Annual ITERA Conference. SSRN 892260.
IEEE Std 802.16.1-2012

The WiMAX Forum
The implications of WiMAX for competition and
regulation A paper of the OECD, Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development
IEEE 802.16m Technology Introduction
Chapter 14
Wireless broadband
This article is about wireless networking in general. For
local area network technologies, see Wireless LAN. For
mobile Internet, see Mobile broadband.
Wireless broadband is technology that provides high-
A typical WISP Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) installed on

a residence
Three xed wireless dishes with (protective covers) on top of 307

W. 7th Street, Fort Worth, Texas around 2001
speed wireless Internet access or computer networking

access over a wide area.
is most commonly associated with xed wireless networks. A xed wireless network link is a stationary ter14.1 The term broadband
restrial wireless connection, which can support higher
data rates for the same power as mobile or satellite sysOriginally the word "broadband" had a technical mean- tems.
ing, but became a marketing term for any kind of rel- Few wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) provide
atively high-speed computer network or Internet access download speeds of over 100 Mbit/s; most broadband
technology. According to the 802.16-2004 standard, wireless access (BWA) services are estimated to have a
broadband means having instantaneous bandwidths range of 50 km (31 mi) from a tower.[2] Technologies
greater than 1 MHz and supporting data rates greater than used include LMDS and MMDS, as well as heavy use of
about 1.5 Mbit/s.[1]
the ISM bands and one particular access technology was
standardized by IEEE 802.16, with products known as
WiMAX.[3]
14.2 Technology and speeds

Wireless networks can feature data rates roughly equivalent to some wired networks, such as that of asymmetric
digital subscriber line (ADSL) or a cable modem. Wireless networks can also be symmetrical, meaning the same
rate in both directions (downstream and upstream), which
WiMAX is highly popular in Europe but has not met

full acceptance in the United States because cost of deployment does not meet return on investment gures. In
2005 the Federal Communications Commission adopted
a Report and Order that revised the FCCs rules to open
the 3650 MHz band for terrestrial wireless broadband
operations.[3]
63
64
14.3 Development of Wireless

Broadband in the United
States
On November 14, 2007 the Commission released Public
Notice DA 07-4605 in which the Wireless Telecommunications Bureau announced the start date for licensing
and registration process for the 36503700 MHz band.[4]
In 2010 the FCC adopted the TV White Space Rules
(TVWS) and allowed some of the better no line of sight
frequency (700 MHz) into the FCC Part-15 Rules.[5] The
Wireless Internet Service Providers Association, a national association of WISPs, petitioned the FCC and won.
CHAPTER 14. WIRELESS BROADBAND

appeared broadcasters would have to give up at least some
spectrum. This led to strong objections from the broadcasting community. In 2013, auctions are planned, and
for now any action by broadcasters is voluntary.
14.4 Mobile wireless broadband

Called mobile broadband, wireless broadband technologies include services from mobile phone service providers
such as Verizon Wireless, Sprint Corporation, and AT&T
Mobility,and T-Mobile which allow a more mobile version of Internet access. Consumers can purchase a PC
card, laptop card, or USB equipment to connect their PC
or laptop to the Internet via cell phone towers. This type
of connection would be stable in almost any area that
could also receive a strong cell phone connection. These
connections can cost more for portable convenience as
well as having speed limitations in all but urban environments.
Initially, WISPs were only found in rural areas not covered by cable or DSL.[6] These early WISPs would employ a high-capacity T-carrier, such as a T1 or DS3 connection, and then broadcast the signal from a high elevation, such as at the top of a water tower. To receive
this type of Internet connection, consumers mount a small
dish to the roof of their home or oce and point it to the
transmitter. Line of sight is usually necessary for WISPs
operating in the 2.4 and 5 GHz bands with 900 MHz of- On June 2, 2010, after months of discussion, AT&T became the rst wireless Internet provider in the USA to
fering better NLOS (non-line-of-sight) performance.
announce plans to charge according to usage. As the
only iPhone service in the United States, AT&T experienced the problem of heavy Internet use more than other
14.3.1 Residential Wireless Internet
providers. About 3 percent of AT&T smart phone cusProviders of xed wireless broadband services typically tomers account for 40 percent of the technologys use.
provide equipment to customers and install a small an- 98 percent of the companys customers use less than 2
tenna or dish somewhere on the roof. This equipment is gigabytes (4000 page views, 10,000 emails or 200 minusually deployed as a service and maintained by the com- utes of streaming video), the limit under the $25 monthly
pany providing that service. Fixed wireless services have plan, and 65 percent use less than 200 megabytes, the
become particularly popular in many rural areas where limit for the $15 plan. For each gigabyte in excess of
Cable, DSL or other typical home Internet services are the limit, customers would be charged $10 a month starting June 7, 2010, though existing customers would not be
not available.
required to change from the $30 a month unlimited service plan. The new plan would become a requirement for
14.3.2 Business Wireless Internet
those upgrading to the new iPhone technology later in the
summer.[7]
Many companies in the US and worldwide have started
using wireless alternatives to incumbent and local
providers for internet and voice service. These providers
tend to oer competitive services and options in areas
where there is a diculty getting aordable Ethernet 14.5 Licensing
connections from terrestrial providers such as ATT, Comcast, Verizon and others. Also, companies looking for A wireless connection can be either licensed or unlifull diversity between carriers for critical uptime require- censed. In the US, licensed connections use a private
ments may seek wireless alternatives to local options.
spectrum the user has secured rights to from the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC). In other countries,
spectrum is licensed from the countrys national radio
14.3.3 Demand for spectrum
communications authority (such as the ACMA in Australia or Nigerian Communications Commission in NigeMain article: Spectrum reallocation
ria (NCC)). Licensing is usually expensive and often reserved for large companies who wish to guarantee private
To cope with increased demand for wireless broadband, access to spectrum for use in point to point communicaincreased spectrum would be needed. Studies began in tion. Because of this, most wireless ISPs use unlicensed
2009, and while some unused spectrum was available, it spectrum which is publicly shared.
65
14.6 See also

Clearwire
CorDECT
HIPERMAN
Skyriver, provider in California
WiBro, provider in South Korea
iBurst
802.20
Connect card
Policies promoting wireless broadband
14.7 References
[1] Coexistence of Fixed Broadband Wireless Access Systems
[2] WiMAX: Broadband Wireless Access.
planet.com. Retrieved March 17, 2008.
wi-
[3] REPORT AND ORDER Released: March 16, 2005

(PDF). Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved
March 17, 2008.
[4] PUBLIC NOTICE Released: November 14, 2007
(PDF). Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved
March 17, 2008.
[5] Alex Goldman. The FCC Decision and the Use of White
Spaces. Wireless Internet Service Providers Association.
Retrieved July 16, 2011.
[6] A WISP with Vision.
March 17, 2008.
wi-planet.com.
Retrieved
[7] Bartash, Jerey (June 3, 2010). AT&T rst carrier to end

unlimited data plans. MarketWatch. Retrieved 2010-0603.
14.8 External links

Wireless Internet Service Provider Association
Chapter 15
IEEE 802
IEEE 802 refers to a family of IEEE standards dealing
with local area networks and metropolitan area networks.
15.3 References
IEEE Std 802-1990: IEEE Standards for Local and
Metropolitan Networks: Overview and Architecture
New York:1990
More specically, the IEEE 802 standards are restricted

to networks carrying variable-size packets. By contrast,
in cell relay networks data are transmitted in short, uniformly sized units called cells. Isochronous networks,
where data are transmitted as a steady stream of octets, or
groups of octets, at regular time intervals, are also out of
the scope of this standard. The number 802 was simply
the next free number IEEE could assign,[1] though 802
is sometimes associated with the date the rst meeting
was held February 1980.
The services and protocols specied in IEEE 802 map
to the lower two layers (Data Link and Physical) of the
seven-layer OSI networking reference model. In fact,
IEEE 802 splits the OSI Data Link Layer into two sublayers named Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC), so that the layers can be listed like
this:
[1] Overview and Guide to the IEEE 802 LMSC (PDF).

September 2004. Retrieved January 11, 2012. The
project number, 802, was simply the next number in the
sequence being issued by the IEEE for standards project
[2] 802.3. Data Communincation Standards and Protocols.
EE Herald. Retrieved 2012-01-25.
[3] The fate of 100 Mbps Ethernet now denitely two-fold.
FDDI News (Boston: Information Gatekeepers, Inc.) 4
(7): 12. July 1993. ISSN 1051-1903. Retrieved 201311-21.
15.4 External links

802 Committee website
Data link layer
IEEE 802 Standards
LLC Sublayer
Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968-1988
MAC Sublayer
Physical layer
The IEEE 802 family of standards is maintained by the
IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee (LMSC).
The most widely used standards are for the Ethernet family, Token Ring, Wireless LAN, Bridging and Virtual
Bridged LANs. An individual Working Group provides
the focus for each area.
15.1 Working groups

15.2 See also
Computer network
66
Chapter 16
Media access control

half-duplex retransmission and backo functions
In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, media access control (MAC) data communication
protocol is a sublayer of the data link layer (layer 2).
The MAC sublayer provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms that make it possible for several terminals or network nodes to communicate within
a multiple access network that incorporates a shared
medium, e.g. an Ethernet network. The hardware that
implements the MAC is referred to as a media access controller.
append/check FCS (frame check sequence)

interframe gap enforcement
discard malformed frames
prepend(tx)/remove(rx) preamble, SFD (start frame
delimiter), and padding
The MAC sublayer acts as an interface between the

logical link control (LLC) sublayer and the networks
physical layer. The MAC layer emulates a full-duplex
logical communication channel in a multi-point network.
This channel may provide unicast, multicast or broadcast
communication service.
half-duplex compatibility: append(tx)/remove(rx)

MAC address
16.2 Addressing mechanism

16.1 Functions performed in the
MAC sublayer
According to IEEE Std 802-2001 section 6.2.3 MAC
sublayer, the primary functions performed by the MAC
layer are:[1]
Frame delimiting and recognition
Addressing of destination stations (both as individual stations and as groups of stations)
Conveyance of source-station addressing information
Transparent data transfer of LLC PDUs, or of
equivalent information in the Ethernet sublayer
Protection against errors, generally by means of generating and checking frame check sequences
The local network addresses used in IEEE 802 networks

and FDDI networks are called MAC addresses; they are
based on the addressing scheme used in early Ethernet
implementations. A MAC address is a unique serial number. Once a MAC address has been assigned to a particular network interface (typically at time of manufacture),
that device should be uniquely identiable amongst all
other network devices in the world. This guarantees that
each device in a network will have a dierent MAC address (analogous to a street address). This makes it possible for data packets to be delivered to a destination within
a subnetwork, i.e. hosts interconnected by some combination of repeaters, hubs, bridges and switches, but not
by network layer routers. Thus, for example, when an
IP packet reaches its destination (sub)network, the destination IP address (a layer 3 or network layer concept) is
resolved with the Address Resolution Protocol for IPv4,
or by Neighbor Discovery Protocol (IPv6) into the MAC
address (a layer 2 concept) of the destination host.
Control of access to the physical transmission

Examples of physical networks are Ethernet networks and
medium
Wi-Fi networks, both of which are IEEE 802 networks
In the case of Ethernet, according to 802.3-2002 section and use IEEE 802 48-bit MAC addresses.
4.1.4, the functions required of a MAC are:[2]
receive/transmit normal frames
A MAC layer is not required in full-duplex point-to-point

communication, but address elds are included in some
point-to-point protocols for compatibility reasons.
67
68
CHAPTER 16. MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL
16.3 Channel access control mech- 16.5 See also

anism
List of channel access methods
The channel access control mechanisms provided by the

MAC layer are also known as a multiple access protocol. This makes it possible for several stations connected to the same physical medium to share it. Examples of shared physical media are bus networks, ring networks, hub networks, wireless networks and half-duplex
point-to-point links. The multiple access protocol may
detect or avoid data packet collisions if a packet mode
contention based channel access method is used, or reserve resources to establish a logical channel if a circuitswitched or channelization-based channel access method
is used. The channel access control mechanism relies on
a physical layer multiplex scheme.
MAC-Forced Forwarding
Isochronous media access controller
16.6 References
[1] IEEE 802-2001 (R2007) IEEE Standard for Local and
Metropolitan Area Networks: Overview and Architecture (PDF). IEEE.
[2] IEEE 802.3. IEEE.
This article is based on material taken from the Free OnThe most widespread multiple access protocol is the con- line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008
tention based CSMA/CD protocol used in Ethernet net- and incorporated under the relicensing terms of the
works. This mechanism is only utilized within a network GFDL, version 1.3 or later.
collision domain, for example an Ethernet bus network or
a hub-based star topology network. An Ethernet network
may be divided into several collision domains, interconnected by bridges and switches.
A multiple access protocol is not required in a switched
full-duplex network, such as todays switched Ethernet
networks, but is often available in the equipment for compatibility reasons.
16.4 Common multiple access protocols

Examples of common statistical time division multiplexing multiple access protocols for wired multi-drop networks are:
CSMA/CD (used in Ethernet and IEEE 802.3)
Token bus (IEEE 802.4)
Token ring (IEEE 802.5)
Token passing (used in FDDI)
Examples of common multiple access protocols that may
be used in packet radio wireless networks are:
CSMA/CA (used in IEEE 802.11/WiFi WLANs)
Slotted ALOHA
Dynamic TDMA
Reservation ALOHA (R-ALOHA)
Mobile Slotted Aloha (MS-ALOHA)
CDMA
OFDMA
Chapter 17
Logical link control

In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking,
the logical link control (LLC) data communication protocol layer is the upper sublayer of the data link layer,
which is itself layer 2. The LLC sublayer provides
multiplexing mechanisms that make it possible for several network protocols (IP, IPX, Decnet and Appletalk) to
coexist within a multipoint network and to be transported
over the same network medium. It can also provide ow
control and automatic repeat request (ARQ) error management mechanisms.
The LLC sublayer acts as an interface between the media
access control (MAC) sublayer and the network layer.
17.1 Operation
The LLC sublayer is primarily concerned with:
Multiplexing protocols transmitted over the MAC
layer (when transmitting) and decoding them (when
receiving).
An LLC sublayer was a key component in early packet

switching networks such as X.25 networks with the LAPB
data link layer protocol, where ow control and error
management were carried out in a node-to-node fashion,
meaning that if an error was detected in a frame, the
frame was retransmitted from one switch to next instead.
This extensive handshaking between the nodes made the
networks slow.
17.2.2 Local area network (LAN) and

metropolitan area network (MAN)
protocols
The IEEE 802.2 standard species the LLC sublayer
for all IEEE 802 local area networks, such as IEEE
802.3/Ethernet (if the EtherType eld is not used), IEEE
802.5, and IEEE 802.11. IEEE 802.2 is also used in some
non-IEEE 802 networks such as FDDI.
Ethernet
Providing node-to-node ow and error control

In todays networks, ow control and error management is
typically taken care of by a transport layer protocol such
as TCP, or by some application layer protocol, in an endto-end fashion, i.e. retransmission is done from source
to end destination. This implies that the need for LLC
sublayer ow control and error management has reduced.
LLC is consequently only a multiplexing feature in todays link layer protocols. An LLC header tells the data
link layer what to do with a packet once a frame is received. It works like this: A host will receive a frame and
look in the LLC header to nd out to what protocol stack
the packet is destined - for example, the IP protocol at
the network layer or IPX. However, today most non-IP
network protocols are abandoned.
17.2 Application examples
17.2.1 X.25 and LAPB
Since bit errors are very rare in wired networks, Ethernet

does not provide ow control or automatic repeat request
(ARQ), meaning that incorrect packets are detected but
only cancelled, not retransmitted (except in case of collisions detected by the CSMA/CD MAC layer protocol).
Instead, retransmissions rely on higher layer protocols.
As the EtherType in an Ethernet frame using Ethernet II
framing is used to multiplex dierent protocols on top of
the Ethernet MAC header it can be seen as an LLC identier. However, Ethernet frames lacking an EtherType
have no LLC identier in the Ethernet header, and, instead, use an IEEE 802.2 LLC header after the Ethernet
header to provide the protocol multiplexing function.
Wireless LAN
In wireless communications, bit errors are very common.
In wireless networks such as IEEE 802.11, ow control
and error management is part of the CSMA/CA MAC
69
70
CHAPTER 17. LOGICAL LINK CONTROL
protocol, and not part of the LLC layer. The LLC sublayer follows the IEEE 802.2 standard.
17.2.3
HDLC
Some non-IEEE 802 protocols can be thought of as being split into MAC and LLC layers. For example, while
HDLC species both MAC functions (framing of packets) and LLC functions (protocol multiplexing, ow control, detection, and error control through a retransmission
of dropped packets when indicated), some protocols such
as Cisco HDLC can use HDLC-like packet framing and
their own LLC protocol.
17.2.4
PPP and modems
Over telephone network modems, PPP link layer protocols can be considered as a LLC protocol, providing multiplexing, but it does not provide ow control and error
management. In a telephone network, bit errors might
be common, meaning that error management is crucial,
but that is today provided by modern protocols. Todays
modem protocols have inherited LLC features from the
older LAPM link layer protocol, made for modem communication in old X.25 networks.
17.2.5
Cellular systems
The GPRS LLC layer also does ciphering and deciphering of SN-PDU (SNDCP) packets.
17.2.6
Power lines
Another example of a data link layer which is split between LLC (for ow and error control) and MAC (for
multiple access) is the ITU-T G.hn standard, which
provides high-speed local area networking over existing
home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables).
17.3 See also

Virtual Circuit Multiplexing (VC-MUX)
Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP)
Chapter 18
HiperLAN
HiperLAN (High Performance Radio LAN) is a
supports asynchronous and synchronous trac
Wireless LAN standard.[1] It is a European alternative for
Bit rate - 23.2 Mbit/s
the IEEE 802.11 standards (the IEEE is an international
organization). It is dened by the European Telecommu Description- Wireless Ethernet
nications Standards Institute (ETSI). In ETSI the stan Frequency range- 5 GHz
dards are dened by the BRAN project (Broadband Radio Access Networks). The HiperLAN standard family
HiperLAN does not conict with microwave and other
has four dierent versions.
kitchen appliances, which are on 2.4 GHz. An innovative feature of HIPERLAN 1, which may other wireless
networks do not oer, is its ability to forward data pack18.1 HiperLAN/1
ets using several relays. Relays can extend the communication on the MAC layer beyond the radio range. For
Planning for the rst version of the standard, called power conservation, a node may set up a specic wake up
HiperLAN/1, started 1991, when planning of 802.11 was pattern. This pattern determines at what time the node is
already going on. The goal of the HiperLAN was the high ready to receive, so that at other times, the node can turn
data rate, higher than 802.11. The standard was approved o its receiver and save energy. These nodes are called pin 1996. The functional specication is EN300652, the savers and need so called p-supporters that contain information about wake up patterns of all the p-savers they are
rest is in ETS300836.
responsible for. A p-supporter only forwards data to a pThe standard covers the Physical layer and the Media Acsaver at the moment p-saver is awake. This action also recess Control part of the Data link layer like 802.11. There
quires buering mechanisms for packets on p-supporting
is a new sublayer called Channel Access and Control subforwaders.
layer (CAC). This sublayer deals with the access requests
to the channels. The accomplishing of the request is dependent on the usage of the channel and the priority of
18.2 HiperLAN/2
the request.
CAC layer provides hierarchical independence with
Elimination-Yield Non-Preemptive Multiple Access
mechanism (EY-NPMA). EY-NPMA codes priority
choices and other functions into one variable length radio
pulse preceding the packet data. EY-NPMA enables
the network to function with few collisions even though
there would be a large number of users. Multimedia
applications work in HiperLAN because of EY-NPMA
priority mechanism. MAC layer denes protocols for
routing, security and power saving and provides naturally
data transfer to the upper layers.
HiperLAN/2 functional specication was accomplished

February 2000. Version 2 is designed as a fast wireless
connection for many kinds of networks. Those are UMTS
back bone network, ATM and IP networks. Also it works
as a network at home like HiperLAN/1. HiperLAN/2
uses the 5 GHz band and up to 54 Mbit/s data rate.[1]
The physical layer of HiperLAN/2 is very similar to

IEEE 802.11a wireless local area networks. However,
the media access control (the multiple access protocol)
is Dynamic TDMA in HiperLAN/2, while CSMA/CA is
On the physical layer FSK and GMSK modulations are used in 802.11a/n.
used in HiperLAN/1.
Basic services in HiperLAN/2 are data, sound, and video
transmission. The emphasis is in the quality of these serHiperLAN features:
vices (QoS).[1]
range 50 m
slow mobility (1.4 m/s)
The standard covers Physical, Data Link Control and

Convergence layers. Convergence layer takes care of service dependent functionality between DLC and Network
71
72
CHAPTER 18. HIPERLAN
layer (OSI 3). Convergence sublayers can be used also

on the physical layer to connect IP, ATM or UMTS networks. This feature makes HiperLAN/2 suitable for the
wireless connection of various networks.
On the physical layer BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM or 64QAM
modulations are used.
HiperLAN/2 oers security measures. The data are secured with DES or Triple DES algorithms. The wireless
access point and the wireless terminal can authenticate
each other.
Most important worldwide manufacturers of HiperLAN/2 are Alvarion (Israel), Freescale (USA), Panasonic
(Japan).[2]
18.3 Failure in the Market

Due to competition from IEEE 802.11, which was
simpler to implement and made it faster to the
market, HiperLAN never received much commercial
implementation.[3] Much of the work on HiperLAN/2
has survived in the PHY specication for IEEE 802.11a,
which is nearly identical to the PHY of HiperLAN/2.
HIPERACCESS was intended as a last-mile technology. HIPERLINK was intended as a short-range pointto-point technology at 155 Mbit/s.
18.4 See also

HiperMAN
18.5 References
[1] About HiperLAN/2.
2008-02-20.
palowireless.com.
Retrieved
[2] HiperLAN/2 prototype. s2p.de/Sysadmin. Retrieved

2002-11-19.
[3] Wolter Lemstra, Vic Hayes, John Groenewegen (December 27, 2010). The innovation journey of Wi-Fi: the road
to global success. Cambridge University Press. p. 432.
ISBN 0-521-19971-9.
Chapter 19
Ubiquiti Networks
Ubiquiti Networks is an American technology company
started in 2005. Based in San Jose, California they are a
manufacturer of wireless products whose primary focus
is on under-served and emerging markets.
year gave rise to airMAX, Ubiquitis proprietary MIMO

TDMA polling technology. The new protocol presented
an entire lineup of radio/antenna systems, building on the
802.11 b/g series, including the Rocket M. Shortly before
the end of 2009, Ubiquiti announced the NanoBridge M
and AirGrid M.
19.1 History
Over the course of 2010, airMAX World Conferences

were held in Europe, Asia, and North and South America, including San Jose, where Ubiquiti headquarters are
located. More products, including the AirWire, WiStation and Power AP N, were released. Ubiquiti also began supporting airMAX products for the 900 MHz and
3 GHz bands. In the fourth quarter, Ubiquiti announced
its TOUGHCable, AirSync technology and UniFi indoor
wireless system. Using GPS technology, AirSync effectively eliminated AP interference experienced by colocated APs. Nominated by fellow wireless companies at
WISPAPALOOZA 2010, Ubiquiti won awards for best
manufacturer as well as product of the year.[4] In 2010
and 2011, Ubiquiti Networks was chosen as the WISPA
Manufacturer of the Year.[4] [5]
Ubiquiti Networks entered the wireless technology market in June 2005, after announcing its Super Range
mini-PCI radio card series. The SR2 and SR5 cards
were adopted by original equipment manufacturers and
wireless Internet service providers. Customers included
WRAP, Soekris, and Mikrotik. Operating at the 2.4 and
5.8 GHz bands, the Super Range modules used the
Atheros integrated circuits.[1]
In January 2006, Ubiquiti Networks announced Freedom
Frequency, which used frequencies as high as 60 GHz
on its radio modules. This encouraged the release of the
SR9, a separate card operating at 900 MHz non-standard
IEEE 802.11 band.
In 2011, Ubiquiti released new antennas for its M series

devices as well as new models for the NanoBridge series.
In August, outdoor and mini UniFi APs were announced,
as well as AirCam/AirVision, an IP camera/NVR software. For a second consecutive year, Ubiquiti received
the WISPA Manufacturer of the Year award. During
October, Ubiquiti announced: Rocket/Bullet Titanium, a
Rocket M5 with Gigabit Ethernet ports, TOUGHSwitch,
a POE switch, EdgeMAX powered by EdgeOS, a routing
Ubiquiti Networks introduced the PowerStation in May platform based on Vyatta, UniFi and AirCam Pro series,
2007, its rst product to feature an integrated ra- as well as AirControl, management-software for Ubiquiti
dio/antenna design, In the same year, Ubiquiti released equipment.
more XR cards for the licensed bands to deal with con- At their 2012 Chicago AWC, Pera unveiled a new 24
gestion seen in the 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz bands. The GHz radio platform called AirFiber. AirFiber is able to
company received attention in August 2007 when a group achieve speeds of up to 1.4 Gbit/s of aggregate speed.
of Italian amateur radio operators set a distance world
record for point-to-point links in the 5.8 GHz spectrum.
Using two XR5 cards and a pair of 35 dBi dish antennas,
the Italian team was able to establish a 304 km (about 188 19.2 Voice over IP
mi) link at data rates between 4-5 Mbit/s.[3]
After extending the supported frequencies to the 4.9 GHz
band with the SR4 card, Ubiquiti announced the Xtreme
Range series featuring two more mini-PCI cards, the
XR2 and XR5. Robert J. Pera, CEO of Ubiquiti, attributed improvements to sensitivity, temperature rating
and noise immunity to the customer interactions and
shared eld testing experiences as well as real world
scenarios using the Linux kernel MadWi driver.[2]
In 2008, Ubiquiti announced additions to its 802.11 b/g In July of 2014 Ubiquiti announced its entry into the
lineup, including the Bullet, NanoStation, NanoStation Voice over IP business by unveiling new UniFi systems.
Loco, PicoStation and RouterStation. The following This new line of phones will come in three varieties: a
73
74
basic model starting at $149 set to ship in late 2014 and
-Pro and a -Executive models to ship shortly after. The
systems will run a version of Android. All of the phones
include a 5-inch touchscreen that allows for videochatting and access to the Google Play Store. The -Pro and
-Executive models are Wi-Fi equipped enabling them
to operate without having to run Ethernet cables to all
phones, but are not wireless because power cables are still
needed. All are Power over Ethernet enabled. All of the
phones can be managed in the free-with-purchase UniFi
controller that already manages the Uni-Fi Wireless Access Point line.
CHAPTER 19. UBIQUITI NETWORKS
19.5.1 Accusations Regarding Crooks Utilizing Hacked AirOS Routers for

Cybercrime
It was reported by online reporter, Brian Krebs, on June

15, 2015, that [12] Recently, researchers at the Fujitsu
Security Operations Center in Warrington, UK began
tracking [the] Upatre [trojan software] being served from
hundreds of compromised home routers particularly
routers powered by MikroTik and Ubiquitis AirOS.
Bryan Campbell of the Fujitsu Security Operations Center in Warrington, UK reported, "We have seen literally hundreds of wireless access points, and routers connected in relation to this botnet, usually AirOS, said
Bryan Campbell, lead threat intelligence analyst at Fujitsu. The consistency in which the botnet is communi19.3 Stock market
cating with compromised routers in relation to both distribution and communication leads us to believe known
vulnerabilities are being exploited in the rmware which
On October 13, 2011, Ubiquiti Networks had its initial
allows this to occur.
public oering (IPO) at 7.04 million shares, $15 per
[6]
share. Most of the shares were from existing stockholders, so the company raised only $30.5 million.[7]
19.6 References
19.4 Software
AirOS is the rmware maintained by Ubiquiti Networks
for their products. It is Linux-based but features a modied MadWi Linux kernel device driver for Atherosbased Wireless LAN devices, rather than the free and
open source Atheros-based ath5k or ath9k drivers, the
drivers accepted into the Linux kernel. The PicoStation M2, Bullet M2/M5, NanoStation M2/M5, Rocket
M2/M5, and UniFi AP models are also used as a basis
for Commotion Wireless networks, with the customized
Commotion software installed.[8]
19.5 Security
[1] Ubiquiti Networks announces hi-power SuperRange2

and SuperRange5 mini-PCI modules | Ubiquiti Networks,
Inc. Ubnt.com. Archived from the original on 9 March
2010. Retrieved 2012-12-22.
[2] Ubiquitis 600mW WiFi cards.
2007-02-08. Retrieved 2012-12-22.
dailywireless.org.
[3] World Record 304km Wi-Fi connection. Gizmag.com.

[4] http://web.archive.org/web/20111108031214/http:
//www.wispa.org/?p=5138
[5] http://goarticles.com/article/
Wireless-Solutions-Ubiquiti/7118730/
[6] Ubiquiti Networks IPO Priced To Work At $15?". Seeking Alpha. Retrieved 2012-12-22.
[7] Annual report for scal year ended June 30, 2012. Form
10-K. US Securities and Exchange Commission. September 21, 2012. Retrieved October 16, 2013.
[8] Supported Devices. Commotionwireless.net. Retrieved
9 November 2014.
In 2013, it was discovered that there was a security issue in the version of the U-Boot boot loader shipped on [9] AirOS and Security DUMP of conguration les with
TFTP or other thing
Ubiquitis devices. It was possible to extract the plaintext
conguration from the device without leaving a trace us- [10] GPL archive missing components
ing TFTP and an Ethernet cable, revealing information
such as passwords.[9] While this issue is xed in current [11] Four ways Ubiquiti Networks is creatively violating the
GPL. Archived from the original on 7 April 2015.
versions of Ubiquiti hardware, despite many requests and
acknowledging that they are using this GPL-protected ap[12] Crooks Use Hacked Routers to Aid Cyberheists.
plication, Ubiquiti refuses to provide the source code for
the GPL-licensed U-Boot.[10][11] This made it impossible (in practical terms) for Ubiquitis customers to x the
issue.[10]
Chapter 20
Evolved HSPA
tiple carriers with Dual-Cell HSDPA and 4-way MIMO
together simultaneously.[1][2]
The technology also delivers signicant battery life
improvements and dramatically quicker wake-from-idle
time delivering a true always-on connection. HSPA+
should not be confused with LTE, which uses a new air
interface based on OFDMA technology. HSPA+ is an
evolution of HSPA that upgrades the existing 3G network and provides a method for telecom operators to migrate towards 4G speeds without deploying a new radio
interface.[3]
HSPA+ sign shown in notication bar on an Android-based

smartphone.
HSPA+, or Evolved High-Speed Packet Access, is a

technical standard for wireless, broadband telecommunication. HSPA+ enhances the widely used WCDMA
(UMTS) based 3G networks with higher speeds for the
end user that are comparable to the newer LTE networks.
HSPA+ was rst dened in the technical standard 3GPP
release 7 and expanded further in later releases.
20.2 All-IP architecture
A attened all-IP architecture is an option for the network

within HSPA+. In this architecture, the base stations
connect to the network via IP (often Ethernet providing the transmission) bypassing legacy elements for the
users data connections. This makes the network faster
In the United States, it is commonly available under and cheaper to deploy and operate. The legacy archiAT&T Mobility and T-Mobile US.
tecture is still permitted with the Evolved HSPA and is
likely to exist for several years after adoption of the other
aspects of HSPA+ (higher modulation, multiple streams
etc.).
20.1 Speeds
HSPA+ provides an evolution of High Speed Packet Access and provides data rates up to 168 Megabits per second (Mbit/s) to the mobile device (downlink) and 22
Mbit/s from the mobile device (uplink). Technically
these are achieved through the use of a multiple-antenna
technique known as MIMO (for multiple-input and
multiple-output) and higher order modulation (64QAM)
or combining multiple cells into one with a technique
known as Dual-Cell HSDPA.
This 'at architecture' connects the 'user plane' directly

from the base station to the GGSN external gateway, using any available link technology supporting TCP/IP. The
denition can be found in 3GPP TR25.999. The users
data ow bypasses the Radio Network Controller (RNC)
and the SGSN of the previous 3GPP UMTS architecture
versions thus simplifying the architecture, reducing costs
and delays. This is nearly identical to the 3GPP Long
Term Evolution (LTE) at architecture as dened in the
3GPP standard Rel-8. The changes allow cost eective
modern link layer technologies such as xDSL or Ethernet and is no longer tied to the more expensive and rigid
requirements of the older standard of SONET/SDH and
E1/T1 infrastructure.
The 168 Mbit/s and 22 Mbit/s represent theoretical peak

speeds. The actual speed for a user will be lower. In general, HSPA+ oers higher bitrates only in very good radio conditions (very close to cell tower) or if the terminal
and network both support either MIMO or Dual-Cell HS- There are no changes to the 'control plane'.
DPA, which eectively use two parallel transmit channels Nokia Siemens Networks Internet HSPA or I-HSPA is
with dierent technical implementations.
the rst commercial solution implementing the Evolved
The higher 168 Mbit/s speeds are achieved by using mul- HSPA attened all-IP architecture.[4]
75
76
CHAPTER 20. EVOLVED HSPA
20.3 Deployment
Main article: List of HSPA+ networks
Huawei HSPA+
HSPA+ Upgrade in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka; Local 28.8 Mbit/s downlink HSPA trial
a 'success
20.4 See also

Comparison of wireless data standards
High Speed Packet Access
High-Speed Downlink Packet Access
High-Speed Uplink Packet Access
List of UMTS networks
List of HSDPA networks
List of HSUPA networks
List of HSPA+ networks
20.5 References
[1] Klas Johansson, Johan Bergman, Dirk Gerstenberger,
Mats Blomgren and Anders Walln (28 January 2009).
Multi-Carrier HSPA Evolution (PDF). Ericsson.com.
[2] White paper Long Term HSPA Evolution Mobile broadband evolution beyond 3GPP Release 10 (PDF). Nokiaslemensnetworks.com. 14 December 2010. Retrieved
2014-06-01.
[3] Ericsson Review #1 2009 - Continued HSPA Evolution
of mobile broadband (PDF). Ericsson.com. 27 January
2009. Retrieved 2014-06-01.
[4]
20.6 External links

3GPP
Free download of 3GPP standards available at
3GPP Specications Home Page
ETSI GSM UMTS 3GPP Numbering Cross
Reference
HSPA LTE Link Budget Comparison
Public HSPA Discussion Forum
Nokia HSPA
EDGE, HSPA & LTE
QUALCOMM to Deliver 28 Mbps Mobile Broadband with HSPA+
HSPA now ocially 4G
Chapter 21
W-CDMA (UMTS)
21.1 Development
In the late 1990s, W-CDMA was developed by NTT DoCoMo as the air interface for their 3G network FOMA.
Later NTT DoCoMo submitted the specication to the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as a candidate for the international 3G standard known as IMT2000. The ITU eventually accepted W-CDMA as part of
the IMT-2000 family of 3G standards, as an alternative
to CDMA2000, EDGE, and the short range DECT system. Later, W-CDMA was selected as an air interface
for UMTS.
As NTT DoCoMo did not wait for the nalisation of the
3G Release 99 specication, their network was initially
incompatible with UMTS.[3] However, this has been resolved by NTT DoCoMo updating their network.
3G sign shown in notication bar on an Android powered smartphone.
W-CDMA or WCDMA (Wideband Code Division

Multiple Access), along with UMTS-FDD, UTRAFDD, or IMT-2000 CDMA Direct Spread is an air
interface standard found in 3G mobile telecommunications networks. It supports conventional cellular voice,
text and MMS services, but can also carry data at high
speeds, allowing mobile operators to deliver higher bandwidth applications including streaming and broadband Internet access.[1]
W-CDMA is the basis of Japans NTT DoCoMo's
FOMA service and the most-commonly used member
of the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS) family and sometimes used as a synonym for
UMTS.[2] It uses the DS-CDMA channel access method
and the FDD duplexing method to achieve higher speeds
and support more users compared to most previously used
time division multiple access (TDMA) and time division
duplex (TDD) schemes.
Code Division Multiple Access communication networks

have been developed by a number of companies over
the years, but development of cell-phone networks based
on CDMA (prior to W-CDMA) was dominated by
Qualcomm. Qualcomm was the rst company to succeed in developing a practical and cost-eective CDMA
implementation for consumer cell phones and its early
IS-95 air interface standard has evolved into the current CDMA2000 (IS-856/IS-2000) standard. Qualcomm
created an experimental wideband CDMA system called
CDMA2000 3x which unied the W-CDMA (3GPP)
and CDMA2000 (3GPP2) network technologies into a
single design for a worldwide standard air interface.
Compatibility with CDMA2000 would have benecially
enabled roaming on existing networks beyond Japan,
since Qualcomm CDMA2000 networks are widely deployed, especially in the Americas, with coverage in 58
countries as of 2006. However, divergent requirements
resulted in the W-CDMA standard being retained and
deployed globally. W-CDMA has then become the dominant technology with 457 commercial networks in 178
countries as of April 2012.[4] Several cdma2000 operators have even converted their networks to W-CDMA for
international roaming compatibility and smooth upgrade
path to LTE.
While not an evolutionary upgrade on the airside, it uses

the same core network as the 2G GSM networks deployed
worldwide, allowing dual mode mobile operation along
with GSM/EDGE; a feature it shares with other members Despite incompatibility with existing air-interface stanof the UMTS family.
dards, late introduction and the high upgrade cost of de77
78
CHAPTER 21. W-CDMA (UMTS)
ploying an all-new transmitter technology, W-CDMA has

become the dominant standard.
21.1.1
Rationale for W-CDMA
W-CDMA transmits on a pair of 5 MHz-wide radio channels, while CDMA2000 transmits on one or several pairs
of 1.25 MHz radio channels. Though W-CDMA does
use a direct sequence CDMA transmission technique like
CDMA2000, W-CDMA is not simply a wideband version of CDMA2000. The W-CDMA system is a new
design by NTT DoCoMo, and it diers in many aspects
from CDMA2000. From an engineering point of view,
W-CDMA provides a dierent balance of trade-os between cost, capacity, performance, and density; it also
promises to achieve a benet of reduced cost for video
phone handsets. W-CDMA may also be better suited for
deployment in the very dense cities of Europe and Asia.
However, hurdles remain, and cross-licensing of patents
between Qualcomm and W-CDMA vendors has not eliminated possible patent issues due to the features of WCDMA which remain covered by Qualcomm patents.[5]
HSDPA
PN sequences
Spectral eciency comparison table
UMTS
UMTS frequency bands
21.4 References
[1] What is 3G/WCDMA?". GSMA.com. Retrieved 201406-24.
[2] 3GPP notes that there currently existed many dierent names for the same system (eg FOMA, W-CDMA,
UMTS, etc); 3GPP. Draft summary minutes, decisions
and actions from 3GPP Organizational Partners Meeting#6, Tokyo, 9 October 2001 (PDF). p. 7.
[3] Hsiao-Hwa Chen (2007), The Next Generation CDMA
Technologies, John Wiley and Sons, pp. 105106, ISBN
978-0-470-02294-8
W-CDMA has been developed into a complete set of [4] GSM Association HSPA Market update April 2012
specications, a detailed protocol that denes how a mo[5] Qualcomm says it doesn't need Nokia patents
bile phone communicates with the tower, how signals are
modulated, how datagrams are structured, and system interfaces are specied allowing free competition on tech- 21.4.1 Documentation
nology elements.
3GPP specication series 25Radio aspects of 3G,
including UMTS
21.2 Deployment
The worlds rst commercial W-CDMA service, FOMA,

was launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 2001.
Elsewhere, W-CDMA deployments are usually marketed
under the UMTS brand. See the main UMTS article for
more information.
W-CDMA has also been adapted for use in satellite communications on the U.S. Mobile User Objective System
using geosynchronous satellites in place of cell towers.
21.3 See also

CDMA
Cellular Frequencies
DECT
Evolution-Data Optimized/CDMA2000
FOMA
GSM/EDGE
HSPA
TS 25.201 DescriptionDescribes basic dierences between FDD and TDD.

TS 25.211 Physical channels and mapping of transport channels onto physical channels (FDD)
TS 25.212 Multiplexing and channel coding (FDD)
TS 25.213 Spreading and modulation (FDD)
TS 25.214 Physical layer procedures (FDD)
TS 25.215 Physical layer - Measurements (FDD)
Chapter 22
3.5G
3.5G is a grouping of disparate mobile telephony and data
technologies designed to provide better performance than
3G systems, as an interim step towards deployment of full
4G capability.
22.1 Technology
High-Speed Downlink Packet Access
Evolved HSPA
3GPP Long Term Evolution, precursor of LTE Advanced
79
Chapter 23
High Speed Packet Access
HSPA sign shown in notication bar on an Android-based smartphone.
High Speed Packet Access (HSPA)[1] is an amalgamation of two mobile telephony protocols, High Speed
Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) and High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA), that extends and improves
the performance of existing 3G mobile telecommunication networks utilizing the WCDMA protocols. A further
improved 3GPP standard, Evolved HSPA (also known
as HSPA+), was released late in 2008 with subsequent
worldwide adoption beginning in 2010. The newer standard allows bit-rates to reach as high as 337 Mbit/s in the
downlink and 34 Mbit/s in the uplink. However, these
speeds are rarely achieved in practice.[2]
23.1 Overview
The rst HSPA specications supported increased peak
data rates of up to 14 Mbit/s in the downlink and 5.76
Mbit/s in the uplink. It also reduced latency and provided
up to ve times more system capacity in the downlink
and up to twice as much system capacity in the uplink
compared with original WCDMA protocol.
The rst step required to upgrade WCDMA to HSPA is

to improve the downlink by introducing HSDPA. The improved downlink provides up to 14 Mbit/s with signicantly reduced latency. The improvement in speed and
latency reduces the cost per bit and enhances support for
high-performance packet data applications. HSDPA is
based on shared channel transmission and its key features
are shared channel and multi-code transmission, higherorder modulation, short transmission time interval (TTI),
fast link adaptation and scheduling along with fast hybrid
automatic repeat request (HARQ). The upgrade to HSDPA is often just a software update for most WCDMA
networks, and as of May 2008 90 percent of WCDMA
networks had been upgraded to HSDPA.[3] Voice calls
are usually prioritized over data transfer. Singapores
three network providers M1, StarHub and SingTel provide up to 28 Mbit/s throughout the entire island. The
Australian provider Telstra provides up to 14.4 Mbit/s
nationwide and up to 42Mbit/s in selected areas. The
Croatian VIPnet network supports a downlink speed of
7.2 Mbit/s, as does Rogers Wireless in Canada which
also supports 21 Mbit/s in the Toronto area.[4] In South
Korea, a nationwide 7.2 Mbit/s coverage is now established by SK Telecom and KTF. In Hong Kong, PCCW,
CSL and Hutchinson 3 provide 21 Mbit/s coverage and
in India BPL, MTS and Tata DoCoMo provide speed of
21.1 Mbit/s nationwide while Reliance ADAE provides
speeds up to 28.8 Mbit/s nationwide. Sri Lankan companies like Mobitel, Etisalat provides up to 42 Mbit/s and
Dialog, Airtel and Hutch provides 7.2 Mbit/s. In Nepal,
HSPA is in a rush. Ncell Currently Provides 42.2 Mbit/s
and Nepal Telecom Provides 5.2 Mbit/s. HSPA is Currently replaced by HSPA+ in Nepal.
23.3 High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA)
23.2 High Speed Downlink Packet

Access (HSDPA)
Main article: High-Speed Uplink Packet Access
Main article: High-Speed Downlink Packet Access
The second major step in the WCDMA upgrade process

is to upgrade the uplink, which is introduced in 3GPP Release 6. Upgrading to HSUPA is usually only a software
80
23.6. DUAL-CARRIER HSUPA (DC-HSUPA)
81
update. Enhanced Uplink adds a new transport channel to WCDMA, called the Enhanced Dedicated Channel (E-DCH). An enhanced uplink creates opportunities
for a number of new applications including VoIP, uploading pictures and sending large e-mail messages. The enhanced uplink increases the data rate (up to 5.8 Mbit/s),
the capacity, and also reduces latency. The enhanced
uplink features several improvements similar to those of
HSDPA, including multi-code transmission, short Transmission Time Interval (TTI), fast scheduling and fast Hybrid Automatic Repeat reQuest (HARQ).
HSPA by allowing a user to connect to two cells at once,

thereby theoretically doubling the connection speeds for
the user.[9] An HSPA+ network can theoretically support up to 28 Mbit/s and 42 Mbit/s with a single cell,
although real speeds are far lower. Besides the throughput gain from doubling the number of cells to be used,
some diversity and joint scheduling gains can also be
achieved.[10] Dual-cell can particularly improve the QoS
(Quality of Service) for end users in poor radio reception where they cannot benet from the other WCDMA
capacity improvements (MIMO and higher order moduIn Singapore, Starhub announced a 1.9 Mbit/s HSUPA lations) due to poor radio signal quality. From Release
9 onwards it will be possible to use DC-HSDPA in comService as part of its new MaxMobile plan on 1 August
[5]
2007. In Finland, Elisa announced on 30 August 2007, bination with MIMO. The support of MIMO in combination with DC-HSDPA will allow operators even more
1.4 Mbit/s HSUPA to most large cities with plans to add
[11]
[6] capacity improvements within their network.
the service to its whole 3G network within months.
(The same announcement contained a promise of covering 25% more of Finland by the end of the year, which
actually took two more years to accomplish). 3 Italia and 23.6 Dual-carrier HSUPA (DCEricsson announced on 16 July 2008, the successful tests
HSUPA)
of HSUPA 5.8 Mbit/s in the live network of 3 Italia.[7]
In Haiti, NATCOM, the former public company now operated by Viettel from Vietnam, oers up to 7.2 Mbit/s Main article: High-Speed Uplink Packet Access
Dual-Cell HSUPA
nationwide.
23.4 Evolved High Speed Packet

Access (HSPA+)
Main article: Evolved HSPA
Evolved HSPA (also known as HSPA Evolution, HSPA+)
is a wireless broadband standard dened in 3GPP release
7 and 8 of the WCDMA specication. It provides extensions to the existing HSPA denitions and is therefore
backward-compatible all the way to the original Release
99 WCDMA network releases. Evolved HSPA provides
data rates up to 84 Mbit/s in the downlink and 10.8 Mbit/s
in the uplink (per 5 MHz carrier) with multiple input,
multiple output (2x2 MIMO) technologies and higher order modulation (64 QAM). With Dual Cell technology,
these can be doubled.
Similar enhancements as introduced with DC-HSDPA in

the downlink for UMTS Release 8 are being standardized for UMTS Release 9 in the uplink, called DualCell HSUPA.[12] applied to HSUPA UL physical channels and DPCCH. The standardisation of Release 9 was
completed in December 2009.[13]
23.7 Multi-carrier
HSPA)
HSPA
(MC-
The aggregation of more than two carriers has been studied and 3GPP Release 11 is scheduled to include 4carrier HSPA. The standard is scheduled to be nalised
in Q3 2012 and rst chipsets supporting MC-HSPA in
late 2013. Release 11 species 8-carrier HSPA allowed
in non-contiguous bands with 4 4 MIMO oering peak
Since 2011, HSPA+ has been very widely de- transfer rates up to 672 Mbit/s.
ployed amongst WCDMA operators with nearly
200 commitments.[8]
23.8 See also

23.5 Dual-carrier HSDPA (DCHSDPA)
Broadband Internet access
Main article: High-Speed Downlink Packet Access

Dual-Cell
Mobile broadband
Dual-Carrier HSDPA (also known as Dual-Cell HSDPA), part of 3GPP Release 8, is the natural evolution of
Global mobile Suppliers Association
Mobile broadband modem

3GPP Long Term Evolution
82
23.9 References
[1] Nomor Research: White Paper Technology of High
Speed Packet Access, nomor.de
[2] Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS);
UE Radio Access capabilities (PDF). ETSI. January
2014. Retrieved March 4, 2014.
[3] GSM/3G Market Update. Global mobile Suppliers Association. June 2006. Retrieved January 18, 2011.
[4] Rogers.com
[5] Starhub.com
[6] Elisa.
[7] Ericsson.com
[8] GSA conrms 70% jump in 42 Mbit/s DC-HSPA+ network deployments over past 3 months. Gsacom.com.
Retrieved November 27, 2012.
[9] Nomor Research White Paper: Dual-cell HSPA and its
Evolution, nomor.de
[10] R1-081546, Initial multi-carrier HSPA performance
evaluation, Ericsson, 3GPP TSG-RAN WG1 #52bis,
April, 2008
[11] Dual carrier HSPA: DC-HSPA, DC-HSPDA
[12] Nomor 3GPP Newsletter 2009-03: Standardisation updates on HSPA Evolution, nomor.de
[13] 3GPP releases
23.10 Further reading

Martin Sauter: Communication Systems for the Mobile Information Society, John Wiley, September
2006, ISBN 0-470-02676-6

GSMworld.com, Ocial HSPA website
Linkedin.com, Public HSPA Discussion Forum
3.5G drivin), ericsson.com
Dual carrier HSPA: DC-HSPA, DC-HSPDA, radioelectronics.com
CHAPTER 23. HIGH SPEED PACKET ACCESS
Chapter 24
Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution

24.1 Technology
EDGE redirects here. For other uses, see Edge.

Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
EDGE/EGPRS is implemented as a bolt-on enhancement

for 2.5G GSM/GPRS networks, making it easier for existing GSM carriers to upgrade to it. EDGE is a superset
to GPRS and can function on any network with GPRS
deployed on it, provided the carrier implements the necessary upgrade. EDGE requires no hardware or software
changes to be made in GSM core networks. EDGEcompatible transceiver units must be installed and the
base station subsystem needs to be upgraded to support
EDGE. If the operator already has this in place, which
is often the case today, the network can be upgraded to
EDGE by activating an optional software feature. Today
EDGE is supported by all major chip vendors for both
GSM and WCDMA/HSPA.
EDGE sign shown in notication bar on an Android-based

smartphone.
(also known as Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), or IMT

Single Carrier (IMT-SC), or Enhanced Data rates
for Global Evolution) is a digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission rates as a
backward-compatible extension of GSM. EDGE is considered a pre-3G radio technology and is part of ITU's
3G denition.[1] EDGE was deployed on GSM networks
beginning in 2003 initially by Cingular (now AT&T) in
the United States.[2]
EDGE is standardized also by 3GPP as part of the GSM
family. A variant, so called Compact-EDGE, was developed for use in a portion of Digital AMPS network
spectrum.[3]
24.1.1 Transmission techniques

In addition to Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK),
EDGE uses higher-order PSK/8 phase shift keying
(8PSK) for the upper ve of its nine modulation and
coding schemes. EDGE produces a 3-bit word for every change in carrier phase. This eectively triples the
gross data rate oered by GSM. EDGE, like GPRS, uses
a rate adaptation algorithm that adapts the modulation
and coding scheme (MCS) according to the quality of
the radio channel, and thus the bit rate and robustness
of data transmission. It introduces a new technology not
found in GPRS, Incremental Redundancy, which, instead
of retransmitting disturbed packets, sends more redundancy information to be combined in the receiver. This
increases the probability of correct decoding.
Through the introduction of sophisticated methods of

coding and transmitting data, EDGE delivers higher bitrates per radio channel, resulting in a threefold increase
in capacity and performance compared with an ordinary EDGE can carry a bandwidth up to 500 kbit/s (with endto-end latency of less than 150 ms) for 4 timeslots (theoGSM/GPRS connection.
retical maximum is 473.6 kbit/s for 8 timeslots) in packet
EDGE can be used for any packet switched application, mode. This means it can handle four times as much
such as an Internet connection.
trac as standard GPRS. EDGE meets the International
Evolved EDGE continues in Release 7 of the 3GPP stan- Telecommunications Union's requirement for a 3G netdard providing reduced latency and more than doubled work, and has been accepted by the ITU as part of the
performance e.g. to complement High-Speed Packet Ac- IMT-2000 family of 3G standards.[1] It also enhances the
cess (HSPA). Peak bit-rates of up to 1 Mbit/s and typical circuit data mode called HSCSD, increasing the data rate
bit-rates of 400 kbit/s can be expected.
of this service.
83
84
24.1.2
CHAPTER 24. ENHANCED DATA RATES FOR GSM EVOLUTION
EDGE modulation and coding The Global mobile Suppliers Association (GSA) states
that,[6] as of May 2013, there were 604 GSM/EDGE netscheme (MCS)
works in 213 countries, from a total of 606 mobile netThe channel encoding process in GPRS as well as EG- work operator commitments in 213 countries.
PRS/EDGE consists of two steps: rst, a cyclic code is
used to add parity bits, which are also referred to as the
Block Check Sequence, followed by coding with a possi- 24.3 See also
bly punctured convolutional code.[4] In GPRS, the Coding Schemes CS-1 to CS-4 specify the number of parity
Evolved EDGE
bits generated by the cyclic code and the puncturing rate
HSDPA
of the convolutional code.[4] In GPRS Coding Schemes
CS-1 through CS-3, the convolutional code is of rate 1/2,
List of device bandwidths
i.e. each input bit is converted into two coded bits.[4] In
Coding Schemes CS-2 and CS-3, the output of the con Mobile broadband
volutional code is punctured to achieve the desired code
Novatel Wireless
rate.[4] In GPRS Coding Scheme CS-4, no convolutional
coding is applied.[4]
In EGPRS/EDGE, the Modulation and Coding Schemes
UMTS
MCS-1 to MCS-9 take the place of the Coding Schemes
of GPRS, and additionally specify which modulation
WiFi
scheme is used, GMSK or 8PSK.[4] MCS-1 through
MCS-4 use GMSK and have performance similar (but
not equal) to GPRS, while MCS-5 through MCS-9 use
8PSK.[4] In all EGPRS Modulation and Coding Schemes, 24.4 References
a convolutional code of rate 1/3 is used, and puncturing
is used to achieve the desired code rate.[4] In contrast to [1] http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/imt-2000/
DocumentsIMT2000/IMT-2000.pdf
GRPS, the Radio Link Control (RLC) and Media Access
Control (MAC) headers and the payload data are coded [2] http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/imt-2000/MiscDocuments/
separately in EGPRS.[4] The headers are coded more roIMT-Deployments-Rev3.pdf[]
bustly than the data.[4] The coding schemes are summarized in the tables below. Note that the bit rates do not [3] ETSI SMG2 99/872
include the overhead incurred by channel coding and the [4] 3rd Generation Partnership Project (September 2012).
RLC and MAC headers.
3GGP TS45.001: Technical Specication Group
24.1.3
Evolved EDGE
Evolved EDGE improves on EDGE in a number of ways.

Latencies are reduced by lowering the Transmission Time
Interval by half (from 20 ms to 10 ms). Bit rates are
increased up to 1 Mbit/s peak bandwidth and latencies
down to 80 ms using dual carrier, higher symbol rate and
higher-order modulation (32QAM and 16QAM instead
of 8PSK), and turbo codes to improve error correction.
And nally signal quality is improved using dual antennas improving average bit-rates and spectrum eciency.
EDGE Evolution can be gradually introduced as software
upgrades, taking advantage of the installed base. With
EDGE Evolution, end-users will be able to experience
mobile internet connections corresponding to a 500 kbit/s
ADSL service.[5]
24.2 Networks
See also: List of EDGE networks
GSM/EDGE Radio Access Network; Physical layer

on the radio path; General description. Retrieved
2013-07-20.
[5] EDGE, HSPA and LTE: The Mobile Broadband Advantage (PDF). Rysavy Research and 3G Americas. 200709-01. pp. 5865. Retrieved 2010-09-27.
[6] GSA The Global mobile Suppliers Association EDGE
Databank. Gsacom.com. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
24.5 External links

The Global mobile Suppliers Association
Chapter 25
Phase-shift keying
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation a data signal. In the case of PSK, the phase is changed
scheme that conveys data by changing, or modulating, the to represent the data signal. There are two fundamental
phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave).
ways of utilizing the phase of a signal in this way:
Any digital modulation scheme uses a nite number of
By viewing the phase itself as conveying the infordistinct signals to represent digital data. PSK uses a mation, in which case the demodulator must have
nite number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern of
a reference signal to compare the received signals
binary digits. Usually, each phase encodes an equal numphase against; or
ber of bits. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that
is represented by the particular phase. The demodulator,
By viewing the change in the phase as conveying inwhich is designed specically for the symbol-set used by
formation dierential schemes, some of which do
the modulator, determines the phase of the received signot need a reference carrier (to a certain extent).
nal and maps it back to the symbol it represents, thus recovering the original data. This requires the receiver to
be able to compare the phase of the received signal to a A convenient method to represent PSK schemes is on
reference signal such a system is termed coherent (and a constellation diagram. This shows the points in the
complex plane where, in this context, the real and
referred to as CPSK).
imaginary axes are termed the in-phase and quadrature
Alternatively, instead of operating with respect to a con- axes respectively due to their 90 separation. Such a repstant reference wave, the broadcast can operate with re- resentation on perpendicular axes lends itself to straightspect to itself. Changes in phase of a single broadcast forward implementation. The amplitude of each point
waveform can be considered the signicant items. In this along the in-phase axis is used to modulate a cosine (or
system, the demodulator determines the changes in the sine) wave and the amplitude along the quadrature axis
phase of the received signal rather than the phase (rel- to modulate a sine (or cosine) wave. By convention, inative to a reference wave) itself. Since this scheme de- phase modulates cosine and quadrature modulates sine.
pends on the dierence between successive phases, it is
termed dierential phase-shift keying (DPSK). DPSK In PSK, the constellation points chosen are usually pocan be signicantly simpler to implement than ordinary sitioned with uniform angular spacing around a circle.
PSK since there is no need for the demodulator to have a This gives maximum phase-separation between adjacent
copy of the reference signal to determine the exact phase points and thus the best immunity to corruption. They are
of the received signal (it is a non-coherent scheme). In positioned on a circle so that they can all be transmitted
with the same energy. In this way, the moduli of the comexchange, it produces more erroneous demodulation.
plex numbers they represent will be the same and thus so
will the amplitudes needed for the cosine and sine waves.
Two common examples are binary phase-shift keying
25.1 Introduction
(BPSK) which uses two phases, and quadrature phaseshift keying (QPSK) which uses four phases, although
There are three major classes of digital modulation tech- any number of phases may be used. Since the data to be
niques used for transmission of digitally represented data: conveyed are usually binary, the PSK scheme is usually
designed with the number of constellation points being a
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
power of 2.
Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
Phase-shift keying (PSK)
25.1.1 Denitions
All convey data by changing some aspect of a base sig- For determining error-rates mathematically, some denal, the carrier wave (usually a sinusoid), in response to nitions will be needed:
85
86
CHAPTER 25. PHASE-SHIFT KEYING
Eb = Energy-per-bit
a binary scheme, so either modulation choice in version

2 will yield a higher data-rate. A similar technology,
Es = Energy-per-symbol = nEb with n bits per sym- IEEE 802.15.4 (the wireless standard used by ZigBee)
bol
also relies on PSK. IEEE 802.15.4 allows the use of two
frequency bands: 868915 MHz using BPSK and at 2.4
Tb = Bit duration
GHz using OQPSK.
Ts = Symbol duration
Notably absent from these various schemes is 8-PSK.
This is because its error-rate performance is close to that
N0 /2 = Noise power spectral density (W/Hz)
of 16-QAM it is only about 0.5 dB better but its
Pb = Probability of bit-error
data rate is only three-quarters that of 16-QAM. Thus 8PSK is often omitted from standards and, as seen above,
Ps = Probability of symbol-error
schemes tend to 'jump' from QPSK to 16-QAM (8-QAM
is possible but dicult to implement).
Q(x) will give the probability that a single sample taken
from a random process with zero-mean and unit-variance Included among the exceptions is HughesNet satellite
Gaussian probability density function will be greater or ISP. For example, the model HN7000S modem (on KUequal to x . It is a scaled form of the complementary band satcom) uses 8-PSK modulation.
Gaussian error function:
1
Q(x) =
2
e
x
t2 /2
1
dt = erfc
2
)
, x0
25.3 Binary phase-shift

(BPSK)
The error-rates quoted here are those in additive white

Gaussian noise (AWGN). These error rates are lower than
those computed in fading channels, hence, are a good theoretical benchmark to compare with.
keying
25.2 Applications
Owing to PSKs simplicity, particularly when compared
with its competitor quadrature amplitude modulation, it
is widely used in existing technologies.
The wireless LAN standard, IEEE 802.11b-1999,[1][2]
uses a variety of dierent PSKs depending on the data
rate required. At the basic rate of 1 Mbit/s, it uses
DBPSK (dierential BPSK). To provide the extended
rate of 2 Mbit/s, DQPSK is used. In reaching 5.5
Mbit/s and the full rate of 11 Mbit/s, QPSK is employed,
but has to be coupled with complementary code keying.
The higher-speed wireless LAN standard, IEEE 802.11g2003,[1][3] has eight data rates: 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48
and 54 Mbit/s. The 6 and 9 Mbit/s modes use OFDM
modulation where each sub-carrier is BPSK modulated.
The 12 and 18 Mbit/s modes use OFDM with QPSK. The
fastest four modes use OFDM with forms of quadrature
amplitude modulation.
Because of its simplicity BPSK is appropriate for lowcost passive transmitters, and is used in RFID standards
such as ISO/IEC 14443 which has been adopted for
biometric passports, credit cards such as American Express's ExpressPay, and many other applications.[4]
1
I
Constellation diagram example for BPSK.
BPSK (also sometimes called PRK, phase reversal keying, or 2PSK) is the simplest form of phase shift keying
(PSK). It uses two phases which are separated by 180
and so can also be termed 2-PSK. It does not particularly matter exactly where the constellation points are positioned, and in this gure they are shown on the real axis,
at 0 and 180. This modulation is the most robust of all
the PSKs since it takes the highest level of noise or distortion to make the demodulator reach an incorrect decision.
It is, however, only able to modulate at 1 bit/symbol (as
seen in the gure) and so is unsuitable for high data-rate
applications.
Bluetooth 2 will use /4 -DQPSK at its lower rate (2

Mbit/s) and 8-DPSK at its higher rate (3 Mbit/s) when the
link between the two devices is suciently robust. Blue- In the presence of an arbitrary phase-shift introduced by
tooth 1 modulates with Gaussian minimum-shift keying, the communications channel, the demodulator is unable
25.4. QUADRATURE PHASE-SHIFT KEYING (QPSK)
87
Q
to tell which constellation point is which. As a result, the

data is often dierentially encoded prior to modulation.
BPSK is functionally equivalent to 2-QAM modulation.
01
25.3.1
11
Implementation
The general form for BPSK follows the equation:
sn (t) =
2Eb
cos(2fc t + (1 n)), n = 0, 1.
Tb
This yields two phases, 0 and . In the specic form,

binary data is often conveyed with the following signals:
s0 (t) =
2Eb
cos(2fc t + ) =
Tb
00
10
2Eb
cos(2fc t)
Tb
2Eb
cos(2fc t)
Tb
where fc is the frequency of the carrier-wave.
s1 (t) =
Constellation diagram for QPSK with Gray coding. Each adjacent symbol only diers by one bit.
Hence, the signal-space can be represented by the single are exactly the same.) QPSK uses four points on the constellation diagram, equispaced around a circle. With four
basis function
phases, QPSK can encode two bits per symbol, shown in
the diagram with Gray coding to minimize the bit error
rate (BER) sometimes misperceived as twice the BER

2
(t) =
cos(2fc t)
of BPSK.
T
b
The mathematical analysis shows that QPSK can be used

where1 is represented by Eb (t) and 0 is represented
either to double the data rate compared with a BPSK sysby Eb (t) . This assignment is, of course, arbitrary.
tem while maintaining the same bandwidth of the signal,
This use of this basis function is shown at the end of the or to maintain the data-rate of BPSK but halving the bandnext section in a signal timing diagram. The topmost width needed. In this latter case, the BER of QPSK is exsignal is a BPSK-modulated cosine wave that the BPSK actly the same as the BER of BPSK - and deciding diermodulator would produce. The bit-stream that causes this ently is a common confusion when considering or describoutput is shown above the signal (the other parts of this ing QPSK. The transmitted carrier can undergo numbers
gure are relevant only to QPSK).
of phase changes.
Given that radio communication channels are allocated
by agencies such as the Federal Communication Com25.3.2 Bit error rate
mission giving a prescribed (maximum) bandwidth, the
The bit error rate (BER) of BPSK in AWGN can be cal- advantage of QPSK over BPSK becomes evident: QPSK
transmits twice the data rate in a given bandwidth
culated as:[5]
compared to BPSK - at the same BER. The engi(
)
( )
neering penalty that is paid is that QPSK transmitters
2Eb
Eb
1
Pb = Q
or Pe = 2 erfc
N0
N0
and receivers are more complicated than the ones for
BPSK. However, with modern electronics technology,
Since there is only one bit per symbol, this is also the the penalty in cost is very moderate.
symbol error rate.
As with BPSK, there are phase ambiguity problems at the
receiving end, and dierentially encoded QPSK is often
used in practice.
25.4 Quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK)
25.4.1 Implementation
Sometimes this is known as quadriphase PSK, 4-PSK, or
4-QAM. (Although the root concepts of QPSK and 4- The implementation of QPSK is more general than that
QAM are dierent, the resulting modulated radio waves of BPSK and also indicates the implementation of higher-
88
order PSK. Writing the symbols in the constellation diagram in terms of the sine and cosine waves used to transmit them:
sn (t) =
(
2Es
)
cos 2fc t + (2n 1)
,
Ts
4
Receiver structure for QPSK. The matched lters can be replaced

n = 0, 1, 2,with
3. correlators. Each detection device uses a reference threshold
value to determine whether a 1 or 0 is detected.
This yields the four phases /4, 3/4, 5/4 and 7/4 as
25.4.2
needed.
Bit error rate
This results in a two-dimensional signal space with unit Although QPSK can be viewed as a quaternary modulabasis functions
tion, it is easier to see it as two independently modulated
quadrature carriers. With this interpretation, the even (or
odd) bits are used to modulate the in-phase component
2
of the carrier, while the odd (or even) bits are used to
cos(2fc t)
1 (t) =
Ts
modulate the quadrature-phase component of the carrier.
BPSK is used on both carriers and they can be indepen
2
dently demodulated.
2 (t) =
sin(2fc t)
Ts
As a result, the probability of bit-error for QPSK is the
The rst basis function is used as the in-phase component same as for BPSK:
of the signal and the second as the quadrature component
of the signal.
(
)
2Eb
Hence, the signal constellation consists of the signal-space
Pb = Q
.
N0
4 points
(
)
Es /2, Es /2 .
However, in order to achieve the same bit-error probability as BPSK, QPSK uses twice the power (since two bits
are transmitted simultaneously).
The factors of 1/2 indicate that the total power is split The symbol error rate is given by:
equally between the two carriers.
If the signal-to-noise ratio is high (as is necessary for
Comparing these basis functions with that for BPSK practical QPSK systems) the probability of symbol error
shows clearly how QPSK can be viewed as two indepen- may be approximated:
dent BPSK signals. Note that the signal-space points for
BPSK do not need to split the symbol (bit) energy over
( )
the two carriers in the scheme shown in the BPSK conEs
Ps 2Q
stellation diagram.
N0
QPSK systems can be implemented in a number of ways.
The modulated signal is shown below for a short segment
An illustration of the major components of the transmitter
of a random binary data-stream. The two carrier waves
and receiver structure are shown below.
are a cosine wave and a sine wave, as indicated by the
signal-space analysis above. Here, the odd-numbered bits
have been assigned to the in-phase component and the
even-numbered bits to the quadrature component (taking
the rst bit as number 1). The total signal the sum of
the two components is shown at the bottom. Jumps in
phase can be seen as the PSK changes the phase on each
component at the start of each bit-period. The topmost
Conceptual transmitter structure for QPSK. The binary data waveform alone matches the description given for BPSK
stream is split into the in-phase and quadrature-phase compo- above.
nents. These are then separately modulated onto two orthogonal
The binary data that is conveyed by this waveform is: 1
basis functions. In this implementation, two sinusoids are used.
1
0 0 0 1 1 0.
Afterwards, the two signals are superimposed, and the resulting
signal is the QPSK signal. Note the use of polar non-return-tozero encoding. These encoders can be placed before for binary
data source, but have been placed after to illustrate the conceptual dierence between digital and analog signals involved with
digital modulation.
The odd bits, highlighted here, contribute to the inphase component: 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

The even bits, highlighted here, contribute to the
quadrature-phase component: 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
25.4. QUADRATURE PHASE-SHIFT KEYING (QPSK)
89
QPSK
135
45
t
45
135
Timing diagram for QPSK. The binary data stream is shown beneath the time axis. The two signal components with their bit
assignments are shown at the top, and the total combined signal
at the bottom. Note the abrupt changes in phase at some of the
bit-period boundaries.
25.4.3
45
Dierence of the phase between QPSK and OQPSK
Oset QPSK (OQPSK)

Q
in practice.
The picture on the right shows the dierence in the behavior of the phase between ordinary QPSK and OQPSK.
It can be seen that in the rst plot the phase can change
by 180 at once, while in OQPSK the changes are never
greater than 90.
11
00
45
135
Variants
01
OQPSK
135
The modulated signal is shown below for a short segment of a random binary data-stream. Note the half
symbol-period oset between the two component waves.
The sudden phase-shifts occur about twice as often as for
QPSK (since the signals no longer change together), but
they are less severe. In other words, the magnitude of
jumps is smaller in OQPSK when compared to QPSK.
10
Signal doesn't cross zero, because only one bit of the symbol is
changed at a time
Oset quadrature phase-shift keying (OQPSK) is a variant

of phase-shift keying modulation using 4 dierent values Timing diagram for oset-QPSK. The binary data stream is
of the phase to transmit. It is sometimes called Staggered shown beneath the time axis. The two signal components with
their bit assignments are shown the top and the total, combined
quadrature phase-shift keying (SQPSK).
Taking four values of the phase (two bits) at a time to
construct a QPSK symbol can allow the phase of the signal to jump by as much as 180 at a time. When the
signal is low-pass ltered (as is typical in a transmitter),
these phase-shifts result in large amplitude uctuations,
an undesirable quality in communication systems. By
osetting the timing of the odd and even bits by one bitperiod, or half a symbol-period, the in-phase and quadrature components will never change at the same time. In
the constellation diagram shown on the right, it can be
seen that this will limit the phase-shift to no more than
90 at a time. This yields much lower amplitude uctuations than non-oset QPSK and is sometimes preferred
signal at the bottom. Note the half-period oset between the two
signal components.
/4QPSK
This variant of QPSK uses two identical constellations
which are rotated by 45 ( /4 radians, hence the name)
with respect to one another. Usually, either the even or
odd symbols are used to select points from one of the
constellations and the other symbols select points from
the other constellation. This also reduces the phase-shifts
from a maximum of 180, but only to a maximum of 135
90

Q
01
01
00
11
45
00
11
10
10
Dual constellation diagram for /4-QPSK. This shows the two

separate constellations with identical Gray coding but rotated by
45 with respect to each other.
and so the amplitude uctuations of /4 QPSK are between OQPSK and non-oset QPSK.
One property this modulation scheme possesses is that if
the modulated signal is represented in the complex domain, it does not have any paths through the origin. In
other words, the signal does not pass through the origin.
This lowers the dynamical range of uctuations in the signal which is desirable when engineering communications
signals.
On the other hand, /4 QPSK lends itself to easy demodulation and has been adopted for use in, for example,
TDMA cellular telephone systems.
The modulated signal is shown below for a short segment
of a random binary data-stream. The construction is the
same as above for ordinary QPSK. Successive symbols
are taken from the two constellations shown in the diagram. Thus, the rst symbol (1 1) is taken from the 'blue'
constellation and the second symbol (0 0) is taken from
the 'green' constellation. Note that magnitudes of the two
component waves change as they switch between constellations, but the total signals magnitude remains constant
(constant envelope). The phase-shifts are between those
of the two previous timing-diagrams.
Timing diagram for /4-QPSK. The binary data stream is shown

beneath the time axis. The two signal components with their bit
assignments are shown the top and the total, combined signal at
the bottom. Note that successive symbols are taken alternately
from the two constellations, starting with the 'blue' one.
forms such that they change very smoothly, and the signal stays constant-amplitude even during signal transitions. (Rather than traveling instantly from one symbol
to another, or even linearly, it travels smoothly around the
constant-amplitude circle from one symbol to the next.)
The standard description of SOQPSK-TG involves
ternary symbols.
DPQPSK
Dual-polarization quadrature phase shift keying
(DPQPSK) or dual-polarization QPSK - involves the
polarization multiplexing of two dierent QPSK signals,
thus improving the spectral eciency by a factor of 2.
This is a cost-eective alternative, to utilizing 16-PSK instead of QPSK to double the spectral eciency.
25.5 Higher-order PSK

Q
010
011
110
001
111
I
SOQPSK
000
101
The license-free shaped-oset QPSK (SOQPSK) is in100

teroperable with Feher-patented QPSK (FQPSK), in the
sense that an integrate-and-dump oset QPSK detector
produces the same output no matter which kind of transConstellation diagram for 8-PSK with Gray coding.
mitter is used.[6]
These modulations carefully shape the I and Q wave- Any number of phases may be used to construct a PSK
25.6. DIFFERENTIAL PHASE-SHIFT KEYING (DPSK)

constellation but 8-PSK is usually the highest order PSK
constellation deployed. With more than 8 phases, the
error-rate becomes too high and there are better, though
more complex, modulations available such as quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM). Although any number of
phases may be used, the fact that the constellation must
usually deal with binary data means that the number of
symbols is usually a power of 2 to allow an integer number of bits per symbol.
91
The bit-error probability for M -PSK can only be determined exactly once the bit-mapping is known. However,
when Gray coding is used, the most probable error from
one symbol to the next produces only a single bit-error
and
Pb
1
Ps
k
(Using Gray coding allows us to approximate the Lee distance of the errors as the Hamming distance of the errors
25.5.1 Bit error rate
in the decoded bitstream, which is easier to implement in
For the general M -PSK there is no simple expression for hardware.)
the symbol-error probability if M > 4 . Unfortunately, The graph on the left compares the bit-error rates of
it can only be obtained from:
BPSK, QPSK (which are the same, as noted above), 8
Ps = 1
PSK and 16-PSK. It is seen that higher-order modulations

exhibit higher error-rates; in exchange however they deliver a higher raw data-rate.
pr (r ) dr
Bounds on the error rates of various digital modulation

schemes can be computed with application of the union
bound to the signal constellation.
where
pr (r )
1 2s sin2 r
2 e
V =
Ve
2
(V 4s cos r ) /2
=
dV
25.6 Dierential phase-shift keying (DPSK)
r12 + r22 ,
r = tan1 (r2 /r1 ) ,
25.6.1 Dierential encoding
Es
N0
and
)
(
Es , N0 /2 and r2 N (0, N0 /2)
r1 N
are jointly Gaussian random variables.
s =
BER
10
Main article: dierential coding

Dierential phase shift keying (DPSK) is a common form
of phase modulation that conveys data by changing the
phase of the carrier wave. As mentioned for BPSK and
QPSK there is an ambiguity of phase if the constellation
is rotated by some eect in the communications channel
through which the signal passes. This problem can be
overcome by using the data to change rather than set the
phase.
10
-2
10
-4
10
-6
BPSK / QPSK
8-PSK
16-PSK
10
-8
10
Eb/N0 (dB)
12
14
16
18
Bit-error rate curves for BPSK, QPSK, 8-PSK and 16-PSK,

AWGN channel.
This may be approximated for high M and high Eb /N0

by:
Ps 2Q
(
)
2s sin
M
For example, in dierentially encoded BPSK a binary '1'

may be transmitted by adding 180 to the current phase
and a binary '0' by adding 0 to the current phase. Another variant of DPSK is Symmetric Dierential Phase
Shift keying, SDPSK, where encoding would be +90 for
a '1' and 90 for a '0'.
In dierentially encoded QPSK (DQPSK), the phaseshifts are 0, 90, 180, 90 corresponding to data '00',
'01', '11', '10'. This kind of encoding may be demodulated in the same way as for non-dierential PSK but the
phase ambiguities can be ignored. Thus, each received
symbol is demodulated to one of the M points in the constellation and a comparator then computes the dierence
in phase between this received signal and the preceding
one. The dierence encodes the data as described above.
Symmetric Dierential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
92
(SDQPSK) is like DQPSK, but encoding is symmetric, must have been. When dierential encoding is used in
using phase shift values of 135, 45, +45 and +135. this manner, the scheme is known as dierential phaseThe modulated signal is shown below for both DBPSK shift keying (DPSK). Note that this is subtly dierent
and DQPSK as described above. In the gure, it is as- from just dierentially encoded PSK since, upon recepsumed that the signal starts with zero phase, and so there tion, the received symbols are not decoded one-by-one to
constellation points but are instead compared directly to
is a phase shift in both signals at t = 0 .
one another.
Call the received symbol in the k th timeslot rk and let it
have phase k . Assume without loss of generality that
the phase of the carrier wave is zero. Denote the AWGN
term as nk . Then
Timing diagram for DBPSK and DQPSK. The binary data stream
is above the DBPSK signal. The individual bits of the DBPSK
signal are grouped into pairs for the DQPSK signal, which only
changes every T = 2T . (the phase of '11' should be inverted in
this diagram)
Analysis shows that dierential encoding approximately

doubles the error rate compared to ordinary M -PSK but
this may be overcome by only a small increase in Eb /N0
. Furthermore, this analysis (and the graphical results below) are based on a system in which the only corruption is
additive white Gaussian noise(AWGN). However, there
will also be a physical channel between the transmitter
and receiver in the communication system. This channel
will, in general, introduce an unknown phase-shift to the
PSK signal; in these cases the dierential schemes can
yield a better error-rate than the ordinary schemes which
rely on precise phase information.
25.6.2
BER
10
Demodulation
-2
10
-4
10
-6
10
-8
The decision variable for the k 1 th symbol and the k

symbol is the phase dierence between rk and rk1 .
That is, if rk is projected onto rk1 , the decision is taken
on the phase of the resultant complex number:
rk rk1
= Es ej(k k1 ) + Es ejk nk1 + Es ejk1 nk +nk nk1
where superscript * denotes complex conjugation. In the
absence of noise, the phase of this is k k1 , the
phase-shift between the two received signals which can
be used to determine the data transmitted.
The probability of error for DPSK is dicult to calculate
in general, but, in the case of DBPSK it is:
Eb/N0 (dB)
10
12
14
1 Eb /N0
e
,
2
which, when numerically evaluated, is only slightly worse

than ordinary BPSK, particularly at higher Eb /N0 values.
BPSK / QPSK
DBPSK
DQPSK
Es ejk + nk
th
Pb =
10
rk =
Using DPSK avoids the need for possibly complex

carrier-recovery schemes to provide an accurate phase
estimate and can be an attractive alternative to ordinary
PSK.
16
BER comparison between DBPSK, DQPSK and their nondierential forms using gray-coding and operating in white noise.
For a signal that has been dierentially encoded, there is

an obvious alternative method of demodulation. Instead
of demodulating as usual and ignoring carrier-phase ambiguity, the phase between two successive received symbols is compared and used to determine what the data
In optical communications, the data can be modulated

onto the phase of a laser in a dierential way. The modulation is a laser which emits a continuous wave, and a
Mach-Zehnder modulator which receives electrical binary data. For the case of BPSK for example, the laser
transmits the eld unchanged for binary '1', and with
reverse polarity for '0'. The demodulator consists of a
delay line interferometer which delays one bit, so two bits
can be compared at one time. In further processing, a
photodiode is used to transform the optical eld into an
electric current, so the information is changed back into
its original state.
The bit-error rates of DBPSK and DQPSK are compared to their non-dierential counterparts in the graph
to the right. The loss for using DBPSK is small enough
compared to the complexity reduction that it is often
used in communications systems that would otherwise
25.7. CHANNEL CAPACITY
93
use BPSK. For DQPSK though, the loss in performance

compared to ordinary QPSK is larger and the system designer must balance this against the reduction in complexity.
25.6.3
Example:
BPSK
Dierential schemes for other PSK modulations may be

devised along similar lines. The waveforms for DPSK are
the same as for dierentially encoded PSK given above
since the only change between the two schemes is at the
receiver.
Dierentially encoded The BER curve for this example is compared to ordi-
Dierential encoding/decoding system diagram.
At the k th time-slot call the bit to be modulated bk , the

dierentially encoded bit ek and the resulting modulated
signal mk (t) . Assume that the constellation diagram positions the symbols at 1 (which is BPSK). The dierential encoder produces:
nary BPSK on the right. As mentioned above, whilst the

error-rate is approximately doubled, the increase needed
in Eb /N0 to overcome this is small. The increase in
Eb /N0 required to overcome dierential modulation in
coded systems, however, is larger - typically about 3 dB.
The performance degradation is a result of noncoherent
transmission - in this case it refers to the fact that tracking
of the phase is completely ignored.
25.7 Channel capacity

4.5
3.5
10
Channel capacity
where indicates binary or modulo-2 addition.

10
BPSK
QPSK
8 PSK
16 PSK
16 QAM
ek = ek1 bk
BPSK
Diff. enc BPSK
-2
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
BER
0.5
10
-4
-5
10
15
20
SNR [dB]
10
-6
10
-8
Given a xed bandwidth, channel capacity vs. SNR for some

common modulation schemes
0
Eb/N0 (dB)
10
12
14
BER comparison between BPSK and dierentially encoded BPSK

with gray-coding operating in white noise.
So ek only changes state (from binary '0' to binary '1' or

from binary '1' to binary '0') if bk is a binary '1'. Otherwise it remains in its previous state. This is the description of dierentially encoded BPSK given above.
Like all M-ary modulation schemes with M = 2b symbols, when given exclusive access to a xed bandwidth,
the channel capacity of any phase shift keying modulation scheme rises to a maximum of b bits per symbol as
the signal-to-noise ratio increases.
25.8 See also

Dierential coding
The received signal is demodulated to yield ek = 1 and

then the dierential decoder reverses the encoding procedure and produces:
Modulation for an overview of all modulation

schemes
bk = ek ek1
Polar modulation
Therefore, bk = 1 if ek and ek1 dier and bk = 0 if they

are the same. Hence, if both ek and ek1 are inverted,
bk will still be decoded correctly. Thus, the 180 phase
ambiguity does not matter.
PSK31
Phase modulation (PM) the analogue equivalent

of PSK
PSK63
Binary oset carrier modulation
94
25.9 Notes
[1] IEEE Std 802.11-1999: Wireless LAN Medium Access
Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specications
the overarching IEEE 802.11 specication.
[2] IEEE Std 802.11b-1999 (R2003) the IEEE 802.11b
specication.
[3] IEEE Std 802.11g-2003 the IEEE 802.11g specication.
[4] Understanding the Requirements of ISO/IEC 14443 for
Type B Proximity Contactless Identication Cards, Application Note, Rev. 2056BRFID11/05, 2005, ATMEL
[5] Communications Systems, H. Stern & S. Mahmoud, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004, p283
[6] Tom Nelson, Erik Perrins, and Michael Rice. Common
detectors for Tier 1 modulations. T. Nelson, E. Perrins,
M. Rice. Common detectors for shaped oset QPSK
(SOQPSK) and Feher-patented QPSK (FQPSK)" Nelson, T.; Perrins, E.; Rice, M. (2005). Common detectors for shaped oset QPSK (SOQPSK) and Feherpatented QPSK (FQPSK)". GLOBECOM '05. IEEE
Global Telecommunications Conference, 2005. pp. 5 pp.
doi:10.1109/GLOCOM.2005.1578470. ISBN 0-78039414-3. ISBN 0-7803-9414-3
25.10 References
The notation and theoretical results in this article are
based on material presented in the following sources:
Proakis, John G. (1995). Digital Communications.
Singapore: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-113814-5.
Couch, Leon W. II (1997). Digital and Analog
Communications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: PrenticeHall. ISBN 0-13-081223-4.
Haykin, Simon (1988). Digital Communications.
Toronto, Canada: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-47162947-2.
Chapter 26
Minimum-shift keying
Q
01
the GSM mobile phone standard.
26.1 Mathematical representation
11
The resulting
is represented by the
formula
s(t) =
( t signal
)
( t
)
aI (t) cos 2T
cos (2fc t)aQ (t) sin 2T
sin (2fc t)
where aI (t) and aQ (t) encode the even and odd information respectively with a sequence of square pulses of duration 2T. aI (t) has its pulse edges on t = [T, T, 3T, ...]
and aQ (t) on t = [0, 2T, 4T, ...] . The carrier frequency
is fc .
00
Using the trigonometric identity, this can be rewritten in a

form where the phase and frequency modulation are more
obvious,
[
]
t
s(t) = cos 2fc t + bk (t) 2T
+ k
10
where bk(t) is +1 when aI (t) = aQ (t) and 1 if they are

of opposite signs, and k is 0 if aI (t) is 1, and otherwise. Therefore, the signal is modulated in frequency and
phase, and the phase changes continuously and linearly.
Mapping changes in continuous phase. Each bit time, the carrier

phase changes by 90
In digital modulation, minimum-shift keying (MSK) is

a type of continuous-phase frequency-shift keying that
was developed in the late 1950s and 1960s.[1] Similar to
OQPSK, MSK is encoded with bits alternating between
quadrature components, with the Q component delayed
by half the symbol period. However, instead of square
pulses as OQPSK uses, MSK encodes each bit as a half
sinusoid. This results in a constant-modulus signal (constant envelope signal), which reduces problems caused by
non-linear distortion. In addition to being viewed as related to OQPSK, MSK can also be viewed as a continuous phase frequency shift keyed (CPFSK) signal with a
frequency separation of one-half the bit rate.
In MSK the dierence between the higher and lower frequency is identical to half the bit rate. Consequently, the
waveforms used to represent a 0 and a 1 bit dier by exactly half a carrier period. Thus, the maximum frequency
deviation is = 0.25 fm where fm is the maximum modulating frequency. As a result, the modulation index m
is 0.5. This is the smallest FSK modulation index that
can be chosen such that the waveforms for 0 and 1 are
orthogonal. A variant of MSK called GMSK is used in
26.2 Gaussian minimum-shift keying

In digital communication, Gaussian minimum shift
keying or GMSK is a continuous-phase frequency-shift
keying modulation scheme. It is similar to standard
minimum-shift keying (MSK); however the digital data
stream is rst shaped with a Gaussian lter before being
applied to a frequency modulator. This has the advantage
of reducing sideband power, which in turn reduces outof-band interference between signal carriers in adjacent
frequency channels.[2] However, the Gaussian lter increases the modulation memory in the system and causes
intersymbol interference, making it more dicult to differentiate between dierent transmitted data values and
requiring more complex channel equalization algorithms
such as an adaptive equalizer at the receiver. GMSK has
high spectral eciency, but it needs a higher power level
than QPSK, for instance, in order to reliably transmit the
same amount of data.
95
96
GMSK is most notably used in the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and the Automatic Identication System (AIS) for maritime navigation.
26.3 See also

Constellation diagram used to examine the modulation in signal space (not time).
Gaussian frequency-shift keying
26.4 Notes
[1] M.L Doelz and E.T. Heald, Minimum Shift Data Communication System, US Patent 2977417, 1958, http://www.
freepatentsonline.com/2977417.html
[2] Poole, Ian. What is GMSK Modulation - Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying. RadioElectronics.com. Retrieved
March 23, 2014.
26.5 References
Subbarayan Pasupathy, Minimum Shift Keying: A
Spectrally Ecient Modulation, IEEE Communications Magazine, 1979
R. de Buda, Fast FSK Signals and their Demodulation, Can. Elec. Eng. J. Vol. 1, Number 1, 1976.
F. Amoroso, Pulse and Spectrum Manipulation in the
Minimum (Frequency) Shift Keying (MSK) Format,
IEEE Trans.
Document from the University of Hull giving a thorough description of GMSK.
CHAPTER 26. MINIMUM-SHIFT KEYING
Chapter 27
Constellation diagram
A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal modulated by a digital modulation scheme such as
quadrature amplitude modulation or phase-shift keying.
It displays the signal as a two-dimensional scatter diagram
in the complex plane at symbol sampling instants. In a
more abstract sense, it represents the possible symbols
that may be selected by a given modulation scheme as
points in the complex plane. Measured constellation diagrams can be used to recognize the type of interference
and distortion in a signal.
Q
010
011
and the quadrature, or Q-axis, respectively. Plotting several symbols in a scatter diagram produces the constellation diagram. The points on a constellation diagram are
called constellation points. They are a set of modulation
symbols which comprise the modulation alphabet.
Also a diagram of the ideal positions, signal space diagram, in a modulation scheme can be called a constellation diagram. In this sense the constellation is not a
scatter diagram but a representation of the scheme itself.
The example shown here is for 8-PSK, which has also
been given a Gray coded bit assignment.
27.1 Interpretation
110
001
111
0000
0100
1100
1000
0001
0101
1101
1001
000
101
100
A constellation diagram for Gray encoded 8-PSK.
By representing a transmitted symbol as a complex number and modulating a cosine and sine carrier signal with
the real and imaginary parts (respectively), the symbol
can be sent with two carriers on the same frequency. They
are often referred to as quadrature carriers. A coherent
detector is able to independently demodulate these carriers. This principle of using two independently modulated
carriers is the foundation of quadrature modulation. In
pure phase modulation, the phase of the modulating symbol is the phase of the carrier itself.
0011
0111
1111
1011
0010
0110
1110
1010
A constellation diagram for rectangular 16-QAM.
Upon reception of the signal, the demodulator examines

the received symbol, which may have been corrupted by
the channel or the receiver (e.g. additive white Gaussian noise, distortion, phase noise or interference). It
As the symbols are represented as complex numbers, they selects, as its estimate of what was actually transmitted,
can be visualized as points on the complex plane. The real that point on the constellation diagram which is closest (in
and imaginary axes are often called the in phase, or I-axis, a Euclidean distance sense) to that of the received sym97
98
bol. Thus it will demodulate incorrectly if the corruption
has caused the received symbol to move closer to another
constellation point than the one transmitted.
This is maximum likelihood detection. The constellation
diagram allows a straightforward visualization of this process imagine the received symbol as an arbitrary point
in the I-Q plane and then decide that the transmitted symbol is whichever constellation point is closest to it.
For the purpose of analyzing received signal quality, some
types of corruption are very evident in the constellation
diagram. For example:
Gaussian noise shows as fuzzy constellation points
Non-coherent single frequency interference shows
as circular constellation points
Phase noise shows as rotationally spreading constellation points
Attenuation causes the corner points to move towards the center
A constellation diagram visualises phenomena similar to
those an eye pattern does for one-dimensional signals.
The eye pattern can be used to see timing jitter in one
dimension of modulation.
27.2 See also

Eye diagram
Modulation error ratio
Error vector magnitude
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
CHAPTER 27. CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM
Chapter 28
General Packet Radio Service

SMS messaging and broadcasting
General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data service on the 2G and 3G cellular
communication systems global system for mobile communications (GSM). GPRS was originally standardized by European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in response to the earlier CDPD and imode packet-switched cellular technologies. It is now
maintained by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP).[1][2]
Always on internet access

Multimedia messaging service (MMS)
Push to talk over cellular (PoC)
Instant messaging and presencewireless village
Internet applications for smart devices through
wireless application protocol (WAP)
GPRS usage is typically charged based on volume of data

transferred, contrasting with circuit switched data, which
is usually billed per minute of connection time. Usage
above the bundle cap is charged per megabyte, speed limited, or disallowed.
GPRS is a best-eort service, implying variable
throughput and latency that depend on the number
of other users sharing the service concurrently, as
opposed to circuit switching, where a certain quality
of service (QoS) is guaranteed during the connection.
In 2G systems, GPRS provides data rates of 56114
kbit/second.[3] 2G cellular technology combined with
GPRS is sometimes described as 2.5G, that is, a technology between the second (2G) and third (3G) generations
of mobile telephony.[4] It provides moderate-speed data
transfer, by using unused time division multiple access
(TDMA) channels in, for example, the GSM system.
GPRS is integrated into GSM Release 97 and newer
releases.
Point-to-point (P2P) service: inter-networking with

the Internet (IP)
Point-to-Multipoint (P2M) service:
point-tomultipoint multicast and point-to-multipoint group
calls
If SMS over GPRS is used, an SMS transmission speed
of about 30 SMS messages per minute may be achieved.
This is much faster than using the ordinary SMS over
GSM, whose SMS transmission speed is about 6 to 10
SMS messages per minute.
28.1.2 Protocols supported

GPRS supports the following protocols:
28.1 Technical overview

See also: GPRS Core Network
The GPRS core network allows 2G, 3G and WCDMA
mobile networks to transmit IP packets to external networks such as the Internet. The GPRS system is an integrated part of the GSM network switching subsystem.
28.1.1
Services oered
GPRS extends the GSM Packet circuit switched data capabilities and makes the following services possible:
99
Internet protocol (IP). In practice, built-in mobile

browsers use IPv4 since IPv6 was not yet popular.
Point-to-point protocol (PPP). In this mode PPP is
often not supported by the mobile phone operator
but if the mobile is used as a modem to the connected computer, PPP is used to tunnel IP to the
phone. This allows an IP address to be assigned dynamically (IPCP not DHCP) to the mobile equipment.
X.25 connections. This is typically used for applications like wireless payment terminals, although it
has been removed from the standard. X.25 can still
be supported over PPP, or even over IP, but doing
this requires either a network-based router to perform encapsulation or intelligence built into the enddevice/terminal; e.g., user equipment (UE).
100
CHAPTER 28. GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE
When TCP/IP is used, each phone can have one or more external USB devices which are similar in shape and size
IP addresses allocated. GPRS will store and forward the to a computer mouse, or nowadays more like a pendrive.
IP packets to the phone even during handover. The TCP
handles any packet loss (e.g. due to a radio noise induced
28.1.4 Addressing
pause).
A GPRS connection is established by reference to its
access point name (APN). The APN denes the services
such as wireless application protocol (WAP) access, short
Devices supporting GPRS are divided into three classes: message service (SMS), multimedia messaging service
(MMS), and for Internet communication services such as
Class A Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM email and World Wide Web access.
service (voice, SMS), using both at the same time. In order to set up a GPRS connection for a wireless moSuch devices are known to be available today.
dem, a user must specify an APN, optionally a user name
28.1.3
Hardware
Class B Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM and password, and very rarely an IP address, all provided
service (voice, SMS), but using only one or the other by the network operator.
at a given time. During GSM service (voice call
or SMS), GPRS service is suspended, and then resumed automatically after the GSM service (voice 28.2 Coding schemes and speeds
call or SMS) has concluded. Most GPRS mobile
devices are Class B.
The upload and download speeds that can be achieved in
GPRS depend on a number of factors such as:
Class C Are connected to either GPRS service or GSM
service (voice, SMS). Must be switched manually
the number of BTS TDMA time slots assigned by
between one or the other service.
the operator
A true Class A device may be required to transmit on
two dierent frequencies at the same time, and thus will
need two radios. To get around this expensive requirement, a GPRS mobile may implement the dual transfer
mode (DTM) feature. A DTM-capable mobile may use
simultaneous voice and packet data, with the network coordinating to ensure that it is not required to transmit on
two dierent frequencies at the same time. Such mobiles
are considered pseudo-Class A, sometimes referred to as
simple class A. Some networks support DTM since
2007.
the channel encoding is used.

the maximum capability of the mobile device expressed as a GPRS multislot class
28.2.1 Multiple access schemes

The multiple access methods used in GSM with GPRS
are based on frequency division duplex (FDD) and
TDMA. During a session, a user is assigned to one
pair of up-link and down-link frequency channels. This
is combined with time domain statistical multiplexing
which makes it possible for several users to share the
same frequency channel. The packets have constant
length, corresponding to a GSM time slot. The downlink uses rst-come rst-served packet scheduling, while
the up-link uses a scheme very similar to reservation
ALOHA (R-ALOHA). This means that slotted ALOHA
(S-ALOHA) is used for reservation inquiries during a
contention phase, and then the actual data is transferred
using dynamic TDMA with rst-come rst-served.
28.2.2 Channel encoding

Huawei E220 3G/GPRS Modem
USB 3G/GPRS modems use a terminal-like interface

over USB 1.1, 2.0 and later, data formats V.42bis, and
RFC 1144 and some models have connector for external
antenna. Modems can be added as cards (for laptops) or
The channel encoding process in GPRS consists of two

steps: rst, a cyclic code is used to add parity bits, which
are also referred to as the Block Check Sequence, followed by coding with a possibly punctured convolutional
code.[5] The Coding Schemes CS-1 to CS-4 specify the
number of parity bits generated by the cyclic code and the
28.3. USABILITY
101
puncturing rate of the convolutional code.[5] In Coding

Schemes CS-1 through CS-3, the convolutional code is of
rate 1/2, i.e. each input bit is converted into two coded
bits.[5] In Coding Schemes CS-2 and CS-3, the output of
the convolutional code is punctured to achieve the desired
code rate.[5] In Coding Scheme CS-4, no convolutional
coding is applied.[5] The following table summarises the
options. Note that the bit rates do not include the overhead incurred by channel coding and the RLC and MAC
headers.
Some high end mobiles, usually also supporting UMTS,

also support GPRS/EDGE multislot class 32. According
to 3GPP TS 45.002 (Release 6), Table B.2, mobile stations of this class support 5 timeslots in downlink and 3
timeslots in uplink with a maximum number of 6 simultaneously used timeslots. If data trac is concentrated
in downlink direction the network will congure the connection for 5+1 operation. When more data is transferred
in the uplink the network can at any time change the constellation to 4+2 or 3+3. Under the best reception conditions, i.e. when the best EDGE modulation and coding scheme can be used, 5 timeslots can carry a bandwidth of 5*59.2 kbit/s = 296 kbit/s. In uplink direction, 3
The least robust, but fastest, coding scheme (CS-4) is timeslots can carry a bandwidth of 3*59.2 kbit/s = 177.6
available near a base transceiver station (BTS), while the kbit/s.[6]
most robust coding scheme (CS-1) is used when the mobile station (MS) is further away from a BTS.
Multislot Classes for GPRS/EGPRS
Using the CS-4 it is possible to achieve a user speed of
20.0 kbit/s per time slot. However, using this scheme the
cell coverage is 25% of normal. CS-1 can achieve a user
speed of only 8.0 kbit/s per time slot, but has 98% of
normal coverage. Newer network equipment can adapt Attributes of a multislot class
the transfer speed automatically depending on the mobile
location.
Each multislot class identies the following:
In addition to GPRS, there are two other GSM technologies which deliver data services: circuit-switched data
(CSD) and high-speed circuit-switched data (HSCSD).
In contrast to the shared nature of GPRS, these instead establish a dedicated circuit (usually billed per
minute). Some applications such as video calling may
prefer HSCSD, especially when there is a continuous ow
of data between the endpoints.
The following table summarises some possible congurations of GPRS and circuit switched data services.
the maximum number of Timeslots that can be allocated on uplink

the maximum number of Timeslots that can be allocated on downlink
the total number of timeslots which can be allocated
by the network to the mobile
the time needed for the MS to perform adjacent cell
signal level measurement and get ready to transmit
the time needed for the MS to get ready to transmit
28.2.3
Multislot Class
the time needed for the MS to perform adjacent cell

signal level measurement and get ready to receive
The multislot class determines the speed of data trans the time needed for the MS to get ready to receive.
fer available in the Uplink and Downlink directions. It is
a value between 1 to 45 which the network uses to allocate radio channels in the uplink and downlink direction. The dierent multislot class specication is detailed in
Multislot class with values greater than 31 are referred to the Annex B of the 3GPP Technical Specication 45.002
(Multiplexing and multiple access on the radio path)
as high multislot classes.
A multislot allocation is represented as, for example, 5+2.
The rst number is the number of downlink timeslots and
the second is the number of uplink timeslots allocated for
use by the mobile station. A commonly used value is class
10 for many GPRS/EGPRS mobiles which uses a maximum of 4 timeslots in downlink direction and 2 timeslots in uplink direction. However simultaneously a maximum number of 5 simultaneous timeslots can be used
in both uplink and downlink. The network will automatically congure the for either 3+2 or 4+1 operation depending on the nature of data transfer.
28.3 Usability
The maximum speed of a GPRS connection oered in
2003 was similar to a modem connection in an analog
wire telephone network, about 3240 kbit/s, depending
on the phone used. Latency is very high; round-trip time
(RTT) is typically about 600700 ms and often reaches
1s. GPRS is typically prioritized lower than speech, and
thus the quality of connection varies greatly.
102
Devices with latency/RTT improvements (via, for example, the extended UL TBF mode feature) are generally
available. Also, network upgrades of features are available with certain operators. With these enhancements the
active round-trip time can be reduced, resulting in significant increase in application-level throughput speeds.
CHAPTER 28. GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE
28.6 References
[1] ETSI
[2] 3GPP
[3] General packet radio service from Qkport
[4] Mobile Phone Generations from
28.4 History of GPRS

GPRS opened in 2000 as a packet-switched data service
embedded to the channel-switched cellular radio network
GSM. GPRS extends the reach of the xed Internet by
connecting mobile terminals worldwide.
The CELLPAC[7] protocol developed 1991-1993 was the
trigger point for starting in 1993 specication of standard
GPRS by ETSI SMG. Especially, the CELLPAC Voice
& Data functions introduced in a 1993 ETSI Workshop
contribution[8] anticipate what was later known to be the
roots of GPRS. This workshop contribution is referenced
in 22 GPRS related US-Patents.[9] Successor systems to
GSM/GPRS like W-CDMA (UMTS) and LTE rely on
key GPRS functions for mobile Internet access as introduced by CELLPAC.
[5] 3rd Generation Partnership Project (September 2012).

3GGP TS45.001: Technical Specication Group
GSM/EDGE Radio Access Network; Physical layer
on the radio path; General description. Retrieved
2013-07-20.
[6] GPRS and EDGE Multislot Classes
[7] Bernhard Walke, Wolf Mende, Georgios Hatziliadis:
CELLPAC: A packet radio protocol applied to the cellular GSM mobile radio network, Proceedings of 41st
IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference, May 1991, 408413.
[8] Peter Decker, Bernhard Walke: A General Packet Radio Service proposed for GSM, ETSI SMG Workshop
GSM in a Future Competitive Environment, Helsinki,
Finland, Oct. 13, 1993, pp. 1-20.
[9] Program Publish or Perish, see returns to a search for P.
Decker, B. Walke their most cited paper that (after double

According to a study on history of GPRS development[10]
click) unveils US patents referencing that paper
Bernhard Walke and his student Peter Decker are the inventors of GPRS the rst system providing worldwide
[10] Bernhard Walke: The Roots of GPRS: The First System
mobile Internet access.
for Mobile Packet-Based Global Internet Access, IEEE
Wireless Communications, Oct. 2013, 12-23.
Google search for Inventors of mobile Internet returns
the company Unwired Planet, Inc. naming itself The
Founder of the Mobile Internet. The company is exploiting a large patent portfolio which GPRS relevant (Erics- 28.7 External links
son) patents are referencing CELLPAC.
3GPP AT command set for user equipment (UE)
28.5 See also

Code division multiple access (CDMA)
GPRS security information at the Wayback Machine (archived February 9, 2008)

Free GPRS resources
Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE)
GSM World, the trade association for GSM and

GPRS network operators.
Universal mobile telephone system (UMTS)
Palowireless GPRS resource center
GPRS core network
GPRS attach and PDP context activation sequence

diagram
Sub-network dependent convergence protocol

(SNDCP)
High-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA)
Cellular data communication protocol
Chapter 29
Spectral eciency
Spectral eciency, spectrum eciency or bandwidth
= 3,100 hertz. The spectral eciency or
eciency refers to the information rate that can be transmodulation eciency is 56,000/3,100 = 18.1
mitted over a given bandwidth in a specic communica(bit/s)/Hz downstream, and 48,000/3,100 =
tion system. It is a measure of how eciently a limited
15.5 (bit/s)/Hz upstream.
frequency spectrum is utilized by the physical layer protocol, and sometimes by the media access control (the An upper bound for the attainable modulation eciency
channel access protocol).
is given by the Nyquist rate or Hartleys law as follows:
For a signaling alphabet with M alternative symbols, each
symbol represents N = log2 M bits. N is the modulation eciency measured in bit/symbol or bpcu. In
29.1 Link spectral eciency
the case of baseband transmission (line coding or pulseamplitude modulation) with a baseband bandwidth (or
The link spectral eciency of a digital communication upper cut-o frequency) B, the symbol rate can not exsystem is measured in bit/s/Hz,[1] or, less frequently but ceed 2B symbols/s in view to avoid intersymbol interferunambiguously, in (bit/s)/Hz. It is the net bitrate (use- ence. Thus, the spectral eciency can not exceed 2N
ful information rate excluding error-correcting codes) or (bit/s)/Hz in the baseband transmission case. In the passmaximum throughput divided by the bandwidth in hertz band transmission case, a signal with passband bandwidth
of a communication channel or a data link. Alternatively, W can be converted to an equivalent baseband signal (usthe spectral eciency may be measured in bit/symbol, ing undersampling or a superheterodyne receiver), with
which is equivalent to bits per channel use (bpcu), im- upper cut-o frequency W/2. If double-sideband moduplying that the net bit rate is divided by the symbol rate lation schemes such as QAM, ASK, PSK or OFDM are
(modulation rate) or line code pulse rate.
used, this results in a maximum symbol rate of W symLink spectral eciency is typically used to analyse the bols/s, and in that the modulation eciency can not execiency of a digital modulation method or line code, ceed N (bit/s)/Hz. If digital single-sideband modulation
sometimes in combination with a forward error correc- is used, the passband signal with bandwidth W corretion (FEC) code and other physical layer overhead. In the sponds to a baseband message signal with baseband bandlatter case, a bit refers to a user data bit; FEC overhead width W, resulting in a maximum symbol rate of 2W and
an attainable modulation eciency of 2N (bit/s)/Hz.
is always excluded.
The modulation eciency in bit/s is the gross bitrate (including any error-correcting code) divided by the
bandwidth.
Example 1: A transmission technique using
one kilohertz of bandwidth to transmit 1,000
bits per second has a modulation eciency of
1 (bit/s)/Hz.
Example 3: A 16QAM modem has an alphabet size of M = 16 alternative symbols, with

N = 4 bit/symbol or bpcu. Since QAM is a
form of double sideband passband transmission, the spectral eciency cannot exceed N
= 4 (bit/s)/Hz.
Example 4: The 8VSB (8-level vestigial
sideband) modulation scheme used in the
ATSC digital television standard gives N=3
bit/symbol or bpcu. Since it can be described
as nearly single-side band, the modulation eciency is close to 2N = 6 (bit/s)/Hz. In practice,
ATSC transfers a gross bit rate of 32 Mbit/s
over a 6 MHz wide channel, resulting in a modulation eciency of 32/6 = 5.3 (bit/s)/Hz.
Example 2: A V.92 modem for the telephone

network can transfer 56,000 bit/s downstream
and 48,000 bit/s upstream over an analog telephone network. Due to ltering in the telephone exchange, the frequency range is limited to between 300 hertz and 3,400 hertz,
corresponding to a bandwidth of 3,400 300
103
104
CHAPTER 29. SPECTRAL EFFICIENCY

Example 5: The downlink of a V.92 modem
uses a pulse-amplitude modulation with 128
signal levels, resulting in N = 7 bit/symbol.
Since the transmitted signal before passband
ltering can be considered as baseband transmission, the spectral eciency cannot exceed
2N = 14 (bit/s)/Hz over the full baseband channel (0 to 4 kHz). As seen above, a higher spectral eciency is achieved if we consider the
smaller passband bandwidth.
in high sensitivity to co-channel interference (crosstalk),

which aects the capacity. For example, in a cellular telephone network with frequency reuse, spectrum spreading and forward error correction reduce the spectral efciency in (bit/s)/Hz but substantially lower the required
signal-to-noise ratio in comparison to non-spread spectrum techniques. This can allow for much denser geographical frequency reuse that compensates for the lower
link spectral eciency, resulting in approximately the
same capacity (the same number of simultaneous phone
calls) over the same bandwidth, using the same number
If a forward error correction code is used, the spectral of base station transmitters. As discussed below, a more
eciency is reduced from the uncoded modulation e- relevant measure for wireless networks would be system
spectral eciency in bit/s/Hz per unit area. However, in
ciency gure.
closed communication links such as telephone lines and
cable TV networks, and in noise-limited wireless comExample 6: If a forward error correction
munication system where co-channel interference is not
(FEC) code with code rate 1/2 is added, meana factor, the largest link spectral eciency that can be
ing that the encoder input bit rate is one half the
supported by the available SNR is generally used.
encoder output rate, the spectral eciency is
50% of the modulation eciency. In exchange
for this reduction in spectral eciency, FEC
usually reduces the bit-error rate, and typically
29.2 System spectral eciency or
enables operation at a lower signal to noise ratio
area spectral eciency
(SNR).
An upper bound for the spectral eciency possible without bit errors in a channel with a certain SNR, if ideal
error coding and modulation is assumed, is given by the
Shannon-Hartley theorem.
Example 7: If the SNR is 1 times expressed
as a ratio, corresponding to 0 decibel, the link
spectral eciency can not exceed 1 (bit/s)/Hz
for error-free detection (assuming an ideal
error-correcting code) according to ShannonHartley regardless of the modulation and coding.
Note that the goodput (the amount of application layer
useful information) is normally lower than the maximum
throughput used in the above calculations, because of
packet retransmissions, higher protocol layer overhead,
ow control, congestion avoidance, etc. On the other
hand, a data compression scheme, such as the V.44 or
V.42bis compression used in telephone modems, may
however give higher goodput if the transferred data is not
already eciently compressed.
The link spectral eciency of a wireless telephony link
may also be expressed as the maximum number of simultaneous calls over 1 MHz frequency spectrum in erlangs
per megahertz, or E/MHz. This measure is also aected
by the source coding (data compression) scheme. It may
be applied to analog as well as digital transmission.
In wireless networks, the link spectral eciency can be
somewhat misleading, as larger values are not necessarily
more ecient in their overall use of radio spectrum. In a
wireless network, high link spectral eciency may result
In digital wireless networks, the system spectral eciency or area spectral eciency is typically measured
in (bit/s)/Hz per unit area, in (bit/s)/Hz per cell, or in
(bit/s)/Hz per site. It is a measure of the quantity of users
or services that can be simultaneously supported by a limited radio frequency bandwidth in a dened geographic
area. It may for example be dened as the maximum
aggregated throughput or goodput, i.e. summed over all
users in the system, divided by the channel bandwidth.
This measure is aected not only by the single user transmission technique, but also by multiple access schemes
and radio resource management techniques utilized. It
can be substantially improved by dynamic radio resource
management. If it is dened as a measure of the maximum goodput, retransmissions due to co-channel interference and collisions are excluded. Higher-layer protocol overhead (above the media access control sublayer) is
normally neglected.
Example 8: In a cellular system based on
frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)
with a xed channel allocation (FCA) cellplan
using a frequency reuse factor of 1/4, each base
station has access to 1/4 of the total available
frequency spectrum. Thus, the maximum possible system spectral eciency in (bit/s)/Hz per
site is 1/4 of the link spectral eciency. Each
base station may be divided into 3 cells by
means of 3 sector antennas, also known as a
4/12 reuse pattern. Then each cell has access
to 1/12 of the available spectrum, and the system spectral eciency in (bit/s)/Hz per cell or
(bit/s)/Hz per sector is 1/12 of the link spectral
29.5. REFERENCES
eciency.
The system spectral eciency of a cellular network may
also be expressed as the maximum number of simultaneous phone calls per area unit over 1 MHz frequency
spectrum in E/MHz per cell, E/MHz per sector, E/MHz
per site, or (E/MHz)/m2 . This measure is also aected by
the source coding (data compression) scheme. It may be
used in analog cellular networks as well.
Low link spectral eciency in (bit/s)/Hz does not necessarily mean that an encoding scheme is inecient from a
system spectral eciency point of view. As an example,
consider Code Division Multiplexed Access (CDMA)
spread spectrum, which is not a particularly spectral ecient encoding scheme when considering a single channel
or single user. However, the fact that one can layer multiple channels on the same frequency band means that the
system spectrum utilization for a multi-channel CDMA
system can be very good.
Example 9: In the W-CDMA 3G cellular system, every phone call is compressed to a maximum of 8,500 bit/s (the useful bitrate), and
spread out over a 5 MHz wide frequency channel. This corresponds to a link throughput of
only 8,500/5,000,000 = 0.0017 (bit/s)/Hz. Let
us assume that 100 simultaneous (non-silent)
calls are possible in the same cell. Spread spectrum makes it possible to have as low a frequency reuse factor as 1, if each base station is
divided into 3 cells by means of 3 directional
sector antennas. This corresponds to a system
spectrum eciency of over 1 100 0.0017
= 0.17 (bit/s)/Hz per site, and 0.17/3 = 0.06
(bit/s)/Hz per cell or sector.
The spectral eciency can be improved by radio resource management techniques such as ecient xed or
dynamic channel allocation, power control, link adaptation and diversity schemes.
A combined fairness measure and system spectral eciency measure is the fairly shared spectral eciency.
29.3 Comparison table

Examples of numerical spectral eciency values of some
common communication systems can be found in the table below.
N/A means not applicable.
29.4 See also

Baud
105
CDMA spectral eciency
Channel capacity
Comparison of mobile phone standards
Goodput
Radio resource management (RRM)
Spatial capacity
Throughput
Orders of magnitude (bit rate)
29.5 References
[1] Sergio Benedetto and Ezio Biglieri (1999). Principles
of Digital Transmission: With Wireless Applications.
Springer. ISBN 0-306-45753-9.
[2] C. T. Bhunia, Information Technology Network And Internet, New Age International, 2006, page 26.
[3] Lal Chand Godara, Handbook of antennas in wireless
communications, CRC Press, 2002, ISBN 0849301246,
ISBN 9780849301247
[4] Anders Furuskr, Jonas Nslund and Hkan Olofsson (1999), "EdgeEnhanced data rates for GSM and
TDMA/136 evolution", Ericsson Review no. 1
[5] KYOCERAs iBurst(TM) System Oers High Capacity,
High Performance for the Broadband Era.
[6] http://www.home.agilent.com/agilent/editorial.jspx?cc=
IN&lc=eng&ckey=1905163&id=1905163
[7] http://www.extremetech.com/tag/lte-advanced
Chapter 30
Digital Enhanced Cordless

Telecommunications
baby monitors, are becoming common. Data applications
also exist, but have been eclipsed by Wi-Fi. 3G & 4G cellular also competes with both DECT and Wi-Fi for both
voice and data. DECT is also used in special applications
such as remote controls for industrial applications.
In January 2011, a low power variant (DECT ULE - ultra
low energy) was discussed at the DECT World and CATiq Conference with a whitepaper presented by Sitel (Now
Dialog) Semiconductor. The rst successful interoperability tests were announced by the DECT Forum in June
2011, and in September 2011, Dialog Semiconductor announced the rst commercially available DECT ULE devices. Unlike standard DECT, the low power variant enables this standard to be used in battery powered devices
such as smartphone app controllable home automation or
security systems.
The DECT standard includes a standardized interoperability prole for simple telephone capabilities, called
GAP, which most manufacturers implement. GAPconformance enables DECT handsets and bases from difDigital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
ferent manufacturers to interoperate at the most basic
(Digital European Cordless Telecommunications),
level of functionality, that of making and receiving calls.
usually known by the acronym DECT, is a standard
The standard also contains several other interoperability
primarily used for creating cordless phone systems. It
proles, for data and for radio local-loop services.
originated in Europe, where it is the universal standard,
replacing earlier cordless phone standards, such as 900
MHz CT1 and CT2.[1]
The base unit and handset of a British Telecom DECT cordless
telephone
Beyond Europe, it has been adopted by Australia, and

most countries in Asia and South America. North American adoption was delayed by United States radio frequency regulations. This forced development of a variation of DECT, called DECT 6.0, using a slightly dierent
frequency range. The technology is nearly identical, but
the frequency dierence makes the technology incompatible with systems in other areas, even from the same manufacturer. DECT has almost universally replaced other
standards in most countries where it is used, with the exception of North America.
DECT is used primarily in home and small oce systems,
but is also available in many PBX systems for medium
and large businesses. DECT can also be used for purposes
other than cordless phones. Voice applications, such as
30.1 Application
The DECT standard fully species a means for a portable
unit, such as a cordless telephone, to access a xed telecoms network via radio. But, unlike the GSM standards,
does not specify any internal aspects of the xed network
itself. Connectivity to the xed network (that may be
of many dierent kinds) is done through a base station
or Radio Fixed Part to terminate the radio link, and a
gateway to connect calls to the xed network. In most
cases the gateway connection is to the public switched
telephone network or telephone jack, although connectivity with newer technologies such as Voice over IP has
become available. There are also other devices such as
some baby monitors utilizing DECT, and in these devices
106
30.3. VOIP/IP-DECT
107
there is no gateway functionality.
DECT 6.0 products do not support GAP, therefore

The DECT standard originally envisaged three major ar- phones of diering brands are not guaranteed to work
together. E.g. A GE 28105EE1 DECT 6.0 headset will
eas of application:[2]
not receive calls if registered to a Uniden base unit.
Domestic cordless telephony, using a single base sta- The term DECT 6.0 is also sometimes inappropriately
tion to connect one or more handsets to the public used in Australia that uses the same allocated spectrum
telecoms network.
frequencies as Europe.[6]
Enterprise premises cordless PABXs and wireless
LANs, using many base stations for coverage. Calls
continue as users move between dierent coverage
cells, through a mechanism called handover. Calls
can be both within the system and to the public telecoms network.
30.3 VoIP/IP-DECT
Public access, using large numbers of base stations

to provide high capacity building or urban area cov- To facilitate migrations from traditional PBXs to VoIP,
erage as part of a public telecoms network.
manufacturers such as Gigaset (formerly Siemens),
Lantiq, Ascom, Aastra, Philips, snom, Grandstream
Of these, the domestic application (cordless home teleand Spectralink developed IP-DECT solutions where the
phones) has been extremely successful. The enterprise
backhaul from the base station is via VoIP (H.323 or SIP)
PABX market had some success, and all the major PABX
over ethernet, while communications between base and
vendors have oered DECT access options. The pubhandsets is via DECT.
lic access application did not succeed, since public cellular networks rapidly out-competed DECT by coupling DECT was originally intended for use with traditional
their ubiquitous coverage with large increases in capacity analog telephone networks, but DECT bases have higher
and continuously falling costs. There has been only one bit-rates at their disposal than traditional analog telephone
major installation of DECT for public access: in early networks could provide. To take advantage of these
1998 Telecom Italia launched a DECT network known higher-speed networks, ETSI released the CAT-iq stanas Fido after much regulatory delay, covering major dard in 2005, which, among other features, standardizes
cities in Italy.[3] The service was promoted for only a few wideband audio over DECT. CAT-iq is backwards commonths and, having peaked at 142,000 subscribers, was patible with GAP.
shut down in 2001.[4]
For enterprises, DECT-plus-(cabled)VoIP has several
DECT has also been used for Fixed Wireless Access as a
substitute for copper pairs in the last mile in countries
such as India and South Africa. By using directional antennas and sacricing some trac capacity, cell coverage
could extend to over 10 kilometres (6.2 mi). In Europe
the power limit laid down for use of the DECT spectrum
(250 mW peak) was expressed in ERP, rather than the
more commonly used EIRP, permitting the use of highgain directional antennas to produce much higher EIRP
and hence long ranges.
The standard is also used in electronic cash terminals,
trac lights, and remote door openers.[5]
30.2 DECT 6.0

The 6.0 in DECT 6.0 does not equate to a spectrum
band, but is a marketing term coined for DECT devices
manufactured for use in the U.S. and Canada. Although
DECT 6.0 operates at 1.9 GHz, it was decided the term
DECT 1.9 might have confused customers who equate
larger numbers (such as the 2.4 and 5.8 in existing 2.4
GHz and 5.8 GHz cordless telephones) with later products. The DECT and DECT 6.0 technologies are essentially identical, except for operating frequency.
signicant advantages and disadvantages in comparison

to VoIP-over-WiFi, where, typically, the handsets are directly WiFi+VoIP-enabled (instead of having the DECThandset communicate via an intermediate VoIP-enabled
base). On the one hand, VoIP-over-WiFi has a range
advantage given sucient access-points, while a DECT
phone must remain in proximity to its own base (or repeaters thereof). On the other hand, for large networks
VoIP-over-WiFi imposes signicant design and maintenance complexity to ensure roaming facilities and high
quality-of-service. In North-America, DECT suers
from major decits, especially in comparison to DECT
elsewhere, since the UPCS band (1920-1930 MHz) used
for DECT in North-America is not free from heavy interference and only half as wide as that used in Europe (1880-1900 MHz), the 4 mW average transmission
power limits the range to far less than the 10 mW permitted in Europe, and the commonplace lack of GAPcompatibility among US vendors binds companies to a
single vendor. Other alternatives to DECT-plus-VoIP
include local microcells (e.g. with OpenBTS), which
then enables use of standard cellular phones for local inhouse telephony. In the Far-East, in particular in Japan
and Taiwan, the Personal Handy-phone System renders
the in-house (and PBX) concept superuous by making the entire last-mile wireless.
108
30.4 DECT ULE
CHAPTER 30. DIGITAL ENHANCED CORDLESS TELECOMMUNICATIONS
30.6 Technical features
The latest DECT variant is DECT ULE, or DECT Ultra Typical abilities of a domestic DECT Generic Access
low energy. The standard was rst discussed in January Prole (GAP) system includes:
2011 and the rst commercial products were launched
later that year by Dialog Semiconductor. Like DECT,
Multiple handsets to one base station and one phone
DECT ULE standard uses the 1.9 GHz band so suers
line socket. This allows several cordless telephones
less interference than Zigbee, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, or mito be placed around the house, all operating from
crowave ovens, which all operate in the ISM unlicensed
the same telephone jack. Additional handsets have
2.4 GHz band.
a battery charger station that does not plug into the
telephone system. Handsets can in many cases be
The standard has been created to enable home automaused as intercoms, communicating between each
tion, security, healthcare and energy monitoring applicaother, and sometimes as walkie-talkies, intercomtions that are battery powered and can easily connect to
municating without telephone line connection.
the web using the large number of existing DECT enabled
modems and be managed using a smartphone app.
Interference-free wireless operation to around 100
metres (110 yd) outdoors, much less indoors when
separated by walls. Operates clearly in common
congested domestic radio trac situations, for in30.5 Standards history
stance, generally immune to interference from other
DECT systems, Wi-Fi networks, video senders,
The DECT standard was developed by ETSI in several
Bluetooth technology, baby monitors and other
phases, the rst of that took place between 1988 and 1992
wireless devices.
when the rst round of standards were published. These
were the ETS 300-175 series in 9 parts dening the air interface, and ETS 300-176 dening how the units should
30.6.1 Technical properties
be type approved. A technical report, ETR-178, was also
published to explain the standard. Subsequent standards
ETSI standards documentation (ETSI EN 300 175were developed and published by ETSI to cover interop1/2/3/4/5/6/7/8, REN/DECT-000268-1/2/3/4/5/6/7/8)
erability proles and standards for testing.
prescribes the following technical properties for DECT.
Initially named Digital European Cordless Telephone
at its launch by CEPT in November 1987, following a
Audio codec: G.726 (standard codec), G.711,
suggestion by Enrico Tosato of Italy, its name was soon
G.722 (wideband), G.729.1 (wideband) and
changed to Digital European Cordless TelecommunicaMPEG-4 ER LD AAC (wideband and supertions to reect its broader range of application, includwideband)
ing data services. In 1995, due to its more global usage,
the name was changed from European to Enhanced.
Net bit rate: 32 kbit/s
It is an ETSI standard for digital portable phones (cord Frequency: Section 4.1.1 (Nominal position of RF
less home telephones), commonly used for domestic or
carriers) of the ETSI standard states: DECT carricorporate purposes. It is recognized by the ITU as fulers are specied for the whole frequency range 1880
lling the IMT-2000 requirements and thus qualies as
MHz to 1980 MHz and 2010 MHz to 2025 MHz.
a 3G system. Within the IMT-2000 group of technoloCarrier positions in the 902 MHz to 928 MHz ISM
gies, DECT is referred to as 'IMT-2000 Frequency Time'
band and the 2400 MHz to 2483,5 MHz ISM band
(IMT-FT).
have been dened for the US market. [...] The most
DECT was developed by ETSI but has since been adopted
common spectrum allocation is 1880 MHz to 1900
by many countries all over the World. The original DECT
MHz, but outside Europe spectrum is also available
frequency band (1880 MHz1900 MHz) is used in all
in 1900 MHz to 1920 MHz and in 1910 MHz to
countries in Europe. Outside Europe, it is used in most
1930 MHz (several countries).
of Asia, Australia and South America. In the United
States, the Federal Communications Commission in 2005
1880 1900 MHz in Europe,
changed channelization and licensing costs in a nearby
1880 1900 MHz in South Africa,
band (1920 MHz1930 MHz, or 1.9 GHz), known as
1880 1900 MHz in Hong Kong [7]
Unlicensed Personal Communications Services (UPCS),
allowing DECT devices to be sold in the U.S. with only
1900 1920 MHz in China, till 2003, after
minimal changes. These channels are reserved exclu2003 2.4 GHz
sively for voice communication applications and therefore
1893 1906 MHz in Japan,
are less likely to experience interference from other wire 1910 1930 MHz in Latin America,
less devices such as baby monitors and wireless networks.
30.6. TECHNICAL FEATURES

1910 1920 MHz in Brazil, and
1920 1930 MHz in the US and Canada
North-American DECT (DECT 6.0)
products may not be used in Europe/Africa as they cause and suer from
interference with the European/South
African cellular networks. Use of such
products is prohibited by European
Telecommunications Authorities and Independent Communication Authority of
South Africa. European DECT products
may not be used in the US and Canada
as they likewise cause and suer from
interference with US and Canada cellular
networks, and use is prohibited by the
Federal Communication Commission
and Industry Canada. As DECT and
DECT 6.0 do not operate in the 2.4 GHz
ISM band, they are not subject to, nor
cause interference with, 802.11b and
802.11g Wi-Fi, and 2.4 GHz cordless
phones. As such, they are sometimes
marketed as 'WiFi friendly'.[8]
Carriers: 10 (1.728 MHz spacing) in Europe, 5
(1.728 MHz spacing) in the US
Time slots: 2 x 12 (up and down stream)
Channel allocation: dynamic
Average transmission power: 10 mW (250 mW
peak) in Europe, 4 mW (100 mW peak) in the US
The DECT physical layer uses:
Frequency division multiple access (FDMA),
Time division multiple access (TDMA) and
Time division duplex (TDD)
This means that the radio spectrum is divided into physical channels in two dimensions: frequency and time.
109
Call Control (CC)
Mobility Management (MM)
Optionally it may also contain others:
Call Independent Supplementary Services (CISS)
Connection Oriented Message Service (COMS)
Connectionless Message Service (CLMS)
All these communicate through a Link Control Entity
(LCE).
The call control protocol is derived from ISDN DSS1,
which is a Q.931-derived protocol. Many DECT-specic
changes have been made. The mobility management protocol includes many elements similar to the GSM protocol, but also includes elements unique to DECT.
Unlike the GSM protocol, the DECT network specications do not dene cross-linkages between the operation of the entities (for example, Mobility Management
and Call Control). The architecture presumes that such
linkages will be designed into the interworking unit that
connects the DECT access network to whatever mobilityenabled xed network is involved. By keeping the entities separate, the handset is capable of responding to any
combination of entity trac, and this creates great exibility in xed network design without breaking full interoperability.
DECT GAP is an interoperability prole for DECT. The
intent is that two dierent products from dierent manufacturers that both conform not only to the DECT standard, but also to the GAP prole dened within the
DECT standard, are able to interoperate for basic calling. The DECT standard includes full testing suites for
GAP, and GAP products on the market from dierent
manufacturers are in practice interoperable for the basic
functions.
30.6.2 Security
The maximum allowed power for portable equipment as

well as base stations is 250 mW. A portable device radiThe DECT media access control layer also provides
ates an average of about 10 mW during a call as it is only encryption services with the DECT Standard Cipher
using one of 24 time slots to transmit.
(DSC). The encryption is fairly weak, using a 35-bit
The DECT media access control layer controls the initialization vector and encrypting the voice stream with
physical layer and provides connection oriented, 64-bit encryption.
connectionless and broadcast services to the higher The security algorithm has been decoded.[9][10][11] Anlayers.
other attack involves impersonating a DECT base staThe DECT data link layer uses LAPC (Link Access
Protocol Control), a specially designed variant of the
ISDN data link protocol called LAPD. They are based
on HDLC.
tion, which allows calls to be listened to, recorded, and

re-routed to a dierent destination.[10]
While most of the DECT standard is publicly available,

the part describing the DECT Standard Cipher was only
The DECT network layer always contains the following available under a non-disclosure agreement to the phones
protocol entities:
manufacturers from ETSI.
110
CHAPTER 30. DIGITAL ENHANCED CORDLESS TELECOMMUNICATIONS
On June 8, 2002, a posting was made to the

alt.anonymous.messages newsgroup containing what was
claimed to be the reverse engineered source code of the
implementation of the DECT Standard Cipher for the
Samsung SP-R6150 telephone.[12] This claim has since
been refuted.[13]
tion can provide up to 120 channels in the DECT spectrum before frequency reuse. Each timeslot can be assigned to a dierent channel in order to exploit advantages of frequency hopping and to avoid interference from
other users in asynchronous fashion.
In 2008, members of the deDECTed.org project actually

did reverse engineer the DECT Standard Cipher,[14] and 30.8 XDECT R
as of 2010 there has been a viable attack on it that can
recover the key.[11]
XDECT R is a marketing term used by Uniden for its
products for extending the range of DECT phones (apparently indenitely) by using multiple repeater stations.
The company has demonstrated the technology to a 2.2
30.7 DECT for data networks
kilometres (1.4 mi) range in Australia.[16]
Other interoperability proles exist in the DECT suite of
standards, and in particular the DPRS (DECT Packet Radio Services) bring together a number of prior interoperability proles for the use of DECT as a wireless LAN
and wireless internet access service. With good range
(up to 200 metres (660 ft) indoors and 6 kilometres (3.7
mi) using directional antennae outdoors), dedicated spectrum, high interference immunity, open interoperability
and data speeds of around 500 kbit/s, DECT appeared
at one time to be a superior alternative to Wi-Fi.[15] The
protocol capabilities built into the DECT networking protocol standards were particularly good at supporting fast
roaming in the public space, between hotspots operated
by competing but connected providers. The rst DECT
product to reach the market, Olivettis Net3 , was a wireless LAN, and German rms Dosch & Amand and Hoeft
& Wessel built niche businesses on the supply of data
transmission systems based on DECT.
However, the timing of the availability of DECT, in the
mid-1990s, was too early to nd wide application for
wireless data outside niche industrial applications. Whilst
contemporary providers of Wi-Fi struggled with the same
issues, providers of DECT retreated to the more immediately lucrative market for cordless telephones. A key
weakness was also the inaccessibility of the U.S. market,
due to FCC spectrum restrictions at that time. By the
time mass applications for wireless Internet had emerged,
and the U.S. had opened up to DECT, well into the new
century, the industry had moved far ahead in terms of performance and DECTs time as a technically competitive
wireless data transport had passed.
30.7.1
Radio links
DECT operates in the 18801900 MHz band and denes ten channels from 1881.792 MHz to 1897.344
MHz with a band gap of 1728 kHz. Each base station frame provides 12 duplex speech channels, with each
time slot occupying any channel. DECT operates in multicarrier/TDMA/TDD structure. DECT also provides
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum over TDMA/TDD
structure. If frequency-hopping is avoided, each base sta-
30.9 Health and safety

See also: Wireless electronic devices and health
DECT is a UHF technology, with science similar to mobile phones, baby monitors, Wi-Fi, and other cordless
telephone technologies, though the UK Health Protection Agency (HPA) claims that due to a mobile phones
adaptive power ability, a DECT cordless phones radiation could actually exceed the radiation of a mobile phone
(a DECT cordless phones radiation has an average output
power of 10 mW but is in the form of 100 bursts per second of 250 mW, a strength comparable to some mobile
phones).[17] As with all such wireless technologies, consensus is that there are negligible health eects from very
low levels of radiation. Most studies have been unable to
demonstrate any link to health eects, or have been inconclusive. Nevertheless, there has been persistent controversy over their health safety, and some national and
international agencies have made specic recommendations about exposure.[18][19]
30.10 See also

Cat-iq
CorDECT
Cordless telephone
CT2 (DECTs predecessor)
Generic access prole (GAP)
GSM Interworking Prole (GIP)
IP-DECT
Microcell
Net3
Unlicensed Personal Communications Services
30.12. FURTHER READING
111
WDECT
Wireless local loop
Tuttlebee, Wally H.W. (1996). Cordless Telecommunications Worldwide. Springer. ISBN 978-3540-19970-0.
30.11 References
[1] DECT Information.
[2] Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
(DECT); A high level guide to the DECT standardization. ETR 178. European Telecommunications
Standards Institute. 1997. Retrieved 2010-09-23.
[3] Dect for Cordless Terminal Mobility DECT Forum
Newsletter 6 March 1998
[4] LA TELECOM SPEGNE FIDO"" Il Messaggero 5
April 2000
[5] https://dedected.org/trac/raw-attachment/wiki/25C3/
talk-25c3.pdf[]
[6] http://shop.bigpond.com/ProductSearch.asp?Action=
HeaderSearch&ProductName=dect+6.0 accessed on
October 11, 2011
[7] Beware of Buying Radiocommunications Equipment not
Meeting Prescribed Specications. Oce of the Communications Authority.
[8] Wirlpool Forums - Wi friendly home phones
[9] Serious security vulnerabilities in DECT wireless telephony. Heise. 2008-12-29.
[10] Schuler, Andreas; Tews, Erik; Weinmann, Ralf-Philipp
(2008-12-29). deDECTed.org (PDF).
[11] Nohl, Karsten; Tews, Erik; Weinmann, Ralf-Philipp
(2010-04-04). Cryptanalysis of the DECT Standard Cipher (PDF).
[12] Do you like ice cream?".
alt.anonymous.messages.
adsq2u$p00$1@wanadoo.fr.
Newsgroup:
Usenet:
[13] Weinmann, Ralf-Philipp (2009-01-26). DSC - Reverse

Engineering of the Samsung DECT SP-R6150.
[14] talk-25c3.pdf Slides of the deDECTed.org presentation at
the 25th Chaos Communication Congress
[15] Wireless LANs: developments in technology and standards. IEE Journal of Computing and Control Engineering. October 1994.
[16] Uniden News on XDECT R: http://www.uniden.com.au/
AUSTRALIA/XDECTR_RangeTestPopUp.html
[17] Independent Advisory Group on Non-ionising Radiation
(April 2012). Health Eects from Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields. (UK) Health Protection Agency. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
[18] What are the health risks associated with mobile phones
and their base stations?". Online Q&A. World Health Organization. 2005-12-05. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
[19] http://www.i-sis.org.uk/cordlessPhonesBrainTumours.
php
Phillips, John A.; Mac Namee, Gerard (1998).

Personal Wireless Communication with DECT and
PWT. Artech. ISBN 978-0-89006-872-4.
Prof. Dr. W. Kowalk (2007-03-13). Rechnernetze
The DECT Standard. Retrieved 2008-12-29.

DECT Forum at dect.org
DECT information at ETSI
DECT reaches a New Generation at dect.org
DECTWeb.com
Open source implementation of a DECT stack
Chapter 31
WiMAX
Mobile WiMAX (originally based on 802.16e-2005) is
the revision that was deployed in many countries, and is
the basis for future revisions such as 802.16m-2011.
WiMAX is sometimes referred to as Wi-Fi on
steroids[4] and can be used for a number of applications including broadband connections, cellular backhaul,
hotspots, etc. It is similar to Wi-Fi, but it can enable usage at much greater distances.[5]
31.2 Uses
The bandwidth and range of WiMAX make it suitable for
WiMAX base station equipment with a sector antenna and the following potential applications:
wireless modem on top
Providing portable mobile broadband connectivity

across cities and countries through a variety of devices.
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave

Access) is a wireless communications standard designed
to provide 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data rates,[1] with
the 2011 update providing up to 1 Gbit/s[1] for xed stations. The name WiMAX was created by the WiMAX
Forum, which was formed in June 2001 to promote conformity and interoperability of the standard. The forum
describes WiMAX as a standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last mile wireless broadband access
as an alternative to cable and DSL".[2]
Providing a wireless alternative to cable and digital

subscriber line (DSL) for "last mile" broadband access.
Providing data, telecommunications (VoIP) and
IPTV services (triple play).
Providing a source of Internet connectivity as part
of a business continuity plan.
31.1 Terminology
Smart grids and metering
WiMAX refers to interoperable implementations of the

IEEE 802.16 family of wireless-networks standards ratied by the WiMAX Forum. (Similarly, Wi-Fi refers
to interoperable implementations of the IEEE 802.11
Wireless LAN standards certied by the Wi-Fi Alliance.)
WiMAX Forum certication allows vendors to sell xed
or mobile products as WiMAX certied, thus ensuring a
level of interoperability with other certied products, as
long as they t the same prole.
The original IEEE 802.16 standard (now called Fixed
WiMAX) was published in 2001. WiMAX adopted
some of its technology from WiBro, a service marketed
in Korea.[3]
31.2.1 Internet access

WiMAX can provide at-home or mobile Internet access
across whole cities or countries. In many cases this has
resulted in competition in markets which typically only
had access through an existing incumbent DSL (or similar) operator.
Additionally, given the relatively low costs associated
with the deployment of a WiMAX network (in comparison with 3G, HSDPA, xDSL, HFC or FTTx), it is now
economically viable to provide last-mile broadband Internet access in remote locations.
112
31.3. CONNECTING
31.2.2
113
Middle-mile backhaul to ber net- media service will accelerate, therefore the opportunity
to leverage cable assets is expected to increase.
works
Mobile WiMAX was a replacement candidate for cellular

phone technologies such as GSM and CDMA, or can be
used as an overlay to increase capacity. Fixed WiMAX is
also considered as a wireless backhaul technology for 2G,
3G, and 4G networks in both developed and developing
nations.[6][7]
31.3 Connecting
In North America, backhaul for urban operations is typically provided via one or more copper wire line connections, whereas remote cellular operations are sometimes backhauled via satellite. In other regions, urban
and rural backhaul is usually provided by microwave
links. (The exception to this is where the network is operated by an incumbent with ready access to the copper network.) WiMAX has more substantial backhaul
bandwidth requirements than legacy cellular applications.
Consequently, the use of wireless microwave backhaul
is on the rise in North America and existing microwave A WiMAX USB modem for mobile access to the Internet
backhaul links in all regions are being upgraded.[8] Capacities of between 34 Mbit/s and 1 Gbit/s [9] are rou- Devices that provide connectivity to a WiMAX network
tinely being deployed with latencies in the order of 1 ms. are known as subscriber stations (SS).
In many cases, operators are aggregating sites using wireless technology and then presenting trac on to ber networks where convenient. WiMAX in this application
competes with microwave radio, E-line and simple extension of the ber network itself.
31.2.3
Triple-play
WiMAX directly supports the technologies that make

triple-play service oerings possible (such as Quality of
Service and Multicasting). These are inherent to the
WiMAX standard rather than being added on as Carrier
Ethernet is to Ethernet.
On May 7, 2008 in the United States, Sprint Nextel,
Google, Intel, Comcast, Bright House, and Time Warner
announced a pooling of an average of 120 MHz of spectrum and merged with Clearwire to market the service.
The new company hopes to benet from combined services oerings and network resources as a springboard
past its competitors. The cable companies will provide
media services to other partners while gaining access to
the wireless network as a Mobile virtual network operator
to provide triple-play services.
Portable units include handsets (similar to cellular

smartphones); PC peripherals (PC Cards or USB dongles); and embedded devices in laptops, which are now
available for Wi-Fi services. In addition, there is much
emphasis by operators on consumer electronics devices
such as Gaming consoles, MP3 players and similar devices. WiMAX is more similar to Wi-Fi than to other
3G cellular technologies.
The WiMAX Forum website provides a list of certied
devices. However, this is not a complete list of devices
available as certied modules are embedded into laptops,
MIDs (Mobile Internet devices), and other private labeled
devices.
31.3.1 Gateways
WiMAX gateway devices are available as both indoor and

outdoor versions from several manufacturers including
Vecima Networks, Alvarion, Airspan, ZyXEL, Huawei,
and Motorola. The list of deployed WiMAX networks and
WiMAX Forum membership list [10] provide more links to
specic vendors, products and installations. The list of
vendors and networks is not comprehensive and is not intended as an endorsement of these companies above othSome analysts questioned how the deal will work out: Alers.
though xed-mobile convergence has been a recognized
factor in the industry, prior attempts to form partnerships Many of the WiMAX gateways that are oered by manamong wireless and cable companies have generally failed ufactures such as these are stand-alone self-install indoor
to lead to signicant benets to the participants. Other units. Such devices typically sit near the customers winanalysts point out that as wireless progresses to higher dow with the best signal, and provide:
bandwidth, it inevitably competes more directly with ca An integrated Wi-Fi access point to provide the
ble and DSL, inspiring competitors into collaboration.
WiMAX Internet connectivity to multiple devices
Also, as wireless broadband networks grow denser and
throughout the home or business.
usage habits shift, the need for increased backhaul and
114
CHAPTER 31. WIMAX
Ethernet ports to connect directly to a computer, IEEE 802.16e-2005 improves upon IEEE 802.16-2004
router, printer or DVR on a local wired network.
by:
One or two analog telephone jacks to connect a landline phone and take advantage of VoIP.
Indoor gateways are convenient, but radio losses mean
that the subscriber may need to be signicantly closer
to the WiMAX base station than with professionally installed external units.
Outdoor units are roughly the size of a laptop PC, and
their installation is comparable to the installation of a residential satellite dish. A higher-gain directional outdoor
unit will generally result in greatly increased range and
throughput but with the obvious loss of practical mobility of the unit.
31.3.2
External modems
USB can provide connectivity to a WiMAX network

through what is called a dongle.[11] Generally these devices are connected to a notebook or net book computer.
Dongles typically have omnidirectional antennas which
are of lower gain compared to other devices. As such
these devices are best used in areas of good coverage.
31.3.3
Mobile phones
HTC announced the rst WiMAX enabled mobile phone,

the Max 4G, on November 12, 2008.[12] The device was
only available to certain markets in Russia on the Yota
network.
HTC and Sprint Nextel released the second WiMAX enabled mobile phone, the EVO 4G, March 23, 2010 at
the CTIA conference in Las Vegas. The device, made
available on June 4, 2010,[13] is capable of both EVDO(3G) and WiMAX(pre-4G) as well as simultaneous
data & voice sessions. Sprint Nextel announced at CES
2012 that it will no longer be oering devices using the
WiMAX technology due to nancial circumstances, instead, along with its network partner Clearwire, Sprint
Nextel will roll out a 4G network deciding to shift and
utilize LTE 4G technology instead.
Adding support for mobility (soft and hard handover

between base stations). This is seen as one of the
most important aspects of 802.16e-2005, and is the
very basis of Mobile WiMAX.
Scaling of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) to the
channel bandwidth in order to keep the carrier spacing constant across dierent channel bandwidths
(typically 1.25 MHz, 5 MHz, 10 MHz or 20 MHz).
Constant carrier spacing results in a higher spectrum eciency in wide channels, and a cost reduction in narrow channels. Also known as scalable
OFDMA (SOFDMA). Other bands not multiples of
1.25 MHz are dened in the standard, but because
the allowed FFT subcarrier numbers are only 128,
512, 1024 and 2048, other frequency bands will not
have exactly the same carrier spacing, which might
not be optimal for implementations. Carrier spacing
is 10.94 kHz.
Advanced antenna diversity schemes, and hybrid automatic repeat-request (HARQ)
Adaptive antenna systems (AAS) and MIMO technology
Denser sub-channelization, thereby improving indoor penetration
Intro and low-density parity check (LDPC)
Introducing downlink sub-channelization, allowing
administrators to trade coverage for capacity or vice
versa
Adding an extra quality of service (QoS) class for
VoIP applications.
SOFDMA (used in 802.16e-2005) and OFDM256
(802.16d) are not compatible thus equipment will have
to be replaced if an operator is to move to the later standard (e.g., Fixed WiMAX to Mobile WiMAX).
31.4.2 Physical layer
The original version of the standard on which WiMAX

is based (IEEE 802.16) specied a physical layer op31.4 Technical information
erating in the 10 to 66 GHz range. 802.16a, updated in 2004 to 802.16-2004, added specications for
31.4.1 The IEEE 802.16 Standard
the 2 to 11 GHz range. 802.16-2004 was updated
by 802.16e-2005 in 2005 and uses scalable orthogonal
WiMAX is based upon IEEE Std 802.16e-2005,[14] ap- frequency-division multiple access[16] (SOFDMA), as
proved in December 2005. It is a supplement to the IEEE opposed to the xed orthogonal frequency-division multiStd 802.16-2004,[15] and so the actual standard is 802.16- plexing (OFDM) version with 256 sub-carriers (of which
2004 as amended by 802.16e-2005. Thus, these speci- 200 are used) in 802.16d. More advanced versions,
cations need to be considered together.
including 802.16e, also bring multiple antenna support

through MIMO. (See WiMAX MIMO) This brings potential benets in terms of coverage, self installation,
power consumption, frequency re-use and bandwidth efciency. WiMax is the most energy-ecient pre-4G
technique among LTE and HSPA+.[17]
115
The system is complex to deploy as it is necessary to track
not only the signal strength and CINR (as in systems like
GSM) but also how the available frequencies will be dynamically assigned (resulting in dynamic changes to the
available bandwidth.) This could lead to cluttered frequencies with slow response times or lost frames.
As a result, the system has to be initially designed in consensus with the base station product team to accurately
project frequency use, interference, and general product
The WiMAX MAC uses a scheduling algorithm for
functionality.
which the subscriber station needs to compete only once
for initial entry into the network. After network entry The Asia-Pacic region has surpassed the North Ameris allowed, the subscriber station is allocated an access ican region in terms of 4G broadband wireless subslot by the base station. The time slot can enlarge and scribers. There were around 1.7 million pre-WIMAX
contract, but remains assigned to the subscriber station, and WIMAX customers in Asia - 29% of the overall marwhich means that other subscribers cannot use it. In addi- ket - compared to 1.4 million in the USA and Canada.[18]
tion to being stable under overload and over-subscription,
the scheduling algorithm can also be more bandwidth ecient. The scheduling algorithm also allows the base sta- 31.4.5 Integration with an IP-based network
tion to control Quality of Service (QoS) parameters by
balancing the time-slot assignments among the application needs of the subscriber station.
31.4.3
Media access control layer
31.4.4
Specications
As a standard intended to satisfy needs of next-generation

data networks (4G), WiMAX is distinguished by its dynamic burst algorithm modulation adaptive to the physical environment the RF signal travels through. Modulation is chosen to be more spectrally ecient (more
bits per OFDM/SOFDMA symbol). That is, when the
bursts have a high signal strength and a high carrier to
noise plus interference ratio (CINR), they can be more
easily decoded using digital signal processing (DSP). In
contrast, operating in less favorable environments for RF
communication, the system automatically steps down to
a more robust mode (burst prole) which means fewer
bits per OFDM/SOFDMA symbol; with the advantage
that power per bit is higher and therefore simpler accurate signal processing can be performed.
The WiMAX Forum architecture
The WiMAX Forum has proposed an architecture that

denes how a WiMAX network can be connected with
an IP based core network, which is typically chosen by
operators that serve as Internet Service Providers (ISP);
Burst proles are used inverse (algorithmically dynamic)
Nevertheless, the WiMAX BS provide seamless integrato low signal attenuation; meaning throughput between
tion capabilities with other types of architectures as with
clients and the base station is determined largely by dispacket switched Mobile Networks.
tance. Maximum distance is achieved by the use of the
most robust burst setting; that is, the prole with the The WiMAX forum proposal denes a number of comlargest MAC frame allocation trade-o requiring more ponents, plus some of the interconnections (or reference
symbols (a larger portion of the MAC frame) to be allo- points) between these, labeled R1 to R5 and R8:
cated in transmitting a given amount of data than if the
client were closer to the base station.
SS/MS: the Subscriber Station/Mobile Station
The clients MAC frame and their individual burst proles are dened as well as the specic time allocation.
However, even if this is done automatically then the practical deployment should avoid high interference and multipath environments. The reason for which is obviously
that too much interference causes the network to function poorly and can also misrepresent the capability of
the network.
ASN: the Access Service Network[19]

BS: Base station, part of the ASN
ASN-GW: the ASN Gateway, part of the ASN
CSN: the Connectivity Service Network
HA: Home Agent, part of the CSN
116
CHAPTER 31. WIMAX
AAA: Authentication, Authorization and Account- use WiMAX equipment in any country that recognizes
ing Server, part of the CSN
the IMT-2000.
NAP: a Network Access Provider
NSP: a Network Service Provider
It is important to note that the functional architecture can
be designed into various hardware congurations rather
than xed congurations. For example, the architecture
is exible enough to allow remote/mobile stations of varying scale and functionality and Base Stations of varying
size - e.g. femto, pico, and mini BS as well as macros.
31.4.6
Spectrum allocation
31.4.7 Spectral eciency and Advantages

One of the signicant advantages of advanced wireless
systems such as WiMAX is spectral eciency. For example, 802.16-2004 (xed) has a spectral eciency of
3.7 (bit/s)/Hertz, and other 3.54G wireless systems offer spectral eciencies that are similar to within a few
tenths of a percent. The notable advantage of WiMAX
comes from combining SOFDMA with smart antenna
technologies. This multiplies the eective spectral efciency through multiple reuse and smart network deployment topologies. The direct use of frequency domain
organization simplies designs using MIMO-AAS compared to CDMA/WCDMA methods, resulting in more
eective systems.
There is no uniform global licensed spectrum for

WiMAX, however the WiMAX Forum has published
three licensed spectrum proles: 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz and Another advantages of WiMAX, is a relatively new tech3.5 GHz, in an eort to drive standardisation and de- nology that enables communication over a maximum discrease cost.
tance of 30 miles compared to 300 feet for WiFi. Of
In the USA, the biggest segment available is around 2.5 course, the longer the distance, the slower the speed, but
GHz,[20] and is already assigned, primarily to Sprint Nex- its still faster and has a longer range than WiFi. Ideally,
tel and Clearwire. Elsewhere in the world, the most-likely speeds of around 10MBps could be achieved with a range
bands used will be the Forum approved ones, with 2.3 of 1 6 miles.
GHz probably being most important in Asia. Some coun- The reason why some telecommunication providers are
tries in Asia like India and Indonesia will use a mix of 2.5 quite excited about the prospects for WiMAX is that moGHz, 3.3 GHz and other frequencies. Pakistan's Wateen bile users could use it as a faster and longer range alternaTelecom uses 3.5 GHz.
tive to WiFi and corporate or home users could use it in
Analog TV bands (700 MHz) may become available
for WiMAX usage, but await the complete roll out of
digital TV, and there will be other uses suggested for
that spectrum. In the USA the FCC auction for this
spectrum began in January 2008 and, as a result, the
biggest share of the spectrum went to Verizon Wireless
and the next biggest to AT&T.[21] Both of these companies have stated their intention of supporting LTE, a technology which competes directly with WiMAX. EU commissioner Viviane Reding has suggested re-allocation of
500800 MHz spectrum for wireless communication, including WiMAX.[22]
a xed environment as a replacement or backup to DSL.

Companies will begin to use WiMAX to communicate
from oce to oce, relatively near to each other and
provide campus wide wireless connectivity to employees. Employees computers will need to use new WiMAX
cards to connect to these new networks. Next, or at the
same time, public places such as airports, parks and coffee shops will be outtted with WiMAX access points.
WIMAX has been very successful as its easy to use, low
cost, and relatively fast.
While WiMAX has its benets, as people download more

and larger les, upload more data (such as voice calls,
WiMAX proles dene channel size, TDD/FDD and images and videos) and have longer distance needs the
other necessary attributes in order to have inter-operating limits of WiFi are apparent.
products. The current xed proles are dened for both
TDD and FDD proles. At this point, all of the mobile
proles are TDD only. The xed proles have channel 31.4.8 Inherent limitations
sizes of 3.5 MHz, 5 MHz, 7 MHz and 10 MHz. The mobile proles are 5 MHz, 8.75 MHz and 10 MHz. (Note: WiMAX cannot deliver 70 Mbit/s over 50 km (31 mi).
the 802.16 standard allows a far wider variety of chan- Like all wireless technologies, WiMAX can operate at
nels, but only the above subsets are supported as WiMAX higher bitrates or over longer distances but not both. Operating at the maximum range of 50 km (31 mi) increases
proles.)
Since October 2007, the Radio communication Sector bit error rate and thus results in a much lower bitrate.
of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) Conversely, reducing the range (to under 1 km) allows
has decided to include WiMAX technology in the IMT- a device to operate at higher bitrates.
2000 set of standards.[23] This enables spectrum owners A city-wide deployment of WiMAX in Perth, Australia
(specically in the 2.5-2.69 GHz band at this stage) to demonstrated that customers at the cell-edge with an in-
31.5. CONFORMANCE TESTING

door Customer-premises equipment (CPE) typically obtain speeds of around 14 Mbit/s, with users closer to the
cell site obtaining speeds of up to 30 Mbit/s.
Like all wireless systems, available bandwidth is shared
between users in a given radio sector, so performance
could deteriorate in the case of many active users in a
single sector. However, with adequate capacity planning
and the use of WiMAXs Quality of Service, a minimum
guaranteed throughput for each subscriber can be put in
place. In practice, most users will have a range of 4-8
Mbit/s services and additional radio cards will be added
to the base station to increase the number of users that
may be served as required.
31.4.9
Silicon implementations
117
and contention based, whereas WiMAX runs a
connection-oriented MAC.
WiMAX and Wi-Fi have quite dierent quality of
service (QoS) mechanisms:
WiMAX uses a QoS mechanism based on
connections between the base station and the
user device. Each connection is based on specic scheduling algorithms.
Wi-Fi uses contention access all subscriber
stations that wish to pass data through a
wireless access point (AP) are competing for
the APs attention on a random interrupt basis.
This can cause subscriber stations distant from
the AP to be repeatedly interrupted by closer
stations, greatly reducing their throughput.
Both IEEE 802.11, which includes Wi-Fi, and IEEE
802.16, which includes WiMAX, dene Peer-toPeer (P2P) and wireless ad hoc networks, where an
end user communicates to users or servers on another Local Area Network (LAN) using its access
point or base station. However, 802.11 supports
also direct ad hoc or peer to peer networking between end user devices without an access point while
802.16 end user devices must be in range of the base
station.
Picture of a WiMAX MIMO board
A number of specialized companies produced baseband

ICs and integrated RFICs for WiMAX Subscriber Stations in the 2.3, 2.5 and 3.5 GHz bands (refer to 'Spectrum allocation' above). These companies include, but
are not limited to, Beceem, Sequans, and PicoChip.
Although Wi-Fi and WiMAX are designed for dierent

situations, they are complementary. WiMAX network
operators typically provide a WiMAX Subscriber Unit
that connects to the metropolitan WiMAX network and
provides Wi-Fi connectivity within the home or business
for local devices, e.g., computers, Wi-Fi handsets and
smartphones. This enables the user to place the WiMAX
Subscriber Unit in the best reception area, such as a window, and still be able to use the WiMAX network from
any place within their residence.
The local area network inside ones house or business

would operate as with any other wired or wireless net31.4.10 Comparison
work. If one were to connect the WiMAX Subscriber
Unit directly to a WiMAX-enabled computer, that would
Comparisons and confusion between WiMAX and Wi-Fi limit access to a single device. As an alternative for a
are frequent, because both are related to wireless connec- LAN, one could purchase a WiMAX modem with a builttivity and Internet access.[24]
in wireless Wi-Fi router, allowing one to connect multiple
devices to create a LAN.
WiMAX is a long range system, covering many kilo- Using WiMAX could be an advantage, since it is typically
metres, that uses licensed or unlicensed spectrum to faster than most cable modems with download speeds bedeliver connection to a network, in most cases the tween 3 and 6 Mbit/s, and generally costs less than cable.
Internet.
Wi-Fi uses the 2.4 GHz, 3 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60 GHz
radio frequency bands to provide access to a local
network.
31.5 Conformance testing
TTCN-3 test specication language is used for the purposes of specifying conformance tests for WiMAX im Wi-Fi runs on the Media Access Control's plementations. The WiMAX test suite is being developed
CSMA/CA protocol, which is connectionless by a Specialist Task Force at ETSI (STF 252).[25]
Wi-Fi is more popular in end-user devices.
118
CHAPTER 31. WIMAX
31.6 Associations
31.7 Competing technologies
Within the marketplace, WiMAXs main competition

came from existing, widely deployed wireless systems
The WiMAX Forum is a non prot organization formed such as Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
to promote the adoption of WiMAX compatible products (UMTS), CDMA2000, existing Wi-Fi and mesh networking.
and services.[26]
31.6.1
WiMAX Forum
A major role for the organization is to certify the interoperability of WiMAX products.[27] Those that pass conformance and interoperability testing achieve the WiMAX
Forum Certied designation, and can display this mark
on their products and marketing materials. Some vendors claim that their equipment is WiMAX-ready,
WiMAX-compliant, or pre-WiMAX, if they are not
ocially WiMAX Forum Certied.
Another role of the WiMAX Forum is to promote the
spread of knowledge about WiMAX. In order to do so, it
has a certied training program that is currently oered
in English and French. It also oers a series of member
events and endorses some industry events.
Speed
Wi-Fi
WiMAX
HSPA
Mobility
UMTS
GSM
Speed vs. mobility of wireless systems: Wi-Fi, High Speed Packet

Access (HSPA), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS), GSM
In the future, competition will be from the evolution

of the major cellular standards to 4G, high-bandwidth,
low-latency, all-IP networks with voice services built on
top. The worldwide move to 4G for GSM/UMTS and
AMPS/TIA (including CDMA2000) is the 3GPP Long
Term Evolution (LTE) eort.
WiSOA logo
31.6.2
In some areas of the world, the wide availability of
WiMAX Spectrum Owners Al- UMTS and a general desire for standardization has meant
liance
spectrum has not been allocated for WiMAX: in July
WiSOA was the rst global organization composed exclusively of owners of WiMAX spectrum with plans to
deploy WiMAX technology in those bands. WiSOA focused on the regulation, commercialisation, and deployment of WiMAX spectrum in the 2.32.5 GHz and the
3.43.5 GHz ranges. WiSOA merged with the Wireless
Broadband Alliance in April 2008. [28]
31.6.3
The LTE Standard was nalized in December 2008, with

the rst commercial deployment of LTE carried out by
TeliaSonera in Oslo and Stockholm in December, 2009.
Since then, LTE has seen increasing adoption by mobile
carriers around the world.
Telecommunications Industry Association
2005, the EU-wide frequency allocation for WiMAX was

blocked.
31.7.1 Harmonization
Early WirelessMAN standards, The European standard
HiperMAN and Korean standard WiBro were harmonized as part of WiMAX and are no longer seen as competition but as complementary. All networks now being
deployed in South Korea, the home of the WiBro standard, are now WiMAX.
In 2011, the Telecommunications Industry Association

released three technical standards (TIA-1164, TIA-1143, 31.7.2 Comparison with other mobile Internet standards
and TIA-1140) that cover the air interface and core
networking aspects of Wi-Max High-Rate Packet Data
(HRPD) systems using a Mobile Station/Access Termi- Main article: Comparison of wireless data standards
nal (MS/AT) with a single transmitter.[29]
31.10. DEPLOYMENTS
119
The following table only shows peak rates which are po- 31.10 Deployments
tentially very misleading. In addition, the comparisons
listed are not normalized by physical channel size (i.e., Main article: List of deployed WiMAX networks
spectrum used to achieve the listed peak rates); this obfuscates spectral eciency and net through-put capabiliAs of October 2010, the WiMAX Forum claimed
ties of the dierent wireless technologies listed below.
over 592 WiMAX (xed and mobile) networks deNotes: All speeds are theoretical maximums and will ployed in over 148 countries, covering over 621 million
vary by a number of factors, including the use of external subscribers.[37] By February 2011, the WiMAX Forum
antennas, distance from the tower and the ground speed cited coverage of over 823 million people, and estimate
(e.g. communications on a train may be poorer than when over 1 billion subscribers by the end of the year.[38]
standing still). Usually the bandwidth is shared between
several terminals. The performance of each technology South Korea launched a WiMAX network in the 2nd
is determined by a number of constraints, including the quarter of 2006. By the end of 2008 there were 350,000
[39]
spectral eciency of the technology, the cell sizes used, WiMAX subscribers in Korea.
and the amount of spectrum available. For more infor- Worldwide, by early 2010 WiMAX seemed to be
mation, see Comparison of wireless data standards.
ramping quickly relative to other available technologies,
[40]
Yota, the
For more comparison tables, see bit rate progress trends, though access in North America lagged.
comparison of mobile phone standards, spectral e- largest WiMAX network operator in the world in 4Q
[41]
announced in May 2010 that it will move new
ciency comparison table and OFDM system comparison 2009,
network
deployments
to LTE and, subsequently, change
table.
its existing networks as well.[42]
A study published September 2010 by Blycroft Publishing estimated 800 management contracts from 364
31.8 Development
WiMAX operations worldwide oering active services
(launched or still trading as opposed to just licensed and
[43]
[32]
The IEEE 802.16m-2011 standard was the core tech- still to launch).
nology for WiMAX 2. The IEEE 802.16m standard was submitted to the ITU for IMT-Advanced
standardization.[33] IEEE 802.16m is one of the ma- 31.11 See also
jor candidates for IMT-Advanced technologies by ITU.
Among many enhancements, IEEE 802.16m systems can
List of deployed WiMAX networks
provide four times faster data speed than the WiMAX
Release 1.
WiBro (mobile WiMax in Korea)
WiMAX Release 2 provided backward compatibility
with Release 1. WiMAX operators could migrate from
release 1 to release 2 by upgrading channel cards or
software. The WiMAX 2 Collaboration Initiative was
formed to help this transition.[34]
It was anticipated that using 4X2 MIMO in the urban microcell scenario with only a single 20 MHz TDD channel available system wide, the 802.16m system can support both 120 Mbit/s downlink and 60 Mbit/s uplink per
site simultaneously. It was expected that the WiMAX
Release 2 would be available commercially in the 2011
2012 timeframe.[35]
Cognitive radio
Category 5 cable
Evolved HSPA
High-Speed Packet Access
Mobile broadband
Mobile VoIP
Municipal broadband
Packet Burst Broadband
31.9 Interference
A eld test conducted in 2007 by SUIRG (Satellite Users
Interference Reduction Group) with support from the
U.S. Navy, the Global VSAT Forum, and several member
organizations yielded results showing interference at 12
km when using the same channels for both the WiMAX
systems and satellites in C-band.[36]
Super Wi-Fi
Switched mesh
Yota Egg
Wireless bridge
Wireless local loop
120
CHAPTER 31. WIMAX
31.12 Notes
[20] U.S. Frequency Allocation Chart (PDF). Department of

Commerce. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
[1] Carl Weinschenk (April 16, 2010). Speeding Up

WiMax. IT Business Edge. Retrieved August 31, 2011.
Today the initial WiMax system is designed to provide 30
to 40 megabit-per-second data rates.
[2] WiMax Forum - Technology. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
[3] Roger Marks (June 29, 2006). IEEE 802.16 WirelessMAN Standard: Myths and Facts (PDF). Presentation at
2006 Wireless Communications Conference. Washington,
DC: ieee802.org. Retrieved August 26, 2011.
[4] Walton, Marsha (2006-03-31). Is 'Wi-Fi on steroids really the next big thing?". CNN.
[5] Municipal Broadband: Challenges and Perspectives
[6] Sprint Eyes WiMax Backhaul. lightreading.com. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
[7] WiMax signals get stronger in India. eetimes.com. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
[8] Overcoming the wire-line bottleneck for 3G wireless services. supercommnews.com. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
[21] Auctions Schedule. Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved 2008-01-08.

[22] European Commission proposes TV spectrum for
WiMax. zdnetasia.com. Retrieved 2008-01-08.
[23] ITU Radiocommunication Assembly approves new developments for its 3G standards. itu.int. Retrieved 200803-12.
[24] WiMAX vs. WiFi. Circleid.com (2008-02-20). Retrieved on 2013-09-18.
[25] HiperMAN / WiMAX Testing. ETSI. Retrieved 200803-28.
[26] WiMAX Forum Overview. Retrieved 2008-08-01.
[27] WiMAX Forum Frequently Asked Questions.
wimaxforum.org. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
[28] WBA and WiSOA join eorts on WiMAX global roaming. Retrieved 2008-12-10.
[29] Technical standards
[9] High=speed Microwave. wimaxforum.org. Retrieved

2008-03-12.
[30] LTE. 3GPP web site. 2009. Retrieved August 20, 2011.
[10] WiMAX Forum Member Companies. Wimaxforum.org.

Retrieved on 2013-09-18.
[31] WiMAX and the IEEE 802.16m Air Interface Standard

(PDF). WiMax Forum. 4 April 2010. Retrieved 201202-07.
[11] dongle. Wiktionary. Wiktionary - the free dictionary.

30 August 2012. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
[32] "'WiMAX 2' coming in 2011?". Networkworld.com. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
[12] Scartel And Htc Launch WorldS First Integrated

Gsm/Wimax Handset. News release (HTC Corporation). November 12, 2008. Archived from the original
on November 22, 2008. Retrieved August 26, 2011.
[33] 802.16m submitted to ITU for IMT-Advanced standardization. Retrieved 2009-10-18.
Newsre-
[34] WiMAX 2 Collaboration Initiative (WCI) Frequently

Asked Questions (PDF). WiMAX Forum. April 12,
2010.
[14] IEEE 802.16e Task Group (Mobile WirelessMAN)".

ieee802.org. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
[35] Global WiMAX network deployments surpass 500.

News release (WiMAX Forum). October 6, 2009. Retrieved August 25, 2011.
[13] Sprint Newsroom | News Releases.

leases.sprint.com. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
[15] IEEE 802.16 Task Group d. ieee802.org. Retrieved

2008-03-12.
[16] Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a
method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier frequencies. OFDM has developed into a popular scheme
for wideband digital communication, whether wireless or
over copper wires, used in applications such as digital television and audio broadcasting.
[17] IEEE Xplore - Comparison of power consumption of
mobile WiMAX, HSPA and LTE access networks. Ieeexplore.ieee.org. doi:10.1109/CTTE.2010.5557715. Retrieved October 30, 2012.
[18] Asia takes the lead in the 4G market. Telegeography.com. August 5, 2010. Retrieved October 30, 2012.
[19] The Access Service Network in WiMAX: The Role of
ASN-GW (PDF). mustafaergen.com. Retrieved 200803-12.
[36] SUIRG full interference test report (PDF). suirg.org.

Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-04. Retrieved 2012-08-22.
[37] WiMAX Forum. WiMAX Forum. Retrieved 2010-1013.
[38] Wimax Forum Industry Research Report http://www.
wimaxforum.org/sites/wimaxforum.org/files/page/
2011/03/Monthly_Industry_Report_March2011.pdf
[39] The rise and rise of HSPA | telecoms.com - telecoms industry news, analysis and opinion http://www.telecoms.
com/12573/the-rise-and-rise-of-hspa/
[40] Larry Dignan (February 15, 2010). WiMax deployments
ramp globally, but U.S. lags. Between the lines blog (ZDNet). Retrieved September 11, 2011.
[41] Maravedis, 4Q 2009, http://www.unova.ru/article/2631,
http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1310343
[42] Russia Today, May 21, 2010 - Scartel dropping WiMAX,

aiming for LTE - RT - [rt.com/Business/2010-05-21/
scartel-dropping-wimax-lte.html]
[43] WiMAX Directory. Blycroft Ltd. 2010-09-01. Retrieved 2011-02-28.
31.13 References
K. Fazel and S. Kaiser, Multi-Carrier and Spread
Spectrum Systems: From OFDM and MC-CDMA to
LTE and WiMAX, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
2008, ISBN 978-0-470-99821-2
M. Ergen, Mobile Broadband - Including WiMAX
and LTE, Springer, NY, 2009 ISBN 978-0-38768189-4
Ramon Ray(2009) WiMax - Your Fast and Longer
Distance WiFi has arrived. Personal Technology.

Ocial page of the WiMAX Forum
How WiMAX Works at HowStuWorks
Internet Protocol Journal Overview of Mobile
WiMAX
Patent alliance formed for WiMAX 4G technology
WiMAX vs. LTE
Mobile WiMAX Throughput Measurements
Prashant Sharma (2009). Facts About WiMAX
And Why Is It The Future of Wireless Broadband"". TechPluto blog. Retrieved August 26, 2011.
WiMAX Technical Seminar Report
121
Chapter 32
5G
5G (5th generation mobile networks or 5th generation wireless systems) denotes the next major phase of
mobile telecommunications standards beyond the current
4G/IMT-Advanced standards.
The Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance denes
the following requirements for 5G networks:
Data rates of several tens of Mb/s should be supported for tens of thousands of users
1 Gbit/s to be oered simultaneously to tens of
workers on the same oce oor
Telephone, was introduced in 1981. The rst 2G system was commercially deployed in 1992, and the rst
3G system appeared in 2001. 4G systems fully compliant with IMT Advanced were rst standardized in 2012.
The development of the 2G (GSM) and 3G (IMT-2000
and UMTS) standards took about 10 years from the ofcial start of the R&D projects, and development of 4G
systems began in 2001 or 2002.[3][4] Predecessor technologies have been present on the market a few years
before the new mobile generation, for example the pre3G system CdmaOne/IS95 in the US in 1995, and the
pre-4G systems Mobile WiMAX in South-Korea 2006,
and rst release-LTE in Scandinavia 2009. In April
2008, NASA partnered with Machine-to-Machine Intelligence (M2Mi) Corp to develop 5G communications
technology[5]
Several hundreds of thousands of simultaneous connections to be supported for massive sensor deploy- Mobile generations typically refer to nonbackwardsments
compatible cellular standards following requirements
Spectral eciency should be signicantly enhanced stated by ITU-R, such as IMT-2000 for 3G and IMTAdvanced for 4G. In parallel with the development of
compared to 4G
the ITU-R mobile generations, IEEE and other standard Coverage should be improved
ization bodies also develop wireless communication technologies, often for higher data rates and higher frequen Signalling eciency enhanced
cies but shorter transmission ranges. The rst gigabit
Latency should be signicantly reduced compared to IEEE standard was IEEE 802.11ac, commercially available since 2013, soon to be followed by the multi-gigabit
LTE[1]
standard WiGig or IEEE 802.11ad.
The Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance feels
that 5G should be rolled out by 2020 to meet business
and consumer demands.[2] In addition to simply providing 32.2 Debate
faster speeds, they predict that 5G networks will also need
to meet the needs of new use-cases such as the Internet
Based on the above observations, some sources suggest
of Things as well as broadcast-like services and lifeline
that a new generation of 5G standards may be introduced
communications in times of natural disaster.
approximately in the early 2020s.[6][7] However, internaAlthough updated standards that dene capabilities be- tional 5G development projects have yet to be ocially
yond those dened in the current 4G standards are un- launched, and there is still a large extent of debate on what
der consideration, those new capabilities are still being 5G is exactly about. Prior to 2012, some industry repregrouped under the current ITU-T 4G standards.
sentatives have expressed skepticism towards 5G,[8] but
later took a positive stand.
New mobile generations are typically assigned new frequency bands and wider spectral bandwidth per frequency
channel (1G up to 30 kHz, 2G up to 200 kHz, 3G up to
A new mobile generation has appeared approximately ev- 20 MHz, and 4G up to 100 MHz), but skeptics argue that
ery 10 years since the rst 1G system, Nordic Mobile there is little room for larger channel bandwidths and new
32.1 Background
122
32.3. RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

frequency bands suitable for land-mobile radio.[8] From
users point of view, previous mobile generations have
implied substantial increase in peak bitrate (i.e. physical layer net bitrates for short-distance communication),
up to 1 Gbit/s to be oered by 4G.
If 5G appears, and reects these prognoses, the major
dierence from a user point of view between 4G and
5G techniques must be something else than increased
peak bit rate; for example higher number of simultaneously connected devices, higher system spectral eciency
(data volume per area unit), lower battery consumption,
lower outage probability (better coverage), high bit rates
in larger portions of the coverage area, lower latencies,
higher number of supported devices, lower infrastructure deployment costs, higher versatility and scalability
or higher reliability of communications. Those are the
objectives in several of the research papers and projects
below.
GSMHistory.com[9] has recorded three very distinct 5G
network visions having emerged by 2014:
123
In 2012, NYU WIRELESS was established as a multidisciplinary research center, with a focus on 5G wireless
research as well as in the medical and computer science
elds. The center is funded by the National Science Foundation and a board of 10 major wireless companies (as of
July 2014) who serve on the Industrial Aliates board
of the center. NYU WIRELESS has conducted and published channel measurements that show that millimeter
wave frequencies will be viable for multi-Gigabit per second data rates for future 5G networks.
In 2012, the European Commission, under the lead of
Neelie Kroes, committed 50 million euros for research to
deliver 5G mobile technology by 2020.[13] In particular,
The METIS 2020 Project is driven by several telecommunications companies, and aims at reaching world-wide
consensus on the future global mobile and wireless communications system. The METIS overall technical goal
is to provide a system concept that supports 1000 times
higher mobile system spectral eciency as compared
with current LTE deployments.[7] In addition, in 2013,
another project has started, called 5GrEEn,[14] linked to
project METIS and focusing on the design of Green 5G
Mobile networks. Here the goal is to develop guidelines
for the denition of new generation network with particular care of energy eciency, sustainability and aordability aspects.
A super-ecient mobile network that delivers a better performing network for lower investment cost. It addresses the mobile network operators pressing need to see
the unit cost of data transport falling at roughly the same
rate as the volume of data demand is rising. It would be
a leap forward in eciency based on the IET Demand
In November 2012, a research project funded by the
Attentive Network (DAN) philosophy.[10]
European Union under the ICT Programme FP7 was
A super-fast mobile network comprising the next gen- launched under the coordination of IMDEA Networks Ineration of small cells densely clustered together to give a stitute (Madrid, Spain): i-JOIN (Interworking and JOINt
contiguous coverage over at least urban areas and gets the Design of an Open Access and Backhaul Network Arworld to the nal frontier for true wide area mobility. It chitecture for Small Cells based on Cloud Networks).
would require access to spectrum under 4 GHz perhaps iJOIN introduces the novel concept RAN-as-a-Service
via the worlds rst global implementation of Dynamic (RANaaS), where RAN functionality is exibly centralSpectrum Access.
ized through an open IT platform based on a cloud infrasA converged bre-wireless network that uses, for the tructure. iJOIN aims for a joint design and optimisation
rst time for wireless Internet access, the millimeter wave of access and backhaul, operation and management albands (20 60 GHz) so as to allow very wide bandwidth gorithms, and architectural elements, integrating smallradio channels able to support data access speeds of up to cells, heterogeneous backhaul, and centralized process10 Gbit/s. The connection essentially comprises short ing. Additionally to the development of technology canwireless links on the end of local ber optic cable. It didates across PHY, MAC, and the network layer, iJOIN
would be more a nomadic service (like WiFi) rather will study the requirements, constraints, and implications
for existing mobile networks, specically 3GPP LTE-A.
than a wide area mobile service.
In January 2013, a new EU project named CROWD
(Connectivity management for eneRgy Optimised Wire32.3 Research & Development less Dense networks) was launched under the technical supervision of IMDEA Networks Institute, to deprojects
sign sustainable networking and software solutions for the
deployment of very dense, heterogeneous wireless netIn 2008, the South Korean IT R&D program of 5G works. The project targets sustainability targeted in terms
mobile communication systems based on beam-division of cost eectiveness and energy eciency. Very high
multiple access and relays with group cooperation was density means 1000x higher than current density (users
formed.[11]
per square meter). Heterogeneity involves multiple diIn 2012, the UK Government announced the setting up mensions, from coverage radius to technologies (4G/LTE
of a 5G Innovation Centre at the University of Surrey vs. Wi-Fi), to deployments (planned vs. unplanned disthe worlds rst research centre set up specically for 5G tribution of radio base stations and hot spots).
mobile research.[12]
124
In September 2013, the Cyber-Pysical System (CPS) Lab
at Rutgers University, NJ, started to work on dynamic
provisioning and allocation under the emerging Cloud
Radio Access Network (C-RAN). They have shown that
the dynamic demand-aware provisoning in the cloud will
decrease the energy consumption while increasing the
resource utilization.[15] They have also implemented a
real testbed for feasibility of C-RAN and developed new
cloud-based interference cancellation techniques. Their
project is funded by National Science Foundation.
In November 2013, Chinese telecom equipment vendor
Huawei said it will invest $600 million in research for
5G technologies in the next ve years.[16] The companys
5G research initiative does not include investment to productize 5G technologies for global telecom operators.
Huawei will be testing 5G technology in Malta.[17][18]
32.4 Research
Key concepts suggested in scientic papers discussing 5G
and beyond 4G wireless communications are:
The IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications
published a special issue on 5G - see the issue for June
2014, containing, among other papers, a comprehensive survey of 5G enabling technologies and solutions.[19]
IEEE Spectrum has a story about millimeter wave wireless communications as a viable means to support 5G in
its September 2014 issue.
Radio propagation and channel models for millimeter wave wireless communications may be found in
IEEE papers: Millimeter Wave Mobile Communications for 5G Cellular: It Will Work!" in IEEE Access, Vol. 1, May 2013; Broadband MillimeterWave Propagation Measurements and Models Using Adaptive-Beam Antennas for Outdoor Urban
Cellular Communications, in IEEE Trans. Antennas and Propagation, April 2013, and many other
peer-reviewed conference and journal papers. Pearson/Prentice Hall has released a comprehensive text
on Millimeter Wave Wireless Communications,
authored by Ted Rappaport, R. W Heath, Jr., Robert
Daniels, and James Murdock. This text, over 700
pages in length, covers technical areas regarding potential 5G technologies, including major global 60
GHz wireless local area network (WLAN) and personal local area network (WPAN) standards.
Massive Dense Networks also known as Massive
Distributed MIMO providing green exible small
cells 5G Green Dense Small Cells. A transmission
point equipped with a very large number of antennas that simultaneously serve multiple users. With
massive MIMO multiple messages for several terminals can be transmitted on the same time-frequency
CHAPTER 32. 5G
resource, maximizing beamforming gain while minimizing interference.[20][21][22][23]
Advanced interference and mobility management,
achieved with the cooperation of dierent transmission points with overlapped coverage, and encompassing the option of a exible usage of resources for uplink and downlink transmission in
each cell, the option of direct device-to-device
transmission and advanced interference cancellation
techniques.[24][25][26]
Ecient support of machine-type devices to enable
the Internet of Things with potentially higher numbers of connected devices, as well as novel applications such as mission critical control or trac safety,
requiring reduced latency and enhanced reliability.
The usage of millimetre wave frequencies (e.g. up to
90 GHz) for wireless backhaul and/or access (IEEE
rather than ITU generations)
Pervasive networks providing Internet of things,
wireless sensor networks and ubiquitous computing: The user can simultaneously be connected to
several wireless access technologies and seamlessly
move between them (See Media independent handover or vertical handover, IEEE 802.21, also expected to be provided by future 4G releases. See
also multihoming.). These access technologies can
be 2.5G, 3G, 4G, or 5G mobile networks, Wi-Fi,
WPAN, or any other future access technology. In
5G, the concept may be further developed into multiple concurrent data transfer paths.[27]
Multi-hop networks: A major issue in beyond
4G systems is to make the high bit rates available in a larger portion of the cell, especially to
users in an exposed position in between several
base stations. In current research, this issue is addressed by cellular repeaters and macro-diversity
techniques, also known as group cooperative relay, where also users could be potential cooperative
nodes thanks to the use of direct device-to-device
(D2D) communications.[11]
Wireless network virtualization: Virtualization will
be extended to 5G mobile wireless networks. With
wireless network virtualization, network infrastructure can be decoupled from the services that it
provides, where dierentiated services can coexist
on the same infrastructure, maximizing its utilization. Consequently, multiple wireless virtual networks operated by dierent service providers (SPs)
can dynamically share the physical substrate wireless networks operated by mobile network operators
(MNOs). Since wireless network virtualization enables the sharing of infrastructure and radio spectrum resources, the capital expenses (CapEx) and
32.5. HISTORY
operation expenses (OpEx) of wireless (radio) access networks (RANs), as well as core networks
(CNs), can be reduced signicantly. Moreover, mobile virtual network operators (MVNOs) who may
provide some specic telecom services (e.g., VoIP,
video call, over-the-top services) can help MNOs attract more users, while MNOs can produce more
revenue by leasing the isolated virtualized networks
to them and evaluating some new services.[28]
Cognitive radio technology, also known as smartradio: allowing dierent radio technologies to share
the same spectrum eciently by adaptively nding unused spectrum and adapting the transmission
scheme to the requirements of the technologies currently sharing the spectrum. This dynamic radio
resource management is achieved in a distributed
fashion, and relies on software-dened radio.[29][30]
See also the IEEE 802.22 standard for Wireless Regional Area Networks.
Dynamic Adhoc Wireless Networks (DAWN),[3]
essentially identical to Mobile ad hoc network
(MANET), Wireless mesh network (WMN) or
wireless grids, combined with smart antennas,
cooperative diversity and exible modulation.
Vandermonde-subspace frequency division multiplexing (VFDM): a modulation scheme to allow
the co-existence of macro-cells and cognitive radio
small-cells in a two-tiered LTE/4G network.[31]
IPv6, where a visiting care-of mobile IP address
is assigned according to location and connected
network.[27]
Wearable devices with AI capabilities.[3] such as
smartwatches and optical head-mounted displays for
augmented reality
One unied global standard.[3]
Real wireless world with no more limitation with access and zone issues.[27]
User centric (or cell phone developer initiated) network concept instead of operator-initiated (as in 1G)
or system developer initiated (as in 2G, 3G and 4G)
standards[32]
Li-Fi (a portmanteau of light and Wi-Fi) is a massive
MIMO visible light communication network to advance 5G. Li-Fi uses light-emitting diodes to transmit data, rather than radio waves like Wi-Fi.[33]
World wide wireless web (WWWW), i.e. comprehensive wireless-based web applications that include
full multimedia capability beyond 4G speeds.[3]
125
32.5 History
In April 2008, NASA partnered with Geo Brown
and Machine-to-Machine Intelligence (M2Mi) Corp
to develop 5G communications technology[5]
In 2008, the South Korean IT R&D program of 5G
mobile communication systems based on beamdivision multiple access and relays with group cooperation was formed.[11]
On 8 October 2012, the UKs University of Surrey secured 35M for a new 5G research centre,
joint funded between the British governments UK
Research Partnership Investment Fund (UKRPIF)
and a consortium of key international mobile operators and infrastructure providers including Huawei,
Samsung, Telefonica Europe, Fujitsu Laboratories
Europe, Rohde & Schwarz, and Aircom International it will oer testing facilities to mobile operators keen to develop a mobile standard that uses less
energy and radio spectrum whilst delivering faster
than current 4G speeds, with aspirations for the new
technology to be ready within a decade.[34][35][36][37]
On 1 November 2012, the EU project Mobile and
wireless communications Enablers for the Twentytwenty Information Society (METIS) starts its activity towards the denition of 5G. METIS intends
to ensure an early global consensus on these systems.
In this sense, METIS will play an important role
of building consensus among other external major
stakeholders prior to global standardization activities. This will be done by initiating and addressing
work in relevant global fora (e.g. ITU-R), as well as
in national and regional regulatory bodies.[38]
Also on November 2012, the iJOIN EU project
was launched, focusing on small cell" technology,
which is of key importance for taking advantage of
limited and strategic resources, such as the radio
wave spectrum. According to Gnther Oettinger,
the European Commissioner for Digital Economy
and Society (201419), an innovative utilization of
spectrum is one of the key factors at the heart of 5G
success. Oettinger further described it as the essential resource for the wireless connectivity of which
5G will be the main driver.[39] iJOIN was selected
by the European Commission as one of the pioneering 5G research projects to showcase early results on
this technology at the Mobile World Congress 2015
(Barcelona, Spain).
In February 2013, ITU-R Working Party 5D (WP
5D) started two study items: (1) Study on IMT Vision for 2020 and beyond, and; (2) Study on future technology trends for terrestrial IMT systems.
Both aiming at having a better understanding of future technical aspects of mobile communications towards the denition of the next generation mobile.
126
On 12 May 2013, Samsung Electronics stated that
they have developed the worlds rst 5G system.
The core technology has a maximum speed of tens
of Gbit/s (gigabits per second). In testing, the transfer speeds for the 5G network sent data at 1.056
Gbit/s to a distance of up to 2 kilometres.with the
use of an 8*8 MIMO.[40][41]
In July 2013, India and Israel have agreed to work
jointly on development of fth generation (5G) telecom technologies.[42]
CHAPTER 32. 5G
On 22 June 2015, Greek government announced to
Euro-group council talks that potential licencing 5G
and 4G technology would oer 350 million euros
earnings, as a result they were criticized for misleading European leaders in producing potential earnings from a technology that is supposed to roll-out
after 2020.[51]
32.6 See also
On 1 October 2013, NTT (Nippon Telegraph and

Telephone), the same company to launch world rst
5G network in Japan, wins Minister of Internal Affairs and Communications Award at CEATEC for
5G R&D eorts[43]
On 6 November 2013, Huawei announced plans to

invest a minimum of $600 million into R&D for
next generation 5G networks capable of speeds 100
times faster than modern LTE networks.[44]
4G
On 8 May 2014, NTT DoCoMo start testing 5G mobile networks with Alcatel Lucent, Ericsson, Fujitsu,
NEC, Nokia and Samsung.[45]
IEEE 802.11u authentication
In June 2014, the EU research project CROWD

was selected by the European Commission to join
the group of early 5G precursor projects. These
projects contribute to the early showcasing of potential technologies for the future ubiquitous, ultrahigh bandwidth 5G infrastructure. CROWD was
included in the list of demonstrations at the European Conference on Networks and Communications
(EuCNC) organized by the EC in June 2014 (Italy).
Ka band
At the end of September 2014, Dresden university inaugurates a 5G laboratory in partnership with
Vodafone.[46]
On October 2014, the research project TIGRE5CM (Integrated technologies for management and
operation of 5G networks) is launched with the aim
to design an architecture for future generation mobile networks, based on the SDN (Software Dened
Networking) paradigm. IMDEA Networks Institute
is the project coordinator.
In November 2014, it was announced that Megafon
and Huawei will be developing a 5G network in
Russia. A pilot network will be available by the end
of 2017, just in time for the 2018 World Cup.[47][48]
On 19 November 2014, Huawei and SingTel announced the signing of a MoU to launch a joint 5G
innovation programme.[49]
On 28 April 2015, President Recep Tayyip Erdoan
announced Turkey might cancel 4G tender and move
straight to 5G from 3G directly in two years.[50]
1G
2G
3G
Femtocell
Head-mounted display (HMD)
IEEE P1905 hybrid networking
OpenFlow/OpenRadio for sharing backhaul.
Picocell
Ultra-wideband (UWB)
Virtual retinal display
Web 2.0
Web 3.0
32.7 References
[1] http://www.techrepublic.com/article/
does-the-world-really-need-5g
[2] https://www.ngmn.org/uploads/media/NGMN_5G_
White_Paper_V1_0.pdf
[3] Akhtar, Shakil (August 2008) [2005].
Pagani,
Margherita, ed.
2G-5G Networks: Evolution of
Technologies, Standards, and Deployment (Second ed.).
Hershey, Pennsylvania, United States: IGI Global.
pp. 522532. doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-014-1.ch070.
ISBN 978-1-60566-014-1. Archived from the original
(pdf) on 2 June 2011. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
[4] Emerging Wireless Technologies; A look into the future of
wireless communications beyond 3G (PDF). SafeCom
(a US Department of Homeland Security program). Retrieved 27 September 2013. Since the general model of 10
years to develop a new mobile system is being followed,
that timeline would suggest 4G should be operational some
time around 2011.
32.7. REFERENCES
[5] NASA Ames Partners With M2MI For Small Satellite

Development.
[6] Xichun Li; Abudulla Gani; Rosli Salleh; Omar Zakaria
(February 2009). The Future of Mobile Wireless Communication Networks (pdf). International Conference on
Communication Software and Networks. ISBN 978-07695-3522-7. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
[7] The METIS 2020 Project Mobile and Wireless Communications Enablers for the 2020 Information Society
(pdf). METIS. 6 July 2013. Retrieved 27 September
2013.
[8] Interview with Ericsson CTO: There will be no 5G - we
have reached the channel limits. DNA India. 23 May
2011. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
[9] what is 5g, 5g visions,. GSM History: History of GSM,
Mobile Networks, Vintage Mobiles.
[10] Demand Attentive Networks (DAN)".
[11] The Korean IT R&D program of MKE/IITA: 2008-F004-01 5G mobile communication systems based on
beam-division multiple access and relays with group cooperation.
[12] 5G Innovation Centre. University of Surrey - Guildford.
[13] Mobile communications: Fresh 50 million EU research
grants in 2013 to develop '5G' technology. Europa.eu. 26
February 2013. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
[14] 5GrEEn project webpage - Towards Green 5G Mobile
Networks. EIT ICT Labs. 15 January 2013. Retrieved
27 September 2013.
[15] Pompili, Dario; Hajisami, Abolfazl; Viswanathan, Hariharasudhan (March 2015). Dynamic Provisioning and
Allocation in Cloud Radio Access Networks (C-RANs)".
Ad Hoc Networks Elsevier 30: 128143.
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[21] T. L. Marzetta (November 2010). Noncooperative Cellular Wireless with Unlimited Numbers of Base Station
Antennas. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 9, no. 11. Bell Labs., Alcatel-Lucent. pp. 56
61, 35903600. ISSN 1536-1276. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
[22] J. Hoydis; S. ten Brink; M. Debbah (February 2013).
Massive MIMO in the UL/DL of Cellular Networks:
How Many Antennas Do We Need?". IEEE Journal on
Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 31, no. 2. Bell
Labs., Alcatel-Lucent. pp. 160171. Retrieved 27
September 2013.
[23] Rusek, F.; Persson, D.; Buon Kiong Lau; Larsson, E.G.;
Marzetta, T.L.; Edfors, O.; Tufvesson, F. Scaling Up
MIMO: Opportunities and Challenges with Very Large
Arrays. Signal Processing Magazine,IEEE,vol.30, no.1,
pp.40,60. Retrieved Jan 2013.
[24] D. Gesbert; S. Hanly; H. Huang; S. Shamai; O. Simeone;
W. Yu (December 2010). Multi-cell MIMO cooperative networks: A new look at interference. IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 28, no. 9.
EURECOM. pp. 13801408. Retrieved 27 September
2013.
[25] Emil Bjrnson; Eduard Jorswieck (2013). Optimal Resource Allocation in Coordinated Multi-Cell Systems.
Foundations and Trends in Communications and Information Theory, vol. 9, no. 2-3. NOW The Essence of
Knowledge. pp. 113381. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
[26] R. Baldemair; E. Dahlman; G. Fodor; G. Mildh; S. Parkvall; Y. Selen; H. Tullberg; K. Balachandran (March
2013). Evolving Wireless Communications: Addressing the Challenges and Expectations of the Future. IEEE
Vehicular Technology Magazine, vol. 8, no. 1. Ericsson
Research. pp. 2430. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
[16] http://pr.huawei.com/en/news/hw-314871-5g.htm
[27] Abdullah Gani; Xichun Li; Lina Yang; Omar Zakaria;

Nor Badrul Anuar (February 2009). Multi-Bandwidth
Data Path Design for 5G Wireless Mobile Internets.
WSEAS Transactions on Information Science and Applications archive, Volume 6, Issue 2. ISSN 1790-0832. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
[17] http://www.timesofmalta.com/
articles/view/20150714/local/
updated-agreement-for-5g-technology-testing-signed.
576618#
[28] C. Liang; F. Richard Yu (2014). Wireless Network Virtualization: A Survey, Some Research Issues and Challenges. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
[29] Loretta W. Prencipe (28 February 2003). Tomorrows

[18] http://www.timesofmalta.com/
5g cell phone; Cognitive radio, a 5g device, could forever
articles/view/20150712/local/
alter the power balance from wireless service provider to
pm-thanks-sai-mizzi-as-chinese-telecoms-giant-prepares-to-test-5g-in.
user. Infoworld Newsletters / Networking. IDG Group.
576179
[19] J. G. Andrews, S. Buzzi, W. Choi, S. Hanly, A. Lozano,
A.C.K. Soong, and J. Zhang, What will 5G be?, IEEE
Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, Vol. 32,
No. 6, pp. 1065 - 1082, June 2014.
[20] B. Kouassi, I. Ghauri, L. Deneire, Reciprocity-based
cognitive transmissions using a MU massive MIMO approach. IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), 2013
[30] Cornelia-Ionela Badoi; Neeli Prasad; Victor Croitoru;

Ramjee Prasad. 5G based cognitive radio. Wireless
Personal Communications, Volume 57, Number 3. pp.
441464. doi:10.1007/s11277-010-0082-9. Retrieved
27 September 2013.
[31] Leonardo S. Cardoso; Marco Maso; Mari Kobayashi;
Mrouane Debbah (July 2011). Orthogonal LTE twotier Cellular Networks (pdf). 2011 IEEE International
128
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Conference on Communications (ICC). pp. 15. Retrieved

27 September 2013.
[32] Toni Janevski (1013 January 2009). 5G Mobile Phone
Concept. Consumer Communications and Networking
Conference, 2009 6th IEEE [1-4244-2308-2]. Facility of
Electrical Engineering & Information Technology, University Sv. Kiril i Metodij. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
[33] National Instruments and the University of Edinburgh
Collaborate on Massive MIMO Visible Light Communication Networks to Advance 5G, Cambridge Wireless, 20
November 2013
[34] Kelly, Spencer (13 October 2012). BBC Click Programme - Kenya. BBC News Channel. Retrieved 15
October 2012. Some of the world biggest telecoms rms
have joined forces with the UK government to fund a new
5G research centre. The facility, to be based at the University of Surrey, will oer testing facilities to operators
keen to develop a mobile standard that uses less energy
and radio spectrum, while delivering faster speeds than
current 4G technology thats been launched in around 100
countries, including several British cities. They say the
new tech could be ready within a decade.
[35] The University Of Surrey Secures 35M For New 5G
Research Centre. University of Surrey. 8 October 2012.
[36] 5G research centre gets major funding grant. BBC News
(BBC News Online). 8 October 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
[37] Philipson, Alice (9 October 2012). Britain aims to join
mobile broadband leaders with 35m '5G' research centre. The Daily Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media
Group). Retrieved 7 January 2013.
[38] METIS projet presentation (PDF). November 2012.
[39] Speech at Mobile World Congress: The Road to 5G.
March 2015.
[40] "
,5
Retrieved 12 May 2013.
". 12 May 2013.
[41] General METIS presentations available for public.

[42] India and Israel have agreed to work jointly on development of 5G. The Times Of India. 25 July 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
[43] DoCoMo Wins CEATEC Award for 5G. 3 October
[44] Embley, Jochan (6 November 2013). Huawei plans
$600m investment in 10Gbps 5G network. The Independent (London). Retrieved 11 November 2013.
[45] Japans NTT DoCoMo to Start Testing 5G Mobile Networks. cellular-news. 2014-05-08. Retrieved 2014-0508.
[46] Dresden university to inaugurate 5G laboratory. Telecompaper. 25 September 2014. Retrieved 25 September
2014.
[47] """ Huawei 5G.

CNews. 19 November 2014. Retrieved 19 November
2014.
[48] Huawei plans to trial 5G mobile internet at the 2018
World Cup. TechRadar. 19 November 2014. Retrieved
19 November 2014.
[49] SingTel and Huawei Ink MOU to Launch 5G Joint Innoviation Program. Huawei. 19 November 2014. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
[50] Turkey minister says might cancel 4G tender, switch to
5G: newspaper. Reuters. 28 April 2015. Retrieved 28
April 2015.
[51] http://www.capital.gr/story/3035583
32.8 External links

5G Fifth generation Technology 5G Technology
Technical Paper
Chapter 33
Virtual retinal display

Not to be confused with Retina Display.
which the lines that form the image are drawn directly, or
A virtual retinal display (VRD), also known as a reti- in a raster mode, much like standard computer monitors
or television. Use of the raster method of image scanning
allows the VRD to be driven by standard video sources.
To draw the raster, a horizontal scanner moves the beam
to draw a row of pixels. The vertical scanner then moves
the beam to the next line where another row of pixels is
drawn.
After scanning, the optical beam must be properly projected into the eye. The goal is for the exit pupil of the
A diagram showing the workings of the virtual retinal display
VRD to be coplanar with the entrance pupil of the eye.
The lens and cornea of the eye will then focus the beam
nal scan display (RSD) or retinal projector (RP), is
on the retina, forming a spot. The position on the retina
a display technology that draws a raster display (like a
where the eye focuses the spot is determined by the angle
television) directly onto the retina of the eye. The user
at which light enters the eye. This angle is determined
sees what appears to be a conventional display oating in
by the scanners and is continually varying in a raster patspace in front of them.
tern. The brightness of the focused spot is determined by
the intensity modulation of the light beam. The intensity
modulated moving spot, focused through the eye, draws
33.1 Mechanics
an image on the retina. The eyes persistence allows the
image to appear continuous and stable.
In a conventional display a real image is produced. The Finally, the drive electronics synchronize the scanners
real image is either viewed directly or, as in the case with and intensity modulator with the incoming video signal
most head-mounted displays, projected through an opti- in such a manner that a stable image is formed.[1]
cal system and the resulting virtual image is viewed. The
projection moves the virtual image to a distance that allows the eye to focus comfortably. In a VRD no real image is ever produced. Rather, an image is formed directly 33.2 Comparison to LCDs and
on the retina of the users eye. A block diagram of the
other display devices
VRD is shown in the Figure above.
To create an image with the VRD a photon source (or
three sources in the case of a color display) is used to
generate a coherent beam of light. The use of a coherent
source (such as a laser diode) allows the system to draw a
diraction limited spot on the retina. The light beam is intensity modulated to match the intensity of the image being rendered. The modulation can be accomplished after
the beam is generated. If the source has enough modulation bandwidth, as in the case of a laser diode, the source
can be modulated directly.
The resulting modulated beam is then scanned to place
each image point, or pixel, at the proper position on the
retina. A variety of scan patterns are possible. The scanner could be used in a calligraphic (vector) mode, in
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) currently are the primary

active display devices for the presentation of entertainment and information. An image that is generated electronically is viewed with the optical system of the eye.
The image you see is subject not only to the quality of
the optical system of the eye, but also to the quality of
the display and the environment in which the display is
located.
With a VRD, defects in the eyes optical system, such as
damaged cornea and lens and reduced retinal sensitivity
could be bypassed, as well as the problems of the display environment, such as ambient brightness, angle-ofview and display brightness. Additionally, the seen image
could be augmented with other information and bright-
129
130
CHAPTER 33. VIRTUAL RETINAL DISPLAY
ness of the system doesn't aect the image formed on the angular resolution =
retina
1.22
D
Although the VRD is an output device, the technology

lends itself to augmentation with eye tracking or eyegaze 33.4 History
systems for input. Eye tracking is currently used in advanced still and video cameras for focusing on the object In the past similar systems have been made by projectyou wish to record.
ing a defocused image directly in front of the users eye
This approach produces several advantages over conven- on a small screen, normally in the form of large glasses.
The user focused their eyes on the background, where the
tional display devices:[1]
screen appeared to be oating. The disadvantage of these
systems was the limited area covered by the screen, the
Potentially very small and lightweight, glasses
high weight of the small televisions used to project the
mountable
display, and the fact that the image would appear focused
Large eld and angle of view, greater than 120 de- only if the user was focusing at a particular depth. Limited brightness made them useful only in indoor settings
grees
as well.
High resolution, approaching that of human vision
Only recently a number of developments have made a
Full color with better potential color resolution than true VRD system practical. In particular the development
of high-brightness LEDs have made the displays bright
conventional displays
enough to be used during the day, and adaptive optics
Brightness and contrast ratio sucient for outdoor have allowed systems to dynamically correct for irreguuse
larities in the eye (although this is not always needed).
The result is a high-resolution screenless display with ex True stereo 3D display with depth modulation
cellent color gamut and brightness, far better than the best
Bypasses many of the eyes optical and retinal de- television technologies.
fects
The VRD was invented by Kazuo Yoshinaka of Nippon
Electric Co. in 1986.[2] Later work at the University of
Washington in the Human Interface Technology Lab re33.3 Eye
sulted in a similar system in 1991. Most of the research
into VRDs to date has been in combination with variA brief review of how the eye forms an image will aid in ous virtual reality systems. In this role VRDs have the
potential advantage of being much smaller than existing
understanding the VRD.
television-based systems. They share some of the same
A point source emits waves of light which radiate in everdisadvantages however, requiring some sort of optics to
expanding circles about the point. The pupil of an eye,
send the image into the eye, typically similar to the sunlooking at the source, will see a small portion of the waveglasses system used with previous technologies. It also
front. The curvature of the wavefront as it enters the pupil
can be used as part of a wearable computer system.[3]
is determined by the distance of the eye from the source.
As the source moves farther away, less curvature is exhibited by the wavefronts. It is the wavefront curvature
which determines where the eye must focus in order to 33.5 Advantages
create a sharp image.
Apart from the advantages mentioned before, the VRD
If the eye is an innite distance from the source, plane
waves enter the pupil. The lens of the eye images the system scanning light into only one eye allows images to
plane waves to a spot on the retina. The spot size is lim- be laid over ones view of real objects. For example, it
ited by the aberrations in the lens of the eye and by the could project an animated, X-ray-like image of a cars
diraction of the light through the pupil. It is the angle engine or the human body.
at which the plane wave enters the eye that determines
where on the retina the spot is formed. Two points focus
to dierent spots on the retina because the wavefronts
from the points are intersecting the pupil at dierent angles.
VRD system also can show an image in each eye with

an enough angle dierence to simulate three-dimensional
scenes with high delity. If applied to video games, for
instance, gamers could have an enhanced sense of reality that liquid-crystal-display glasses could never provide,
Neglecting the aberrations in the lens of the eye, one because the VRD can refocus dynamically to simulate
can determine the limit of the eyes resolution based near and distant objects with a far superior level of reon diraction through the pupil. Using Rayleighs cri- alism.
teria the minimum angular resolution is computed as This system only generates essentially needed photons,
follows:[1]
and as such it is more ecient for mobile devices that are
33.7. MANUFACTURERS AND COMMERCIAL USES

only designed to serve a single user. A VRD could potentially use tens or hundreds of times less power for Mobile
Telephone and Netbook based applications.
131
33.7 Manufacturers and commercial uses
Another important advantage is privacy: Only the in Brother Industries from Japan exhibited VRD systended user (in the usual case of single-user devices) is
tem named AirScouter in September 2010.[4]
able to see the image displayed. This kind of device is
also less vulnerable to TEMPEST type side-channel leak
of information.
It was subsequently commercialised in August 2011.[5][6]
33.5.1
Safety
It is believed that VRD based Laser or LED displays are

not harmful to the human eye, as they are of a far lower
intensity than those that are deemed hazardous to vision,
the beam is spread over a greater surface area, and does
not rest on a single point for an extended period of time.
To ensure that VRD device is safe, rigorous safety standards from the American National Standards Institute
and the International Electrotechnical Commission were
applied to the development of such systems. Optical
damage caused by lasers comes from its tendency to concentrate its power in a very narrow area. This problem is
overcome in VRD systems as they are scanned, constantly
shifting from point to point with the beams focus.
Damage to the eye could result if the laser stopped scanning with the beam focused on a single point. This can
be prevented by an emergency safety system to detect the
situation and shut it o.
33.8 See also

Smartglasses
Optical head-mounted display
Augmented Reality
Head-mounted display
Head-up display
List of emerging technologies
Visual prosthetic
Physics of the Future
Google Glass
Magic Leap
Avegant Glyph
33.5.2
LED enhancements
33.9 References
Although the power required is low, light must be collected and focused down in a point. This is an inherent
property with lasers, but not so simple with a LED. Advances in LED technology will be needed to further concentrate the light coming from these devices.
[1] The Virtual Retinal Display A Retinal Scanning Imaging System. Michael Tidwell, Richard S. Johnston, David
Melville, and Thomas A. Furness III, Ph.D. Human Interface Technology Laboratory, University of Washington.
[2] DISPLAY DEVICE published 1986-09-03 (Japanese
publication number JP61198892)
33.6 Utilities
[3] Virtual Retinal Display (VRD) Group
33.6.1
[4] Thomas Ricker (September 17, 2010).

Brothers
AirScouter oats a 16-inch display onto your eye biscuit
(video)". Engadget.
Military utilities
VRDs have been investigated for military use as an alternative display system for Helmet Mounted Displays.
However no VRD-based system has yet reached operational use and current military HMD development
now appears focused on other technologies such as holographic waveguide optics.
[5] August 24, 2011 Brother announces commercialization

of AiRScouter see-through type head-mounted display. Brother.com. 2011-08-24. Retrieved 2013-10-13.
[6] AiRScouter Head Mounted Display Brother UK.
Brother.co.uk. 2010-10-20. Retrieved 2013-10-13.
132

Animations of how a VRD works
Lewis, John R. (May 2004). In the Eye of the Beholder. IEEE Spectrum.
AirScouter VRD system from Brother Industries
Sep 2010 (Engadget)
YouTube video for AirScouter VRD system from
Brother Industries Sep 2010
CHAPTER 33. VIRTUAL RETINAL DISPLAY
Chapter 34
2G
ferred as simply CDMA in the US), used in the

Americas and parts of Asia. Today accounts for
about 17% of all subscribers globally. Over a dozen
CDMA operators have migrated to GSM including
operators in Mexico, India and Australia.
2G (or 2-G) is short for second-generation wireless

telephone technology. Second generation 2G cellular
telecom networks were commercially launched on the
GSM standard in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa
PDC also know as JDC (Japanese Digital Cellular)
Oyj) in 1991.[1] Three primary benets of 2G networks
(TDMA-based), used exclusively in Japan
over their predecessors were that phone conversations
were digitally encrypted; 2G systems were signicantly
iDEN (TDMA-based), proprietary network used by
more ecient on the spectrum allowing for far greater
Nextel in the United States and Telus Mobility in
mobile phone penetration levels; and 2G introduced data
Canada
services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages. 2G
IS-136 a.k.a. D-AMPS (TDMA-based, commonly
technologies enabled the various mobile phone networks
referred as simply 'TDMA' in the US), was once
to provide the services such as text messages, picture mesprevalent in the Americas but most have migrated
sages and MMS (multi media messages). All text mesto GSM.
sages sent over 2G are digitally encrypted, allowing for
the transfer of data in such a way that only the intended
receiver can receive and read it.
2G services are frequently referred as Personal CommuAfter 2G was launched, the previous mobile telephone nications Service, or PCS, in the United States.
systems were retrospectively dubbed 1G. While radio signals on 1G networks are analog, radio signals on 2G networks are digital. Both systems use digital signaling to 34.2 Capacities, advantages, and
connect the radio towers (which listen to the handsets) to
disadvantages
the rest of the telephone system.
2G has been superseded by newer technologies such as
2.5G, 2.75G, 3G, and 4G; however, 2G networks are still 34.2.1 Capacity
used in many parts of the world.
Using digital signals between the handsets and the towers
increases system capacity in two key ways:
34.1 2G technologies
2G technologies can be divided into Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)-based and Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA)-based standards depending on the type
of multiplexing used. The main 2G standards are:
GSM (TDMA-based), originally from Europe but
used in most of the world outside North America. Today accounts for over 80% of all subscribers
around the world. Over 60 GSM operators are also
using CDMA2000 in the 450 MHz frequency band
(CDMA450).[2]
Digital voice data can be compressed and multiplexed much more eectively than analog voice encodings through the use of various codecs, allowing
more calls to be transmitted in same amount of radio
bandwidth.
The digital systems were designed to emit less radio
power from the handsets. This meant that cells had
to be smaller, so more cells had to be placed in the
same amount of space. This was possible because
cell towers and related equipment had become less
expensive.
IS-95 aka cdmaOne (CDMA-based, commonly re- 2G Data Transmission Capacity:[3]

133
134
CHAPTER 34. 2G
With GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), you the evolution of GSM networks to 3G occurred with the
have a theoretical transfer speed of max. 50 kbit/s introduction of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS).
(40 kbit/s in practice).
CDMA2000 networks similarly evolved through the introduction of 2.5G
With EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution), you have a theoretical transfer speed of max.
1 Mbit/s (500 kbit/s in practice).
34.3.2 2.75G (EDGE)
34.2.2
Disadvantages
GPRS networks evolved to EDGE networks with the introduction of 8PSK encoding. Enhanced Data rates for
GSM Evolution (EDGE), Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), or
IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC) is a backward-compatible
digital mobile phone technology that allows improved
data transmission rates, as an extension on top of standard
GSM. EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning
in 2003initially by AT&T in the United States.
In less populous areas, the weaker digital signal

transmitted by a cellular phone may not be sucient
to reach a cell tower. This tends to be a particular
problem on 2G systems deployed on higher frequencies, but is mostly not a problem on 2G systems deployed on lower frequencies. National regulations
dier greatly among countries which dictate where EDGE is standardized by 3GPP as part of the GSM fam2G can be deployed.
ily and it is an upgrade that provides a potential threefold increase in capacity of GSM/GPRS networks.The
Analog has a smooth decay curve, but digital has a 2G digital service provided very useful feature like; exjagged steppy one. This can be both an advantage pended capacity and unique service such as caller ID,call
and a disadvantage. Under good conditions, digital forwarding, and short messaging.
will sound better. Under slightly worse conditions,
analog will experience static, while digital has occasional dropouts. As conditions worsen, though, dig- 34.4 2G Shut Down
ital will start to completely fail, by dropping calls or
being unintelligible, while analog slowly gets worse,
generally holding a call longer and allowing at least 34.4.1 Australia
some of the audio transmitted to be understood.
Telstra announced that they will shut down their GSM
network by the end of 2016.[4]
34.2.3
Advantage
Optus announced that they will shut down their GSM network in April 2017. [5]
While digital calls tend to be free of static and

background noise, the lossy compression they use
reduces their quality, meaning that the range of 34.4.2 Canada
sound that they convey is reduced. Talking on a digital cell phone, a caller hears less of the tonality of Sasktel announced that it would be shutting down its
someones voice.
CDMA networks in 2015 or early 2016,[6] starting with
its EV-DO network, which was shut down on September
30, 2014.[7]
34.3 Evolution
2G networks were built mainly for voice services and 34.4.3 Singapore
slow data transmission (dened in IMT-2000 specication documents), but are considered by the general pub- Singtel, M1 and StarHub will cease 2G services eective
[8] [9] [10]
.
lic to be 2.5G or 2.75G services because they are several 1 April 2017
times slower than present-day 3G service.
34.4.4 United States

34.3.1
2.5G (GPRS)
2.5G ("second and a half generation") is used to

describe 2G-systems that have implemented a packetswitched domain in addition to the circuit-switched domain. It does not necessarily provide faster services because bundling of timeslots is used for circuit-switched
data services (HSCSD) as well. The rst major step in
Various carriers such as AT&T have made announcements that 2G GSM technology in the United States is
in the process of being shut down so that carriers can reclaim those radio bands and re-purpose them for future
technology needs. The shut down will be complete by
the end of 2016. All 2G GSM devices will lose service
at some point between now and the end of 2016.[11]
34.6. REFERENCES
This shut down is having a notable impact on the electronic security industry where many 2G GSM radios are
in use for alarm signal communication to Central Station
dispatch centers. 2G GSM radios must be replaced by
newer generation radios to avoid service outages.[12]
34.5 See also

Mobile radio telephone, also known as 0G
1G
3G
4G
5G
2G spectrum scam, India
34.6 References
[1] Radiolinjas History. April 20, 2004. Retrieved December 23, 2009.
[2] CDMA Worldwide. Archived from the original on 30
January 2010. Retrieved December 23, 2009.
[3] http://support.en.belgacom.be/app/answers/detail/a_id/
13580
[4] http://exchange.telstra.com.au/2014/07/23/
its-time-to-say-goodbye-old-friend/
[5] http://www.computerworld.com.au/article/581224/
optus-shut-down-2g-network-2017/
[6] Addressing the demand for faster data
[7] beginning with its EV-DO network, which was shut down
on September 30, 2014.SaskTel Turning Down EV-DO
Data Service
[8] http://info.singtel.com/about-us/news-releases/
singapore-cease-2g-services-april-2017
[9] https://www.m1.com.sg/AboutM1/NewsReleases/
2015/Singapore%20to%20cease%202G%20services%
20from%20April%202017.aspx
[10] http://www.starhub.com/about-us/newsroom/2015/june/
singapore-to-cease-2g-services-from-april-2017.html
[11] http://www.marketwatch.com/story/
att-to-shut-down-2g-network-by-2017-2012-08-03
[12] http://www.telguard.com/2GSunset/Overview
135
Chapter 35
LTE (telecommunication)
Long-term evolution redirects here. For the biological
concept, see Evolution and E. coli long-term evolution
experiment.
LTE, an abbreviation for Long-Term Evolution, com-
and data terminals. It is based on the GSM/EDGE and

UMTS/HSPA network technologies, increasing the capacity and speed using a dierent radio interface together with core network improvements.[1][2] The standard is developed by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) and is specied in its Release 8 document
series, with minor enhancements described in Release 9.
LTE is the natural upgrade path for carriers with both
GSM/UMTS networks and CDMA2000 networks. The
dierent LTE frequencies and bands used in dierent
countries will mean that only multi-band phones will be
able to use LTE in all countries where it is supported.
Adoption of LTE technology as of December 7, 2014

Countries and regions with commercial LTE service
Countries and regions with commercial LTE network deployment
on-going or planned
Countries and regions with LTE trial systems (pre-commitment)
Although marketed as a 4G wireless service, LTE (as

specied in the 3GPP Release 8 and 9 document series) does not satisfy the technical requirements the 3GPP
consortium has adopted for its new LTE-Advanced standard. The requirements were originally set forth by the
ITU-R organization in its IMT-Advanced specication.
However, due to marketing pressures and the signicant
advancements that WiMAX, HSPA+ and LTE bring to
the original 3G technologies, ITU later decided that LTE
together with the aforementioned technologies can be
called 4G technologies.[3] The LTE Advanced standard
formally satises the ITU-R requirements to be considered IMT-Advanced.[4] To dierentiate LTE Advanced
and WiMAX-Advanced from current 4G technologies,
ITU has dened them as True 4G.[5][6]
35.1 Overview
See also: LTE timeline and List of LTE networks
LTE stands for Long Term Evolution[7] and is a registered trademark owned by ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) for the wireless data
communications technology and a development of the
GSM/UMTS standards. However other nations and companies do play an active role in the LTE project. The goal
of LTE was to increase the capacity and speed of wireless
4G sign shown in notication bar on an Android-based smart- data networks using new DSP (digital signal processing)
phone.
techniques and modulations that were developed around
the turn of the millennium. A further goal was the remonly marketed as 4G LTE, is a standard for wireless design and simplication of the network architecture to
communication of high-speed data for mobile phones an IP-based system with signicantly reduced transfer
136
35.1. OVERVIEW
137
HTC ThunderBolt, the second commercially available LTE

smartphone
Telia-branded Samsung LTE modem
latency compared to the 3G architecture. The LTE wireless interface is incompatible with 2G and 3G networks,
so that it must be operated on a separate radio spectrum.
LTE was rst proposed by NTT DoCoMo of Japan in
2004, and studies on the new standard ocially commenced in 2005.[8] In May 2007, the LTE/SAE Trial
Initiative (LSTI) alliance was founded as a global collaboration between vendors and operators with the goal
of verifying and promoting the new standard in order
to ensure the global introduction of the technology as
quickly as possible.[9][10] The LTE standard was nalized in December 2008, and the rst publicly available
LTE service was launched by TeliaSonera in Oslo and
Stockholm on December 14, 2009 as a data connection
with a USB modem. The LTE services were launched by
major North American carriers as well, with the Samsung
SCH-r900 being the worlds rst LTE Mobile phone starting on September 21, 2010[11][12] and Samsung Galaxy
Indulge being the worlds rst LTE smartphone starting
on February 10, 2011[13][14] both oered by MetroPCS
and HTC ThunderBolt oered by Verizon starting on
March 17 being the second LTE smartphone to be sold
commercially.[15][16] In Canada, Rogers Wireless was the
rst to launch LTE network on July 7, 2011 oering
the Sierra Wireless AirCard 313U USB mobile broad-
band modem, known as the LTE Rocket stick then

followed closely by mobile devices from both HTC and
Samsung.[17] Initially, CDMA operators planned to upgrade to rival standards called UMB and WiMAX, but all
the major CDMA operators (such as Verizon, Sprint and
MetroPCS in the United States, Bell and Telus in Canada,
au by KDDI in Japan, SK Telecom in South Korea and
China Telecom/China Unicom in China) have announced
that they intend to migrate to LTE after all. The evolution of LTE is LTE Advanced, which was standardized
in March 2011.[18] Services are expected to commence
in 2013.[19]
The LTE specication provides downlink peak rates of
300 Mbit/s, uplink peak rates of 75 Mbit/s and QoS provisions permitting a transfer latency of less than 5 ms in
the radio access network. LTE has the ability to manage
fast-moving mobiles and supports multi-cast and broadcast streams. LTE supports scalable carrier bandwidths,
from 1.4 MHz to 20 MHz and supports both frequency
division duplexing (FDD) and time-division duplexing
(TDD). The IP-based network architecture, called the
Evolved Packet Core (EPC) and designed to replace the
GPRS Core Network, supports seamless handovers for
both voice and data to cell towers with older network
technology such as GSM, UMTS and CDMA2000.[20]
The simpler architecture results in lower operating costs
(for example, each E-UTRA cell will support up to four
times the data and voice capacity supported by HSPA[21] ).
Below is a list of countries by 4G LTE penetration as
138
measured by Juniper Networks in 2013 and published by
Bloomberg.[22][23]
35.2 Features
See also: E-UTRA
Much of the LTE standard addresses the upgrading of 3G
UMTS to what will eventually be 4G mobile communications technology. A large amount of the work is aimed
at simplifying the architecture of the system, as it transits from the existing UMTS circuit + packet switching
combined network, to an all-IP at architecture system.
E-UTRA is the air interface of LTE. Its main features are:
Peak download rates up to 299.6 Mbit/s and upload
rates up to 75.4 Mbit/s depending on the user equipment category (with 44 antennas using 20 MHz of
spectrum). Five dierent terminal classes have been
dened from a voice centric class up to a high end
terminal that supports the peak data rates. All terminals will be able to process 20 MHz bandwidth.
Low data transfer latencies (sub-5 ms latency for
small IP packets in optimal conditions), lower latencies for handover and connection setup time than
with previous radio access technologies.
CHAPTER 35. LTE (TELECOMMUNICATION)

with acceptable performance. In city and urban areas, higher frequency bands (such as 2.6 GHz in EU)
are used to support high speed mobile broadband. In
this case, cell sizes may be 1 km (0.62 miles) or even
less.
Supports at least 200 active data clients in every 5
MHz cell.[25]
Simplied architecture: The network side of EUTRAN is composed only of eNode Bs.
Support for inter-operation and co-existence with
legacy standards (e.g., GSM/EDGE, UMTS and
CDMA2000). Users can start a call or transfer of
data in an area using an LTE standard, and, should
coverage be unavailable, continue the operation
without any action on their part using GSM/GPRS
or W-CDMA-based UMTS or even 3GPP2 networks such as cdmaOne or CDMA2000.
Packet switched radio interface.
Support for MBSFN (Multicast-Broadcast Single
Frequency Network). This feature can deliver services such as Mobile TV using the LTE infrastructure, and is a competitor for DVB-H-based TV
broadcast.
35.3 Voice calls
Improved support for mobility, exemplied by support for terminals moving at up to 350 km/h (220
mph) or 500 km/h (310 mph) depending on the frequency band.[24]
OFDMA for the downlink, SC-FDMA for the uplink to conserve power.
Support for both FDD and TDD communication
systems as well as half-duplex FDD with the same
cs domLTE CSFB to GSM/UMTS network interconnects
radio access technology.
Support for all frequency bands currently used by The LTE standard supports only packet switching with
its all-IP network. Voice calls in GSM, UMTS and
IMT systems by ITU-R.
CDMA2000 are circuit switched, so with the adoption
Increased spectrum exibility: 1.4 MHz, 3 MHz, 5 of LTE, carriers will have to re-engineer their voice call
MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz and 20 MHz wide cells are network.[26] Three dierent approaches sprang up:
standardized. (W-CDMA has no option for other
than 5 MHz slices, leading to some problems rollingVoice over LTE (VoLTE) Main article: VoLTE
out in countries where 5 MHz is a commonly allocated width of spectrum so would frequently already
be in use with legacy standards such as 2G GSM and
Circuit-switched fallback (CSFB) In this approach,
cdmaOne.)
LTE just provides data services, and when a voice
Support for cell sizes from tens of metres radius
call is to be initiated or received, it will fall back to
(femto and picocells) up to 100 km (62 miles) rathe circuit-switched domain. When using this sodius macrocells. In the lower frequency bands to
lution, operators just need to upgrade the MSC inbe used in rural areas, 5 km (3.1 miles) is the opstead of deploying the IMS, and therefore, can protimal cell size, 30 km (19 miles) having reasonable
vide services quickly. However, the disadvantage is
performance, and up to 100 km cell sizes supported
longer call setup delay.
35.4. FREQUENCY BANDS

Simultaneous voice and LTE (SVLTE) In this approach, the handset works simultaneously in the
LTE and circuit switched modes, with the LTE
mode providing data services and the circuit
switched mode providing the voice service. This is
a solution solely based on the handset, which does
not have special requirements on the network and
does not require the deployment of IMS either. The
disadvantage of this solution is that the phone can
become expensive with high power consumption.
One additional approach which is not initiated by operators is the usage of over-the-top content (OTT) services,
using applications like Skype and Google Talk to provide
LTE voice service.[27]
Most major backers of LTE preferred and promoted
VoLTE from the beginning. The lack of software support in initial LTE devices as well as core network devices however led to a number of carriers promoting
VoLGA (Voice over LTE Generic Access) as an interim
solution.[28] The idea was to use the same principles as
GAN (Generic Access Network, also known as UMA
or Unlicensed Mobile Access), which denes the protocols through which a mobile handset can perform voice
calls over a customers private Internet connection, usually over wireless LAN. VoLGA however never gained
much support, because VoLTE (IMS) promises much
more exible services, albeit at the cost of having to upgrade the entire voice call infrastructure. VoLTE will also
require Single Radio Voice Call Continuity (SRVCC) in
order to be able to smoothly perform a handover to a 3G
network in case of poor LTE signal quality.[29]
139
feature.[32]
35.4 Frequency bands

See also: E-UTRA Frequency bands and channel
bandwidths
The LTE standard covers a range of many dierent bands,
each of which is designated by both a frequency and a
band number. In North America, 700, 750, 800, 850,
1900, 1700/2100 (AWS), 2500 and 2600 MHz (Rogers
Communications, Bell Canada) are used (bands 2, 4, 7,
12, 13, 17, 25, 26, 41); 2500 MHz in South America;
700, 800, 900, 1800, 2600 MHz in Europe (bands 3, 7,
20);[33][34] 800, 1800 and 2600 MHz in Asia (bands 1, 3,
5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 40) [35][36] and 1800 MHz and 2300 MHz
in Australia[37][38] and New Zealand (bands 3, 40).[39] As
a result, phones from one country may not work in other
countries. Users will need a multi-band capable phone
for roaming internationally.
35.5 Patents
According to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute's (ETSI) intellectual property rights (IPR)
database, about 50 companies have declared, as of
March 2012, holding essential patents covering the LTE
standard.[40] The ETSI has made no investigation on the
correctness of the declarations however,[40] so that any
analysis of essential LTE patents should take into account
While the industry has seemingly standardized on VoLTE more than ETSI declarations.[41]
for the future, the demand for voice calls today has led
LTE carriers to introduce CSFB as a stopgap measure.
When placing or receiving a voice call, LTE handsets will
35.6 Devices
fall back to old 2G or 3G networks for the duration of the
call.
As of 2015, many LTE supporting mobile phones and
tablet phones are being released for sale to the public
across the world. The table below mentions only some
35.3.1 Enhanced voice quality
of the better known models.
To ensure compatibility, 3GPP demands at least AMRNB codec (narrow band), but the recommended speech
codec for VoLTE is Adaptive Multi-Rate Wideband, also 35.7 See also
known as HD Voice. This codec is mandated in 3GPP
networks that support 16 kHz sampling.[30]
4G-LTE lter
Fraunhofer IIS has proposed and demonstrated Full Comparison of wireless data standards
HD Voice, an implementation of the AAC-ELD (Advanced Audio Coding Enhanced Low Delay) codec
E-UTRA the radio access network used in LTE
for LTE handsets.[31] Where previous cell phone voice
eMBMS Multicast Broadcast Multimedia Services
codecs only supported frequencies up to 3.5 kHz and up(MBMS) enhanced for LTE
coming wideband audio services branded as HD Voice up
to 7 kHz, Full-HD Voice supports the entire bandwidth
Flat IP at IP architectures in mobile networks
range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. For end-to-end Full-HD
HSPA+ an enhancement of the 3GPP HSPA stanVoice calls to succeed however, both the caller and redard
cipients handsets as well as networks have to support the
140
LTE Advanced the successor to LTE
[14] MetroPCS snags rst LTE Android phone. Networkworld.com. Retrieved 2012-03-15.
LTE in unlicensed spectrum

Next-generation network
[15] Verizon launches its rst LTE handset. Telegeography.com. 2011-03-16. Retrieved 2012-03-15.
QoS Class Identier (QCI) - the mechanism used in

LTE networks to allocate proper Quality of Service
to bearer trac
[16] HTC ThunderBolt is ocially Verizons rst LTE handset, come March 17th. Phonearena.com. Retrieved
2012-03-15.
System architecture evolution

architecturing of core networks in LTE
[17] Rogers lights up Canadas rst LTE network today.

CNW Group Ltd. 2011-07-07. Retrieved 2012-10-28.
the
re-
TD-LTE (LTE TDD) an alternative LTE standard [18] LTE An End-to-End Description of Network Architecture
and Elements. 3GPP LTE Encyclopedia. 2009.
developed by China
UMB a proposed competitor to LTE, never commercialized
[19] AT&T commits to LTE-Advanced deployment in 2013,

Hesse and Mead unfazed. Engadget. 2011-11-08. Retrieved 2012-03-15.
WiMAX a competitor to LTE
[20] LTE an introduction (PDF). Ericsson. 2009.
ZadoChu sequence
[21] Long Term Evolution (LTE)" (PDF). Motorola. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
35.8 References
[22] http://www.bloomberg.com/slideshow/2013-09-19/
countries-with-the-most-4g-mobile-users.html#slide1
[1] An Introduction to LTE. 3GPP LTE Encyclopedia. Retrieved December 3, 2010.
[23] http://gigaom.com/2013/09/20/
mapping-out-the-worlds-lte-coverage-its-in-fewer-places-than-you-think/
[2] Long Term Evolution (LTE): A Technical Overview

(PDF). Motorola. Retrieved July 3, 2010.
[24] Sesia, Touk, Baker: LTE The UMTS Long Term Evolution; From Theory to Practice, page 11. Wiley, 2009.
[3] Newsroom Press Release. Itu.int. Retrieved 2012-1028.
[25] Evolution of LTE. LTE World. Retrieved October 24,

2011.
[4] ITU-R Confers IMT-Advanced (4G) Status to 3GPP

LTE (Press release). 3GPP. 20 October 2010. Retrieved
18 May 2012.
[26] Voice and SMS in LTE Technology White Paper, Rohde

& Schwarz, 2011
[5] pressinfo (2009-10-21). Press Release: IMT-Advanced

(4G) Mobile wireless broadband on the anvil. Itu.int.
[6] Newsroom Press Release. Itu.int. Retrieved 2012-1028.
[7] ETSI Long Term Evolution page
[8] Work Plan 3GPP (Release 8)". 16 January 2012. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
[9] LSTI job complete. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
[10] LTE/SAE Trial Initiative (LSTI) Delivers Initial Results. 7 November 2007. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
[11] Temple, Stephen. Vintage Mobiles: Samsung SCH-r900
The worlds rst LTE Mobile (2010)". History of GMS:
Birth of the mobile revolution.
[12] Samsung Craft, the worlds rst 4G LTE phone, now
available at MetroPCS. Unwired View. September 21,
2010.
[13] MetroPCS debuts rst 4G LTE Android phone, Samsung
Galaxy Indulge. Android and Me. 2011-02-09. Retrieved 2012-03-15.
[27] Huawei Communicate Magazine, Issue 61, September

2011.
[28] VoLGA whitepaper
[29] Qualcomm Chipset Powers First Successful VoIP-OverLTE Call With Single Radio Voice Call Continuity
[30] Erricsson - LTE delivers superior voice, too
[31] Fraunhofer IIS Demos Full-HD Voice Over LTE On Android Handsets
[32] Firm Set to Demo HD Voice over LTE
[33] EC makes ocial recommendation for 790862 MHz
release. 29 October 2009. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
[34] Europe plans to reserve 800MHz frequency band for
LTE and WiMAX. 16 May 2010. Retrieved 11 March
2012.
[35] CSL begins dual-band 1800/2600 LTE rollout
[36] Oredoo - The Technology
[37] Telstra switches on rst LTE network on 1800MHz in
Australia
[38] Optus still evaluating LTE
[39] New Zealand 4G LTE launch. 28 February 2013.

[40] Who Owns LTE Patents?". ipeg. March 6, 2012. Retrieved March 10, 2012.
[41] Elizabeth Woyke (2011-09-21). Identifying The Tech
Leaders In LTE Wireless Patents. Forbes. Retrieved
March 10, 2012. Second comment by the author: Thus,
any analysis of essential LTE patents should take into account more than ETSI declarations.
[42] businesstoday.intoday.in/story/
apple-iphone-5-and-lte-what-it-means-for-you/1/
188194.html
[43] https://www.apple.com/iphone-5c/specs/
[44] http://www.apple.com/iphone-5s/specs/
[45] https://www.apple.com/iphone-6/specs/
[46] Greg Kumparak (9 September 2014). Apple Announces
Two New iPhones: iPhone 6 And iPhone 6 Plus.
TechCrunch. Retrieved 14 September 2014.
[47] http://support.apple.com/kb/SP647
[48] http://support.apple.com/kb/SP662
[49] https://www.apple.com/ipad-air/specs/
[50] https://www.apple.com/ipad-air-2/specs/
[51] https://www.apple.com/ipad-mini/specs/
[52] https://www.apple.com/ipad-mini-2/specs/
[53] https://www.apple.com/ipad-mini-3/specs/
[54] http://www.htc.com/us/smartphones/htc-one-m8/
[55] http://www.htc.com/us/smartphones/htc-one-mini/
[56] http://www.htc.com/uk/smartphones/htc-one-mini-2/
[57] http://shopap.lenovo.com/in/en/smartphones/a-series/
a6000/
[58] http://www.motorola.com/us/consumers/
nexus-6-header/Nexus-6/nexus-6-motorola-us.html
[59] http://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_
alpha-6573.php
[60] http://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_galaxy_core_lte_
g386w-6846.php
[61] http://www.gsmarena.com/samsung_i9300_galaxy_s_
iii-4238.php
[62] http://www.saygus.com
[63] http://www.gsmarena.com/sony_xperia_z4_tablet_
lte-7069.php
141

Gautam Siwach, Dr. Amir Esmailpour LTE Security Potential Vulnerability and Algorithm Enhancements, IEEE Canadian Conference on Electrical
and Computer Engineering, IEEE CCECE, Toronto,
Canada, May 2014
Erik Dahlman, Stefan Parkvall, Johan Skld 4G
LTE/LTE-Advanced for Mobile Broadband, Academic Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-12-385489-6
Stefania Sesia, Issam Touk, and Matthew Baker,
LTE The UMTS Long Term Evolution From
Theory to Practice, Second Edition including Release 10 for LTE-Advanced, John Wiley & Sons,
2011, ISBN 978-0-470-66025-6
Chris Johnson, "LTE in BULLETS", CreateSpace,
2010, ISBN 978-1-4528-3464-1
Erik Dahlman, Stefan Parkvall, Johan Skld, Per
Beming, 3G Evolution HSPA and LTE for Mobile Broadband, 2nd edition, Academic Press,
2008, ISBN 978-0-12-374538-5
Borko Furht, Syed A. Ahson, Long Term Evolution: 3GPP LTE Radio And Cellular Technology,
Crc Press, 2009, ISBN 978-1-4200-7210-5
F. Khan, LTE for 4G Mobile Broadband Air Interface Technologies and Performance, Cambridge
University Press, 2009
Mustafa Ergen, Mobile Broadband Including
WiMAX and LTE, Springer, NY, 2009
H. Ekstrm, A. Furuskr, J. Karlsson, M. Meyer, S.
Parkvall, J. Torsner, and M. Wahlqvist, Technical
Solutions for the 3G Long-Term Evolution, IEEE
Commun. Mag., vol. 44, no. 3, March 2006, pp.
3845
E. Dahlman, H. Ekstrm, A. Furuskr, Y. Jading, J.
Karlsson, M. Lundevall, and S. Parkvall, The 3G
Long-Term Evolution Radio Interface Concepts
and Performance Evaluation, IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC) 2006 Spring, Melbourne,
Australia, May 2006
K. Fazel and S. Kaiser, Multi-Carrier and Spread
Spectrum Systems: From OFDM and MC-CDMA to
LTE and WiMAX, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
2008, ISBN 978-0-470-99821-2
Agilent Technologies, "LTE and the Evolution to 4G
Wireless: Design and Measurement Challenges",
John Wiley & Sons, 2009 ISBN 978-0-470-682616
Sajal K. Das, John Wiley & Sons (April 2010):
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ISBN 978-1-118-35558-9

LTE homepage from the 3GPP website
LTE A-Z Description 3GPP LTE Encyclopedia
4G/LTE community website
LTE Frequently Asked Questions
LTE Deployment Map
35.10.1
White papers and other technical

information
LTE Technology Overview and Tutorial Series including Webinars and Video presentations
The Long Term Evolution of 3G on Ericsson Review, no. 2, 2005
LTE technology introduction
3G Long-Term Evolution by Dr. Erik Dahlman at
Ericsson Research
Long-Term 3G Evolution Radio Access by Dr.
Stefan Parkvall at Ericsson Research
3GPP Long-Term Evolution / System Architecture
Evolution: Overview by Ulrich Barth at Alcatel
The 3G Long-Term Evolution Radio Interface
Concepts and Performance Evaluation
LTE and the Evolution to 4G Wireless Design and
Measurement Challenges LTE Security
Role of Crypto in Mobile Communications LTE
Security
Dr. Maode Ma "Security Investigation in 4G LTE
Wireless Networks", 2012.
LTE Uplink Interference Modeling
Chapter 36
4G
This article is about the mobile telecommunications mobility communication (such as pedestrians and stationstandard. For other uses, see 4G (disambiguation).
ary users).[1]
Since the rst-release versions of Mobile WiMAX and
LTE support much less than 1 Gbit/s peak bit rate, they
are not fully IMT-Advanced compliant, but are often
branded 4G by service providers. According to operators, a generation of network refers to the deployment
of a new non-backward-compatible technology. On December 6, 2010, ITU-R recognized that these two technologies, as well as other beyond-3G technologies that do
not fulll the IMT-Advanced requirements, could nevertheless be considered 4G, provided they represent forerunners to IMT-Advanced compliant versions and a subTwo 4G candidate systems are commercially deployed: stantial level of improvement in performance and capato the initial third generation systems
the Mobile WiMAX standard (rst used in South Ko- bilities with respect
[2]
now
deployed.
rea in 2007), and the rst-release Long Term Evolution
(LTE) standard (in Oslo, Norway and Stockholm, Swe- Mobile WiMAX Release 2 (also known as WirelessMANden since 2009). It has however been debated if these Advanced or IEEE 802.16m') and LTE Advanced (LTErst-release versions should be considered to be 4G or A) are IMT-Advanced compliant backwards compatible
not, as discussed in the technical denition section be- versions of the above two systems, standardized during
the spring 2011, and promising speeds in the order of 1
low.
In the United States, Sprint (previously Clearwire) has Gbit/s. Services were expected in 2013.
4G, short for fourth generation, is the fourth generation of mobile telecommunications technology, succeeding 3G and preceding 5G. A 4G system, in addition to
the usual voice and other services of 3G, provides mobile broadband Internet access, for example to laptops
with wireless modems, to smartphones, and to other mobile devices. Potential and current applications include
amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-denition mobile TV, video conferencing, 3D
television, and cloud computing.
deployed Mobile WiMAX networks since 2008, while

MetroPCS became the rst operator to oer LTE service
in 2010. USB wireless modems were among the rst devices able to access these networks, with WiMAX smartphones becoming available during 2010, and LTE smartphones arriving in 2011. 3G and 4G equipment made
for other continents are not always compatible because of
dierent frequency bands. Mobile WiMAX is not available for the European market as of April 2012.
36.1 Technical understanding

In March 2008, the International Telecommunications
Union-Radio communications sector (ITU-R) specied a set of requirements for 4G standards, named
the International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced
(IMT-Advanced) specication, setting peak speed requirements for 4G service at 100 megabits per second
(Mbit/s) for high mobility communication (such as from
trains and cars) and 1 gigabit per second (Gbit/s) for low
As opposed to earlier generations, a 4G system does not

support traditional circuit-switched telephony service, but
all-Internet Protocol (IP) based communication such as
IP telephony. As seen below, the spread spectrum radio
technology used in 3G systems, is abandoned in all 4G
candidate systems and replaced by OFDMA multi-carrier
transmission and other frequency-domain equalization
(FDE) schemes, making it possible to transfer very high
bit rates despite extensive multi-path radio propagation
(echoes). The peak bit rate is further improved by
smart antenna arrays for multiple-input multiple-output
(MIMO) communications.
36.2 Background
The nomenclature of the generations generally refers to
a change in the fundamental nature of the service, nonbackwards-compatible transmission technology, higher
peak bit rates, new frequency bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in Hertz, and higher capacity for many
143
144
simultaneous data transfers (higher system spectral eciency in bit/second/Hertz/site).
New mobile generations have appeared about every ten
years since the rst move from 1981 analogue (1G) to
digital (2G) transmission in 1992. This was followed, in
2001, by 3G multi-media support, spread spectrum transmission and at least 200 kbit/s peak bit rate, in 2011/2012
to be followed by real 4G, which refers to all-Internet
Protocol (IP) packet-switched networks giving mobile
ultra-broadband (gigabit speed) access.
While the ITU has adopted recommendations for technologies that would be used for future global communications, they do not actually perform the standardization or development work themselves, instead relying on
the work of other standard bodies such as IEEE, The
WiMAX Forum and 3GPP.
CHAPTER 36. 4G
(meaning that 1 Gbit/s in the downlink should be
possible over less than 67 MHz bandwidth).
System spectral eciency is, in indoor cases, 3bit/s/Hz/cell for downlink and 2.25-bit/s/Hz/cell for
uplink.[1]
Smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks.
The ability to oer high quality of service for next
generation multimedia support.
In September 2009, the technology proposals were submitted to the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) as 4G candidates.[6] Basically all proposals are
based on two technologies:
In the mid-1990s, the ITU-R standardization organiza LTE Advanced standardized by the 3GPP
tion released the IMT-2000 requirements as a framework
for what standards should be considered 3G systems, re 802.16m standardized by the IEEE (i.e. WiMAX)
quiring 200 kbit/s peak bit rate. In 2008, ITU-R specied
the IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements for 4G systems.
Implementations of Mobile WiMAX and rst-release
The fastest 3G-based standard in the UMTS family is LTE are largely considered a stopgap solution that will
the HSPA+ standard, which is commercially available oer a considerable boost until WiMAX 2 (based on the
since 2009 and oers 28 Mbit/s downstream (22 Mbit/s 802.16m spec) and LTE Advanced are deployed. The
upstream) without MIMO, i.e. only with one antenna, latters standard versions were ratied in spring 2011, but
[4]
and in 2011 accelerated up to 42 Mbit/s peak bit rate are still far from being implemented.
downstream using either DC-HSPA+ (simultaneous use The rst set of 3GPP requirements on LTE Advanced
of two 5 MHz UMTS carriers)[3] or 2x2 MIMO. In the- was approved in June 2008.[7] LTE Advanced was to be
ory speeds up to 672 Mbit/s are possible, but have not standardized in 2010 as part of Release 10 of the 3GPP
been deployed yet. The fastest 3G-based standard in the specication. LTE Advanced will be based on the existCDMA2000 family is the EV-DO Rev. B, which is avail- ing LTE specication Release 10 and will not be dened
able since 2010 and oers 15.67 Mbit/s downstream.
as a new specication series. A summary of the technolo-
36.3 IMT-Advanced requirements
gies that have been studied as the basis for LTE Advanced
is included in a technical report.[8]
Some sources consider rst-release LTE and Mobile

WiMAX implementations as pre-4G or near-4G, as they
This article refers to 4G using IMT-Advanced (Interna- do not fully comply with the planned requirements of 1
tional Mobile Telecommunications Advanced), as dened Gbit/s for stationary reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile.
by ITU-R. An IMT-Advanced cellular system must fulll
Confusion has been caused by some mobile carriers who
the following requirements:[4]
have launched products advertised as 4G but which according to some sources are pre-4G versions, commonly
Be based on an all-IP packet switched network.
referred to as '3.9G', which do not follow the ITU-R dened principles for 4G standards, but today can be called
Have peak data rates of up to approximately 100
4G according to ITU-R. A common argument for brandMbit/s for high mobility such as mobile access and
ing 3.9G systems as new-generation is that they use difup to approximately 1 Gbit/s for low mobility such
ferent frequency bands from 3G technologies ; that they
[1]
as nomadic/local wireless access.
are based on a new radio-interface paradigm ; and that the
Be able to dynamically share and use the network re- standards are not backwards compatible with 3G, whilst
sources to support more simultaneous users per cell. some of the standards are forwards compatible with IMT2000 compliant versions of the same standards.
Use scale-able channel bandwidths of 520 MHz,
optionally up to 40 MHz.[1][5]
Have peak link spectral eciency of 15-bit/s/Hz
in the downlink, and 6.75-bit/s/Hz in the uplink
36.4 System standards
36.4. SYSTEM STANDARDS
36.4.1
145
IMT-2000 compliant 4G standards
As of October 2010, ITU-R Working Party 5D approved

two industry-developed technologies (LTE Advanced and
WirelessMAN-Advanced)[9] for inclusion in the ITUs International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced program (IMT-Advanced program), which is focused on
global communication systems that will be available several years from now.
LTE Advanced
See also: 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) below
LTE Advanced (Long Term Evolution Advanced) is a
candidate for IMT-Advanced standard, formally submitted by the 3GPP organization to ITU-T in the fall 2009,
and expected to be released in 2013. The target of
3GPP LTE Advanced is to reach and surpass the ITU
requirements.[10] LTE Advanced is essentially an enhancement to LTE. It is not a new technology, but rather
an improvement on the existing LTE network. This upgrade path makes it more cost eective for vendors to
oer LTE and then upgrade to LTE Advanced which is
similar to the upgrade from WCDMA to HSPA. LTE and
LTE Advanced will also make use of additional spectrums and multiplexing to allow it to achieve higher data
speeds. Coordinated Multi-point Transmission will also
allow more system capacity to help handle the enhanced Telia-branded Samsung LTE modem
data speeds. Release 10 of LTE is expected to achieve
the IMT Advanced speeds. Release 8 currently supports
up to 300 Mbit/s of download speeds which is still short
of the IMT-Advanced standards.[11]
The physical radio interface was at an early stage named
High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA), now named
Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA).
IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced
The rst LTE USB dongles do not support any other radio
interface.
The IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced evolution of 802.16e is under development, with the objective The worlds rst publicly available LTE service was
to fulll the IMT-Advanced criteria of 1 Gbit/s for sta- opened in the two Scandinavian capitals, Stockholm
tionary reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile reception.[12] (Ericsson and Nokia Siemens Networks systems) and
Oslo (a Huawei system) on December 14, 2009, and
branded 4G. The user terminals were manufactured by
Samsung.[13] As of November 2012, the ve publicly
36.4.2 Forerunner versions
available LTE services in the United States are provided
by MetroPCS,[14] Verizon Wireless,[15] AT&T Mobility,
3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE)
U.S. Cellular,[16] Sprint,[17] and T-Mobile US.[18]
T-Mobile Hungary launched a public beta test (called
friendly user test) on 7 October 2011, and has oered
The pre-4G 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) technol- commercial 4G LTE services since 1 January 2012.
ogy is often branded 4G-LTE, but the rst LTE release In South Korea, SK Telecom and LG U+ have enabled
does not fully comply with the IMT-Advanced require- access to LTE service since 1 July 2011 for data devices,
ments. LTE has a theoretical net bit rate capacity of up slated to go nationwide by 2012.[19] KT Telecom closed
to 100 Mbit/s in the downlink and 50 Mbit/s in the uplink its 2G service by March 2012, and complete the nationif a 20 MHz channel is used and more if multiple-input wide LTE service in the same frequency around 1.8 GHz
multiple-output (MIMO), i.e. antenna arrays, are used.
by June 2012.
See also: LTE Advanced above
146
CHAPTER 36. 4G
In the United Kingdom, LTE services were launched by 36.4.3 Discontinued candidate systems
EE in October 2012,[20] and by O2 and Vodafone in August 2013.[21]
UMB (formerly EV-DO Rev. C)
Main article: Ultra Mobile Broadband
Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e)
The Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e-2005) mobile wireless broadband access (MWBA) standard (also known as
WiBro in South Korea) is sometimes branded 4G, and offers peak data rates of 128 Mbit/s downlink and 56 Mbit/s
uplink over 20 MHz wide channels.
In June 2006, the worlds rst commercial mobile
WiMAX service was opened by KT in Seoul, South Korea.[22]
UMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband) was the brand name

for a discontinued 4G project within the 3GPP2 standardization group to improve the CDMA2000 mobile
phone standard for next generation applications and requirements. In November 2008, Qualcomm, UMBs lead
sponsor, announced it was ending development of the
technology, favouring LTE instead.[24] The objective was
to achieve data speeds over 275 Mbit/s downstream and
over 75 Mbit/s upstream.
Sprint has begun using Mobile WiMAX, as of 29

Flash-OFDM
September 2008, branding it as a 4G network even
though the current version does not full the IMT AdAt an early stage the Flash-OFDM system was expected
vanced requirements on 4G systems.[23]
to be further developed into a 4G standard.
In Russia, Belarus and Nicaragua WiMax broadband internet access is oered by a Russian company Scartel,
and is also branded 4G, Yota.
iBurst and MBWA (IEEE 802.20) systems
TD-LTE for China market
The iBurst system (or HC-SDMA, High Capacity Spatial Division Multiple Access) was at an early stage considered to be a 4G predecessor. It was later further
developed into the Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
(MBWA) system, also known as IEEE 802.20.
Just as Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and WiMAX are being vigorously promoted in the global telecommunications industry, the former (LTE) is also the most powerful 4G mobile communications leading technology and 36.5 Data rate comparison
has quickly occupied the Chinese market. TD-LTE, one
of the two variants of the LTE air interface technologies,
is not yet mature, but many domestic and international The following table shows a comparison of the 4G canwireless carriers are, one after the other turning to TD- didate systems as well as other competing technologies.
LTE.
Notes: All speeds are theoretical maximums and will
IBMs data shows that 67% of the operators are consid- vary by a number of factors, including the use of external
ering LTE because this is the main source of their fu- antennas, distance from the tower and the ground speed
ture market. The above news also conrms IBMs state- (e.g. communications on a train may be poorer than when
ment that while only 8% of the operators are consider- standing still). Usually the bandwidth is shared between
ing the use of WiMAX, WiMAX can provide the fastest several terminals. The performance of each technology
network transmission to its customers on the market and is determined by a number of constraints, including the
spectral eciency of the technology, the cell sizes used,
could challenge LTE.
and the amount of spectrum available. For more inforTD-LTE is not the rst 4G wireless mobile broadband mation, see Comparison of wireless data standards.
network data standard, but it is Chinas 4G standard that
was amended and published by Chinas largest telecom For more comparison tables, see bit rate progress trends,
operator - China Mobile. After a series of eld trials, comparison of mobile phone standards, spectral eis expected to be released into the commercial phase in ciency comparison table and OFDM system comparison
the next two years. Ulf Ewaldsson, Ericssons vice pres- table.
ident said: the Chinese Ministry of Industry and China
Mobile in the fourth quarter of this year will hold a largescale eld test, by then, Ericsson will help the hand. But 36.6 Principal technologies in all
viewing from the current development trend, whether this
candidate systems
standard advocated by China Mobile will be widely recognized by the international market is still debatable.
36.6. PRINCIPAL TECHNOLOGIES IN ALL CANDIDATE SYSTEMS
36.6.1
147
Key features
WiMax is using OFDMA in the downlink and in the uplink. For the LTE (telecommunication), OFDMA is used
The following key features can be observed in all sug- for the downlink; by contrast, Single-carrier FDMA is
used for the uplink since OFDMA contributes more to the
gested 4G technologies:
PAPR related issues and results in nonlinear operation of
Physical layer transmission techniques are as ampliers. IFDMA provides less power uctuation and
thus requires energy-inecient linear ampliers. Simifollows:[27]
larly, MC-CDMA is in the proposal for the IEEE 802.20
MIMO: To attain ultra high spectral eciency standard. These access schemes oer the same ecienby means of spatial processing including multi- cies as older technologies like CDMA. Apart from this,
scalability and higher data rates can be achieved.
antenna and multi-user MIMO
Frequency-domain-equalization, for example multi-carrier modulation (OFDM) in the
downlink or single-carrier frequency-domainequalization (SC-FDE) in the uplink: To exploit the frequency selective channel property
without complex equalization
The other important advantage of the above-mentioned

access techniques is that they require less complexity for
equalization at the receiver. This is an added advantage
especially in the MIMO environments since the spatial
multiplexing transmission of MIMO systems inherently
require high complexity equalization at the receiver.
Frequency-domain statistical multiplexing,

for example (OFDMA) or (single-carrier
FDMA) (SC-FDMA, a.k.a. linearly precoded OFDMA, LP-OFDMA) in the uplink:
Variable bit rate by assigning dierent
sub-channels to dierent users based on the
channel conditions
In addition to improvements in these multiplexing systems, improved modulation techniques are being used.
Whereas earlier standards largely used Phase-shift keying, more ecient systems such as 64QAM are being
proposed for use with the 3GPP Long Term Evolution
standards.
Turbo principle error-correcting codes: To

minimize the required SNR at the reception 36.6.3 IPv6 support
side
Main articles: Network layer, Internet protocol and IPv6
Channel-dependent scheduling: To use the timevarying channel
Unlike 3G, which is based on two parallel infrastructures
consisting of circuit switched and packet switched net Link adaptation: Adaptive modulation and errorwork nodes, 4G will be based on packet switching only.
correcting codes
This will require low-latency data transmission.
Mobile-IP utilized for mobility
IP-based femtocells (home nodes connected to xed
Internet broadband infrastructure)
As opposed to earlier generations, 4G systems do not
support circuit switched telephony. IEEE 802.20, UMB
and OFDM standards[28] lack soft-handover support, also
known as cooperative relaying.
36.6.2
Multiplexing and access schemes
Recently, new access schemes like Orthogonal FDMA

(OFDMA), Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA),
Interleaved FDMA, and Multi-carrier CDMA (MCCDMA) are gaining more importance for the next
generation systems. These are based on ecient FFT
algorithms and frequency domain equalization, resulting
in a lower number of multiplications per second. They
also make it possible to control the bandwidth and form
the spectrum in a exible way. However, they require
advanced dynamic channel allocation and adaptive trac
scheduling.
By the time that 4G was deployed, the process of IPv4

address exhaustion was expected to be in its nal stages.
Therefore, in the context of 4G, IPv6 is essential to support a large number of wireless-enabled devices. By increasing the number of IP addresses available, IPv6 removes the need for network address translation (NAT), a
method of sharing a limited number of addresses among
a larger group of devices, although NAT will still be required to communicate with devices that are on existing
IPv4 networks.
As of June 2009, Verizon has posted specications that
require any 4G devices on its network to support IPv6.[29]
36.6.4 Advanced antenna systems

Main articles: MIMO and MU-MIMO
The performance of radio communications depends on
an antenna system, termed smart or intelligent antenna.
Recently, multiple antenna technologies are emerging to
achieve the goal of 4G systems such as high rate, high
reliability, and long range communications. In the early
148
CHAPTER 36. 4G
1990s, to cater for the growing data rate needs of data

communication, many transmission schemes were proposed. One technology, spatial multiplexing, gained importance for its bandwidth conservation and power eciency. Spatial multiplexing involves deploying multiple
antennas at the transmitter and at the receiver. Independent streams can then be transmitted simultaneously from
all the antennas. This technology, called MIMO (as a
branch of intelligent antenna), multiplies the base data
rate by (the smaller of) the number of transmit antennas or the number of receive antennas. Apart from this,
the reliability in transmitting high speed data in the fading channel can be improved by using more antennas at
the transmitter or at the receiver. This is called transmit or receive diversity. Both transmit/receive diversity
and transmit spatial multiplexing are categorized into the
space-time coding techniques, which does not necessarily require the channel knowledge at the transmitter. The
other category is closed-loop multiple antenna technologies, which require channel knowledge at the transmitter.
36.6.5
Open-wireless Architecture and

Software-dened radio (SDR)
One of the key technologies for 4G and beyond is called

Open Wireless Architecture (OWA), supporting multiple
wireless air interfaces in an open architecture platform.
SDR is one form of open wireless architecture (OWA).
Since 4G is a collection of wireless standards, the nal
form of a 4G device will constitute various standards.
This can be eciently realized using SDR technology,
which is categorized to the area of the radio convergence.
designated as IMT-Advancedwas laid out.

In 2005, OFDMA transmission technology is chosen as candidate for the HSOPA downlink, later renamed 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) air interface E-UTRA.
In November 2005, KT demonstrated mobile
WiMAX service in Busan, South Korea.[31]
In April 2006, KT started the worlds rst commercial mobile WiMAX service in Seoul, South
Korea.[32]
In mid-2006, Sprint announced that it would invest about US$5 billion in a WiMAX technology
buildout over the next few years[33] ($5.85 billion
in real terms[34] ). Since that time Sprint has faced
many setbacks that have resulted in steep quarterly
losses. On 7 May 2008, Sprint, Imagine, Google,
Intel, Comcast, Bright House, and Time Warner announced a pooling of an average of 120 MHz of
spectrum; Sprint merged its Xohm WiMAX division with Clearwire to form a company which will
take the name Clear.
In February 2007, the Japanese company NTT DoCoMo tested a 4G communication system prototype
with 44 MIMO called VSF-OFCDM at 100 Mbit/s
while moving, and 1 Gbit/s while stationary. NTT
DoCoMo completed a trial in which they reached
a maximum packet transmission rate of approximately 5 Gbit/s in the downlink with 1212 MIMO
using a 100 MHz frequency bandwidth while moving at 10 km/h,[35] and is planning on releasing the
rst commercial network in 2010.
36.7 History of 4G and pre-4G

technologies
In September 2007, NTT Docomo demonstrated eUTRA data rates of 200 Mbit/s with power consumption below 100 mW during the test.[36]
The 4G system was originally envisioned by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).
The DARPA selected the distributed architecture and
end-to-end Internet protocol (IP), and believed at an early
stage in peer-to-peer networking in which every mobile device would be both a transceiver and a router for
other devices in the network, eliminating the spoke-andhub weakness of 2G and 3G cellular systems.[30] Since
the 2.5G GPRS system, cellular systems have provided
dual infrastructures: packet switched nodes for data services, and circuit switched nodes for voice calls. In 4G
systems, the circuit-switched infrastructure is abandoned
and only a packet-switched network is provided, while
2.5G and 3G systems require both packet-switched and
circuit-switched network nodes, i.e. two infrastructures
in parallel. This means that in 4G, traditional voice calls
are replaced by IP telephony.
In January 2008, a U.S. Federal Communications

Commission (FCC) spectrum auction for the 700
MHz former analog TV frequencies began. As a
result, the biggest share of the spectrum went to
Verizon Wireless and the next biggest to AT&T.[37]
Both of these companies have stated their intention
of supporting LTE.
In 2002, the strategic vision for 4Gwhich ITU
In January 2008, EU commissioner Viviane Reding

suggested re-allocation of 500800 MHz spectrum
for wireless communication, including WiMAX.[38]
On 15 February 2008, Skyworks Solutions released
a front-end module for e-UTRAN.[39][40][41]
In November 2008, ITU-R established the detailed performance requirements of IMT-Advanced,
by issuing a Circular Letter calling for candidate Radio Access Technologies (RATs) for IMTAdvanced.[42]
36.7. HISTORY OF 4G AND PRE-4G TECHNOLOGIES
149
In April 2008, just after receiving the circular letter,

the 3GPP organized a workshop on IMT-Advanced
where it was decided that LTE Advanced, an evolution of current LTE standard, will meet or even
exceed IMT-Advanced requirements following the
ITU-R agenda.
On 25 August 2010, Latvia's LMT opened LTE

4G network working in test regime 50% of territory.
In April 2008, LG and Nortel demonstrated eUTRA data rates of 50 Mbit/s while travelling at
110 km/h.[43]
On 12 November 2008, HTC announced the rst
WiMAX-enabled mobile phone, the Max 4G[44]
In 15 December 2008, San Miguel Corporation, the
largest food and beverage conglomerate in southeast Asia, has signed a memorandum of understanding with Qatar Telecom QSC (Qtel) to build wireless broadband and mobile communications projects
in the Philippines. The joint-venture formed witribe Philippines, which oers 4G in the country.[45]
Around the same time Globe Telecom rolled out the
rst WiMAX service in the Philippines.
On 3 March 2009, Lithuanias LRTC announcing
the rst operational 4G mobile WiMAX network
in Baltic states.[46]
In December 2009, Sprint began advertising 4G
service in selected cities in the United States, despite average download speeds of only 36 Mbit/s
with peak speeds of 10 Mbit/s (not available in all
markets).[47]
On 14 December 2009, the rst commercial
LTE deployment was in the Scandinavian capitals Stockholm and Oslo by the Swedish-Finnish
network operator TeliaSonera and its Norwegian brandname NetCom (Norway). TeliaSonera
branded the network 4G. The modem devices
on oer were manufactured by Samsung (dongle
GT-B3710), and the network infrastructure created
by Huawei (in Oslo) and Ericsson (in Stockholm).
TeliaSonera plans to roll out nationwide LTE across
Sweden, Norway and Finland.[48][49] TeliaSonera
used spectral bandwidth of 10 MHz, and single-insingle-out, which should provide physical layer net
bitrates of up to 50 Mbit/s downlink and 25 Mbit/s
in the uplink. Introductory tests showed a TCP
throughput of 42.8 Mbit/s downlink and 5.3 Mbit/s
uplink in Stockholm.[50]
On November 4, 2010, the Samsung Galaxy Craft

oered by MetroPCS is the rst commercially available LTE smartphone[54]
On 6 December 2010, at the ITU World Radiocommunication Seminar 2010, the ITU stated that
LTE, WiMax and similar evolved 3G technologies
could be considered 4G.[2]
On 12 December 2010, VivaCell-MTS launches in
Armenia a 4G/LTE commercial test network with a
live demo conducted in Yerevan.[55]
On 28 April 2011, Lithuania's Omnitel opened a
LTE 4G network working in the 5 largest cities.[56]
In September 2011, all three Saudi telecom companies STC, Mobily and Zain announced that they will
oer 4G LTE for USB modem dongles, with further
development for phones by 2013.[57]
In 2011, Argentina's Claro launched a pre-4G
HSPA+ network in the country.
In 2011, Thailand's Truemove-H launched a pre-4G
HSPA+ network with nationwide availability.
On March 17, 2011, the HTC Thunderbolt oered
by Verizon in the U.S. was the second LTE smartphone to be sold commercially.[58][59]
On 31 January 2012, Thailand's AIS and its subsidiaries DPC under cooperation with CAT Telecom
for 1800 MHz frequency band and TOT for 2300
MHz frequency band launched the rst eld trial
LTE in Thailand with authorization from NBTC.[60]
In February 2012, Ericsson demonstrated mobileTV over LTE, utilizing the new eMBMS service
(enhanced Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service).[61]
On 10 April 2012, Bharti Airtel launched 4G LTE
in Kolkata, rst in India.[62]
On 20 May 2012, Azerbaijans biggest mobile operator Azercell launched 4G LTE.[63]
On 10 October 2012, Vodacom (Vodafone South
Africa) became the rst operator in South Africa to
launch a commercial LTE service.
On 25 February 2010, Estonias EMT opened LTE

4G network working in test regime.[51]
In December 2012, Telcel launches in Mexico the

4G LTE network in 9 major cities
On 4 June 2010, Sprint released the rst WiMAX

smartphone in the US, the HTC Evo 4G.[52]
In Kazakhstan, 4G LTE was launched on December 26, 2012 in the entire territory in the frequency
bands 18651885/17601780 MHz for the urban
population and in 794-799/835-840 MHz for those
sparsely populated
In July 2010, Uzbekistan's MTS deployed LTE in

Tashkent.[53]
150
36.7.1
CHAPTER 36. 4G
Deployment plans
Africa
Rwanda As of 11 November 2014 Rwanda became the
newest country to begin introducing 4G LTE services in
its capital Kigali after months of testing.[64]
Kenya Safaricom, the company with a 79% share of
the market released its 4G network on December 4, 2014
in Nairobi and Mombasa ahead of rivals Airtel Kenya,
yuMobile and Orange Kenya.[65]
Morocco In 2009, Morocco launched Maroc Numeric
2013, an accelerated plan to position the country among
the leading emerging countries in communications and
technology.[66] Discussions about the introduction of 4G
surfaced since 2012 by the National Telecom Regulatory
Agency (ANRT) and the 3 major providers, but licenses
and auctions were delayed until late 2013.[67]
As of November 2014, Maroc Telecom, Meditel and Inwi
have already realised tests over mobile 4G and succeed to
reach debits up to 100Mbit/s.[68]
The ocial launch of 4G is due in early 2015.[69]
On 12 March 2015, ANRT have reviewed all applications, and accorded 4G licenses to the main operators.
Algeria Algrie Tlcom announced the ocial launch
of its new xed-wireless LTE high-speed Internet, Tuesday, April 29, 2014.[70] Although the company brands its
oer as 4G, the network is available only through xed
home equipments, the mobile 4G is yet to be launched in
late 2015.[71]
signed the commitment towards TD-LTE standards for

the Asian region. It must be noted that Bharti Airtels 4G
network does not support mainstream 4G phones such as
Samsung Galaxy Note 3, Samsung Galaxy S4 and others.
Bharti Airtel 4G services are available
in Kolkata, Bangalore, Pune, Hyderabad,
Visakhapatnam,Madurai and Chandigarh region (The Tricity or Chandigarh region consists of
a major city Chandigarh, Mohali and Panchkula).
Since May 2015, Airtel had also partnered with
Samsung India to introduce 4G services in Chennai,
on a trial basis.[74]
RIL is launching 4G services through its subsidiary,
Jio Infocomm. RIL 4G services are currently
available only in Jamnagar, where it is testing the
new TD-LTE technology. Reliances 4G rollout
is planned to start in Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata
and expand to cover 700 cities, including 100 highpriority markets in 2015.[75]
Bharti Airtel launched 4G on mobiles in Bangalore,
thus becoming the rst in India to oer such a service on 14th Feb, 2014
Bharti Airtel in July 2014, expanded 4G services to many cities in Punjab like Amritsar,
Patiala, Hoshiarpur, Ajitgarh, Ludhiana, Jalandhar,
Phagwara and Kapurthala.[76] Until July 2014, Customers in these cities access 4G services through
dongles and wi modems on Apple iPhone 5S and
5C, XOLO LT 900 and LG G2 (model D802T).
Aircel in July 2014, launched 4G in four circles
Andhra Pradesh,[77] Assam, Bihar and Odisha.[78]
Just few days after the announcements, controversies circulated around the use of the term 4G to describe the
India uses 2.3 GHz frequency (band 40).
oers.[72]
Tikona Digital Networks holds broadband wireless access spectrum in the 2300 MHz band and is waiting for
the appropriate time and maturity of the 4G ecosystem
China In China, there are over 160 million 4G users. before making a foray into the space. Tikona holds 4G
spectrum[79] licences in ve circles in northwest India,
covering Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh (East and
Afghanistan Telecom giant Etisalat Afghanistan, the West) and Himachal Pradesh.[80]
rst telecom company to launch 3.75G services in
Afghanistan on 19th Feb, 2013 announced the commencement of test of its Long-term Evolution (LTE) 4G Indonesia During APEC meeting on October 18,
mobile network.
2013 in Bali, Telkomsel will conduct 4G LTE network
trial. Telkomsel 4G LTE network will operate at 1800
sell simIndia Bharti Airtel launched Indias rst 4G service, MHz frequency. As part of the program it will
[81]
PATI
LTE
Trial
Edition
prepaid
SIM
card.
using TD-LTE technology, in Kolkata on 10 April
Asia
2012.[73] On June 2013 prior to the ocial launch in

Kolkata, a group consisting of China Mobile, Bharti Airtel and SoftBank Mobile came together, called Global
TD-LTE Initiative (GTI) in Barcelona, Spain and they
Since November 2013, PT Internux, with brand Bolt 4G,

has commercialized LTE 4G service using TDD-LTE.
Initially, Bolt 4G is only available on 2300 MHz covering
Jakarta and the surrounding cities.[82]
151
Kazakhstan By the end of 2012, the national telecommunication operator JSC Kazakhtelecom launched 4G
services in both Astana and Almaty. It is expected that
by the end of 2013 the service will be available across the
whole country.
qualied for a 4G licence too, they opted not to go all

the way.[89]
Maldives 4G technology was introduced for the 1st

time in Maldives by Ooredoo (formerly known as
Wataniya) in April 2013. Currently serving over 33% of
the population in Male, Hulhumale, Villingilli and Maafushi Island. Ooredoo operates its 4G network in both
700 MHz and 1800 MHz.
On May 2, 2014, Pakistan Telecommunication Authority

allowed Warid Telecom to go public with 4G LTE services. Warid has planned to launch the service.
Philippines As part of its massive network upgrade,
Globe[90] has launched its 4th Generation Long-Term
Evolution (4G LTE) network for mobile and broadband.
To date, Globe has completed over 2,700 4G LTE network sites, with the number expected to rise to over 4000
by the end of 2012.
In September, Globe launched its 4G LTE network covering key commercial as well as residential areas in Makati,
with more sites following shortly in Manila, Cebu, Davao,
Saudi Arabia: In mid September 2011, Mobily, an- and other select regions. As more key activations are
nounced their 4G LTE networks to be ready after completed in the coming months, Globe subscribers will
soon enjoy best-in-class mobile and broadband services
months of testing and evaluations.
across the Philippines.
Oman: In July 2012, Omantel launched 4G
LTE commercially.[83] In February 2013, Nawras Smart Communications was the rst to roll out the 4G
LTE in the country (Philippines). Over 900 sites served
launched 4G LTE commercially.[84][85]
nationwide with partner establishments. Cherry Mobile
UAE: In December 2012, Etisalat announced the was the rst local brand to release LTE ready mobile
commercial launch of 4G LTE services covering phone in the Philippines with its Cherry Mobile W900
over 70% of countrys urban areas. As of May, 2013 LTE and Ultra others are Cosmos Force, their recent
Flagship Cosmos One Plus and the Newly Released Cosonly few areas have been covered..
mos S2.
Lebanon: In 2012, Alfa and touch, announced their
4G LTE networks to be ready after months of testing and evaluations. And 4G LTE was ocially South Korea On July 7, 2008, South Korea announced
plans to spend 60 billion won, or US$58,000,000, on delaunched in April 2013.
veloping 4G and even 5G technologies, with the goal of
Qatar: 15 April 2013, Qtel, (now called Ooredoo) having the highest mobile phone market share by 2012,
launched its rst 4G LTE commercially in Qatar. and the hope of becoming an international standard.[91]
after that Ooredoo also launched 4G+. on 3 June
2014 Vodafone Launched 4G in Doha [86]
Sri Lanka On December 30, 2012, Dialog Broad Iran: MTN Irancell launched Irans rst 4G LTE band Networks launched Sri Lankas rst xed TD-LTE
network in November 2014 shortly after regulatorys service.[92]
approval.
On April 2, 2013, Dialog Axiata launched South Asias
rst FD-LTE service in Sri Lanka.[93]
Jordan: In February 2015, Zain Jordan launched 4G On June 2, 2013, Mobitel launched FD-LTE service in
LTE commercially.[87]
Sri Lanka.[94]
On January 19, 2014, Sri Lanka Telecom successfully
[95]
Pakistan Main article: Pakistani Telecom Spectrum demonstrated & launched its 4G LTE service.
Middle East
Auction
Thailand Thailand National Broadcasting & TelecomOn July 7, 2013, the Government of Pakistan announced munications Commission (NBTC) has earmarked 1.8
GHz and 2.3 GHz spectrum for 4G services. The 1.8
the auction of 3G/4G operators in Pakistan[88]
On 23 April 2014, the government auctioned of 3G and GHz will be available for auction around the 4th quarter
4G licenses to cellular service providers raising $1.182 of 2014 when the license for GSM service on the specbillion in revenues. Zong became the countrys rst and trum will expire. The 2.3 GHz spectrum is currently held
only company to win a 4G license. Mobilink and Zong by TOT Corp, a state enterprise. Negotiation on refarmbid for the superior 10 MHz band, while Telenor and ing part of the band is ongoing.
Ufone preferred to bid on the cheaper 5 MHz band. Al- Truemove-H has launched Thailands rst commercial
though Mobilink, having acquired the 10 MHz band, 4G LTE service on 8 May 2013 using 2100 MHz Band
152
CHAPTER 36. 4G
I.[96]
At the end of November, 2013, Huchtison 3 and TMobile Austria intent to appeal auction results.[111][112]
Turkmenistan On 18 September 2013, the national On 4 December 2013, according to A1 Telekom Austria
[113]
telecommunication operator TM Cell launched 4G ser- Klosterneuburg is covered with LTE.
vices in Turkmenistan.[97]
International LTE Roaming: 19. December, 2013, A1
Telekom Austria is the rst Austrian operator which introduced LTE Roaming. The company signed a roaming
Europe
agreement with Swisscom following by further countries
Austria In August, 2009 Huawei and T-Mobile intro- (planned: Brazil, Canada, Croatia, Germany, Italy, The
duced Europes largest trial LTE network. Both compa- Netherlands, New Zealand, Romania, Slovenia, South
nies set up 60 cells in Innsbruck which are since July 2009 Africa, South Korea, Spain, United Kingdom, United
States) in 2014. If Customers of A1 Telekom Austria
in service.[98]
want use LTE abroad they need either a LTE package or
In June, 2010 A1 Telekom Austria tested LTE with its one of their new A1 Go! contract plans, launched in Departner Huawei in Vienna.[99]
cember 2013.[114]
On October 18, 2010, the allocation procedure for 2600 On 28 January 2014, A1 announced commercial service
MHz frequency band was completed.[100] The follow- for LTE 800 MHz on more than 200 sites. Austrians
ing gure shows the current allocation for this frequency largest mobile operator covers currently 45% of the popband:[101][102]
ulation with LTE. The company plans to cover more than
50% of the population until the end of 2014.[115][116]
*License holder formerly Orange Austria, now
On 11 March 2014, T-Mobile announced top LTE transHutchison Drei Austria GmbH
mission speed raises to 150 Mbit/s.[117]
A1 Telekom Austria started the rst commercial (FDD)LTE service in Austria on 19 October 2010. Iniatially
A1 Telekom Austria covered Vienna with 49 eNodeB's
and St. Plten with 3 eNodeBs.[103]
On 6 May 2014, Austrian Media announced that Hutchison 3 is waiting for approval to refarm 1800 MHz frequency to go further with LTE deployment.[118]
On 11 June 2014, A1 added LTE Roaming in Slovenia

[119]
On 28 July 2011, T-Mobile Austria launched commercial (Si.mobil).
LTE service in Vienna, Linz, Graz and Innsbruck.[104]
After A1 Telekom Austria and T-Mobile Austria started Belgium On 28 June 2011, Belgium's largest telecom
their LTE service Austrias smallest operator 3 introduced operator Belgacom announced the roll out of the counLTE commercially on 18 November 2011.[105]
trys rst 4G network.[120] On 3 July 2012 it conrmed
In March, 2012, A1 Telekom Austria integrated Circuit- the outroll in 5 major cities and announced the commer[121]
switched fallback (CSFB) and launched the rst LTE cial launch to take place before the end of 2012.
Smartphone (HTC Velocity 4G) for the Austrian
market.[103]
France On 22 November 2012, Orange launched the
At the end of November, 2012, A1 Telekom Austria rst 4G business plan in Marseille, Lyon, Lille and
claims to reach 30% of the Austrian population with its Nantes. Then, on 29 November 2012, SFR launched 4G
LTE network. At this time, according to a press release, in Lyon, extending to Montpellier. It was the rst 4G
commercial launch in France.
800 EnodeBs were used.[106]
At the beginning of July, 2013, A1 Telekom Austria announced that the company has switched on their 1000th Germany After the multiband spectrum auction
eNodeB.[107]
(12.04. - 20.05.2010[122] ) the frequency allocation in
At the beginning of September, 2013, Bregenz, Dornbirn Germany is as follows:
and Lustenau are covered by A1 Telekom Austria 30 August 2010, Deutsche Telekom trialed LTE by using
LTE.[108]
the 800 MHz frequency.[123]
On 7 October 2013, T-Mobile Austria started LTE ser- 1 December 2010, Vodafone started LTE by using 800
vice for Smartphones. The company also announced MHz frequency.[124]
plans for further LTE coverage. Until the end of 2013
Deutsche Telekom launched LTE service
parts of the city Bregenz, Klagenfurt, Salzburg and St. 5 April 2011,[125]
on
800
MHz.
[109]
Plten will be covered with LTE.
Telekom started LTE service on
On October 21, 2013, the multiband spectrum auction 1 June 2011, Deutsche[125]
Cologne.
1800
MHz
in
was completed. The following gure shows the current
allocation for this frequency band:[110]
1 July 2011, o2 oers LTE on 800 MHz which is available
153
in several rural communities, including Oberreichenbach received a mobile communications license from the Irish
in the Black Forest or Zscherben in Saxony-Anhalt.[126] telecoms regulator ComReg. This service will be isused
24 April 2012, Deutsche Telekom announced LTE for sued the mobile code 088 in Ireland and will be
[139][140]
for
the
provision
of
4G
mobile
communications.
[127]
Bonn, Hamburg, Leipzig and Munich.
Digiweb launched a mobile broadband network using
3 July 2012, Deutsche Telekom announced LTE ser- FLASH-OFDM technology at 872 MHz.
vice for the following cities in Baden-Wrttemberg:
On November 15, 2012 the Commission for CommuniFreiburg, Friedrichshafen, Heidelberg, Heilbronn, Karlthe results of its
sruhe, Mannheim, Pforzheim.
Berlin.
Bremen. cations Regulation (ComReg) announced
[141]
multi-band
spectrum
auction.
This
auction
awarded
Hesse: Darmstadt, Hanau, Ludwigshafen. Lower Saxspectrum
rights
of
use
in
the
800
MHz,
900
MHz
and
ony: Braunschweig, Celle, Hildesheim, Oldenburg.
1800
MHz
bands
in
Ireland
from
2013
to
2030.
The
winNorth Rhine-Westphalia: Gtersloh, Paderborn, Velbert. Rhineland-Palatinate: Kaiserslautern, Mainz. ners of spectrum were Three Ireland, Meteor, O2 Ireland
Saxony: Halle (Saale). Schleswig-Holstein: Neumnster. and Vodafone. All of the winning bidders in the auction
have indicated that they intend to move rapidly to deploy
Thuringia: Erfurt and Gera.[128]
advanced services.[142]
7 February 2013, o2 claimed to do the worlds rst hanthrough Meteor and
dovers of voice calls from LTE to UMTS under realistic Eircom launched their 4G network
[143]
eMobile
on
26
September
2013.
conditions.[129]
On 14 October 2013, Vodafone started their 4G of2 July 2013, o2 added LTE service in Duisburg, Essen
fer (mobile broadband only) in six cities (Dublin, Cork,
[130]
and Hamburg.
Limerick, Galway, Waterford and Kilkenny) and 23
5 September 2013, Deutsche Telekom announced LTE towns (Carlow, Tralee, Wexford, Middleton, Carrigacategory 4 with download speed of 150 Mbit/s at the IFA. line, Mallow, Killarney, Enniscorthy, Dungarvan, New
LTE category 4 or LTE+, so called by Deutsche Telekom, Ross, Kenmare, Tullow, Kanturk, Bagnelstown, Thomasis available in areas which are covered by the 1800 MHz town, Millstreet, Bunclody, Newmarket, Dunmanway,
and 2600 MHz frequency.[131]
Lismore, Rosslare Harbour, Rosslare Strand and Killor[144]
15 November 2013, Telefnica and Vodafone have an- glin) across the country.
nounced that they are testing LTE-Advanced in the Ger- On 9 December 2013, Vodafone switched on 4G for
man cities of Munich and Dresden.[132]
Smartphones and turned 4G service in eight additional
20 February 2014, Deutsche Telekom announced 580 towns (Ballincollig, Carrigtohill, Cloyne, Cobh, Enniscorthy, Fermoy, Gorey, Kinsale) on.[145]
Mbit/s data speed during LTE-A trials in Alzey.[133]
5 March 2014, E-Plus started commercial LTE service in On 27 January 2014, Three launched their 4G network
Berlin, Nuremberg and Leipzig by using the 1800 MHz in Dublin, Cork, Galway, Limerick, Wexford and Waterford.
frequency.[134]
10 March 2014, at the CeBIT in Hannover Deutsche
Telekom announced the launch of LTE-A with 300 Italy Since the rst half of December 2012, all of
Italys ISP have been oering or have plans to oer 4G
Mbit/s for Q3 in 2014.[135]
services in some cities:
International LTE Roaming: 22 May 2014, Vodafone added LTE Roaming within the Vodafone Group
TIM: 2.500 cities (November 2014) and 60 cities in
in the following six European countries. Greece, Italy,
LTE Advanced
The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and UK. Vodafone also
plans to launch LTE Roaming in other countries and on
Vodafone: 2.500 cities (November 2014)
other networks.[136]
3 Italia: 280 cities (November 2014).[146]
17 June 2014, Deutsche Telekom announced LTE Roaming for six European countries. (Belgium (Mobistar),
WIND: 300 cities (November 2014)
France (Orange), Italy (TIM), Norway (Telenor), Poland
(Orange) and Spain (Orange)) Followed by the UK. International LTE Roaming: From 5 May 2014 cusThe company also plans further agreements with other tomers of TIM are able to use 4G while roaming in
operators.[137]
Switzerland on Swisscom and from 14 May 2014 on
19 August 2014, Deutsche Telekom announced LTE Orange in Spain.[147] TIM added new roaming partners
Roaming for The Netherlands (KPN) and UK (EE).[138] in Germany (Telekom) and Hong Kong (CSL) in June
2014.[148]
Ireland In May 2005, Digiweb, an Irish wired and Greenland TELE Greenland started LTE service (800
wireless broadband company, announced that they had MHz - Band 20) at the beginning of December 2013.[149]
154
CHAPTER 36. 4G
Luxembourg Orange and Tango launched LTE in Oc- Norway After the multiband spectrum auction in Detober 2012.[150] Post Telecom (formerly LuxGSM[151] ) cember 2013.[165]
launched LTE in October 2013.[152] All operators are us- In April, 2014, Netcom launched LTE 800 MHz.[166]
ing the 1800 MHz frequency.
In May, 2014, Tele2 launched LTE.[167]
International LTE Roaming: On 24 June 2014 Orange
announced LTE Roaming for the following countries
from July 1, 2014: Canada, China, Germany, Greece, Poland On 31 August 2011, Plus (Polkomtel) launched
Italy, Romania, South Korea, Spain, Switzerland, the UK 4G commercially in Poland. The download speed was up
and the USA.[153]
to 100 Mbit/s, while upload speed was up to 50 Mbit/s.
On 25 October 2012, download speed was increased to
150 Mbit/s. It uses 1800 MHz spectrum belonging to
Republic of Macedonia T-Mobile introduced 4G in CenterNet and Mobyland.
Macedonia at the beginning of December 2013.[154]
In Poland, the construction of LTE networks cooperate:
Vip launched LTE service at the beginning of July
2014.[155]
Malta 4G technology was introduced in Malta by

Vodafone on 9 October 2013.[156]
Plus (Polkomtel) - CenterNet, Mobyland, Aero 2,

Sferia
NetWorkS! - T-Mobile, Orange
P4 (PlayMobile)
The following gure shows the current allocation for this

Netherlands After the multiband spectrum auction in
frequency band:[168]
Q4-2012 KPN announced that the deployment of 4G services would start in February 2013 and that nationwide Spectrum auction LTE800 5x (2x5MHz) and LTE 2600
14x (2x5MHz).[169] Participate in the auction: Polkomtel,
coverage will be available in Q1 2014.[157]
Orange, T-Mobile, P4, Emitel and NetNet.
Vodafone has launched the 4G network in August
[158]
2013,
while T-Mobile announced only a roll-out in
Q4 of 2013.[159] Tele2 will launch their network proba- Portugal All 3 mobile phone operators in Portugal
bly in the same time as T-Mobile, because they are using (MEO, Vodafone and NOS) oer 4G internet services:
site/antenna-sharing.
As of Q1 2014, KPN is the rst network provider
that has deployed a nationwide 4G network in the
Netherlands.[160] Vodafone has announced it would reach
nationwide coverage in 2014. As of Q1 2015, Vodafone
is claiming national coverage. T-Mobile announced nationwide coverage by the end of 2015. Tele2, being a
lower-budget provider, will probably never reach a nationwide coverage. Tele2 will stay a MVNO (i.e., Tele2
will buy network capacity) on the T-Mobile network for
2G/3G Services and a MVNO on the KPN network for
2G/3G Business Services (previously Versatel).[161]
Romania On 31 October 2012, Vodafone has

launched 4G tests.[170] Now 4G connectivity is available in several cities: Otopeni, Constana, Galai,
Craiova, Braov, Bacu, Iai, Cluj-Napoca, Arad and
Timioara.[171]
International LTE Roaming: Since mid-May 2014
Orange oers LTE Roaming service which is currently
available in the networks of Orange in Moldova, Poland
and Spain and will also be extended to other networks
during 2014.[172]
Network operator ZUMs plans remain unknown; only a

small 2.6 GHz LTE network would be required to meet Russian Federation Yota launched LTE service in
regulatory requirements.
March 2012.[173]
After the multiband spectrum auction the frequency allo- MegaFon launched LTE service in April 2012.[173]
cation in the Netherlands is as follows:[162]
MTS launched LTE service in September 2012.[174]
International LTE Roaming: On 16 February 2014
Vainakh Telecom launched LTE service in January
KPN announced LTE Roaming agreement with Orange
2013.[175] Network available in Chechnya.
in France and Telenor in Norway. Following by operators
in the US, the UK, Russia, Japan, Spain, Austria, Switzer- Beeline launched LTE service in May 2013.[176]
land, Poland and Saudi Arabia later this month. Brazil Rostelecom launched LTE service in June 2013.[177]
and China are scheduled to be included in March, Germany, Hong Kong, Croatia and Slovenia will be added
in April, and Denmark, Canada and Finland will be in- Scandinavia TeliaSonera started deploying LTE
(branded 4G) in Stockholm and Oslo November 2009
cluded in June.[163][164]
155
(as seen above), and in several Swedish, Norwegian,

and Finnish cities during 2010. In June 2010, Swedish
television companies used 4G to broadcast live television
from the Swedish Crown Princesss wedding.[178]
range is in service for LTE. 800 MHz, 1800 MHz and

2600 MHz. (E-UTRA Bands 20, 3 und 7) In May 2013
Swisscom upgraded its LTE network from category 3 to
category 4. As of the upgrade the maximum speed has
become 150 Mbit/s.[194]
Slovakia After the multiband spectrum auction[179] the Orange started LTE on 28 May 2013. The second largest
operator was the rst who introduced prepaid LTE in
frequency allocation in Slovakia is as follows:
Switzerland. The following frequency range is in service for LTE. 800 MHz, 1800 MHz and 2600 MHz. (ESlovenia After the multiband spectrum auction in April UTRA Bands 20, 3 und 7) Orange LTE oers up to 100
2014.[180]
Mbit/s. The company will upgrade the maximum speed
up to 150 Mbit/s at the end of 2013.[195]
International LTE Roaming: Swisscom is the rst European operator which oers international LTE Roaming. Since the 21 of June 2013 customers of Swisscom are able to use LTE network of the South Korean operators SK Telecom and KT. According to SwissOn May 13, Orange Espana announced it will launch its com Canada (Rogers) and Hong Kong (SmarTone) are
4G network on 8 July, simultaneously in six of the coun- the next countries where customers of the former statetrys largest cities: Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, owned company will be able to use LTE roaming.[196]
Malaga and Murcia. A further nine cities Bilbao,
Zaragoza, Alicante, Cordoba, A Corua, Valladolid and Sunrise was the last operator in Switzerland who introVigo on the mainland, Palma de Mallorca in the Balearic duced LTE. Commercial service is available as of 19
Islands and Las Palmas in the Canary Islands will be June 2013. The smallest operator in Switzerland oers
speed up to 100 Mbit/s. In 2013 Sunrise is using only the
live by the end of 2013.[182]
1800 MHz frequency for LTE service. (E-UTRA Band
Since 30 May 2013, 4G is available in Spain thanks to 3) The operator will use other frequency bands (800 MHz
Vodafone 4G. According to the company, services will and 2600 MHz - E-UTRA Bands 7 and 20) in the fuuse 1800 MHz and 2600 MHz spectrum and will oer ture as well.[197] Prepaid customers of Sunrise are able to
download speeds of up to 150Mbit/s and upload speeds use LTE with maximum network speed - even MVNO
of 50Mbit/s.[183]
customer.[198]
On week 9, 2014, during the Mobile World Congress Since the beginning of July 2013 Swisscom prepaid cusin Barcelona Vodafone tested LTE-A with speed of 540 tomers are able to enter the LTE network. Maximum
Mbit/s.[184]
speed depends on the subscribed plan.[194]
Spain On May 9, 2013, Yoigo announced its service,
which will use the 1800 MHz band and oer speeds up to
100Mbit/s, and will rst be launched in Madrid on July
19.[181]
On 7 March 2014, Vodafone announced LTE service for On 19 November 2013, Orange and UPC Cablecom anBurgos.[185]
nounced a new partnership. Over the next two years,
On 11 March 2012, Vodafone announced LTE service UPC Cablecom will connect more than 1,000 4G masts
with top bandwidths of between 1 and 10 Gbit/s.[199][200]
for Castilla La Mancha.[186]
On 12 March 2014, Vodafone announced LTE service At the end of November 2013, Swisscom added new
LTE Roaming partners in Asia (Japan: Softbank, Philipfor Logroo.[187][188]
pines: Globe Telecom, Singapore: M1), Europe (France:
After the multiband spectrum auction in July 2011.[189]
Bouygues Telecom) and the Middle East (Saudi Arabia:
Mobily).[201][202]
Switzerland In September 2010, Swisscom tested On 19 December 2013, Swisscom added new LTE
LTE in Grenchen by using the 2.6 GHz frequency (E- Roaming partners in Asia (Hong Kong: China Mobile
UTRA Band 7).[190] In December 2011 after the LTE HK and PCCW) and Europe (Austria: A1). At this time
eld experiment in Grenchen has become a success the Swisscom covers nine countries and twelve foreign LTE
company used the 1.8 GHz frequency (E-UTRA Band networks.[202][203]
3) for further testing in Grindelwald, Gstaad, Leukerbad,
On 22 January 2014, Swisscom added new LTE Roaming
Montana, Saas-Fee and St. Moritz/Celerina.[191]
partner in Russia (MegaFon).[202][204]
After the multiband spectrum auction (06.02.
22.02.2012[192] ) the frequency allocation in Switzerland On 29 January 2014, Sunrise announced 300 Mbit/s LTE
trials by using LTE-A carrier aggregation. Commercial
is as follows:
service is planned for Q3 2014.[205]
Swisscom announced on 29 November 2012, commercial service of its category 3 LTE network with maxi- On 17 Februar 2014, Swisscom added new roaming
mum speed of 100 Mbit/s.[193] The following frequency partners (Canada: Telus, France: SFR, Hong Kong:
156
CHAPTER 36. 4G
Huchison 3, Norway: Telenor, USA: AT&T) to their LTE service in December 2013, initially it was only available
roaming list. The company also mentioned an upcoming to a selected few thousand customers in London precedRussia operator (MTS) for 3. March 2014.[202]
ing a nationwide rollout in 2014.[222][223]
On 10 June 2014, Swisscom added for the upcoming
World Cup in Brazil new roaming partners among other
countries (Belgium: Belgacom; Brazil: Claro Oi, Vivo;
France: Orange; Italy: TIM; Spain: Orange). Further
more Swisscom also announced more LTE Roaming in
Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Netherland, Portugal
and Romania.[202][206]
LTE MVNE: On 1 April 2014, Plintron Worlds largest

Multi-Country MVNE Enables Lycamobile to be in the
4G League in UK. Plintron has completed its LTE core
interoperability with O2 UK, to enable 4G data services.
On 21 August 2012, the United Kingdom's regulator

Ofcom allowed EE, the owner of the Orange and TMobile networks, to use its existing spectrum in the 1,800
MHz band to launch fourth-generation (4G) mobile services. As part of Ofcoms approval of the companys rollout of 4G it was announced on 22 August that 3 had acquired part of EEs 1,800 MHz spectrum for part of their
own 4G network.[211] The 4G service from EE was announced on 11 September 2012 and launched on 30 October initially in 11 cities.[212][213] The network aims to
cover 70% of the UK by 2013 and 98% by 2014.[214]
cdmaOne and EV-DO carriers, have announced that they

will be cooperating towards building a fourth generation (4G) LTE wireless broadband network in Canada.
As a transitional measure, they are implementing 3G
UMTS network that went live in November 2009.[229]
Bell Canada claims that its HSPA+ (3G) network, that it
calls 4G, covers 97% of the population as of December
2013.[230]
On 9 July 2013, Ofcom announced that mobile network

operators would be allowed to repurpose their existing 2G
and 3G spectrum, specically in the 900, 1,800 and 2,100
MHz bands, for 4G services.[219]
2015.[235]
International LTE Roaming: AT&T signed LTE

roaming agreement with EE on 17 December 2013.[224]
EE announced further LTE roaming agreements with
On 16 June 2014, Swisscom commercially launched 300 Orange in France and Spain on March 2014. Customers
Mbit/s LTE by using LTE-A carrier aggregation.[207]
of EE will access the LTE networks of both operators
On 8 October 2014, Swisscom demonstrated 450 Mbit/s immediately. The company also announced in a press
release that it will extend its 4G coverage across major
LTE by using LTE-A carrier aggregation.[208]
roaming destination including the USA, Italy, Germany,
Switzerland and the Netherlands by the Summer.[225][226]
United Kingdom In 2009 O2 (a subsidiary of At the beginning of May 2014, Vodafone added 4G
Telefnica Europe) used Slough for testing the 4G net- roaming for their Red 4G customers in Greece, Italy, Porwork, with Huawei installing LTE technology in six masts tugal and Spain.[227]
across the town to allow testing of HD video conferencing and mobile PlayStation games.[209] On 29 Febru- On 12 June 2014, Vodafone announced LTE rollout for
[228]
ary 2012, UK Broadband launched the rst commercial Belfast over the summer.
4G LTE service in the UK in the London Borough of
Southwark.[210] In October 2012, MVNO, Abica Lim- The Americas
ited, announced they were to trial 4G LTE services for
high speed M2M applications.
Canada Telus and Bell Canada, the major Canadian
Brazil On 27 April 2012, Brazils telecoms regulator Agncia Nacional de Telecomunicaes (Anatel) anOn 12 November 2012 Ofcom published nal regulations nounced that the 6 host cities for the 2013 Confederations
and a timetable[215] for the 4G mobile spectrum auction. Cup to be held there will be the rst to have their networks
It also launched a new 4G consumer page,[216] provid- upgraded to 4G.[231]
ing information on the upcoming auction and the consumer benets that new services will deliver. Ofcom auctioned o the UK-wide 4G spectrum previously used by Mexico 4G technology was introduced by Telcel on
[232]
Movistar launched its 4G netthe countrys analogue television signals in the 800 MHz November 7, 2012.
[233]
[217]
work
on
September
22,
2014
and Nextel did on OcOn 20 Februband as well as in the 2,600 MHz band.
[234]
tober
13,
2014.
ary 2013, the winners of the 4G spectrum auction were
announced by Ofcom.[218] The four major networks, EE,
O2, Vodafone and 3, were awarded spectrum along with United States Verizon Wireless, AT&T, T-Mobile and
Niche Spectrum Ventures Ltd (a subsidiary of BT Group Sprint Corporation all use 4G LTE. Only Sprint still utiplc).
lizes WiMAX, but plans to end its use of WiMax by
On September 20, 2007, Verizon Wireless announced
plans for a joint eort with the Vodafone Group to transition its networks to the 4G standard LTE. On December
Both O2 and Vodafone launched their 4G networks on 29 9, 2008, Verizon Wireless announced their intentions to
August 2013.[220][221] The 3 network launched their 4G build and roll out an LTE network by the end of 2009.
36.8. BEYOND 4G RESEARCH
157
Since then, Verizon Wireless has said that they will start to Wellington on September 8, 2014, then Hamilton,
their roll out by the end of 2010.
Christchurch, Tauranga before Christmas, and Te AwaSprint oers a 3G/4G connection plan, currently available mutu, Fielding, Levin and Dunedin in 2015.
in select cities in the United States.[47] It delivers rates up
to 10 Mbit/s. Sprint has also launched an LTE network
Australia Main article: 4G connectivity in Australia
in early 2012.[236]
Verizon Wireless has announced that it plans to augment
its CDMA2000-based EV-DO 3G network in the United
States with LTE, and is supposed to complete a rollout of
175 cities by the end of 2011, two thirds of the US population by mid-2012, and cover the existing 3G network
by the end of 2013.[237] AT&T, along with Verizon Wireless, has chosen to migrate toward LTE from 2G/GSM
and 3G/HSPA by 2011.[238]
Telstra announced on 15 February 2011, that it intends

to upgrade its current Next G network to 4G with Long
Term Evolution (LTE) technology in the central business
districts of all Australian capital cities and selected regional centers by the end of 2011.[246]
Telstra launched the countrys rst 4G network (FD-LTE)

in September 2011 claiming 2100 Mbps speeds and
announced an aggressive expansion of that network in
Sprint had deployed WiMAX technology which it has la2012.[247][248]
beled 4G as of October 2008. It was the rst US carrier
Telstra will use a mixture of 10 MHz and 15 MHz bandto oer a WiMAX phone.[239]
width in the 1800 MHz band.
The U.S. FCC is exploring the possibility of deployment
and operation of a nationwide 4G public safety network Optus have established a 4G (FD-LTE) network using 10
which would allow rst responders to seamlessly commu- MHz (out of 15 MHz available) bandwidth in the 1800
nicate between agencies and across geographies, regard- MHz band and added the 2.3 GHz band for 4G TD-LTE
less of devices. In June 2010 the FCC released a com- after acquiring Vivid Wireless in 2012.[249]
prehensive white paper which indicates that the 10 MHz Vodafone Australia have indicated their roll out of 4G
of dedicated spectrum currently allocated from the 1700 FD-LTE will use 20 MHz bandwidth and initially support
MHz spectrum for public safety will provide adequate ca- Cat 3 devices at launch, then quickly move to support Cat
pacity and performance necessary for normal communi- 4 devices.
cations as well as serious emergency situations.[240]
Australian Communications and Media Authority
International LTE Roaming: AT&T signed LTE (ACMA) will auction 700 MHz "digital dividend" and
roaming agreement with EE on December 17, 2013.[224] 2600 MHz spectrum for the provision of 4G FD-LTE
services in April 2013. Telstra and Optus are expected
to participate in both, while Vodafone has stated it will
Oceania
only participate in the 2600 MHz auction.
Fiji Vodafone Fiji started category 3 LTE service On 19 December 2013 Optus claims to set up the worlds
(1800 MHz - Band 3) at the beginning of December rst TD-LTE Advanced carrier aggregation network. The
2013.[241][242]
company achieved a throughput of 520 Mbit/s, by combining four 20 MHz channels of the 2300 MHz spectrum
band into 80 MHz.[250][251]
New Zealand In New Zealand, the rst 4G network
was introduced in parts of Auckland by Vodafone NZ on
28 February 2013 using the 1800 MHz frequency (Band
3). Vodafone has since expanded coverage to a total of 36.8 Beyond 4G research
59 centers.[243]
Moana, a small village by Lake Brunner on the West
Coast with only 250 people, got 4G coverage in May
2013. This was a test of rural broadband services in the
700 MHz range.[244] Vodafone went on to launch 4G in
this frequency in Papakura on July 22, 2014.
Main article: 5G
A major issue in 4G systems is to make the high bit
rates available in a larger portion of the cell, especially
to users in an exposed position in between several base
stations. In current research, this issue is addressed by
macro-diversity techniques, also known as group cooperative relay, and also by Beam-Division Multiple Access
(BDMA).[252]
The Vodafone, Spark and 2degrees 4G networks operate

on 1800 MHz (Band 3). Vodafone and Spark have also
deployed 4G on 700 MHz (APT Band 28) while 2degrees
carries out a trial for this frequency in Auckland. As of
15 January 2014, Spark has 4G coverage in Wellington, Pervasive networks are an amorphous and at present enChristchurch, Auckland, Whitianga and Whangamata.
tirely hypothetical concept where the user can be simul2degrees launched their 4G (band 3) service on June 30, taneously connected to several wireless access technolo2014 in parts of Auckland,[245] then extended coverage gies and can seamlessly move between them (See vertical
158
CHAPTER 36. 4G
hando, IEEE 802.21). These access technologies can be [10] Parkvall, Stefan; Dahlman, Erik; Furuskr, Anders; Jading, Ylva; Olsson, Magnus; Wnstedt, Stefan; Zangi,
Wi-Fi, UMTS, EDGE, or any other future access techKambiz (2124 September 2008). LTE Advanced
nology. Included in this concept is also smart-radio (also
Evolving LTE towards IMT-Advanced (PDF). Vehicular
known as cognitive radio) technology to eciently manTechnology Conference Fall 2008. Stockholm: Ericsson
age spectrum use and transmission power as well as the
Research. Retrieved November 26, 2010.
use of mesh routing protocols to create a pervasive network.
[11] Parkvall, Stefan; Astely, David (April 2009). The evolution of LTE toward LTE Advanced. Journal of Communications 4 (3): 14654. doi:10.4304/jcm.4.3.146-154.
36.9 See also

4G-LTE lter
Mobile radio telephone (also known as 0G)
1G
2G
3G
LTE (telecommunication) (4G LTE)
LTE Advanced (4G)
5G
[12] The Draft IEEE 802.16m System Description Document,

2008-04-20
[13] Light Reading Mobile - 4G/LTE Ericsson, Samsung
Make LTE Connection Telecom News Analysis. Unstrung.com. Retrieved March 24, 2010.
[14] MetroPCS Launches First 4G LTE Services in the United
States and Unveils Worlds First Commercially Available
4G LTE Phone. MetroPCS IR. 21 September 2010. Retrieved April 8, 2011.
[15] Jason Hiner (12 January 2011). How AT&T and TMobile conjured 4G networks out of thin air. TechRepublic. Retrieved April 5, 2011.
[16] Brian Bennet (5 April 2012). Meet U.S. Cellulars rst
4G LTE phone: Samsung Galaxy S Aviator. CNet. Retrieved April 11, 2012.
[17] Sprint 4G LTE Launching in 5 Cities July 15. PC Magazine. 27 June 2012. Retrieved November 3, 2012.
36.10 References
[1] ITU-R, Report M.2134, Requirements related to technical performance for IMT-Advanced radio interface(s),
Approved in November 2008
[2] ITU World Radiocommunication Seminar highlights
future communication technologies.
International
Telecommunication Union.
[3] 62 commercial networks support DC-HSPA+, drives
HSPA investments LteWorld February 7, 2012
[4] Vilches, J. (2010, April 29). Everything you need to know
about 4G Wireless Technology. TechSpot.
[5] Moray Rumney, IMT-Advanced: 4G Wireless Takes
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[6] Nomor Research Newsletter: The way of LTE towards 4G
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[8] 3GPP Technical Report: Feasibility study for Further
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[93] Dialog Launches First Mobile 4G-LTE Service
[69] LTE in Morocco by early-2015
[94] Mobitel Launches Mobile 4G-LTE Service
[70] http://www.algerietelecom.dz/siteweb.php?p=4glte
[95] Superior SLT Broadband broadens its reach via xed

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(118kb)
Information on 4G mobile services in the UK - Ofcom
Chapter 37
The IP Multimedia Subsystem or IP Multimedia
Core Network Subsystem (IMS) is an architectural
framework for delivering IP multimedia services. Historically, mobile phones have provided voice call services
over a switched-circuit-style network, rather than strictly
over an IP packet-switched network. Alternative methods of delivering voice or other multimedia services over
IP have become available on smartphones (e.g. VoIP or
Skype), but they have not become standardized across the
industry. IMS is an architectural framework to provide
such standardization.
37.1 History
IMS was originally designed by the wireless standards

body 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), as a
part of the vision for evolving mobile networks beyond
GSM. Its original formulation (3GPP Rel-5) represented
an approach to delivering "Internet services over GPRS.
This vision was later updated by 3GPP, 3GPP2 and ETSI
TISPAN by requiring support of networks other than
GPRS, such as Wireless LAN, CDMA2000 and xed
lines.
To ease the integration with the Internet, IMS uses IETF
protocols wherever possible, e.g., SIP (Session Initiation
Protocol). According to the 3GPP,[1] IMS is not intended
to standardize applications, but rather to aid the access
of multimedia and voice applications from wireless and
wireline terminals, i.e., to create a form of xed-mobile
convergence (FMC). This is done by having a horizontal control layer that isolates the access network from the
service layer. From a logical architecture perspective,
services need not have their own control functions, as the
control layer is a common horizontal layer. However in
implementation this does not necessarily map into greater
reduced cost and complexity.
Alternative and overlapping technologies for access and
provisioning of services across wired and wireless networks include combinations of Generic Access Network,
soft switches and naked SIP.
IMS was originally dened by an industry forum

called 3G.IP, formed in 1999. 3G.IP developed
the initial IMS architecture, which was brought to
the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), as
part of their standardization work for 3G mobile
phone systems in UMTS networks. It rst appeared
in Release 5 (evolution from 2G to 3G networks),
when SIP-based multimedia was added. Support
for the older GSM and GPRS networks was also
provided.[3]
3GPP2 (a dierent organization from 3GPP) based
their CDMA2000 Multimedia Domain (MMD) on
3GPP IMS, adding support for CDMA2000.
3GPP release 6 added interworking with WLAN,
inter-operability between IMS using dierent IPconnectivity networks, routing group identities,
multiple registration and forking, presence, speech
recognition and speech-enabled services (Push to
talk).
3GPP release 7 added support for xed networks
by working together with TISPAN release R1.1, the
function of AGCF (access gateway control function) and PES (PSTN emulation service) are introduced to the wire-line network for the sake of inheritance of services which can be provided in PSTN
network. AGCF works as a bridge interconnecting the IMS networks and the Megaco/H.248 networks. Megaco/H.248 networks oers the possibility to connect terminals of the old legacy networks
to the new generation of networks based on IP networks. AGCF acts a SIP User agent towards the
IMS and performs the role of P-CSCF. SIP User
Agent functionality is included in the AGCF, and
not on the customer device but in the network itself.
Since it is becoming increasingly easier to access content

and contacts using mechanisms outside the control of traditional wireless/xed operators, the interest of IMS is Also added voice call continuity between circuit switching and packet switching domain (VCC), xed broadbeing challenged.[2]
band connection to the IMS, interworking with non-IMS
An example of a global standard based on IMS is MMTel. networks, policy and charging control (PCC), emergency
sessions.
165
166
CHAPTER 37. IP MULTIMEDIA SUBSYSTEM
3GPP release 8 added support for LTE / SAE, multimedia session continuity, enhanced emergency sessions and IMS centralized services.
3GPP release 9 added support for IMS emergency calls over GPRS and EPS, enhancements to
multimedia telephony, IMS media plane security,
enhancements to services centralization and continuity.
3GPP release 10 added support for inter device
transfer, enhancements to the single radio voice call
continuity (SRVCC), enhancements to IMS emergency sessions.
3GPP release 11 added USSD simulation service,
network-provided location information for IMS, 3GPP / TISPAN IMS architectural overview HSS in IMS layer
SMS submit and delivery without MSISDN in IMS, (as by standard)
and overload control.
37.2 Architecture
roaming in another network or country (the visited network). The only requirement is that they can use IP
and run SIP user agents. Fixed access (e.g., Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL), cable modems, Ethernet), mobile access (e.g. W-CDMA, CDMA2000, GSM, GPRS)
and wireless access (e.g., WLAN, WiMAX) are all supported. Other phone systems like plain old telephone
service (POTSthe old analogue telephones), H.323
and non IMS-compatible systems, are supported through
gateways.
37.2.2 Core network

HSS Home subscriber server
The home subscriber server (HSS), or user prole server
function (UPSF), is a master user database that supports
3GPP / TISPAN IMS architectural overview
the IMS network entities that actually handle calls. It
contains the subscription-related information (subscriber
Each of the functions in the diagram is explained below. proles), performs authentication and authorization of the
user, and can provide information about the subscribers
The IP multimedia core network subsystem is a collection
location and IP information. It is similar to the GSM
of dierent functions, linked by standardized interfaces,
[4] home location register (HLR) and Authentication centre
which grouped form one IMS administrative network.
(AuC).
A function is not a node (hardware box): An implementer
is free to combine two functions in one node, or to split A subscriber location function (SLF) is needed to map
a single function into two or more nodes. Each node can user addresses when multiple HSSs are used.
also be present multiple times in a single network, for dimensioning, load balancing or organizational issues.
User identities Various identities may be associated
with IMS: IP multimedia private identity (IMPI), IP mul37.2.1 Access network
timedia public identity (IMPU), globally routable user
agent URI (GRUU), wildcarded public user identity.
The user can connect to IMS in various ways, most of Both IMPI and IMPU are not phone numbers or other
which use the standard IP. IMS terminals (such as mobile series of digits, but uniform resource identier (URIs),
phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and comput- that can be digits (a Tel URI, such as tel:+1-555-123ers) can register directly on IMS, even when they are 4567'') or alphanumeric identiers (a SIP URI, such as
37.2. ARCHITECTURE
sip:john.doe@example.com" ).
IP Multimedia Private Identity The IP Multimedia
Private Identity (IMPI) is a unique permanently allocated
global identity assigned by the home network operator,
and is used, for example, for Registration, Authorization,
Administration, and Accounting purposes. Every IMS
user shall have one IMPI.
IP Multimedia Public Identity The IP Multimedia
Public Identity (IMPU) is used by any user for requesting communications to other users (e.g. this might be included on a business card). There can be multiple IMPU
per IMPI. The IMPU can also be shared with another
phone, so that both can be reached with the same identity
(for example, a single phone-number for an entire family).
Globally Routable User Agent URI Globally
Routable User Agent URI (GRUU) is an identity that
identies a unique combination of IMPU and UE
instance. There are two types of GRUU: Public-GRUU
(P-GRUU) and Temporary GRUU (T-GRUU).
P-GRUU reveal the IMPU and are very long lived.
T-GRUU do not reveal the IMPU and are valid until
the contact is explicitly de-registered or the current
registration expires
Wildcarded Public User Identity A wildcarded Public User Identity expresses a set of IMPU grouped together.
The HSS subscriber database contains the IMPU, IMPI,
IMSI, MSISDN, subscriber service proles, service triggers, and other information.
CSCF Call Session Control Function
Several roles of SIP servers or proxies, collectively called
Call Session Control Function (CSCF), are used to process SIP signalling packets in the IMS.
A Proxy-CSCF (P-CSCF) is a SIP proxy that is the
rst point of contact for the IMS terminal. It can
be located either in the visited network (in full IMS
networks) or in the home network (when the visited
network is not IMS compliant yet). Some networks
may use a Session Border Controller (SBC) for this
function. The P-CSCF is at its core a specialized
SBC for the Usernetwork interface which not only
protects the network, but also the IMS terminal. The
use of an additional SBC between the IMS terminal
and the P-CSCF is unnecessary and infeasible due
to the signaling being encrypted on this leg. The
167
terminal discovers its P-CSCF with either DHCP, or
it may be congured (e.g. during initial provisioning
or via a 3GPP IMS Management Object (MO)) or in
the ISIM or assigned in the PDP Context (in General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS)).
It is assigned to an IMS terminal before registration, and does not change for the duration
of the registration.
It sits on the path of all signalling, and can inspect every signal; the IMS terminal must ignore any other unencrypted signalling.
It provides subscriber authentication and may
establish an IPsec or TLS security association
with the IMS terminal. This prevents spoong
attacks and replay attacks and protects the privacy of the subscriber.
It inspects the signaling and ensures that the
IMS terminals do not misbehave (e.g. change
normal signaling routes, do not obey home networks routing policy).
It can compress and decompress SIP messages
using SigComp, which reduces the round-trip
over slow radio links.
It may include a Policy Decision Function
(PDF), which authorizes media plane resources e.g., quality of service (QoS) over the
media plane. It is used for policy control,
bandwidth management, etc. The PDF can
also be a separate function.
It also generates charging records.
An Interrogating-CSCF (I-CSCF) is another SIP
function located at the edge of an administrative domain. Its IP address is published in the Domain
Name System (DNS) of the domain (using NAPTR
and SRV type of DNS records), so that remote
servers can nd it, and use it as a forwarding point
(e.g., registering) for SIP packets to this domain.
it queries the HSS to retrieve the address of the
S-CSCF and assign it to a user performing SIP
registration
it also forwards SIP request or response to the
S-CSCF
Up to Release 6 it can also be used to hide
the internal network from the outside world
(encrypting parts of the SIP message), in
which case its called a Topology Hiding Internetwork Gateway (THIG). From Release 7 onwards this entry point function is removed
from the I-CSCF and is now part of the Interconnection Border Control Function (IBCF).
The IBCF is used as gateway to external networks, and provides NAT and rewall functions (pinholing). The IBCF is practically a
168
Session Border Controller specialized for the Functional model The AS-ILCM and AS-OLCM
NNI.
store transaction state, and may optionally store session
state depending on the specic service being executed.
A Serving-CSCF (S-CSCF) is the central node of the The AS-ILCM interfaces to the S-CSCF (ILCM) for an
signalling plane. It is a SIP server, but performs ses- incoming leg and the AS-OLCM interfaces to the Ssion control too. It is always located in the home CSCF (OLCM) for an outgoing leg. Application Logic
network. It uses Diameter Cx and Dx interfaces provides the service(s) and interacts between the ASto the HSS to download user proles and upload ILCM and AS-OLCM.
user-to-S-CSCF associations (the user prole is only
cached locally for processing reasons only and is not
changed). All necessary subscriber prole informa- Public Service Identity Public Service Identities (PSI)
are identities that identify services, which are hosted by
tion is loaded from the HSS.
application servers. As user identities, PSI takes the form
it handles SIP registrations, which allows it to of either a SIP or Tel URI. PSIs are stored in the HSS
bind the user location (e.g., the IP address of either as a distinct PSI or as a wildcarded PSI:
the terminal) and the SIP address
it sits on the path of all signaling messages of
the locally registered users, and can inspect every message
a distinct PSI contains the PSI that is used in routing

a wildcarded PSI represents a collection of PSIs.
it decides to which application server(s) the

SIP message will be forwarded, in order to Media servers
provide their services
it provides routing services, typically using The Media Resource Function (MRF) provides media reElectronic Numbering (ENUM) lookups
lated functions such as media manipulation (e.g. voice
it enforces the policy of the network operator stream mixing) and playing of tones and announcements.
there can be multiple S-CSCFs in the net- Each MRF is further divided into a media resource funcwork for load distribution and high availabil- tion controller (MRFC) and a media resource function
ity reasons. Its the HSS that assigns the S- processor (MRFP).
CSCF to a user, when its queried by the ICSCF. There are multiple options for this pur The MRFC is a signalling plane node that interprets
pose, including a mandatory/optional capabilinformation coming from an AS and S-CSCF to conities to be matched between subscribers and
trol the MRFP
S-CSCFs.
The MRFP is a media plane node used to mix,
source or process media streams. It can also manage
Application servers
access right to shared resources.
See also: Next generation network services
The Media Resource Broker (MRB) is a functional entity that is responsible for both collection of appropriate
SIP Application servers (AS) host and execute services,
published MRF information and supplying of appropriate
and interface with the S-CSCF using SIP. An example
MRF information to consuming entities such as the AS.
of an application server that is being developed in 3GPP
MRB can be used in two modes:
is the Voice call continuity Function (VCC Server). Depending on the actual service, the AS can operate in SIP
Query mode: AS queries the MRB for media and
proxy mode, SIP UA (user agent) mode or SIP B2BUA
sets up the call using the response of MRB
mode. An AS can be located in the home network or in
an external third-party network. If located in the home
In-Line Mode: AS sends a SIP INVITE to the MRB.
network, it can query the HSS with the Diameter Sh or
The MRB sets up the call
Si interfaces (for a SIP-AS).
SIP AS: Host and execute IMS specic services
Breakout gateway
IP Multimedia Service Switching Function (IMSSF): Interfaces SIP to CAP to communicate with A Breakout Gateway Control Function (BGCF) is a SIP
proxy which processes requests for routing from an SCAMEL Application Servers
CSCF when the S-CSCF has determined that the session
OSA service capability server (OSA SCS) : Inter- cannot be routed using DNS or ENUM/DNS. It includes
faces SIP to the OSA framework
routing functionality based on telephone numbers.
37.2. ARCHITECTURE
PSTN gateways
A PSTN/CS gateway interfaces with PSTN circuit
switched (CS) networks. For signalling, CS networks use
ISDN User Part (ISUP) (or BICC) over Message Transfer
Part (MTP), while IMS uses SIP over IP. For media, CS
networks use Pulse-code modulation (PCM), while IMS
uses Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP).
169
of the specic end to end service and, as a consequence, service specic network performance, QoS
and security requirements are not necessarily assured. This denition does not exclude that some
services may provide a dened level of interoperability. However only SoIx fully satises NGN interoperability requirements.
An NGN interconnection mode can be direct or indirect. Direct interconnection refers to the interconnection
between two network domains without any intermediate
network domain. Indirect interconnection at one layer
refers to the interconnection between two network domains with one or more intermediate network domain(s)
acting as transit networks. The intermediate network domain(s) provide(s) transit functionality to the two other
A media gateway controller function (MGCF) is a network domains. Dierent interconnection modes may
SIP endpoint that does call control protocol con- be used for carrying service layer signalling and media
version between SIP and ISUP/BICC and inter- trac.
faces with the SGW over SCTP. It also controls the
resources in a Media Gateway (MGW) across an
37.2.4 Charging
H.248 interface.
A signalling gateway (SGW) interfaces with the signalling plane of the CS. It transforms lower layer
protocols as Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP, an IP protocol) into Message Transfer Part
(MTP, an Signalling System 7 (SS7) protocol), to
pass ISDN User Part (ISUP) from the MGCF to the
CS network.
A media gateway (MGW) interfaces with the media plane of the CS network, by converting between RTP and PCM. It can also transcode when
the codecs don't match (e.g., IMS might use AMR,
PSTN might use G.711).
Oine charging is applied to users who pay for their services periodically (e.g., at the end of the month). Online
charging, also known as credit-based charging, is used for
prepaid services, or real-time credit control of postpaid
services. Both may be applied to the same session.
Charging function addresses are addresses distributed to

each IMS entities and provide a common location for
Media resources
each entity to send charging information. charging data
Media Resources are those components that operate on function (CDF) addresses are used for oine billing and
the media plane and are under the control of IMS core Online Charging Function (OCF) for online billing.
functions. Specically, Media Server (MS) and Media
gateway (MGW)
Oine Charging : All the SIP network entities (PCSCF, I-CSCF, S-CSCF, BGCF, MRFC, MGCF,
AS) involved in the session use the Diameter Rf in37.2.3 NGN interconnection
terface to send accounting information to a CDF located in the same domain. The CDF will collect
There are two types of next-generation networking interall this information, and build a call detail record
connection:
(CDR), which is sent to the billing system (BS) of
the domain.
Service-oriented interconnection (SoIx): The physiEach session carries an IMS Charging Identier
cal and logical linking of NGN domains that allows
(ICID) as a unique identier generated by the rst
carriers and service providers to oer services over
IMS entity involved in a SIP transaction and used for
NGN (i.e., IMS and PES) platforms with control,
the correlation with CDRs. Inter Operator Identier
signalling (i.e., session based), which provides de(IOI) is a globally unique identier shared between
ned levels of interoperability. For instance, this is
sending and receiving networks. Each domain has
the case of carrier grade voice and/or multimedia
its own charging network. Billing systems in dierservices over IP interconnection. Dened levels of
ent domains will also exchange information, so that
interoperability are dependent upon the service or
roaming charges can be applied.
the QoS or the Security, etc.
Connectivity-oriented interconnection (CoIx): The
physical and logical linking of carriers and service
providers based on simple IP connectivity irrespective of the levels of interoperability. For example, an IP interconnection of this type is not aware
Online charging : The S-CSCF talks to a IMS gateway function (IMS-GWF) which looks like a regular SIP application server. The IMS-GWF can signal the S-CSCF to terminate the session when the
user runs out of credits during a session. The AS
170

and MRFC use the Diameter Ro interface towards Both A-MGW and VGW are unaware of the services.
an OCF.
They only relay call control signalling to and from the
PSTN terminal. Session control and handling is done by
When immediate event charging (IEC) is used, IMS components.
a number of credit units is immediately deducted from the users account by the ECF and
the MRFC or AS is then authorized to provide 37.2.6 Interfaces description
the service. The service is not authorized when
not enough credit units are available.
When event charging with unit reservation
(ECUR) is used, the ECF (event charging
function) rst reserves a number of credit units
in the users account and then authorizes the
MRFC or the AS. After the service is over,
the number of spent credit units is reported
and deducted from the account; the reserved
credit units are then cleared.
37.2.5
IMS-Based PES Architecture
IMS-based PES (PSTN Emulation System) provides IP

networks services to analog devices. IMS-based PES alTISPAN IMS architecture with interfaces
lows non-IMS devices to appear to IMS as normal SIP
users. Analog terminal using standard analog interfaces }
can connect to IMS-based PES in two ways Via A-MGW (Access Media Gateway) that is linked
and controlled by AGCF. AGCF is placed within the
Operators network and controls multiple A-MGW.
A-MGW and AGCF communicate using H.248.1
(Megaco) over the P1 reference point. POTS phone
connect to A-MGW over the z interface. The signalling is converted to H.248 in the A-MGW and
passed to AGCF. AGCF interprets the H.248 signal
and other inputs from the A-MGW to format H.248
messages into appropriate SIP messages. AGCF
presents itself as P-CSCF to the S-CSCF and passes
generated SIP messages to S-CSCF or to IP border via IBCF (Interconnection Border Control Function). Service presented to S-CSCF in SIP messages trigger PES AS. AGCF has also certain service independent logic, for example on receipt of
o-hook event from A-MGW, the AGCF requests
the A-MGW to play dial tone.
37.3 Session handling

One of the most important features of IMS, that of allowing for a SIP application to be dynamically and differentially (based on the users prole) triggered, is implemented as a lter-and-redirect signalling mechanism
in the S-CSCF.
The S-CSCF might apply lter criteria to determine the
need to forward SIP requests to AS. It is important to note
that services for the originating party will be applied in
the originating network, while the services for the terminating party will be applied in the terminating network,
all in the respective S-CSCFs.
37.3.1 Initial lter criteria

An initial lter criteria (iFC) is an XML-based format
used for describing control logic. iFCs represent a provisioned subscription of a user to an application. They are
stored in the HSS as part of the IMS Subscription Prole and are downloaded to the S-CSCF upon user registration (for registered users) or on processing demand
(for services, acting as unregistered users). iFCs are valid
throughout the registration lifetime or until the User Prole is changed.[5]
Via VGW (VoIP-Gateway) or SIP Gateway/Adapter on customer premises.

POTS
phones via VOIP Gateway connect to P-CSCF
directly. Operators mostly use session border
controllers between VoIP gateways and P-CSCFs
for security and to hide network topology. VoIP
gateway link to IMS using SIP over Gm reference
point. The conversion from POTS service over the
z interface to SIP occurs in the customer premises The iFC is composed of:
VoIP gateway. POTS signaling is converted to SIP
Priority - determines the order of checking the trigand passed on to P-CSCF. VGW acts as SIP user
ger.
agent and appears to P-CSCF as SIP terminal.
37.6. REFERENCES
171
Trigger point - logical condition(s) which is veried

against initial dialog creating SIP requests or standalone SIP requests.
Softswitch
Application server URI - species the application

server to be forwarded to when the trigger point
matches.
Mobile VoIP
There are two types of iFCs:

Shared - When provisioning, only a reference number (the shared iFC number) is assigned to the subscriber. During registration, only the number is sent
to the CSCF, not the entire XML description. The
complete XML will have previously been stored on
the CSCF.
Non-shared - when provisioning, the entire XML
description of the iFC is assigned to the subscriber.
During registration, the entire XML description is
sent to the CSCF.
Voice over IP
SIMPLE
3GPP Long-Term Evolution, UMB (4G network efforts that will use technologies like IMS)
Mobile broadband
Peer-to-peer video sharing
Video share
Image share
IP connectivity access network
Text over IP
Multimedia telephony (MMTel)
37.4 Security aspects of early IMS

and non-3GPP systems
It is envisaged that security dened in TS 33.203 may
not be available for a while especially because of the lack
of USIM/ISIM interfaces and prevalence of devices that
support IPv4. For this situation, to provide some protection against the most signicant threats, 3GPP denes
some security mechanisms, which are informally known
as early IMS security, in TR33.978. This mechanism
relies on the authentication performed during the network attachment procedures, which binds between the
users prole and its IP address. This mechanism is also
weak because the signaling is not protected on the user
network interface.
CableLabs in PacketCable 2.0, which adopted also the
IMS architecture but has no USIM/ISIM capabilities in
their terminals, published deltas to the 3GPP specications where the Digest-MD5 is a valid authentication option. Later on, TISPAN also did a similar eort given
their xed networks scopes, although the procedures are
dierent. To compensate for the lack of IPsec capabilities, TLS has been added as an option for securing the
Gm interface. Later 3GPP Releases have included the
Digest-MD5 method, towards a Common-IMS platform,
yet in its own and again dierent approach. Although all
3 variants of Digest-MD5 authentication have the same
functionality and are the same from the IMS terminals
perspective, the implementations on the Cx interface between the S-CSCF and the HSS are dierent.
Voice call continuity

Push to talk
IMPS
Rich Communication Suite
Service capability interaction manager
Extensions to the SIP for the IP multimedia subsystem
37.6 References
[1] Technical Specication Group Services and System Aspects (2006), IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), Stage 2, TS
23.228, 3rd Generation Partnership Project
[2] Alexander Harrowell, Sta Writer (October 2006), A
Pointless Multimedia Subsystem?, Mobile Communications International, archived from the original on September 2010
[3] 3GPP Release Descriptions. 3GPP.
[4] 3GPP, 23.228. 3GPP Stage 2 Specications.
[5] 3GPP, 29.228. 3GPP Stage 2 Specications.
37.7 External links

A decent IMS tutorial
37.5 See also

4G
IMS multi-page tutorial

IMS Call Flows
172
37.8 Books
Camarillo, Gonzalo; Garca-Martn, Miguel A.
(2007). The 3G IP multimedia subsystem (IMS) :
Merging the Internet and the Cellular Worlds (2 ed.).
Chichester [u.a.]: Wiley. ISBN 0-470-01818-6.
Poikselk, Miikka (2007). The IMS : IP multimedia
concepts and services (2 ed.). Chichester [u.a.]: Wiley. ISBN 0-470-01906-9.
Syed A. Ahson, Mohammed Ilyas, ed. (2009). IP
multimedia subsystem (IMS) handbook. Boca Raton:
CRC Press. ISBN 1-4200-6459-2.
Wuthnow, Mark; Staord, Matthew; Shih, Jerry
(2010). IMS : A New Model for Blending Applications. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 1-4200-92855.
Chapter 38
IS-95
This article is about the mobile phone technology . For supplanted by IS-2000 (CDMA2000), a later CDMAthe channel access method, see Code division multiple based standard.
access.
Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) was the rst ever
38.1 Protocol revisions

cdmaOnes technical history is reective of both its
birth as a Qualcomm internal project, and the world of
then-unproven competing digital cellular standards under which it was developed. The term IS-95 generically
applies to the earlier set of protocol revisions, namely
P_REVs one through ve.
Samsung cdmaOne mobile phone disassembled
CDMA-based digital cellular technology. It was developed by Qualcomm and later adopted as a standard by the Telecommunications Industry Association in
TIA/EIA/IS-95 release published in 1995. The proprietary name for IS-95 is cdmaOne.
P_REV=1 was developed under an ANSI standards process with documentation reference J-STD-008. J-STD008, published in 1995, was only dened for the thennew North American PCS band (Band Class 1, 1900
MHz). The term IS-95 properly refers to P_REV=1, developed under the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) standards process, for the North American
cellular band (Band Class 0, 800 MHz) under roughly the
same time frame. IS-95 oered interoperation (including
hando) with the analog cellular network. For digital operation, IS-95 and J-STD-008 have most technical details
in common. The immature style and structure of both
documents are highly reective of the standardizing of
Qualcomms internal project.
It is a 2G mobile telecommunications standard that uses

CDMA, a multiple access scheme for digital radio, to P_REV=2 is termed Interim Standard 95A (IS-95A). ISsend voice, data and signaling data (such as a dialed tele- 95A was developed for Band Class 0 only, as in incremenphone number) between mobile telephones and cell sites. tal improvement over IS-95 in the TIA standards process.
CDMA or code division multiple access is a digital P_REV=3 is termed Technical Services Bulletin 74 (TSBradio system that transmits streams of bits (PN codes). 74). TSB-74 was the next incremental improvement over
CDMA permits several radios to share the same frequen- IS-95A in the TIA standards process.
cies. Unlike TDMA time division multiple access, a
competing system used in 2G GSM, all radios can be
active all the time, because network capacity does not
directly limit the number of active radios. Since larger
numbers of phones can be served by smaller numbers
of cell-sites, CDMA-based standards have a signicant
economic advantage over TDMA-based standards, or
the oldest cellular standards that used frequency-division
multiplexing.
P_REV=4 is termed Interim Standard 95B (IS-95B)

Phase I, and P_REV=5 is termed Interim Standard 95B
(IS-95B) Phase II. The IS-95B standards track provided
for a merging of the TIA and ANSI standards tracks under the TIA, and was the rst document that provided
for interoperation of IS-95 mobile handsets in both band
classes (dual-band operation). P_REV=4 was by far the
most popular variant of IS-95, with P_REV=5 only seeing minimal uptake in South Korea.
In North America, the technology competed with Digital P_REV=6 and beyond fall under the CDMA2000 umAMPS (IS-136, a TDMA technology). It is now being brella. Besides technical improvements, the IS-2000 doc173
174
CHAPTER 38. IS-95
uments are much more mature in terms of layout and BTS sector in the network is assigned a PN oset in steps
content. They also provide backwards-compatibility to of 64 chips. There is no data carried on the forward piIS-95.
lot. With its strong autocorrelation function, the forward
pilot allows mobiles to determine system timing and distinguish dierent BTSs for hando.
38.2 Protocol details
SMSC
BSC
SCP
BSC
MSC
MSC
HLR
BSC
BSC
MSC
BSC
Inne sieci
PSTN i PLMN
cdmaOne network structure
The IS-95 standards describe an air interface, a set of protocols used between mobile units and the network. IS-95
is widely described as a three-layer stack, where L1 corresponds to the physical (PHY) layer, L2 refers to the
Media Access Control (MAC) and Link-Access Control
(LAC) sublayers, and L3 to the call-processing state machine.
When a mobile is searching, it is attempting to nd pilot signals on the network by tuning to particular radio
frequencies, and performing a cross-correlation across all
possible PN phases. A strong correlation peak result indicates the proximity of a BTS.
Other forward channels, selected by their Walsh code,
carry data from the network to the mobiles. Data consists of network signaling and user trac. Generally,
data to be transmitted is divided into frames of bits. A
frame of bits is passed through a convolutional encoder,
adding forward error correction redundancy, generating
a frame of symbols. These symbols are then spread with
the Walsh and PN sequences and transmitted.
BTSs transmit a sync channel spread with Walsh code
32. The sync channel frame is 80
3 ms long, and its frame
boundary is aligned to the pilot. The sync channel continually transmits a single message, the Sync Channel Message, which has a length and content dependent on the
P_REV. The message is transmitted 32 bits per frame,
encoded to 128 symbols, yielding a rate of 1200 bit/s.
The Sync Channel Message contains information about
the network, including the PN oset used by the BTS sector.
Once a mobile has found a strong pilot channel, it listens

to the sync channel and decodes a Sync Channel Message
38.2.1 Physical layer
to develop a highly accurate synchronization to system
IS-95 denes the transmission of signals in both the time. At this point the mobile knows whether it is roamforward (network-to-mobile) and reverse (mobile-to- ing, and that it is in service.
network) directions.
BTSs transmit at least one, and as many as seven, paging
In the forward direction, radio signals are transmitted by channels starting with Walsh code 1. The paging channel
base stations (BTSs). Every BTS is synchronized with frame time is 20 ms, and is time aligned to the IS-95 sysa GPS receiver so transmissions are tightly controlled in tem (i.e. GPS) 2-second roll-over. There are two possible
time. All forward transmissions are QPSK with a chip rates used on the paging channel: 4800 bit/s or 9600 bit/s.
rate of 1,228,800 per second. Each signal is spread with Both rates are encoded to 19200 symbols per second.
a Walsh code of length 64 and a pseudo-random noise The paging channel contains signaling messages transmitcode (PN code) of length 215 , yielding a PN roll-over ted from the network to all idle mobiles. A set of mesperiod of 80
sages communicate detailed network overhead to the mo3 ms.
For the reverse direction, radio signals are transmitted biles, circulating this information while the paging chanby the mobile. Reverse link transmissions are OQPSK nel is free. The paging channel also carries higher-priority
in order to operate in the optimal range of the mobiles messages dedicated to setting up calls to and from the mopower amplier. Like the forward link, the chip rate is biles.
1,228,800 per second and signals are spread with Walsh When a mobile is idle, it is mostly listening to a paging
codes and the pseudo-random noise code, which is also channel. Once a mobile has parsed all the network overknown as a Short Code.
head information, it registers with the network, then optionally enters slotted-mode. Both of these processes are
described in more detail below.
Forward broadcast channels
Every BTS dedicates a signicant amount of output
power to a pilot channel, which is an unmodulated PN sequence (in other words, spread with Walsh code 0). Each
38.3. SEE ALSO

Forward trac channels
The Walsh space not dedicated to broadcast channels on
the BTS sector is available for trac channels. These
channels carry the individual voice and data calls supported by IS-95. Like the paging channel, trac channels
have a frame time of 20ms.
Since voice and user data are intermittent, the trac
channels support variable-rate operation. Every 20 ms
frame may be transmitted at a dierent rate, as determined by the service in use (voice or data). P_REV=1
and P_REV=2 supported rate set 1, providing a rate of
1200, 2400, 4800, or 9600 bit/s. P_REV=3 and beyond
also provided rate set 2, yielding rates of 1800, 3600,
7200, or 14400 bit/s.
For voice calls, the trac channel carries frames of
vocoder data. A number of dierent vocoders are dened under IS-95, the earlier of which were limited to
rate set 1, and were responsible for some user complaints
of poor voice quality. More sophisticated vocoders, taking advantage of modern DSPs and rate set 2, remedied
the voice quality situation and are still in wide use in 2005.
The mobile receiving a variable-rate trac frame does
not know the rate at which the frame was transmitted.
Typically, the frame is decoded at each possible rate, and
using the quality metrics of the Viterbi decoder, the correct result is chosen.
Trac channels may also carry circuit-switch data calls in
IS-95. The variable-rate trac frames are generated using the IS-95 Radio Link Protocol (RLP). RLP provides
a mechanism to improve the performance of the wireless
link for data. Where voice calls might tolerate the dropping of occasional 20 ms frames, a data call would have
unacceptable performance without RLP.
Under IS-95B P_REV=5, it was possible for a user to use
up to seven supplemental code (trac) channels simultaneously to increase the throughput of a data call. Very
few mobiles or networks ever provided this feature, which
could in theory oer 115200 bit/s to a user.
Block Interleaver
After convolution coding and repetition, symbols are sent
to a 20 ms block interleaver, which is a 24 by 16 array.
Capacity
IS-95 and its use of CDMA techniques, like any other
communications system, have their throughput limited
according to Shannons theorem. Accordingly, capacity
improves with SNR and bandwidth. IS-95 has a xed
bandwidth, but fares well in the digital world because it
takes active steps to improve SNR.
With CDMA, signals that are not correlated with the
channel of interest (such as other PN osets from adjacent cellular base stations) appear as noise, and signals carried on other Walsh codes (that are properly time
175
aligned) are essentially removed in the de-spreading process. The variable-rate nature of trac channels provide lower-rate frames to be transmitted at lower power
causing less noise for other signals still to be correctly received. These factors provide an inherently lower noise
level than other cellular technologies allowing the IS-95
network to squeeze more users into the same radio spectrum.
Active (slow) power control is also used on the forward
trac channels, where during a call, the mobile sends
signaling messages to the network indicating the quality
of the signal. The network will control the transmitted
power of the trac channel to keep the signal quality just
good enough, thereby keeping the noise level seen by all
other users to a minimum.
The receiver also uses the techniques of the rake receiver
to improve SNR as well as perform soft hando.
38.2.2 Layer 2
Once a call is established, a mobile is restricted to using the trac channel. A frame format is dened in the
MAC for the trac channel that allows the regular voice
(vocoder) or data (RLP) bits to be multiplexed with signaling message fragments. The signaling message fragments are pieced together in the LAC, where complete
signaling messages are passed on to Layer 3.
38.3 See also

PN code
CDMA spectral eciency
38.4 References
38.5 External links
TR-45 Engineering Committee CDMA Standards
Developing Group
Chapter 39
CDMA2000
39.1 1X
CDMA2000 1X (IS-2000), also known as 1x and
1xRTT, is the core CDMA2000 wireless air interface
standard. The designation 1x, meaning 1 times Radio
Transmission Technology, indicates the same radio frequency (RF) bandwidth as IS-95: a duplex pair of 1.25
MHz radio channels. 1xRTT almost doubles the capacity
of IS-95 by adding 64 more trac channels to the forward
link, orthogonal to (in quadrature with) the original set
of 64. The 1X standard supports packet data speeds of
up to 153 kbit/s with real world data transmission averaging 80100 kbit/s in most commercial applications.[3]
Huawei CDMA2000 EVDO USB wireless modem
IMT-2000 also made changes to the data link layer for
greater use of data services, including medium and link
access control protocols and QoS. The IS-95 data link
CDMA2000 (also known as C2K or IMT
[1] layer only provided best eorts delivery for data and
MultiCarrier (IMTMC)) is a family of 3G
circuit switched channel for voice (i.e., a voice frame once
mobile technology standards for sending voice, data,
every 20 ms).
and signaling data between mobile phones and cell sites.
It is developed by 3GPP2 as a backwards-compatible
successor to second-generation cdmaOne (IS-95) set
of standards and used especially in North America and
South Korea.
CDMA2000 compares to UMTS, a competing set of 3G
standards, which is developed by 3GPP and used in Europe, Japan, and China.
39.2 1xEV-DO
The name CDMA2000 denotes a family of standards that

represent the successive, evolutionary stages of the under- Main article: Evolution-Data Optimized
lying technology. These are:
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (Evolution-Data Optimized), often abbreviated as EV-DO or EV, is a
telecommunications standard for the wireless transmission of data through radio signals, typically for
Voice: CDMA2000 1xRTT, 1X Advanced
broadband Internet access. It uses multiplexing techniques including code division multiple access (CDMA)
Data: CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (Evolution-Data Op- as well as time division multiple access (TDMA) to
timized): Release 0, Revision A, Revision B, Ultra maximize both individual users throughput and the
Mobile Broadband (UMB)
overall system throughput. It is standardized by 3rd
Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2) as part of the
CDMA2000 family of standards and has been adopted
All are approved radio interfaces for the ITU's IMT- by many mobile phone service providers around the
2000. In the United States, CDMA2000 is a registered world particularly those previously employing CDMA
trademark of the Telecommunications Industry Associa- networks. It is also used on the Globalstar satellite phone
tion (TIA-USA).[2]
network.[4]
176
177
[3] 1X features/speeds, cdg.org, November 17, 2009

[4] Globalstar GSP 1700 satphone also loaded with EVDO
[5] CDMA2000 | 3G Wireless. Qualcomm. Retrieved on
September 18, 2013.
[6] CDG : CDMA Statistics. CDMA Development Group.
Retrieved June 13, 2015.
[7] Qualcomm halts UMB project, Reuters, November 13,
2008
39.7 External links

TIA TR-45 Engineering Committee for CDMA
Standards
3GPP2 Standards and specications
BlackBerry smartphone displaying '1XEV' as the service status

in the upper right corner.
39.3 1X Advanced
1X Advanced is the evolution of CDMA2000 1X. It provides up to four times the capacity and 70% more coverage compared to 1X.[5]
39.4 Networks
See also: List of CDMA2000 networks
The CDMA Development Group states that, as of April
2014, there are 314 operators in 118 countries oering
CDMA2000 1X and/or 1xEV-DO service.[6]
39.5 History
The intended 4G successor to CDMA2000 was UMB
(Ultra Mobile Broadband); however, in November 2008,
Qualcomm announced it was ending development of the
technology, favoring LTE instead.[7]
39.6 References
[1] What really is a Third Generation (3G) Mobile Technology (PDF). International Telecommunications Union.
Archived from the original (PDF) on June 7, 2011. Retrieved October 28, 2012.
[2] CDMA2000 trademark application, uspto.gov, November
17, 2009
CDMA2000 Overviews of the CDMA2000 standards - 1X to UMB
Chapter 40
Service layer
In intelligent networks (IN) and cellular networks, service layer is a conceptual layer within a network service
provider architecture. It aims at providing middleware
that serves third-party value-added services and applications at a higher application layer. The service layer
provides capability servers owned by a telecommunication network service provider, accessed through open and
secure Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) by
application layer servers owned by third-party content
providers. The service layer also provides an interface
to core networks at a lower resource layer.[1] The lower
layers may also be named control layer and transport layer
(the transport layer is also referred to as the access layer
in some architectures).
IM-SSF
40.1.2 SIP Application Server

The SIP Application Server (AS) performs the same
function as a Telephony Application Server in a pre-IMS
network, however it is specically tailored to support the
SIP signalling protocol for use in an IMS network.
40.1.3 OSA Service Capability Server
An OSA Service Capability Server acts as a secure gateThe concept of service layer is used in contexts such as way between the IMS network and an application which
Intelligent networks (IN), WAP, 3G and IP Multimedia runs upon the Open Services Architecture (this is typiSubsystem (IMS). It is dened in the 3GPP Open Ser- cally a SIP to Parlay gateway)
vices Architecture (OSA) model, which reused the idea
of the Parlay API for third-party servers.
40.1.4 IM-SSF
In software design, for example Service-oriented architecture, the concept of service layer has a dierent mean- The IM-SSF (IP Multimedia Service Switching Funcing.
tion) acts as a gateway between the IMS network and
application servers using other telecommunication signalling standards such as INAP and CAMEL.
40.1 Service layer in IMS
The service layer of an IMS architecture provides mul- 40.2 Service layer in SOA
timedia services to the overall IMS network. This layer
contains network elements which connect to the ServingIn service-oriented architecture (SOA), the service layer
CSCF (Call Session Control Function) using the IP multiis
the third layer in a ve abstraction layer model. The
media Subsystem Service Control Interface (ISC).[2] The
model consists of Object layer, Component layer, Service
ISC interface uses the SIP signalling protocol.
layer, Process layer and Enterprise layer.[3] The service
layer can be considered as a bridge between the higher and
lower layers, and is characterized by a number of services
40.1.1 Elements of the IMS service layer
that are carrying out individual business functions.
The network elements contained within the service layer
are generically referred to as 'service platforms however
the 3GPP specication (3GPP TS 23.228 V8.7.0) denes
several types of service platforms:
40.3 References
[1] Kristofer Kimbler, Service Interaction in Next Generation Networks: Challenges and Opportunities. Feature Interactions in Telecommunications and Software Systems.
Papers from the sixths International Workshop on Feature
SIP Application Server

OSA Service Capability Server
178
40.4. SEE ALSO
Interactions in Telecommunications and Software Systems May 2000. Edition: illustrated. Published by: IOS
Press, 2000. ISBN 1-58603-065-5, ISBN 978-1-58603065-0.
[2] http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/html-info/23228.htm
[3] Service-oriented Architecture Compass: Business Value,
Planning, and Enterprise Roadmap. Author: Norbert
Bieberstein, Sanjay Bose, Marc Fiammante, Keith Jones,
Rawn Shah. Edition: illustrated. Published by: FT Press,
2005. ISBN 0-13-187002-5, ISBN 978-0-13-187002-4
40.4 See also

Service layers pattern
IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)
Open Services Architecture (OSA)
Hierarchical internetworking model
Multi-tier architecture
179
Chapter 41

The Open Mobile Alliance (OMA) is a standards body application protocols: WAP Forum (focused on browswhich develops open standards for the mobile phone in- ing and device provisioning protocols), the Wireless Vildustry.
lage (focused on instant messaging and presence), The
SyncML Initiative (focused on data synchronization), the
Location Interoperability Forum, the Mobile Games Interoperability Forum and the Mobile Wireless Internet
41.1 Principles
Forum. Each of these forums had its bylaws, its decisiontaking procedures, its release schedules, and in some inMission To provide interoperable service enablers stances there was some overlap in the specications, causworking across countries, operators and mobile ter- ing duplication of work. The OMA was created to gather
minals.
these initiatives under a single umbrella.
Members include traditional wireless industry players such as equipment and mobile systems manufacturers (Ericsson, Thomson, Huawei, ZTE, Reti Radiotelevisive Digitali, Nokia, Openwave, Sony, Philips,
Motorola, Samsung, LG Electronics, Texas Instruments,
Qualcomm) and mobile operators (Vodafone, Orange,
T-Mobile, LG Telecom), and also software vendors
(Microsoft, Sun Microsystems, IBM, Oracle Corporation, Symbian, Celltick, Expway, Mformation, InnoPath,
Voluntary adherence adherence to the standards is en- Motive).
tirely voluntary; the OMA does not have a mandative role. The OMA is not a formal governmentsponsored standards organization like the ITU, but a 41.3 Relation to other standards
forum for industry stakeholders to agree on common
bodies
specications for products and services. The goal is
that by agreeing on common standards, stakeholders
will be able to share slices from a larger pie.
The OMA liaises with other standards bodies on a regular
basis to avoid overlap in specications:
"FRAND" intellectual property licensing OMA
members that own intellectual property rights (e.g.
3GPP
patents) on technologies that are essential to the
realization of a specication agree in advance
3GPP2
to provide licenses to their technology on fair,
reasonable and non-discriminatory terms to other
IETF
members.
Network-agnostic The OMA only standardises applicative protocols; OMA specications are meant to
work with any cellular network technologies being used to provide networking and data transport.
These networking technology are specied by outside parties. In particular, OMA specications for
a given function are the same with either GSM,
UMTS or CDMA2000 networks.
W3C
Legal status the OMA is a British limited company.[1]
41.2 History
41.4 Standard specications
The OMA was created in June 2002 as an answer to the The OMA maintains a number of specications, includproliferation of industry forums each dealing with a few ing
180
41.5. SEE ALSO

Browsing specications, now called Browser and
Content, previously called WAP browsing. In their
current version, these specications rely essentially
on XHTML Mobile Prole.
MMS specications for multimedia messaging
OMA DRM specications for Digital Rights Management
181
41.5 See also

OMA PAG
Linux Phone Standards Forum (LiPS)
LiMo Foundation
Open Handset Alliance
OMA Instant Messaging and Presence Service

(OMA IMPS) specication, which is a system for instant messaging on mobile phones (formerly known
as Wireless Village).
Mobile Platform
OMA SIMPLE IM Instant messaging based on SIPSIMPLE (see Session Initiation Protocol)
European Telecommunications Standards Institute

(ETSI)
OMA CAB Converged Address Book, a social address book service standard.
List of wireless router rmware projects
OMA CPM Converged IP Messaging, the underlying enabler for Rich Communication Services.
OMA LAWMO (OMA LAWMO) Specications
for Lock and Wipe functionality LAWMO.
OMA LWM2M (OMA LWM2M) Specications
for Lightweight Machine to Machine functionality.
OMA Client Provisioning (OMA CP) specication
for Client Provisioning.
V&D Labs, Mobile App Development

3GPP
41.6 References
[1]
[2] dret.net Glossary WAP1
41.7 External links

OMA Data Synchronization (OMA DS) specication for Data Synchronization using SyncML.
Open Mobile Alliance Publicly Available Documents
OMA Device Management (OMA DM) specication for Device Management using SyncML.
OMA Browsing V2.4 Release Specication
OMA BCAST specication for Mobile Broadcast

Services.
OME RME specication for Rich Media Environment.
OMA PoC specication for Push to talk Over Cellular (called PoC).
OMA Presence SIMPLE specication for Presence
based on SIP-SIMPLE (see Session Initiation Protocol).
OMA Service Environment
FUMO Firmware update
SUPL, an IP-based service for assisted GPS on
handsets
MLP, an IP-based protocol for obtaining the position/location of mobile handset
WAP1, Wireless Application Protocol 1, 5-layer
stack of protocols[2]
Google plans 2015 Project Ara launch in Puerto

Rico, partnering with Ingram Micro, OpenMobile
and Claro.
Chapter 42
Telecoms & Internet converged Services &

Protocols for Advanced Networks
The Telecoms & Internet converged Services & livery Networks (CDN) and is now working on the speciProtocols for Advanced Networks (TISPAN) is a cation of the protocols applicable to the reference points
standardization body of ETSI, specializing in xed net- identied in this architecture (See ETSI TS 182 019)
works and Internet convergence. It was formed in 2003
from the amalgamation of the ETSI bodies Telecommunications and Internet Protocol Harmonization Over 42.1 References
Networks (TIPHON) and Services and Protocols for
Advanced Networks (SPAN).
[1] IEEE Wireless Communications, Volume 16, Issue 3 TISPANs focus is to dene the European view of the
Next Generation Networking (NGN), though TISPAN
also includes much participation from regions outside Europe.
Business Trunking Communications in ETSI
42.2 External links
TISPAN NGN Release 1 was published in December

2005 and contained the architectural foundations and basic specications required in support of PSTN replacement. The TISPAN NGN architecture is based on sharing common components between cooperating subsystems. The TISPAN NGN architecture complies with the
general reference model for next generation networks dened in ITU-T Recommendation Y.2011 [1] and is therefore layered with a service stratum and a transport stratum. Each of these layers is further decomposed into subsystems that perform specic roles within the overall architecture. This allows new subsystems to be added over
time to cover new demands and service classes. By making network resources, applications, and user equipment
common to all subsystems, it ensures mobility of users,
terminals and services as much as possible, even across
administrative boundaries. A key subsystem is based on
the architectures of 3rd Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP) IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS). TISPAN has
been working with 3GPP to extend the IMS architecture
with capabilities required in support of wire-line access.
TISPAN NGN Release 2 was nalized early 2008,
and added support for IPTV services and Business
Communications[1] over the IMS.
Since early 2008, TISPAN has begun work on the third
release of its NGN specications with prime focus on
IPTV enhancements, Content Delivery Networks (CDN)
and home networking. In 2011, TISPAN published the
specication of a functional architecture for Content De-
182
Ocial TISPAN web site

An introduction to the TISPAN architecture
Chapter 43
GSM services
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
services + noman are a standard collection of applications and features available to mobile phone subscribers
all over the world. The GSM standards are dened by the
3GPP collaboration and implemented in hardware and
software by equipment manufacturers and mobile phone
operators. The common standard makes it possible to
use the same phones with dierent companies services,
or even roam into dierent countries. GSM is the worlds
most dominant mobile phone standard.
access are stored in a SIM record in the Home Location

Register (HLR).
Once the SIM card is loaded into the phone and the phone
is powered on, it will search for the nearest mobile phone
mast (also called a Base Transceiver Station/BTS) with
the strongest signal in the operators frequency band. If a
mast can be successfully contacted, then there is said to
be coverage in the area. The phone then identies itself
to the network through the control channel. Once this is
successfully completed, the phone is said to be attached
The design of the service is moderately complex because to the network.
it must be able to locate a moving phone anywhere in the The key feature of a mobile phone is the ability to reworld, and accommodate the relatively small battery ca- ceive and make calls in any area where coverage is availpacity, limited input/output capabilities, and weak radio able. This is generally called roaming from a customer
transmitters on mobile devices.
perspective, but also called visiting when describing the
43.1 Accessing a GSM network

In order to gain access to GSM services, a user needs
three things:
underlying technical process. Each geographic area has

a database called the Visitor Location Register (VLR),
which contains details of all the mobiles currently in that
area. Whenever a phone attaches, or visits, a new area,
the Visitor Location Register must contact the Home Location Register to obtain the details for that phone. The
current cellular location of the phone (i.e., which BTS it is
at) is entered into the VLR record and will be used during
a process called paging when the GSM network wishes to
locate the mobile phone.
A billing relationship with a mobile phone operator. This is usually either where services are paid
for in advance of them being consumed (prepaid),
or where bills are issued and settled after the service Every SIM card contains a secret key, called the Ki, which
has been consumed (postpaid).
is used to provide authentication and encryption services.
This is useful to prevent theft of service, and also to pre A mobile phone that is GSM compliant and operates
vent over the air snooping of a users activity. The netat the same frequency as the operator. Most phone
work does this by utilising the Authentication Center and
companies sell phones from third-party manufacturis accomplished without transmitting the key directly.
ers.
Every GSM phone contains a unique identier (dierent
A Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card, which from the phone number), called the International Mobile
is activated by the operator once the billing rela- Equipment Identity (IMEI). This can be found by dialing
tionship is established. After activation the card is *#06#. When a phone contacts the network, its IMEI
then programmed with the subscribers Mobile Sub- may be checked against the Equipment Identity Register
scriber Integrated Services Digital Network Num- to locate stolen phones and facilitate monitoring.
ber (MSISDN) (the telephone number). Personal
information such as contact numbers of friends and
family can also be stored on the SIM by the subscriber.
After subscribers sign up, information about their identity
(telephone number) and what services they are allowed to
43.2 Voice all calls
183
184
43.2.1
CHAPTER 43. GSM SERVICES
All Outgoing
Once a mobile phone has successfully attached to a GSM

network as described above, calls may be made from the
phone to any other phone on the global Public Switched
Telephone Network.
The user dials the telephone number, presses the send or
talk key, and the mobile phone sends a call setup request
message to the mobile phone network via the nearest mobile phone base transceiver station (BTS).
The call setup request message is handled next by the
Mobile Switching Center, which checks the subscribers
record held in the Visitor Location Register to see if the
outgoing call is allowed. If so, the MSC then routes the
call in the same way that a telephone exchange does in a
xed network.
If the owner of the phone has previously requested

that all incoming calls be diverted to another number, known as the Call Forward Unconditional
(CFU) Number, then this number is stored in the
Home Location Register. If that is the case, then
the CFU number is returned to the Gateway MSC
for immediate routing to that destination.
If the mobile phone is not currently associated with
a Visited Location Register (because the phone has
been turned o) then the Home Location Register
returns a number known as the Call Forward Not
Reachable (CFNRc) number to the Gateway MSC,
and the call is forwarded there. Many operators may
set this value automatically to the phones voice mail
number, so that callers may leave a message. The
mobile phone may sometimes override the default
setting.
If the subscriber is on a prepaid tari (sometimes known

as Pay As You Go (PAYG) or Pay & Go), then an addi Finally, if the Home Location Register knows that
tional check is made to see if the subscriber has enough
the phone is roaming in a particular Visited Locacredit to proceed. If not, the call is rejected. If the call
tion Register area, then it will request a temporary
is allowed to continue, then it is continually monitored
number (called an MSRN) from that VLR (using the
and the appropriate amount is decremented from the subIMSI as the reference number. This number is rescribers account. When the credit reaches zero, the call
layed back to the Gateway MSC, and then used to
is cut o by the network. The systems that monitor and
route the call to the MSC where the called phone is
provide the prepaid services are not part of the GSM stanroaming.
dard services, but instead an example of intelligent network services that a mobile phone operator may decide
to implement in addition to the standard GSM ones.
Locating and ringing the phone
43.2.2
Incoming calls
Gateway MSC contact
When the call arrives at the Visited MSC, the MSRN is

used to determine which of the phones in this area is being called, that is the MSRN maps back to the IMSI of
the original phone number dialled. The MSC pages all
the mobile phone masts in the area that the IMSI is registered in order to inform the phone that there is an incoming call for it. If the subscriber answers, a speech path
is created through the Visiting MSC and Gateway MSC
back to the network of the person making the call, and a
normal telephone call follows.
When someone places a call to a mobile phone, they dial

the telephone number (also called a MSISDN) associated with the phone user and the call is routed to the
mobile phone operator's Gateway Mobile Switching Centre. The Gateway MSC, as the name suggests, acts as the
entrance from exterior portions of the Public Switched
It is also possible that the phone call is not answered. If
Telephone Network onto the providers network.
the subscriber is busy on another call (and call waiting
As noted above, the phone is free to roam anywhere in the
is not being used) the Visited MSC routes the call to a
operators network or on the networks of roaming partpre-determined Call Forward Busy (CFB) number. Simners, including in other countries. So the rst job of the
ilarly, if the subscriber does not answer the call after a peGateway MSC is to determine the current location of the
riod of time (typically 30 seconds) then the Visited MSC
mobile phone in order to connect the call. It does this by
routes the call to a pre-determined Call Forward No Reconsulting the Home Location Register (HLR), which, as
ply (CFNRy) number. Once again, the operator may dedescribed above, knows which Visitor Location Register
cide to set this value by default to the voice mail of the
(VLR) the phone is associated with, if any.
mobile so that callers can leave a message.
If the subscriber does not respond to the paging request,
either due to being out of coverage, or their battery has
gone at/removed, then the Visited MSC routes the call to
When the HLR receives this query message, it deter- a pre-determined Call Forward Not Reachable (CFNRc)
mines whether the call should be routed to another num- number. Once again, the operator may decide to set this
ber (called a divert), or if it is to be routed directly to the value by default to the voice mail of the mobile so that
callers can leave a message.
mobile.
Routing the call
43.3. DATA TRANSMISSION
185
A roaming user may want to avoid these forwarding ser- 43.2.4

vices in the visited network as roaming charges will apply.
43.2.3
Voice charges
How speech is encoded during mobile phone calls
During a GSM call, speech is converted from analogue

sound waves to digital data by the phone itself, and
transmitted through the mobile phone network by digital
means. (Though older parts of the xed Public Switched
Telephone Network may use analog transmission.)
The digital algorithm used to encode speech signals is

called a codec. The speech codecs used in GSM are
See also: Mobile telephony Tari models
called Half-Rate (HR), Full-Rate (FR), Enhanced FullRate (EFR), Adaptive Multirate (AMR) and Wideband
In the United States and Canada, callers pay the cost of AMR also known as HD voice. All codecs except AMR
connecting to the Gateway MSC of the subscribers phone operate with a xed data rate and error correction level.
company, regardless of the actual location of the phone.
As mobile numbers are given standard geographic numbers according to the North American Numbering Plan,
callers pay the same to reach xed phones and mobile 43.3 Data transmission
phones in a given geographic area. Mobile subscribers
pay for the connection time (typically using in-plan or The GSM standard also provides separate facilities for
prepaid minutes) for both incoming and outgoing calls. transmitting digital data. This allows a mobile phone to
For outgoing calls, any long distance charges are billed as act like any other computer on the Internet, sending and
if they originate at the GMSC, even though it is the vis- receiving data via the Internet Protocol.
iting MSC that completes the connection to the PSTN.
Plans that include nationwide long distance and/or nation- The mobile may also be connected to a desktop computer,
wide roaming at no additional charge over local outgo- laptop, or PDA, for use as a network interface (just like a
modem or Ethernet card, but using one of the GSM data
ing calls are popular.
protocols described below instead of a PSTN-compatible
Mobile networks in Europe, Asia (except Hong Kong, audio channel or an Ethernet link to transmit data). Some
Macau (Macao) and Singapore), Australia & Argentina GSM phones can also be controlled by a standardised
only charge their subscribers for outgoing calls. Incom- Hayes AT command set through a serial cable or a wireing calls are free to the mobile subscriber with the ex- less link (using IRDA or Bluetooth). The AT commands
ception of receiving a call while the subscriber is roam- can control anything from ring tones to data compression
ing as described below. However, callers typically pay a algorithms.
higher rate when calling mobile phones. Special prexes
are used to designate mobile numbers so that callers are In addition to general Internet access, other special seraware they are calling a mobile phone and therefore will vices may be provided by the mobile phone operator, such
as SMS.
be charged a higher rate.
From the callers point of view, it does not matter where
the mobile subscriber is, as the technical process of connecting the call is the same. If a subscriber is roaming on
a dierent companys network, the subscriber, instead of
the caller, may pay a surcharge for the connection time.
International roaming calls are often quite expensive, and
as a result some companies require subscribers to grant
explicit permission to receive calls while roaming to certain countries.
When a subscriber is roaming internationally and a call
is forwarded to his or her voice mail, such as when his
or her phone is o, busy, or not answered, he or she
may actually be charged for two simultaneous international phone callsthe rst to get from the GMSC to the
VMSC and the second to get from the VMSC to the Call
Forward Busy or Call Forward No Reply number (typically the voice mailbox) in the subscribers country. However, some networks GMSCs connect unanswered calls
directly, keeping the voice signal entirely within the home
country and thus avoiding the double charge.
43.3.1 Circuit-switched data protocols

A circuit-switched data connection reserves a certain
amount of bandwidth between two points for the life of
a connection, just as a traditional phone call allocates an
audio channel of a certain quality between two phones for
the duration of the call.
Two circuit-switched data protocols are dened in the
GSM standard: Circuit Switched Data (CSD) and HighSpeed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD). These types of
connections are typically charged on a per-second basis,
regardless of the amount of data sent over the link. This
is because a certain amount of bandwidth is dedicated to
the connection regardless of whether or not it is needed.
Circuit-switched connections do have the advantage of
providing a constant, guaranteed quality of service, which
is useful for real-time applications like video conferencing.
186
43.3.2
CHAPTER 43. GSM SERVICES
General
(GPRS)
Packet
Radio
Service
The General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packetswitched data transmission protocol, which was incorporated into the GSM standard in 1997. It is backwardscompatible with systems that use pre-1997 versions of the
standard. GPRS does this by sending packets to the local
mobile phone mast (BTS) on channels not being used by
circuit-switched voice calls or data connections. Multiple
GPRS users can share a single unused channel because
each of them uses it only for occasional short bursts.
The advantage of packet-switched connections is that
bandwidth is only used when there is actually data to
transmit. This type of connection is thus generally billed
by the kilobyte instead of by the second, and is usually a
cheaper alternative for applications that only need to send
and receive data sporadically, like instant messaging.
GPRS is usually described as a 2.5G technology; see the
main article for more information.
43.3.3
phone.[1] This helps users by preventing bill shock[2]

and reduces the load on the mobile network operator's customer service department. However,
in practice, this service is rarely used because the
calculation is more complex than the standard allows. Instead, some operators oer subscribers
SMS-based balance and call cost notications sent
at predetermined times, such as at the end of every
call.[3][4][5]
Call Hold.
Call Waiting.
Multiparty service.
Calling
Line
tion/restriction.
Identication
presenta-
Closed User Group (CUG).

Explicit Call Transfer (ECT). This service allows
a user who has two calls to connect these two calls together and release its connections to both other parties.
Short Message Service (SMS)
Main article: Short message service

Short Message Service (more commonly known as text
messaging) has become the most used data application
on mobile phones, with 74% of all mobile phone users
worldwide already as active users of SMS, or 2.4 billion
people by the end of 2007.
SMS text messages may be sent by mobile phone users to
other mobile users or external services that accept SMS.
The messages are usually sent from mobile devices via the
Short Message Service Centre using the MAP protocol.
The SMSC is a central routing hubs for Short Messages.
Many mobile service operators use their SMSCs as gateways to external systems, including the Internet, incoming
SMS news feeds, and other mobile operators (often using
the de facto SMPP standard for SMS exchange).
The SMS standard is also used outside of the GSM system; see the main article for details.
43.4 Supplementary Services

See also GSM codes for supplementary services.
43.5 References
[1] ETSI: Advice of Charge (AoC) Supplementary Services Stage 1
[2] Advice of Charge: Simplifying Wireless Data Pricing.
Billing World. Virgo Publishing, LLC. 1 November 2002.
[3] Plans: Pay as you Go. Airvoice Wireless. Retrieved 27
December 2011. You also receive balance notications at
the end of each phone call as well as after sending and receiving messages. To help keep you updated, you will receive an automated recording when your account balance
reaches $2.00 or below, and 5 days before your expiration
date reminding you to rell your account. This message
will be played on your rst outgoing call of the day until you add more airtime or for the last 5 days of service.
Click on the How to Add Funds to My Account tab to
see the original quoted text.
[4] How do I check my giga balance?". Giga. Retrieved 27 December 2011. Balance notications: Your
balance is also automatically displayed on your handset
briey after every chargeable call you make or message
you send.
[5] Advice of Charge. MTN Irancell. Retrieved 23
September 2011. Irancell will itself send you the cost of
the last call and the balance of your airtime.
Call forwarding.
Barring of Outgoing Calls.
Barring of Incoming Calls.
Advice of Charge (AoC). This service estimates
the call cost for display on the users mobile
43.6 External links

GSM Call Flows and Sequence Diagrams Detailed
call ow diagrams describing GSM call setup, location update and handover.

GSM Call Flows and Tutorial Detailed call ow diagrams
GSM Gateway Detailed call ow diagrams
IQSIM European leader in mobile communication
routers
187
Chapter 44
Universal Mobile Telecommunications

System
3GSM redirects here. For the mobile exhibition, see Since 2006, UMTS networks in many countries have
Mobile World Congress.
been or are in the process of being upgraded with HighSpeed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), sometimes
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System known as 3.5G. Currently, HSDPA enables downlink
(UMTS) is a third generation mobile cellular system transfer speeds of up to 21 Mbit/s. Work is also progressfor networks based on the GSM standard. Developed ing on improving the uplink transfer speed with the Highand maintained by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partner- Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA). Longer term, the
ship Project), UMTS is a component of the International 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) project plans to move
Telecommunications Union IMT-2000 standard set and UMTS to 4G speeds of 100 Mbit/s down and 50 Mbit/s
compares with the CDMA2000 standard set for networks up, using a next generation air interface technology based
based on the competing cdmaOne technology. UMTS upon orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing.
uses wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) The rst national consumer UMTS networks launched in
radio access technology to oer greater spectral e- 2002 with a heavy emphasis on telco-provided mobile apciency and bandwidth to mobile network operators.
plications such as mobile TV and video calling. The high
data
speeds of UMTS are now most often utilised for
UMTS species a complete network system, which inInternet
access: experience in Japan and elsewhere has
cludes the radio access network (UMTS Terrestrial Radio
shown
that
user demand for video calls is not high, and
Access Network, or UTRAN), the core network (Mobile
telco-provided
audio/video content has declined in popuApplication Part, or MAP) and the authentication of
larity
in
favour
of high-speed access to the World Wide
users via SIM (subscriber identity module) cards.
Webeither directly on a handset or connected to a comThe technology described in UMTS is sometimes also puter via Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or USB.
referred to as Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access
(FOMA)[1] or 3GSM.
Unlike EDGE (IMT Single-Carrier, based on GSM) and
CDMA2000 (IMT Multi-Carrier), UMTS requires new
base stations and new frequency allocations.
44.2 Technology
Structure of an UMTS network
PSTN
PSTN
ME : Mobile
Equipment
MT/TE
44.1 Features
VLR
1
CS : Circuit
Switched
cell
Nb
Iub
1
4
CS-MGW
1
4
Node B
UE : User
Equipment
UTRAN : Universal Terrestrial

Radio Access Network /
RNS : Radio
Network System
MS : Mobile Station
AN : Access Network
D
HSS
MSC server
H
HLR
AuC
RNC
Cu
USIM
UICC
Mc
IuCS
UMTS supports maximum theoretical data transfer rates

of 42 Mbit/s when Evolved HSPA (HSPA+) is implemented in the network.[2] Users in deployed networks
can expect a transfer rate of up to 384 kbit/s for Release '99 (R99) handsets (the original UMTS release), and
7.2 Mbit/s for High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) handsets in the downlink connection. These speeds
are signicantly faster than the 9.6 kbit/s of a single GSM
error-corrected circuit switched data channel, multiple
9.6 kbit/s channels in High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data
(HSCSD) and 14.4 kbit/s for CDMAOne channels.
GMSC Nc
MSC
Iur
Uu
Gf,Sv
IuPS
SGSN
Gi
GPRS PS :
Packet Switched
Gn
Gc
Gp GGSN
Gd
EIR
SMS-GMSC
PS & CS
CN : Core Network
Internet
UMTS Network Architecture
UMTS combines three dierent air interfaces, GSM's

Mobile Application Part (MAP) core, and the GSM family of speech codecs.
188
44.2. TECHNOLOGY
44.2.1
Air interfaces
UMTS provides several dierent terrestrial air interfaces,

called UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA).[3] All
air interface options are part of ITU's IMT-2000. In the
currently most popular variant for cellular mobile telephones, W-CDMA (IMT Direct Spread) is used.
189
was already used.[5] While UMTS2100 is the most widely
deployed UMTS band, some countries UMTS operators use the 850 MHz and/or 1900 MHz bands (independently, meaning uplink and downlink are within the
same band), notably in the US by AT&T Mobility, New
Zealand by Telecom New Zealand on the XT Mobile Network and in Australia by Telstra on the Next G network.
Some carriers such as T-Mobile use band numbers to
identify the UMTS frequencies. For example, Band I
(2100 MHz), Band IV (1700/2100 MHz), and Band V
(850 MHz).
Please note that the terms W-CDMA, TD-CDMA and

TD-SCDMA are misleading. While they suggest covering just a channel access method (namely a variant of
CDMA), they are actually the common names for the
whole air interface standards.[4]
W-CDMA is a part of IMT-2000 as IMT Direct Spread.
W-CDMA (UTRA-FDD)
TD-CDMA (UTRA-TDD 3.84 Mcps High Chip Rate

(HCR))
Main article: W-CDMA (UMTS)

W-CDMA uses the DS-CDMA channel access method Main article: TD-CDMA
UMTS-TDD's air interfaces that use the TD-CDMA
channel access technique are standardized as UTRATDD HCR, which uses increments of 5 MHz of spectrum, each slice divided into 10ms frames containing fteen time slots (1500 per second).[6] The time slots (TS)
are allocated in xed percentage for downlink and uplink.
TD-CDMA is used to multiplex streams from or to multiple transceivers. Unlike W-CDMA, it does not need separate frequency bands for up- and downstream, allowing
deployment in tight frequency bands.
TD-CDMA is a part of IMT-2000 as IMT CDMA TDD.
TD-SCDMA (UTRA-TDD 1.28 Mcps Low Chip Rate
(LCR))
Main article: TD-SCDMA
TD-SCDMA uses the TDMA channel access method
combined with an adaptive synchronous CDMA
component[7] on 1.6 MHz slices of spectrum, allowing
deployment in even tighter frequency bands than TDCDMA. However, the main incentive for development
of this Chinese-developed standard was avoiding or
UMTS base station on the roof of a building
reducing the license fees that have to be paid to nonwith a pair of 5 MHz wide channels. In contrast, the Chinese patent owners. Unlike the other air interfaces,
competing CDMA2000 system uses one or more avail- TD-SCDMA was not part of UMTS from the beginning
able 1.25 MHz channels for each direction of communi- but has been added in Release 4 of the specication.
cation. W-CDMA systems are widely criticized for their Like TD-CDMA, TD-SCDMA is known as IMT
large spectrum usage, which has delayed deployment in CDMA TDD within IMT-2000.
countries that acted relatively slowly in allocating new frequencies specically for 3G services (such as the United
States).
44.2.2 Radio access network
The specic frequency bands originally dened by the
UMTS standard are 18852025 MHz for the mobile- Main article: UTRAN
to-base (uplink) and 21102200 MHz for the base-tomobile (downlink). In the US, 17101755 MHz and UMTS also species the Universal Terrestrial Radio
21102155 MHz are used instead, as the 1900 MHz band Access Network (UTRAN), which is composed of mul-
190
CHAPTER 44. UNIVERSAL MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
tiple base stations, possibly using dierent terrestrial air The CN can be connected to various backbone networks,
interface standards and frequency bands.
such as the Internet or an Integrated Services Digital NetUMTS and GSM/EDGE can share a Core Network (CN), work (ISDN) telephone network. UMTS (and GERAN)
making UTRAN an alternative radio access network include the three lowest layers of OSI model. The netto GERAN (GSM/EDGE RAN), and allowing (mostly) work layer (OSI 3) includes the Radio Resource Managetransparent switching between the RANs according to ment protocol (RRM) that manages the bearer channels
available coverage and service needs. Because of that, between the mobile terminals and the xed network, inUMTSs and GSM/EDGEs radio access networks are cluding the handovers.
sometimes collectively referred to as UTRAN/GERAN.
UMTS networks are often combined with GSM/EDGE,
the latter of which is also a part of IMT-2000.
44.3 Spectrum allocation
The UE (User Equipment) interface of the RAN (Radio Access Network) primarily consists of RRC (Radio Resource Control), RLC (Radio Link Control) and
MAC (Media Access Control) protocols. RRC protocol handles connection establishment, measurements,
radio bearer services, security and handover decisions.
RLC protocol primarily divides into three Modes
Transparent Mode (TM), Unacknowledge Mode (UM),
Acknowledge Mode (AM). The functionality of AM entity resembles TCP operation whereas UM operation resembles UDP operation. In TM mode, data will be sent to
lower layers without adding any header to SDU of higher
layers. MAC handles the scheduling of data on air interface depending on higher layer (RRC) congured parameters.
Main article: UMTS frequency bands
The set of properties related to data transmission is called

Radio Bearer (RB). This set of properties decides the
maximum allowed data in a TTI (Transmission Time
Interval). RB includes RLC information and RB mapping. RB mapping decides the mapping between RB<>logical channel<->transport channel. Signaling messages are sent on Signaling Radio Bearers (SRBs) and
data packets (either CS or PS) are sent on data RBs. RRC
and NAS messages go on SRBs.
Security includes two procedures: integrity and ciphering. Integrity validates the resource of messages and also
makes sure that no one (third/unknown party) on the radio interface has modied the messages. Ciphering ensures that no one listens to your data on the air interface. Both integrity and ciphering are applied for SRBs
whereas only ciphering is applied for data RBs.
Over 130 licenses have already been awarded to operators worldwide (as of December 2004), specifying WCDMA radio access technology that builds on GSM. In
Europe, the license process occurred at the tail end of
the technology bubble, and the auction mechanisms for
allocation set up in some countries resulted in some extremely high prices being paid for the original 2100 MHz
licenses, notably in the UK and Germany. In Germany,
bidders paid a total 50.8 billion for six licenses, two
of which were subsequently abandoned and written o
by their purchasers (Mobilcom and the Sonera/Telefonica
consortium). It has been suggested that these huge license
fees have the character of a very large tax paid on future
income expected many years down the road. In any event,
the high prices paid put some European telecom operators close to bankruptcy (most notably KPN). Over the
last few years some operators have written o some or
all of the license costs. Between 2007 and 2009, all three
Finnish carriers began to use 900 MHz UMTS in a shared
arrangement with its surrounding 2G GSM base stations
for rural area coverage, a trend that is expected to expand
over Europe in the next 13 years.
The 2100 MHz band (downlink around 2100 MHz and
uplink around 1900 MHz) allocated for UMTS in Europe
and most of Asia is already used in North America. The
1900 MHz range is used for 2G (PCS) services, and 2100
MHz range is used for satellite communications. Regulators have, however, freed up some of the 2100 MHz range
for 3G services, together with a dierent range around
1700 MHz for the uplink.
AT&T Wireless launched UMTS services in the United

States by the end of 2004 strictly using the existing 1900
MHz spectrum allocated for 2G PCS services. Cingular acquired AT&T Wireless in 2004 and has since then
Main article: Mobile Application Part
launched UMTS in select US cities. Cingular renamed
itself AT&T Mobility and is rolling out some cities with
With Mobile Application Part, UMTS uses the same a UMTS network at 850 MHz to enhance its existing
core network standard as GSM/EDGE. This allows a sim- UMTS network at 1900 MHz and now oers subscribers
ple migration for existing GSM operators. However, the a number of dual-band UMTS 850/1900 phones.
migration path to UMTS is still costly: while much of
the core infrastructure is shared with GSM, the cost of T-Mobile's rollout of UMTS in the US focused on the
obtaining new spectrum licenses and overlaying UMTS 1700 MHz band.
In Canada, UMTS coverage is being provided on the 850
at existing towers is high.
44.2.3
Core network
44.4. INTEROPERABILITY AND GLOBAL ROAMING

MHz and 1900 MHz bands on the Rogers and Bell-Telus
networks. Bell and Telus share the network. Recently,
new providers Wind Mobile, Mobilicity and Videotron
have begun operations in the 1700 MHz band.
In 2008, Australian telco Telstra replaced its existing
CDMA network with a national UMTS-based 3G network, branded as NextG, operating in the 850 MHz band.
Telstra currently provides UMTS service on this network, and also on the 2100 MHz UMTS network, through
a co-ownership of the owning and administrating company 3GIS. This company is also co-owned by Hutchison
3G Australia, and this is the primary network used by
their customers. Optus is currently rolling out a 3G network operating on the 2100 MHz band in cities and most
large towns, and the 900 MHz band in regional areas.
Vodafone is also building a 3G network using the 900
MHz band.
191
are now 11 dierent frequency combinations used around
the worldincluding frequencies formerly used solely for
2G services.
UMTS phones can use a Universal Subscriber Identity
Module, USIM (based on GSMs SIM) and also work (including UMTS services) with GSM SIM cards. This is a
global standard of identication, and enables a network
to identify and authenticate the (U)SIM in the phone.
Roaming agreements between networks allow for calls to
a customer to be redirected to them while roaming and
determine the services (and prices) available to the user.
In addition to user subscriber information and authentication information, the (U)SIM provides storage space
for phone book contact. Handsets can store their data
on their own memory or on the (U)SIM card (which is
usually more limited in its phone book contact information). A (U)SIM can be moved to another UMTS or GSM
phone, and the phone will take on the user details of the
(U)SIM, meaning it is the (U)SIM (not the phone) which
determines the phone number of the phone and the billing
for calls made from the phone.
In India, BSNL has started its 3G services since October

2009, beginning with the larger cities and then expanding over to smaller cities. The 850 MHz and 900 MHz
bands provide greater coverage compared to equivalent
1700/1900/2100 MHz networks, and are best suited to Japan was the rst country to adopt 3G technologies,
regional areas where greater distances separate base sta- and since they had not used GSM previously they had
tion and subscriber.
no need to build GSM compatibility into their handsets
Carriers in South America are now also rolling out 850 and their 3G handsets were smaller than those available
elsewhere. In 2002, NTT DoCoMo's FOMA 3G netMHz networks.
work was the rst commercial UMTS networkusing a
pre-release specication,[8] it was initially incompatible
with the UMTS standard at the radio level but used stan44.4 Interoperability and global dard USIM cards, meaning USIM card based roaming
was possible (transferring the USIM card into a UMTS
roaming
or GSM phone when travelling). Both NTT DoCoMo
and SoftBank Mobile (which launched 3G in December
UMTS phones (and data cards) are highly portablethey 2002) now use standard UMTS.
have been designed to roam easily onto other UMTS
networks (if the providers have roaming agreements
44.4.1
in place). In addition, almost all UMTS phones are
UMTS/GSM dual-mode devices, so if a UMTS phone
travels outside of UMTS coverage during a call the call
may be transparently handed o to available GSM coverage. Roaming charges are usually signicantly higher
than regular usage charges.
Most UMTS licensees consider ubiquitous, transparent
global roaming an important issue. To enable a high degree of interoperability, UMTS phones usually support
several dierent frequencies in addition to their GSM
fallback. Dierent countries support dierent UMTS
frequency bands Europe initially used 2100 MHz while
the most carriers in the USA use 850 MHz and 1900
MHz. T-Mobile has launched a network in the US operating at 1700 MHz (uplink) /2100 MHz (downlink), and
these bands also have been adopted elsewhere in the US
and in Canada and Latin America. A UMTS phone and
network must support a common frequency to work together. Because of the frequencies used, early models
of UMTS phones designated for the United States will
likely not be operable elsewhere and vice versa. There
Handsets and modems
The Nokia 6650, an early (2003) UMTS handset
All of the major 2G phone manufacturers (that are still in

business) are now manufacturers of 3G phones. The early
3G handsets and modems were specic to the frequen-
192
cies required in their country, which meant they could

only roam to other countries on the same 3G frequency
(though they can fall back to the older GSM standard).
Canada and USA have a common share of frequencies,
as do most European countries. The article UMTS frequency bands is an overview of UMTS network frequencies around the world.
as a complement for rural areas. This is facilitated by the

fact that GSM/EDGE and UMTS specication are jointly
developed and rely on the same core network, allowing
dual-mode operation including vertical handovers.
Chinas TD-SCDMA standard is often seen as a competitor, too. TD-SCDMA has been added to UMTS'
Release 4 as UTRA-TDD 1.28 Mcps Low Chip Rate
(UTRA-TDD LCR). Unlike TD-CDMA (UTRA-TDD
3.84 Mcps High Chip Rate, UTRA-TDD HCR) which
complements W-CDMA (UTRA-FDD), it is suitable for
both micro and macro cells. However, the lack of vendors support is preventing it from being a real competitor.
Using a cellular router, PCMCIA or USB card, customers

are able to access 3G broadband services, regardless of
their choice of computer (such as a tablet PC or a PDA).
Some software installs itself from the modem, so that in
some cases absolutely no knowledge of technology is required to get online in moments. Using a phone that supports 3G and Bluetooth 2.0, multiple Bluetooth-capable While DECT is technically capable of competing with
laptops can be connected to the Internet. Some smart- UMTS and other cellular networks in densely populated,
phones can also act as a mobile WLAN access point.
urban areas, it has only been deployed for domestic cordThere are very few 3G phones or modems less phones and private in-house networks.
available
supporting
all
3G
frequencies All of these competitors have been accepted by ITU as
(UMTS850/900/1700/1900/2100 MHz).
Nokia part of the IMT-2000 family of 3G standards, along with
has recently released a range of phones that have UMTS-FDD.
Pentaband 3G coverage, including the N8 and E7.
Many other phones are oering more than one band On the Internet access side, competing systems include
which still enables extensive roaming. For example, WiMAX and Flash-OFDM.
Apples iPhone 4 contains a quadband chipset operating
on 850/900/1900/2100 MHz, allowing usage in the
majority of countries where UMTS-FDD is deployed.
44.6 Migrating from GSM/GPRS
to UMTS
44.5 Other competing standards
From a GSM/GPRS network, the following network elements can be reused:
The main competitor to UMTS is CDMA2000 (IMT Home Location Register (HLR)
MC), which is developed by the 3GPP2. Unlike UMTS,
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
CDMA2000 is an evolutionary upgrade to an existing
2G standard, cdmaOne, and is able to operate within the
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
same frequency allocations. This and CDMA2000s narrower bandwidth requirements make it easier to deploy
Mobile Switching Center (MSC) (vendor depenin existing spectra. In some, but not all, cases, existdent)
ing GSM operators only have enough spectrum to imple Authentication Center (AUC)
ment either UMTS or GSM, not both. For example, in
the US D, E, and F PCS spectrum blocks, the amount of
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) (vendor despectrum available is 5 MHz in each direction. A stanpendent)
dard UMTS system would saturate that spectrum. Where
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
CDMA2000 is deployed, it usually co-exists with UMTS.
In many markets however, the co-existence issue is of little relevance, as legislative hurdles exist to co-deploying From a GSM/GPRS communication radio network, the
following elements cannot be reused:
two standards in the same licensed slice of spectrum.
Another competitor to UMTS is EDGE (IMT-SC), which
is an evolutionary upgrade to the 2G GSM system, leveraging existing GSM spectrums. It is also much easier,
quicker, and considerably cheaper for wireless carriers to
bolt-on EDGE functionality by upgrading their existing GSM transmission hardware to support EDGE rather
than having to install almost all brand-new equipment to
deliver UMTS. However, being developed by 3GPP just
as UMTS, EDGE is not a true competitor. Instead, it is
used as a temporary solution preceding UMTS roll-out or
Base station controller (BSC)

Base transceiver station (BTS)
They can remain in the network and be used in dual network operation where 2G and 3G networks co-exist while
network migration and new 3G terminals become available for use in the network.
The UMTS network introduces new network elements
that function as specied by 3GPP:
44.8. RELEASES
Node B (base transceiver station)
Radio Network Controller (RNC)
Media Gateway (MGW)
193
Even with current technologies and low-band UMTS,
telephony and data over UMTS requires more power
than on comparable GSM networks. Apple Inc. cited[9]
UMTS power consumption as the reason that the rst generation iPhone only supported EDGE. Their release of
the iPhone 3G quotes talk time on UMTS as half that
available when the handset is set to use GSM. Other manufacturers indicate dierent battery lifetime for UMTS
mode compared to GSM mode as well. As battery and
network technology improve, this issue is diminishing.
The functionality of MSC and SGSN changes when going to UMTS. In a GSM system the MSC handles all
the circuit switched operations like connecting A- and Bsubscriber through the network. SGSN handles all the
packet switched operations and transfers all the data in the
network. In UMTS the Media gateway (MGW) take care
of all data transfer in both circuit and packet switched net44.7.1 Security issues
works. MSC and SGSN control MGW operations. The
nodes are renamed to MSC-server and GSN-server.
As early as 2008 it was known that carrier networks
can be used to surreptitiously gather user location
information.[10] In August 2014, the Washington Post re44.7 Problems and issues
ported on widespread marketing of surveillance systems
using Signalling System No. 7 (SS7) protocols to locate
Some countries, including the United States, have allo- callers anywhere in the world.[10]
cated spectrum dierently from the ITU recommendaIn December 2014, news broke that SS7s very own functions, so that the standard bands most commonly used
tions can be repurposed for surveillance, because of its
for UMTS (UMTS-2100) have not been available. In
lax security, in order to listen to calls in real time or to
those countries, alternative bands are used, preventing
record encrypted calls and texts for later decryption,or to
the interoperability of existing UMTS-2100 equipment,
defraud users and cellular carriers.[11]
and requiring the design and manufacture of dierent
equipment for the use in these markets. As is the case The German Telekom and Vodafone declared the same
with GSM900 today, standard UMTS 2100 MHz equip- day that they had xed gaps in their networks, but that the
ment will not work in those markets. However, it ap- problem is global and can only be xed with a telecompears as though UMTS is not suering as much from munication system-wide solution.[12]
handset band compatibility issues as GSM did, as many
UMTS handsets are multi-band in both UMTS and GSM
modes. Penta-band (850, 900, 1700 / 2100, and 1900 44.8 Releases
MHz bands), quad-band GSM (850, 900, 1800, and 1900
MHz bands) and tri-band UMTS (850, 1900, and 2100
The evolution of UMTS progresses according to planned
MHz bands) handsets are becoming more commonplace.
releases. Each release is designed to introduce new feaIn its early days, UMTS had problems in many countries: tures and improve upon existing ones.
Overweight handsets with poor battery life were rst to
arrive on a market highly sensitive to weight and form factor. The Motorola A830, a debut handset on Hutchisons 44.8.1 Release '99
3 network, weighed more than 200 grams and even fea Bearer services
tured a detachable camera to reduce handset weight. Another signicant issue involved call reliability, related to
64 kbit/s circuit switch
problems with handover from UMTS to GSM. Customers
found their connections being dropped as handovers were
384 kbit/s packet switched
possible only in one direction (UMTS GSM), with the
Location services
handset only changing back to UMTS after hanging up.
In most networks around the world this is no longer an
Call service: compatible with Global System
issue.
for Mobile Communications (GSM), based on
Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM)
Compared to GSM, UMTS networks initially required a
higher base station density. For fully-edged UMTS in Voice quality features Tandem Free Operation
corporating video on demand features, one base station
needed to be set up every 11.5 km (0.620.93 mi). This
was the case when only the 2100 MHz band was being
44.8.2 Release 4
used, however with the growing use of lower-frequency
bands (such as 850 and 900 MHz) this is no longer so.
Edge radio
This has led to increasing rollout of the lower-band net Multimedia messaging
works by operators since 2006.
194
MExE (Mobile Execution Environment)
44.9 See also
Improved location services
List of Deployed UMTS networks
IP Multimedia Services (IMS)
3G
TD-SCDMA (UTRA-TDD 1.28 Mcps low chip

rate)
44.8.3
Release 5
3GPP: the body that manages the UMTS standard.

3GPP Long Term Evolution, the 3GPP project to
evolve UMTS towards 4G capabilities.
GAN/UMA: A standard for running GSM and
UMTS over wireless LANs.
IPv6, IP transport in UTRAN
Opportunity Driven Multiple Access, ODMA: a

UMTS TDD mode communications relaying protocol
Improvements in GERAN, MExE, etc.
HSDPA, HSUPA: updates to the W-CDMA air interface.
HSDPA
PDCP
IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)
Subscriber Identity Module
44.8.4
Release 6
WLAN integration
UMTS-TDD: a variant of UMTS largely used to

provide wireless Internet service.
Multimedia broadcast and multicast
UMTS channels
Improvements in IMS
W-CDMA: the primary air interface standard used

by UMTS.
HSUPA
Fractional DPCH
44.8.5
Release 7
W-CDMA 2100
TD-SCDMA
Other, non-UMTS, 3G and 4G standards
Enhanced L2
CDMA2000: evolved from cdmaOne (also known

as IS-95 or CDMA), managed by the 3GPP2
64 QAM, MIMO
FOMA
Voice over HSPA
WiMAX: a newly emerging wide area wireless technology.
CPC continuous packet connectivity
GSM
FRLC Flexible RLC
GPRS
EDGE
44.8.6
Release 8
Dual-Cell HSDPA
ETSI
Other information
Mobile modem
44.8.7
Release 9
Dual-Cell HSUPA

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
195
Common pilot channel or CPICH, a simple synchro- [11] Craig Timberg (18 December 2014). German researchers discover a aw that could let anyone listen to
nisation channel in WCDMA.
Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) is the major issue of multiple antenna research.
Wi-Fi: a local area wireless technology that is complementary to UMTS.
Radio Network Controller

UMTS security
Huawei SingleRAN: a RAN technology allowing
migration from GSM to UMTS or simultaneous use
of both.
44.10 Notes
Martin Sauter: Communication Systems for the Mobile Information Society, John Wiley, September
2006, ISBN 0-470-02676-6
Ahonen and Barrett (editors), Services for UMTS
(Wiley, 2002) rst book on the services for 3G,
ISBN 978-0-471-48550-6
Holma and Toskala (editors), WCDMA for UMTS,
(Wiley, 2000) rst book dedicated to 3G technology, ISBN 978-0-471-72051-5
Kreher and Ruedebusch, UMTS Signaling: UMTS
Interfaces, Protocols, Message Flows and Procedures
Analyzed and Explained (Wiley 2007), ISBN 9780-470-06533-4
44.11 References
Citations
[1] Draft summary minutes, decisions and actions from

3GPP Organizational Partners Meeting#6, Tokyo, 9 October 2001 (PDF). 3GPP. p. 7.
[2] Tindal, Suzanne (8 December 2008). Telstra boosts Next
G to 21Mbps. ZDNet Australia. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
[3] 3GNewsroom.com (2003-11-29).
UTRA. Retrieved 2009-02-16.
[12] Peter Onneken (18 December 2014). Sicherheitslcken

im UMTS-Netz. Tagesschau (in German) (ARD-aktuell
/ tagesschau.de). Retrieved 20 December 2014.
44.11.2 Bibliography
Operations and Maintenance Centre
44.11.1
your cell calls.. The Switch- Washington Post (Washington Post). Retrieved 20 December 2014.
Laiho, Wacker and Novosad, Radio Network Planning and Optimization for UMTS (Wiley, 2002) rst
book on radio network planning for 3G, ISBN 9780-470-01575-9
3G Glossary
3GPP Specications Numbering Schemes
pp. 4, 2528. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
Vocabulary for 3GPP Specications, up to Release

8
[5] The FCCs Advanced Wireless Services bandplan
UMTS FAQ on UMTS World

Worldwide W-CDMA frequency allocations on

UMTS World
[7] Siemens (2004-06-10). TD-SCDMA Whitepaper: the

Solution for TDD bands (pdf). TD Forum. pp. 69.
[8] Hsiao-Hwa Chen (2007), The Next Generation CDMA
Technologies, John Wiley and Sons, pp. 105106, ISBN
978-0-470-02294-8
[9] iPhone 'Surng' On AT&T Network Isn't Fast, Jobs Concedes
[10] Craig Timberg (24 August 2014). For sale: Systems that
can secretly track where cellphone users go around the
globe. Washington Post. Retrieved 20 December 2014.
UMTS LTE Link Budget Comparison
UMTS TDD Alliance The Global UMTS TDD Alliance

3GSM World Congress
UMTS Provider Chart
LTE Encyclopedia
Chapter 45
iDEN
For other uses, see Iden (disambiguation).
MHz, 45 MHz, or 48 MHz depending on the frequency

band being used.[2]
Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN) is a

mobile telecommunications technology, developed by
Motorola, which provides its users the benets of a
trunked radio and a cellular telephone. It has been called
the rst mobile social network by technology industry
analysts.[1] iDEN places more users in a given spectral
space, compared to analog cellular and two-way radio
systems, by using speech compression and time division
multiple access (TDMA).
iDEN supports either three or six interconnect users

(phone users) per channel, and six dispatch users (pushto-talk users) per channel, using time division multiple
access. The transmit and receive time slots assigned to
each user are deliberately oset in time so that a single
user never needs to transmit and receive at the same time.
This eliminates the need for a duplexer at the mobile end,
since time-division duplexing of RF section usage can be
performed.
45.1 History
45.3 Hardware
The iDEN project originally began as MIRS (Motorola

Integrated Radio System) in early 1991. The project was
a software lab experiment focused on the utilization of
discontiguous spectrum for GSM wireless. GSM systems
typically require 24 contiguous voice channels, but the
original MIRS software platform dynamically selected
fragmented channels in the radio frequency (RF) spectrum in such a way that a GSM telecom switch could commence a phone call the same as it would in the contiguous channel scenario. The original MIRS System was renamed IDEN in 1994 by Roger Cameron Wood, a young
engineering program manager leading the product development eort who also gave the handsets their distinctive
industrial design, group software features, and chirp audio.
The rst commercial iDEN handset was Motorolas

L3000, which was released in 1994. Lingo, which stands
for Link People on the Go, was used as a logo for its
earlier handsets. Most modern iDEN handsets use SIM
cards, similar to, but incompatible with GSM handsets
SIM cards. Early iDEN models such as the i1000plus
stored all subscriber information inside the handset itself, requiring the data to be downloaded and transferred should the subscriber want to switch handsets.
Newer handsets using SIM technology make upgrading
or changing handsets as easy as swapping the SIM card.
Four dierent sized SIM cards exist, Endeavor SIMs
are used only with the i2000 without data, Condor SIMs
are used with the two-digit models (i95cl, for example)
using a SIM with less memory than the three-digit models (i730, i860), Falcon SIMs are used in the three-digit
phones, (i530, i710) and will read the smaller SIM for
45.2 Operating frequencies
backward compatibility, but some advanced features such
as extra contact information is not supported by the older
iDEN is designed and licensed to operate on individual SIM cards. There is also the Falcon 128 SIM, which is
frequencies that may not be contiguous. iDEN operates the same as the original Falcon, but doubled in memory
on 25 kHz channels, but only occupies 20 kHz in order size, which is used on new 3 digit phones (i560, i930).
to provide interference protection via guard bands. By
comparison, TDMA Cellular (Digital AMPS) is licensed The interconnect-side of the iDEN network uses GSM
in blocks of 30 kHz channels, but each emission occupies signalling for call set-up and mobility management, with
40 kHz, and is capable of serving the same number of the Abis protocol stack modied to support iDENs addisubscribers per channel as iDEN. iDEN uses frequency- tional features. Motorola has named this modied stack
division duplexing to transmit and receive signals sepa- 'Mobis.
rately, with transmit and receive bands separated by 39 Each base site requires precise timing and location infor196
197
45.7 External links

Motorola iDEN phones
List of iDEN providers globally
List of Urban ID codes
iDEN base radio at a cell site
mation to synchronize data across the network. To obtain

and maintain this information each base site uses global
positioning system satellites to receive a precise timing
reference .
45.4 Operators
In the United States of America there are a few iDEN
service providers, SouthernLINC Wireless and several
small public and private iDEN service providers. Numerous private systems exist, including one run by ARINC,
covering all major airports. Countries which have
operating iDEN networks include Canada, Argentina,
Peru, Mexico, Brazil, Jordan, Chile, Israel, Philippines,
Singapore, Saudi Arabia, Japan, El Salvador, China and
most recently India and Guatemala.
Sprint Nextel provided iDEN service across the United
States, but its iDEN network was decommissioned on
June 30, 2013.
45.4.1
iDEN network operators
45.5 See also

Motorola iDEN phone models
Push to Talk over Cellular
Radio Service Software
WiDEN
45.6 References
[1] Lawson, Stephen (December 7, 2010). Sprints iDEN
nally headed for sign-o. Computerworld.com. Retrieved 5 September 2012.
[2] Motorola iDEN Technical Overview
Chapter 46
Satellite phone
to a regular mobile phone while some prototype satellite
phones have no distinguishable dierence from an ordinary smartphone.[1][2] Satphones are popular on expeditions into remote areas where terrestrial cellular service
is unavailable.
A xed installation, such as one used aboard a ship, may
include large, rugged, rack-mounted electronics, and a
steerable microwave antenna on the mast that automatically tracks the overhead satellites. Smaller installations
using VoIP over a two-way satellite broadband service
such as BGAN or VSAT bring the costs within the reach
of leisure vessel owners. Internet service satellite phones
have notoriously poor reception indoors, though it may be
possible to get a consistent signal near a window or in the
top oor of a building if the roof is suciently thin. The
phones have connectors for external antennas that can be
installed in vehicles and buildings. The systems also allow for the use of repeaters, much like terrestrial mobile
phone systems.
46.1 Satellite phone network

46.1.1 Geosynchronous satellites
Satellite phone (Inmarsat)
A satellite telephone, satellite phone, or satphone is a

type of mobile phone that connects to orbiting satellites
instead of terrestrial cell sites. They provide similar
functionality to terrestrial mobile telephones; voice, short
messaging service and low-bandwidth internet access are
supported through most systems.
Depending on the architecture of a particular system,
coverage may include the entire Earth, or only specic
regions.
Some satellite phones use satellites in geostationary orbit,

which are meant to remain in a xed position in the sky.
These systems can maintain near-continuous global coverage with only three or four satellites (with six satellites
for redundancy), reducing the launch costs. The satellites
used for these systems are very heavy (approx. 5000 kg)
and expensive to build and launch. The satellites sit at
an altitude of 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi); a noticeable delay is present while making a phone call or using
data services due to the large distance from users. The
amount of bandwidth available on these systems is substantially higher than that of the Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
systems; all three active systems provide portable satellite
Internet using laptop-sized terminals with speeds ranging
from 60 to 512 kbit per second (kbps).
The mobile equipment, also known as a terminal, varies

widely. Early satellite phone handsets had a size and
weight comparable to that of a late-1980s or early- Geostationary satellites have a limitation of use in lati1990s mobile phone, but usually with a large retractable tude, generally 70 degrees north of the equator to 70 deantenna. More recent satellite phones are similar in size grees south of the equator. This is a result of look an198
46.2. COUNTRIES WITH BANS OR RESTRICTIONS ON USE OF SATELLITE PHONES

gles being so low on the horizon increasing the chances
of terrestrial and other interference from sources in the
same frequency bands. Also in many areaseven where
a large amount of open sky is presentthe line-of-sight
between the phone and the satellite is broken by obstacles
such as steep hills and forest. The user will need to nd
an area with line-of-sight before using the phone. Making the geostationary satellites more suitable for a xed
location than a mobile location.
ACeS: This regional operator provides voice and
data services in East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast
Asia using a single satellite.
Inmarsat: The oldest satellite phone operator,
founded in 1979. It originally provided large xed
installations for ships, but has recently entered the
market of hand-held phones in a joint venture with
ACeS. The company operates eleven satellites. Coverage is available on most of the Earth, except polar
regions.
Thuraya: Established in 1997, Thurayas satellites
provide coverage across Europe, Africa, the Middle
East, Asia and Australia.
199
for a fraction of their original cost, and are now both

planning to launch replacement constellations supporting
higher bandwidth. Data speeds for current networks are
between 2200 bit/s and 9600 bit/s using a satellite handset.
Globalstar: A network covering most of the worlds
landmass using 44 active satellites. However, many
areas are left without coverage since a satellite must
be in range of an earth station. Satellites y in an
inclined orbit of 52 degrees, so polar regions cannot
be covered. The network went into limited commercial service at the end of 1999 .
Iridium: A network operating 66 satellites in a polar
orbit that claims coverage everywhere on Earth.
Commercial service started in November 1998 and
fell into Chapter 11 bankruptcy in August 1999.[4]
In 2001, service was re-established by Iridium Satellite LLC. Radio cross-links are used between satellites to relay data to the nearest satellite with a connection to an earth station.
Tracking
MSAT / SkyTerra: An American satellite phone
company that uses equipment similar to Inmarsat, LEO systems have the ability to track a mobile units locabut plans to launch a service using hand-held devices tion using doppler shift calculations from the satellite.[5]
However, this method can be inaccurate by tens of kiloin the Americas similar to Thurayas.
meters. On some Iridium hardware the coordinates can
Terrestar: Satellite phone system for North America be extracted using AT commands, while recent Global[6]
ICO Global Communications: A satellite phone star handsets will display them on the screen.
company which has launched a single geosynchronous satellite which is not yet active.
46.1.2
Low Earth orbit
LEO telephones utilize LEO (low Earth orbit) satellite

technology. The advantages include providing worldwide
wireless coverage with no gaps. LEO satellites orbit the
earth in high speed, low altitude orbits with an orbital time
of 70100 minutes, an altitude of 640 to 1120 kilometers
(400 to 700 miles), and provide coverage cells of about
(at a 100-minute orbital period) 2800 km in radius (about
1740 mi). Since the satellites are not geostationary, they
move with respect to the ground. At least one satellite
must have line-of-sight to every coverage area at all times
to guarantee coverage. Depending on the positions of
both the satellite and terminal, a usable pass of an individual LEO satellite will typically last 415 minutes on
average;[3] thus, a constellation of satellites is required to
maintain coverage (as is done with Iridium, Globalstar,
and others).
Two such systems, both based in the United States started
in the late 1990s but soon went into bankruptcy after failing to gain enough subscribers to fund launch costs. They
are now operated by new owners who bought the assets
46.2 Countries with bans or restrictions on use of satellite

phones
In some countries, possession of a satellite phone is
illegal.[7] Their signals will usually bypass local telecoms
systems, therefore avoiding both local telecommunication
companies and authorities. Some of these countries are:
Burma[8]
Cuba[9][10]
India - Only Inmarsat service permitted. International Long Distance(ILD) licence and No Objection Certicate (NOC) issued by Indian Department of Telecommunications (DOT) is mandatory for satellite communication services on Indian territory.[11][12][13][14] Import and operation of
all other satellite services, including Thuraya &
Iridium, is illegal.[15]
North Korea
200
CHAPTER 46. SATELLITE PHONE
Russia - In 2012, new regulations governing the use

of satellite phones inside Russia or its territories
were developed to ght crime by enabling the Russian government to intercept calls.[16] These regulations allow non-Russian visitors to register their
SIM cards for use within Russian territory for up to
6 months.
Satellite phones are legal in most countries. In Australia,
residents of remote areas may apply for a government
subsidy for a satellite phone.[17]
46.3 Security concerns

Satphones on display
All modern satellite phone networks encrypt voice trac

to prevent eavesdropping. In 2012, a team of academic
security researchers reverse-engineered the two major
proprietary encryption algorithms in use.[18] One algorithm (used in GMR-1 phones) is a variant of the A5/2 algorithm used in GSM (used in common mobile phones),
and both are vulnerable to cipher-text only attacks. The
GMR-2 standard introduced a new encryption algorithm
which the same research team also cryptanalysed successfully. Thus satellite phones are not recommended for
high-security applications.
46.4 One-way services
US dollars.[20][21] These phones provide broadband

Internet and voice communications. Satellite phones
are sometimes subsidised by the provider if one signs a
post-paid contract but subsidies are usually only a few
hundred US dollars or less.
Since most satellite phones are built under license or the
manufacturing of handsets is contracted out to OEMs,
operators have a large inuence over the selling price.
Satellite networks operate under proprietary protocols,
making it dicult for manufacturers to independently
make handsets.
Some satellite phone networks provide a one-way paging

channel to alert users in poor coverage areas (such as in46.6 Virtual country codes
doors) of the incoming call. When the alert is received on
the satellite phone it must be taken to an area with better
coverage before the call can be accepted.
See also:
Global Mobile Satellite System and
International
Networks
(country code)
Globalstar provides a one-way data uplink service, typically used for asset tracking.
Iridium operates a one-way pager service as well as the Satellite phones are usually issued with numbers in a special country calling code.
call alert feature.
Inmarsat satellite phones are issued with codes +870. In
the past, additional country codes were allocated to different satellites, but the codes +871 to +874 were phased
46.5 Cost of a satellite phone
out at the end of 2008 leaving Inmarsat users with the
of which satellite their terWhile it is possible to obtain used handsets for the Thu- same country code, regardless
[22]
minal
is
registered
with.
raya, Iridium, and Globalstar networks for approximately
US$200, the newest handsets are quite expensive. The
Iridium 9505A, released in 2001, sold in March 2010 for
over US$1,000.[19] Satellite phones are purpose-built for
one particular network and cannot be switched to other
networks, the price of handsets varies with network performance. If a satellite phone provider encounters trouble with its network, handset prices will fall, then increase once new satellites are launched. Similarly, handset prices will increase when calling rates are reduced.
Low earth orbit systems including some of the defunct ones have been allocated number ranges in the
International Telecommunications Union's Global Mobile Satellite System virtual country code +881. Iridium
satellite phones are issued with codes +881 6 and +881
7. Globalstar, although allocated +881 8 and +881 9 use
U.S. telephone numbers except for service resellers located in Brazil which use the +881 range.
Regional satellite phone networks are allocated numbers

Among the most expensive satellite phones are in the +882 code designated for "international networks"
BGAN terminals, often costing several thousand which is not used exclusively for satellite phone networks.
46.10. REFERENCES
46.7 Calling cost
201
Globalstar
Thuraya
The cost of making voice calls from a satellite phone
varies from around $0.15 to $2 per minute, while call Inmarsat
ing them from landlines and regular mobile phones is
Iridium Communications
more expensive. Costs for data transmissions (particularly broadband data) can be much higher. Rates from
landlines and mobile phones range from $3 to $14 per
minute with Iridium, Thuraya[23] and INMARSAT being 46.10 References
some of the most expensive networks to call. The receiver
of the call pays nothing, unless they are being called via Notes
a special reverse-charge service.
Making calls between dierent satellite phone networks is
often similarly expensive, with calling rates of up to $15
per minute.
Calls from satellite phones to landlines are usually around
$0.80 to $1.50 per minute unless special oers are used.
Such promotions are usually bound to a particular geographic area where trac is low.
[1] New Satellite Phone Runs Windows Mobile. Gearlog.

[2] CTIA 2008: MSV Makes Lost Satellite Phone Real.
Gearlog.
[3] Delay/Disruption-Tolerant Network Testing Using a
LEO Satellite (PDF). NASA.
Most satellite phone networks have pre-paid plans, with

vouchers ranging from $100 to $5,000.
[4] Jaejoo Lim, Richard Klein, Jason Thatcher (2005).

Good technology, bad management: A case study of the
satellite phone industry (PDF). Journal of Information
Technology Management (Association of Management)
XVI (2). ISSN 1042-1319.
46.8 Use in disaster response
[5]
See also: Cascading failure
[6] Globalstar GSP-1700 manual (PDF). Retrieved August

1, 2009.
[7] Hossain, Moazzem (September 24, 2002). Bangladesh
Most mobile telephone networks operate close to capacjails Indian rebel chief. BBC. Retrieved January 4, 2010.
ity during normal times, and large spikes in call volumes caused by widespread emergencies often overload [8] Dobie, Michael (September 28, 2007). Junta tightens
media screw. BBC. Retrieved January 4, 2010.
the systems when they are needed most. Examples reported in the media where this has occurred include [9] http://www.aduana.co.cu/index.php?option=com_
the 1999 zmit earthquake, the September 11 event, the
content&view=article&id=15&Itemid=61&lang=en
2006 Hawaii earthquake, the 2003 Northeast blackouts,
Hurricane Katrina,[24] the 2007 Minnesota bridge col- [10] Alan Gross
lapse, the 2010 Chile earthquake, and the 2010 Haiti
[11] http://www.trai.gov.in/Content/ReDis/526_83.aspx
Earthquake. Reporters and journalists have also been using satellite phones to communicate and report on events [12] http://www.dot.gov.in/carrier-services/
in war zones such as Iraq.
restrictions-use-satellite-phone
Terrestrial cell antennas and networks can be damaged by [13] http://www.dot.gov.in/carrier-services/inmarsat
natural disasters. Satellite telephony can avoid this problem and be useful during natural disasters. Satellite phone [14] http://www.intmsearch.gov.in/bimonthly/2015/01%
20of%202015.pdf
networks themselves are prone to congestion as satellites
and spot beams cover a large area with relatively few voice [15] http://www.cbec.gov.in/customs/cs-circulars/
channels.
cs-circulars10/circ37-2k10-cus.htm
46.9 See also

Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN)
Satellite internet
Telecommunications
Leaf Consulting
[16] http://www.outfittersatellite.com/blog/inmarsat-bgan/
satellite-phones-russia-iridium.html
[17] The Satellite Phone Subsidy Scheme. Dbcde.gov.au.
Retrieved April 7, 2011.
[18] Benedikt Driessen, Ralf Hund, Carsten Willems, Christof
Paar, Thorsten Holz (2012). Dont Trust Satellite
Phones: A Security Analysis of Two Satphone Standards
(PDF). 2012 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy.
202
CHAPTER 46. SATELLITE PHONE
[19] Satellite Phone Rentals and Sales. Allroadcommunications.com. Retrieved April 7, 2011.
[20] BlueCosmo BGAN Pricing.
trieved April 7, 2011.
Bluecosmo.com.
Re-
[21] TS2 BGAN Pricing.

[22] Dialling codes - customer support. Inmarsat. Retrieved
April 7, 2011.
[23] Thuraya - Thuraya Satellite Phones
[24] Prepare for the Hurricane Season with Satellite Phones Preparing for Hurricane Season with Satellite Phones

University of Surrey pages with information on
some satellite systems, including currently planned,
and defunct proposals such as Teledesic. (noncommercial)
NASAs Teledesic quicklook
Satellite Phone FAQ (satellite phone services and
equipment reviews, non-commercial)
Satellite mobile system architecture(technical)
Chapter 47
Smartphone
Smartphones redirects here. For the song by Trey
Songz, see SmartPhones (song).
A smartphone (or smart phone) is a mobile phone with
iPhone 5s running iOS
a touchscreen user interface, can run third-party apps,

music players and are camera phones. Most Smartphones
produced from 2012 onwards also have high-speed mobile broadband 4G LTE internet, motion sensors, and
mobile payment mechanisms.
In 2014, sales of smartphones worldwide topped 1.2 billion, which was up 28% from 2013.[4]
47.1 History
47.1.1 Early years
An Asus ZenFone 6 running Android
an advanced mobile operating system which combines

features of a personal computer operating system with
other features useful for mobile or handheld use.[1][2][3]
They typically combine the features of a cell phone with
those of other popular mobile devices, such as personal
digital assistant (PDA), media player and GPS navigation unit. Most smartphones can access the Internet, have The rst caller identication receiver (1971)
203
204
CHAPTER 47. SMARTPHONE
Devices that combined telephony and computing were

rst conceptualized by Theodore Paraskevakos in 1971
and patented in 1974, and were oered for sale beginning in 1993. He was the rst to introduce the concepts of intelligence, data processing and visual display
screens into telephones which gave rise to the smartphone. In 1971, Paraskevakos, working with Boeing
in Huntsville, Alabama, demonstrated a transmitter and
receiver that provided additional ways to communicate
with remote equipment, however it did not yet have general purpose PDA applications in a wireless device typical of smartphones. They were installed at Peoples Telephone Company in Leesburg, Alabama and were demonstrated to several telephone companies. The original and
historic working models are still in the possession of
Paraskevakos.[5]
A rened version of the product was marketed to consumers in 1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator. The Simon was the rst cellular
device that can be properly referred to as a smartphone,
although it was not called that in 1994.[7][8][9] In addition
to its ability to make and receive cellular phone calls, Simon was able to send and receive faxes and emails and
included several other apps like address book, calendar,
appointment scheduler, calculator, world time clock, and
note pad through its touch screen display. Simon is the
rst smartphone to be incorporated with the features of a
PDA.[10]
47.1.2
47.1.3 PDAs
Forerunner
The term smart phone rst appeared in print in 1995,

for describing AT&Ts PhoneWriter Communicator as
a smart phone.[11]
Main article: Personal digital assistant

In the late 1990s, many mobile phone users carried a
separate dedicated PDA device, running early versions
of operating systems such as Palm OS, BlackBerry OS
or Windows CE/Pocket PC.[1] These operating systems
would later evolve into mobile operating systems.
In March 1996, Hewlett-Packard released the OmniGo
700LX, which was a modied 200LX PDA that supported a Nokia 2110-compatible phone and had integrated software built in ROM to support it. The device
featured a 640x200 resolution CGA compatible 4-shade
gray-scale LCD screen and could be used to make and
receive calls, text messages, emails and faxes. It was also
100% DOS 5.0 compatible, allowing it to run thousands
of existing software titles including early versions of Windows.
In August 1996, Nokia released the Nokia 9000 Communicator which combined a PDA based on the GEOS
V3.0 operating system from Geoworks with a digital cellular phone based on the Nokia 2110. The two devices
were xed together via a hinge in what became known
as a clamshell design. When opened, the display was on
the inside top surface and with a physical QWERTY keyboard on the bottom. The personal organizer provided
e-mail, calendar, address book, calculator and notebook
with text-based web browsing, and the ability to send and
receive faxes. When the personal organizer was closed, it
could be used as a digital cellular phone.
In June 1999, Qualcomm released a CDMA Digital
PCS Smartphone with integrated Palm PDA and Internet connectivity, known as the pdQ Smartphone.[12]
IBM Simon and charging base (1994)[6]
In early 2000, the Ericsson R380 was released by

Ericsson Mobile Communications,[13] and was the rst
The rst mobile phone to incorporate PDA features was device marketed as a smartphone.[14] It combined the
an IBM prototype developed in 1992 and demonstrated functions of a mobile phone and a PDA, supported limthat year at the COMDEX computer industry trade show. ited web browsing with a resistive touchscreen utilizing a
47.1. HISTORY
stylus.[15]
In early 2001, Palm, Inc. introduced the Kyocera
6035, which combined a PDA with a mobile phone
and operated on Verizon. It also supported limited web
browsing.[16][17]
205
2008 saw the release of the rst phone to use Android
called the HTC Dream (also known as the T-Mobile
G1).[24][25] Android is an open-source platform founded
by Andy Rubin and now owned by Google.[26][27] Although Androids adoption was relatively slow at rst, it
started to gain widespread popularity in 2010, and now
dominates the market.
Smartphones before Android, iOS and BlackBerry, typically ran on Symbian, which was originally developed by
Psion. It was the worlds most widely used smartphone These new platforms led to the decline of earlier ones.
Microsoft, for instance, started a new OS from scratch,
operating system until the last quarter of 2010.
called Windows Phone. Nokia abandoned Symbian
and partnered with MS to use Windows Phone on its
smartphones. Windows Phone then became the third47.1.4 Mass adoption
most-popular OS. Palms webOS was bought by HewlettPackard and later sold to LG Electronics for use on LG
In 1999, the Japanese rm NTT DoCoMo released the smart TVs. BlackBerry Limited, formerly known as Rerst smartphones to achieve mass adoption within a coun- search In Motion, also made a new platform from scratch,
try. These phones ran on i-mode, which provided data BlackBerry 10.
transmission speeds up to 9.6 kbit/s.[18] Unlike future
generations of wireless services, NTT DoCoMos i-mode The capacitive touchscreen also had a knock-on eect on
used cHTML, a language which restricted some aspects smartphone form factors. Before 2007 it was common
of traditional HTML in favor of increasing data speed for for devices to have a physical numeric keypad or physthe devices. Limited functionality, small screens and lim- ical QWERTY keyboard in either a candybar or sliding
ited bandwidth allowed for phones to use the slower data form factor. However, by 2010, there were no top-selling
smartphones with physical keypads.
speeds available.[19]
The rise of i-mode helped NTT DoCoMo accumulate an
estimated 40 million subscribers by the end of 2001. It 47.1.6 Recent technological developments
was also ranked rst in market capitalization in Japan and
second globally. This power would wane in the face of
In 2013, the Fairphone company launched its rst
the rise of 3G and new phones with advanced wireless
socially ethical smartphone at the London Design
network capabilities.[20]
Festival to address concerns regarding the sourcing
of materials in the manufacturing.[28]
Outside of Japan smartphones were still rare, although
throughout the mid-2000s, devices based on Microsofts
In late 2013, QSAlpha commenced production of
Windows Mobile started to gain popularity among busia smartphone designed entirely around security, enness users in the U.S. The BlackBerry later gained mass
cryption and identity protection.[29]
adoption in the U.S., and American users popularized
the term CrackBerry in 2006 due to its addictive
In December 2013, the worlds rst curved-OLED
nature.[21] The company rst released its GSM Blacktechnology smartphones were introduced to the reBerry 6210, BlackBerry 6220, and BlackBerry 6230 detail market with the sale of the Samsung Galaxy
vices in 2003.[22]
Round and LG G Flex models.[30] Samsung phones
Symbian was the most popular smartphone OS in Europe
during the middle to late 2000s. Initially, Nokias Symbian devices were focused on business, similar to Windows Mobile and BlackBerry devices at the time. From
2006 onwards, Nokia started producing entertainmentfocused smartphones, popularized by the Nseries. In
Asia, with the exception of Japan, the trend was similar
to that of Europe.
47.1.5
Android and iOS
In 2007, Apple Inc. introduced the iPhone, one of the

rst smartphones to use a multi-touch interface. The
iPhone was notable for its use of a large touchscreen for
direct nger input as its main means of interaction, instead of a stylus, keyboard, or keypad typical for smartphones at the time.[23]
with more bends and folds in the screens were expected in 2014.[31]
In early 2014, smartphones were beginning to use
Quad HD (2K) 2560x1440 on 5.5 screens with up
to 534 ppi on devices such as the LG G3 which is
a signicant improvement over Apples Retina Display. Quad HD is used in advanced televisions and
computer monitors, but with 110 ppi or less on such
larger displays.[32]
As of 2014, Wi-Fi networks were much used for
smartphones. As Wi-Fi becomes more prevalent
and easier to connect to, Wi-Fi phones service will
start to take o.[33][34][35]
Smartphones are increasingly integrated with everyday uses. For instance, credit cards and mobile payments are integrated into smartphones where users
206

can send cash payments through smartphone appli- 47.2.1 Android
cations and SaaS platforms.[36] Recently, Apple Pay
has picked up 34 new banks to the roster supporting Main article: Android (operating system)
their mobile payment platform, where merchants are Android is an open-source platform founded in October
rapidly adopting it.[37] Additionally, recent technological innovations are causing keys to be fused into
the smartphones, where the smartphone act as a digital key and access badge for its users.[38]
Since 2013, water and dustproong have made their

way into mainstream high end smartphones instead
of specialty models with the Sony Xperia Z continuing through the Sony Xperia Z3 and with the
Samsung Galaxy S5.[39]
One problem with smartphone cameras is focusing
on subject, but LG G3 has lasers to help focus.[40]
Some smartphones can be categorized as high-end
point-and-shoot cameras with large sensor up to 1
with 20 megapixels and 4K video. Some can store
their pictures in proprietary raw image format, but
the Android (operating system) 5.0 lollipop serves
open source RAW images.[41][42]
47.1.7
Future possible developments
A clear thin layer of crystal glass can be added

to small screens like watches and smartphones that
make them solar powered. Smartphones could gain
15% more battery life during a typical day. The rst
smartphones using this technology should arrive in
2015. This screen can also work to receive Li-Fi
signals and so can the smartphone camera.[43] The
cost of these screens per smartphone is between $2
and $3, much cheaper than most new technology.[44]
Foldable OLED smartphones could be as much as a
decade away because of the cost of producing them.
There is a relatively high failure rate when producing
these screens. As little as a speck of dust can ruin
a screen during production. Creating a battery that
can be folded is another hurdle.[45]
Android 5.0 Lollipop home screen (2014)
2003 by Andy Rubin and backed by Google, along with

major hardware and software developers (such as Intel,
HTC, ARM, Motorola and Samsung) that form the Open
Handset Alliance.[26][27] In October 2008, HTC released
the HTC Dream, the e execution of native applications
and third-party apps which are available via Google Play,
Modular smartphones are projected, in which users which launched in October 2008 as Android Market. By
can remove and replace parts.
Q4 2010, Android became the best-selling smartphone
platform.[47]
Near future smartphones might not have a traditional
battery as their sole source of power. Instead, they
may pull energy from radio, television, cellular or 47.2.2 iOS
Wi-Fi signals.[46]
Main article: iOS
iOS is a mobile operating system developed by Apple
Inc. and distributed exclusively for Apple hardware. It is
47.2 Mobile operating systems
the operating system that powers the companys iDevices.
In 2007, Apple introduced the iPhone, the rst device
Main article: Mobile operating system
to use iOS and one of the rst smartphones to use a
multi-touch interface. The iPhone was notable for its
47.2. MOBILE OPERATING SYSTEMS
iOS 8.3 home screen (2015)
use of a large touchscreen for direct nger input as its

main means of interaction, instead of a stylus, keyboard,
or keypad as typical for smartphones at the time.[23] In
2008, Apple introduced the App Store, which allowed
any iPhone to install third-party native applications. Featuring over 500 applications at launch,[48] the App Store
eventually achieved 1 billion downloads in the rst year,
and 75 billion by mid-2014.[49][50] In January 2015, Apple announced that they have now sold one billion iOS
devices.[51]
47.2.3
Windows Phone
Main article: Windows Phone

In 2010, Microsoft unveiled Windows Phone 7 with
a User Interface inspired by Microsofts "Metro Design Language", to replace Windows Mobile. Windows Phone 7 integrates with Microsoft services such
as Microsoft SkyDrive, Oce, Xbox and Bing, as well
as non-Microsoft services such as Facebook, Twitter
and Google accounts. This software platform runs the
Microsoft Mobile smartphones, and has received some
positive reception from the technology press and been
207
Windows Phone 8.1 home screen (2014)
praised for its uniqueness and dierentiation.[52][53][54]

In 2012, Microsoft released Windows Phone 8, replacing its previously Windows CE-based architecture with
one based on the Windows NT kernel with many components shared with Windows 8, allowing applications to be
ported between the two platforms.
47.2.4 BlackBerry
Main article: BlackBerry
In 1999, RIM released its rst BlackBerry devices, providing secure real-time push-email communications on
wireless devices. Services such as BlackBerry Messenger
provide the integration of all communications into a single inbox. In September 2012, RIM announced that the
200 millionth BlackBerry smartphone was shipped. As
of September 2014, there are around 46 million active
BlackBerry service subscribers.[55] Most recently, RIM
has undergone a platform transition, changing its name to
BlackBerry and making new devices on a new platform
named BlackBerry 10.[56]
208

(IVI) devices, smart TVs, laptops and smart cameras. Tizen is a project within the Linux Foundation and is governed by a Technical Steering Group (TSG) composed
of Samsung and Intel among others. In April 2014, Samsung released the Samsung Gear 2 and the Gear 2 Neo,
running Tizen.[63] The Samsung Z1 is the rst smartphone
produced by Samsung; it was released in the Indian market on 14 January 2015.[64]
47.2.8 Ubuntu Touch

Main article: Ubuntu Touch
BlackBerry Z10 (2013)
47.2.5
Firefox OS
Main article: Firefox OS

Firefox OS (originally called the boot to gecko project)
was demonstrated by Mozilla in February 2012. It was
designed to have a complete community based alternative system for mobile devices, using open standards and
HTML5 applications. The rst commercially available
Firefox OS phones were ZTE Open and Alcatel One
Touch Fire. As of 2014 more companies have partnered with Mozilla including Panasonic (which is making
a smart TV with Firefox OS) and Sony.[57]
Ubuntu Touch (also known as Ubuntu Phone) is a mobile version of the Ubuntu operating system developed by
Canonical UK Ltd and Ubuntu Community.[65] It is designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablet computers.
47.3 Discontinued mobile operating systems

47.3.1 Symbian
Main article: Symbian
Symbian was originally developed by Psion as EPOC32.

It was the worlds most widely used smartphone operating system until Q4 2010, though the platform never
gained popularity or widespread awareness in the U.S.,
as it did in Europe and Asia. The rst Symbian phone,
the touchscreen Ericsson R380 Smartphone, was released
in 2000,[66][67] and was the rst device marketed as a
47.2.6 Sailsh OS
smartphone.[68] It combined a PDA with a mobile
phone.[69] In February 2011, Nokia announced that it
Main article: Sailsh OS
would replace Symbian with Windows Phone as the operating system on all of its future smartphones, with the
The Sailsh OS is based on the Linux kernel and Mer.[58] platform getting abandoned throughout the following few
Additionally Sailsh OS includes a partially or completely years.[70]
proprietary multi-tasking user interface programmed by
Jolla. This user interface dierentiate Jolla smartphones
from others.[59] Sailsh OS is intended to be a system 47.3.2 Windows Mobile
made by many of the MeeGo team, which left Nokia to
form Jolla, utilizing funding from Nokias Bridge pro- Main article: Windows Mobile
gram which helps establish and support start-up companies formed by ex-Nokia employees.[60][61][62]
Windows Mobile was based on the Windows CE kernel
and rst appeared as the Pocket PC 2000 operating system. Throughout its lifespan, the operating system was
47.2.7 Tizen
available in both touchscreen and non-touchscreen formats. It was supplied with a suite of applications deMain article: Tizen
veloped with the Microsoft Windows API and was designed to have features and appearance somewhat similar
Tizen is a Linux-based operating system for devices, to desktop versions of Windows. Third parties could deincluding smartphones, tablets, in-vehicle infotainment velop software for Windows Mobile with no restrictions
47.4. APPLICATION STORES
209
imposed by Microsoft. Software applications were even- 47.4 Application stores

tually purchasable from Windows Marketplace for Mobile during the services brief lifespan. Windows mobile Main article: List of digital distribution platforms for
was phased out in favor of Windows Phone.
mobile devices
The introduction of Apples App Store for the iPhone
and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer47.3.3 Bada
hosted online distribution for third-party applications
(software, computer programs) focused on a single platMain article: Bada
form. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on third-party sources providing appliThe Bada operating system for smartphones was an- cations for multiple platforms, such as GetJar, Handango,
nounced by Samsung in November 2009.[71][72] The rst Handmark, and PocketGear.
Bada-based phone was the Samsung Wave S8500, reFollowing the success of the App Store, other smartleased in June 2010.[73][74][75] Samsung shipped 4.5 milphone manufacturers launched application stores, such
lion phones running Bada in Q2 of 2011.[76] In 2013,
as Googles Android Market in October 2008 and RIMs
Bada merged with a similar platform called Tizen.
BlackBerry App World in April 2009. In February 2014,
93% of mobile developers were targeting smartphones
rst for mobile app development.[82]
47.3.4
Palm OS
Main article: Palm OS

In late 2001, Handspring launched the Springboard GSM
phone module with limIn. In May 2002, Handspring
released the Palm OS Treo 270 smartphone, that did
not support Springboard, with both a touchscreen and
a full keyboard. The Treo had wireless web browsing,
email, calendar, a contact organizer and mobile thirdparty applications that could be downloaded or synced
with a computer.[77] Handspring was purchased by Palm,
Inc which released the Treo 600 and continued releasing Treo devices with a few Treo devices using Windows Mobile. After buying Palm in 2011, HewlettPackard (HP) discontinued its webOS smartphone and
tablet production.[78]
47.3.5
webOS
webOS was from LG, although some parts are open

source. webOS is a proprietary mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by
Palm, which launched with the Palm Pre. After being
acquired by HP, two phones (the Veer and the Pre 3) and
a tablet (the TouchPad) running webOS were introduced
in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware was to be discontinued[79] but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop
the webOS ecosystem.[80] HP released webOS as open
source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update
it with additional features.[81] On February 25, 2013 HP
announced the sale of WebOS to LG Electronics, who
planned to use the operating system for its smart or
Internet-connected TVs.
47.5 Display
Main article: Display device
One of the main characteristics of smartphones is their
screen. It usually lls virtually almost the entire phone
surface (about 70%); screen size usually denes the size
of a smartphone. Usually have aspect ratio 4:3 or 16:9.
They are measured in diagonal inches, starting from 2.45
inches.[83] Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are
called "phablets". Smartphones with screens over 4.5
inches commonly are moved around in the hand or used
with both hands, since the average thumb cannot reach
the entire screen surface. Types of screen include LCD,
LED, OLED, AMOLED, IPS and others.
47.6 Market share

47.6.1 Smartphone usage
In the third quarter of 2012, one billion smartphones were
in use worldwide.[84] Global smartphone sales surpassed
the sales gures for features phones in early 2013.[85]
As of 2013, 65 percent of U.S. mobile consumers own
smartphones.[86] The European mobile device market as
of 2013 is 860 million.[87] In China, smartphones represented more than half of all handset shipments in the
second quarter of 2012[88] and in 2014 there were 519.7
million smartphone users, with the number estimated to
grow to 700 million by 2018.[89]
As of November 2011, 27% of all photographs were
taken with camera-equipped smartphones.[90] A study
conducted in September 2012 concluded that 4 out of 5
210
smartphone owners use the device to shop.[91] Another

study conducted in June 2013 concluded that 56% of
American adults now owned a smartphone of some kind.
Android and iPhone owners account for half of the cell
phone user population. Higher income adults and those
under age 35 lead the way when it comes to smartphone
ownership.[92]
between 15% to 20.9% during the same period. BlackBerrys market share fell from 14.3% in Q4 2011 to 0.6%
in Q4 2013. Windows Mobile market share rose from
1.5% to 3% during the same time frame.[102]
As of the end of Q3 2014, Android was the most popular

operating system, with a 84.4% market share, followed by
iOS with 11.7%, Windows Phone with 2.9%, BlackBerry
Worldwide shipments of smartphones topped 1 billion with 0.5% and all others with 0.6%.[103]
units in 2013 (up 38% from 2012s 725 million) while
comprising a 55% share of the mobile phone market in
Historical sales gures, in millions
2013 (up from 42% in 2012).[93]
47.7 Issues
47.6.2
By manufacturer
Smartphones have issues besides those aecting other
mobile telephones.
47.7.1 Battery life
Samsung Galaxy Note smartphones running Android
In 2011, Apple had the highest shipment market share

worldwide. In 2013, Samsung had 31.3% market share,
a slight increase from 30.3% in 2012, while Apple was at
15.3%, a decrease from 18.7% in 2012. Huawei, LG and
Lenovo were at about 5% each, signicantly better than
2012 gures, while others had about 40%, the same as the
previous years gure. Only Apple lost market share, although their shipment volume still increased by 12.9 percent; the rest had signicant increases in shipment volumes of 36 to 92 percent.[100] In Q1 2014, Samsung had
a 31% share and Apple had 16%.[101] In Q4 2014, Apple
had a 20.4% share and Samsung had 19.9%.[4]
A high-capacity portable battery charger
Compared to earlier non-smartphones, smartphone battery life has generally been poor and a signicant drain
on customer satisfaction.[110][111][112]
47.7.2 Social
Main article: Smartphone addiction
In Q1 2015 in the US, Android market share was 53.2%;

Apples iPhone had a 41.3% share and Samsungs An- A 2012 University of Southern California study found
that unprotected adolescent sexual activity was more
droid smartphones had 29.3%.[97]
common amongst owners of smartphones.[113] A study
conducted by the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's (RPI)
Lighting Research Center (LRC) concluded that smart47.6.3 By operating system
phones, or any backlit devices, can seriously aect sleep
cycles.[114]
Main article: Mobile operating system
The market has been dominated by the Android operating 47.7.3 Legal
system since 2010. Androids market share (measured by
units shipment) rose from 33.2% in Q4 2011 to 78.1% of Main article: Smartphone wars
the market in Q4 2013. Apples market share oscillated
47.9. OTHER TERMS
211
A patent war between Samsung and Apple started when Microsoft, HTC, Asus and Motorola smartphones that
the latter claimed that the original Galaxy S Android were available worldwide.
phone copied the interfaceand possibly the hardware
of Apples iOS for the iPhone 3GS.
47.9 Other terms

47.7.4
Medical
Main article: Mobile app
"Phablet", a portmanteau of the words phone and tablet,

describes smartphones with larger screens.[131][132]
Superphone is also used by some companies to market

With the rise in number of mobile medical apps in phones with unusually large screens and other expensive
[133][134]
the market place, government regulatory agencies raised features.
concerns on the safety of the use of such applications.
These concerns were transformed into regulation initiatives world wide with the aim of safeguarding users from 47.10 See also
untrusted medical advice.[115]
Comparison of smartphones
47.7.5
Security
Main articles: Mobile security, Malware, Mobile virus

and Media Transfer Protocol
Smartphone malware is easily distributed through an insecure app store.[116][117] Often malware is hidden in
pirated versions of legitimate apps, which are then distributed through third-party app stores.[118][119] Malware
risk also comes from whats known as an update attack,
where a legitimate application is later changed to include
a malware component, which users then install when they
are notied that the app has been updated.[120]
One out of three robberies in 2012 in the United States
involved the theft of a mobile phone. An online petition
has urged smartphone makers to install kill switches in
their devices.[121] In 2014, Apples Find my iPhone and
Googles Android Device Manager can disable phones
that have been lost/stolen. With BlackBerry Protect in
OS version 10.3.2, devices can be rendered unrecoverable to even BlackBerrys own Operating System recovery tools if incorrectly authenticated or dissociated from
their account.[122]
47.7.6
Sleep
List of mobile software distribution platforms

Videophone
Dumbphone
Media Transfer Protocol
Mobile broadband connectivity
Mobile Internet device (MID)
Second screen
Screen protector
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[4] Brett Molina and Marco della Cava, USA TODAY (3
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[5] U.S. Patent #3,812,296/5-21-1974 (Apparatus for Generating and Transmitting Digital Information), U.S. Patent
#3,727,003/4-10-1973 (Decoding and Display Apparatus
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Media related to Smartphones at Wikimedia Commons
Chapter 48
Subscriber identity module

Simcard redirects here. For the brand-name medication, see Simvastatin.
A subscriber identity module or subscriber iden-
A typical SIM card (mini-SIM)
A TracFone Wireless SIM card has no distinctive carrier markings and is only marked as a SIM CARD
capable handsets. SIM cards can also be used in satellite

phones.
A mini-SIM card next to its electrical contacts in a Nokia 6233
tication module (SIM) is an integrated circuit that

is intended to securely store the international mobile
subscriber identity (IMSI) number and its related key,
which are used to identify and authenticate subscribers
on mobile telephony devices (such as mobile phones and
computers). It is also possible to store contacts on many
SIM cards. SIM cards are always used on GSM phones;
for CDMA phones, they are only needed for newer LTE-
The SIM circuit is part of the function of a Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) physical smart card, which
is usually made of PVC with embedded contacts and
semiconductors. SIM cards are designed to be transferable between dierent mobile devices. The rst UICC
smart cards were the size of credit and bank cards; the
development of physically smaller mobile devices has
prompted the development of smaller SIM cards, where
the size of the plastic carrier is reduced while keeping
electrical contacts the same.
A SIM card contains its unique serial number (ICCID),
international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) number,
security authentication and ciphering information, temporary information related to the local network, a list of
216
48.3. DATA
217
the services the user has access to, and two passwords: 48.3 Data
a personal identication number (PIN) for ordinary use,
and a personal unblocking code (PUK) for PIN unlock- SIM cards store network-specic information used to auing.
thenticate and identify subscribers on the network. The
most important of these are the ICCID, IMSI, Authentication Key (Ki), Local Area Identity (LAI) and OperatorSpecic Emergency Number. The SIM also stores other
48.1 History
carrier-specic data such as the SMSC (Short Message
Service Center) number, Service Provider Name (SPN),
The SIM was initially specied by the European
Service Dialing Numbers (SDN), Advice-Of-Charge paTelecommunications Standards Institute in the specicarameters and Value Added Service (VAS) applications.
tion with the number TS 11.11. This specication de(Refer to GSM 11.11.)
scribes the physical and logical behaviour of the SIM.
With the development of UMTS the specication work SIM cards can come in various data capacities, from 32
was partially transferred to 3GPP. 3GPP is now respon- KB to at least 128 KB. All allow a maximum of 250 consible for the further development of applications like SIM tacts to be stored on the SIM, but while the 32 KB has
(TS 51.011) and USIM (TS 31.102) and ETSI for the fur- room for 33 Mobile Network Codes (MNCs) or network
identiers, the 64 KB version has room for 80 MNCs.
ther development of the physical card UICC.
This is used by network operators to store information on
The rst SIM card was made in 1991 by Munich smartpreferred networks, mostly used when the SIM is not in
card maker Giesecke & Devrient, who sold the rst
its home network but is roaming. The network operator
300 SIM cards to the Finnish wireless network operator
that issued the SIM card can use this to have a phone con[1][2]
Radiolinja.
nect to a preferred network, in order to make use of the
best commercial agreement for the original network company instead of having to pay the network operator that
48.2 Design
the phone 'saw' rst. This does not mean that a phone
containing this SIM card can connect to a maximum of
only 33 or 80 networks, but it means that the SIM card
Chip Adhesive
issuer can specify only up to that number of preferred netMetal Contacts
Active Chip Side
works; if a SIM is outside these preferred networks it will
Chip
use the rst or best available network.
48.3.1 ICCID
Encapsulation
Hotmelt
Substrate
Card Body
Bond Wire
SIM chip structure and packaging
There are three operating voltages for SIM cards: 5 V, 3

V and 1.8 V (ISO/IEC 78163 classes A, B and C, respectively). The operating voltage of the majority of SIM
cards launched before 1998 was 5 V. SIM cards produced
subsequently are compatible with 3 V and 5 V. Modern
cards support 5 V, 3 V and 1.8 V.
Modern SIM cards allow applications to be loaded when
the SIM is in use by the subscriber. These applications
communicate with the handset or a server using SIM application toolkit, which was initially specied by 3GPP
in TS 11.14 (there is an identical ETSI specication with
dierent numbering). ETSI and 3GPP maintain the SIM
specications; the main specications are: ETSI TS 102
223, ETSI TS 102 241, ETSI TS 102 588, and ETSI TS
131 111. SIM toolkit applications were initially written
in native code using proprietary APIs. In order to allow
interoperability of the applications, Java Card was taken
as the solution of choice by ETSI. Additional standards
and specications of interest are maintained by Global
Platform.
Each SIM is internationally identied by its integrated

circuit card identier (ICCID). ICCIDs are stored in the
SIM cards and are also engraved or printed on the SIM
card body during a process called personalisation. The
ICCID is dened by the ITU-T recommendation E.118
as the Primary Account Number.[3] Its layout is based on
ISO/IEC 7812. According to E.118, the number is up to
22 digits long, including a single check digit calculated
using the Luhn algorithm. However, the GSM Phase 1[4]
dened the ICCID length as 10 octets (20 digits) with
operator-specic structure.
The number is composed of the following subparts:
Issuer identication number (IIN)
Maximum of seven digits:
Major industry identier (MII), 2 xed digits, 89 for
telecommunication purposes.
Country code, 13 digits, as dened by ITU-T recommendation E.164.
Issuer identier, 14 digits.
Individual account identication
218
CHAPTER 48. SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY MODULE
Individual account identication number. Its length K assigned to it by the operator during the personalizais variable, but every number under one IIN will tion process. The K is also stored in a database (termed
have the same length.
authentication center or AuC) on the carriers network.
Check digit
Single digit calculated from the other digits using the
Luhn algorithm.
With the GSM Phase 1 specication using 10 octets into
which ICCID is stored as packed BCD, the data eld has
room for 20 digits with hexadecimal digit F being used
as ller when necessary.
The SIM card is designed not to allow the K to be obtained using the smart-card interface. Instead, the SIM
card provides a function, Run GSM Algorithm, that allows the phone to pass data to the SIM card to be signed
with the K. This, by design, makes usage of the SIM
card mandatory unless the K can be extracted from the
SIM card, or the carrier is willing to reveal the K. In
practice, the GSM cryptographic algorithm for computing SRES_2 (see step 4, below) from the K has certain
vulnerabilities[5] that can allow the extraction of the K
from a SIM card and the making of a duplicate SIM card.
In practice, this means that on GSM SIM cards there are

Authentication process:
20-digit (19+1) and 19-digit (18+1) ICCIDs in use, depending upon the issuer. However, a single issuer always
1. When the Mobile Equipment starts up, it obtains
uses the same size for its ICCIDs.
the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
To confuse matters more, SIM factories seem to have
from the SIM card, and passes this to the mobile
varying ways of delivering electronic copies of SIM peroperator requesting access and authentication. The
sonalization datasets. Some datasets are without the ICMobile Equipment may have to pass a PIN to the
CID checksum digit, others are with the digit.
SIM card before the SIM card will reveal this information.
As required by E.118, The ITU regularly publishes a list
of all internationally assigned IIN codes in its Operational
2. The operator network searches its database for the
Bulletins. The most recent list, as of November 2013, is
incoming IMSI and its associated K.
in Operational Bulletin No. 1040.
48.3.2
International mobile
identity (IMSI)
subscriber
SIM cards are identied on their individual operator networks by a unique International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI). Mobile network operators connect mobile
phone calls and communicate with their market SIM
cards using their IMSIs. The format is:
The rst three digits represent the Mobile Country
Code (MCC).
The next two or three digits represent the Mobile
Network Code (MNC). Three-digit MNC codes are
allowed by E.212 but are mainly used in the United
States and Canada.
3. The operator network then generates a Random

Number (RAND, which is a nonce) and signs it with
the K associated with the IMSI (and stored on the
SIM card), computing another number known as
Signed Response 1 (SRES_1).
4. The operator network then sends the RAND to
the Mobile Equipment, which passes it to the SIM
card. The SIM card signs it with its K, producing
SRES_2, which it gives to the Mobile Equipment
along with encryption key K . The Mobile Equipment passes SRES_2 on to the operator network.
5. The operator network then compares its computed
SRES_1 with the computed SRES_2 that the Mobile Equipment returned. If the two numbers match,
the SIM is authenticated and the Mobile Equipment
is granted access to the operators network. K is
used to encrypt all further communications between
the Mobile Equipment and the network.
The next digits represent the Mobile Subscriber

Identication Number (MSIN). Normally there will
be 10 digits but would be fewer in the case of a 3digit MNC or if national regulations indicate that the 48.3.4 Location area identity
total length of the IMSI should be less than 15 digits.
The SIM stores network state information, which is received from the Location Area Identity (LAI). Operator
Digits are dierent from country to country.
networks are divided into Location Areas, each having a
unique LAI number. When the device changes locations,
it stores the new LAI to the SIM and sends it back to the
48.3.3 Authentication key (K)
operator network with its new location. If the device is
The Kn is a 128-bit value used in authenticating the power cycled, it will take data o the SIM, and search for
SIMs on the mobile network. Each SIM holds a unique the prior LAI.
48.4. FORMATS
48.3.5
219
SMS messages and contacts
Most SIM cards will orthogonally store a number of SMS

messages and phone book contacts. The contacts are
stored in simple name and number pairs: entries containing multiple phone numbers and additional phone
numbers will usually not be stored on the SIM card.
When a user tries to copy such entries to a SIM the handsets software will break them up into multiple entries,
discarding any information that is not a phone number.
The number of contacts and messages stored depends on
the SIM; early models would store as few as ve messages
and 20 contacts while modern SIM cards can usually store
over 250 contacts.
The memory lm from a micro SIM card without the plastic backing plate, next to a US dime, which is approx. 18 mm in diameter.
12345A
6789
12345A
6789
48.4 Formats
Full-size SIM (1FF), mini-SIM (2FF), micro-SIM (3FF) and

nano-SIM (4FF)
Embedded SIM from M2M supplier Eseye with an adapter board

for evaluation in a Mini-SIM socket
followed by mini-SIMs, micro-SIMs, and nano-SIMs.

SIMs are also made to be embedded in devices.
48.4.1 Full-size SIM

The full-size SIM (or 1FF, 1st form factor) was the rst
form factor to appear. It has the size of a credit card
(85.60 mm 53.98 mm 0.76 mm).
48.4.2 Mini-SIM
The mini-SIM (or 2FF) card has the same contact arrangement as the full-size SIM card and is normally supplied
within a full-size card carrier, attached by a number of
linking pieces. This arrangement (dened in ISO/IEC
Micro-SIM (from bottom) with mini-SIM and full SIM brackets 7810 as ID-1/000) allows such a card to be used in a defrom Telia in Sweden
vice requiring a full-size card, or in a device requiring a
mini-SIM card after breaking the linking pieces. Note
SIM cards have been made smaller over the years; func- that some suppliers, such as AT&T, refer to this form
tionality is independent of format. Full-size SIMs were factor as a Standard SIM.
220
48.4.3
Micro-SIM
The micro-SIM (or 3FF) card has the same thickness and
contact arrangements, but reduced length and width as
shown in the table above.[6]
The 0.67 mm thickness of the nano-SIM is about 12%

less than the 0.76 mm of its predecessor. 4FF can be
put into adapters for use with devices taking 2FF or 3FF
SIMs; many phone companies however do not recommend using these adapters.[12] The iPhone 5, released in
September 2012, was the rst device to use a nano-SIM
card followed by other handsets including the Nexus 6
and Samsung Galaxy Alpha.
The micro-SIM was developed by the European

Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
along with SCP, 3GPP (UTRAN/GERAN), 3GPP2
(CDMA2000), ARIB, GSM Association (GSMA SCaG
and GSMNA), GlobalPlatform, Liberty Alliance, and
the Open Mobile Alliance (OMA) for the purpose of 48.4.5
tting into devices too small for a mini-SIM card.[7][8]
Embedded-SIM / Embedded Universal Integrated Circuit Card (eUICC)
The form factor was mentioned in the December 1998

3GPP SMG9 UMTS Working Party, which is the
standards-setting body for GSM SIM cards,[9] and the SIMs for M2M applications are available in a surface
mount SON-8 package which may be soldered directly
form factor was agreed upon in late 2003.[10]
onto a circuit board.
The micro-SIM was designed for backward compatibility. The major issue for backward compatibility was the The surface mount format provides the same electrical
contact area of the chip. Retaining the same contact area interface as the full size, 2FF and 3FF SIM cards, but
allows the micro-SIM to be compatible with the prior, is soldered to the circuit board as part of the manufaclarger SIM readers through the use of plastic cutout sur- turing process. In M2M applications where there is no
rounds. The SIM was also designed to run at the same requirement to change the SIM card, this avoids the respeed (5 MHz) as the prior version. The same size and quirement for a connector, improving reliability and sepositions of pins resulted in numerous How-to tutorials curity. GSMA has been discussing the possibilities of
[13]
While Moand YouTube video with detailed instructions how to cut a software based SIM card since 2010.
a mini-SIM card to micro-SIM size with a sharp knife or torola noted that eUICC is geared at industrial devices,
Apple disagreed that there is any statement forbidding
scissors.[11]
the use of an embedded UICC in a consumer product.
The chairman of EP SCP, Dr. Klaus Vedder, said[10]
in 2012,[14] The European Commission has selected the
Embedded UICC format for its in-vehicle emergency call
With this decision, we can see that ETSI has
service known as eCall. All new car models in the EU will
responded to a market need from ETSI cusneed to have one by 2015 to instantly connect the car to
tomers, but additionally there is a strong dethe emergency services in case of an accident. In Russia
sire not to invalidate, overnight, the existing
there is a similar plan with the ERA-GLONASS regional
interface, nor reduce the performance of the
satellite positioning system and in Brazil with the SIMcards. EP SCP expect to nalise the technical
RAV anti-theft system.[15]
realisation for the third form factor at the next
SCP plenary meeting, scheduled for February
2004.
48.5 Security
Micro-sim cards were introduced by various mobile service providers for the launch of the original iPad, and later
for smartphones, from April 2010. The iPhone 4 was the
rst smartphone to use a micro-SIM card in June 2010.
Later the Samsung Galaxy S3/S4, various Nokia Lumia
handsets, the Nokia N9, the Nexus 5 and the Sony Xperia
followed.
48.4.4
Nano-SIM
In July 2013, it was revealed that Karsten Nohl,

a cryptographer and security researcher from
SRLabs,[16][17] had discovered vulnerabilities in
some SIM cards that enabled them to be hacked to
provide root access.[18] The cards aected use the Data
Encryption Standard (DES) which, despite its age, is still
used by some operators.[18] Cards using the more recent
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) or Triple DES
standards are not aected.[18] Among other risks, the
hack could lead to the phone being remotely cloned or
allow payment credentials from the SIM to be stolen.[18]
Further details of the research were to be given at
BlackHat on July 31, 2013.[18][19]
The nano-SIM (or 4FF) card was introduced on 11 October 2012, when mobile service providers began selling it
in various countries. The nano-SIM measures 12.3 8.8
0.67 mm and reduces the previous format to the contact area while maintaining the existing contact arrange- In response, the International Telecommunication Union
ments. A small rim of isolating material is left around said that the development was hugely signicant and
the contact area to avoid short circuits with the socket. that it would be contacting its members.[20]
48.7. USAGE IN MOBILE PHONE STANDARDS

In February, 2015 it was reported by The Intercept that
the NSA and GCHQ had stolen the encryption keys (Kis)
used by Gemalto (the manufacturer of 2 billion SIM cards
annually), enabling these intelligence agencies to monitor voice and data communications without the knowledge or approval of cellular network providers or judicial
oversight.[21] Having nished its investigation, Gemalto
claimed that it has reasonable grounds to believe that
the NSA and GCHQ carried out an operation to hack its
network in 2010 and 2011, but says the number of possibly stolen keys would not have been massive.[22] However,
it would be in Gemaltos nancial interest to make such
a claim even if they discovered the encryption keys were
in fact stolen.
48.6 Developments
When GSM was already in use, the specications were
further developed and enhanced with functionality like
SMS, GPRS, etc. These development steps are referred
as releases by ETSI. Within these development cycles,
the SIM specication was enhanced as well: new voltage classes, formats and les were introduced. In GSMonly times, the SIM consisted of the hardware and the
software. With the advent of UMTS this naming was
split: the SIM was now an application and hence only software. The hardware part was called UICC. This split was
necessary because UMTS introduced a new application,
the Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM). The
USIM brought, among other things, security improvements like the mutual authentication and longer encryption keys and an improved address book.
SIM cards in developed countries are today usually
UICCs containing at least a SIM and a USIM application. This conguration is necessary because older GSM
only handsets are solely compatible with the SIM [application] and some UMTS security enhancements do rely
on the USIM [application].
The equivalent of SIM on CDMA networks is the R-UIM
(and the equivalent of USIM is CSIM).
A virtual SIM is a mobile phone number provided by a
mobile network operator that does not require a SIM card
to connect phone calls to a users mobile phone.
At the 2015 Mobile World Congress in Barcelona, Simless, Inc., a US-based startup unveiled worlds rst GSM
phone without a SIM card slot. The reference phone was
capable of downloading multiple virtual SIM cards overthe-air. [23]
221
The satellite phone networks Iridium, Thuraya and
Inmarsat's BGAN also use SIM cards. Sometimes, these
SIM cards work in regular GSM phones and also allow
GSM customers to roam in satellite networks by using
their own SIM card in a satellite phone.
Japans 2G PDC system (which was shut down in 2012;
SoftBank Mobile has already shut down PDC from
March 31, 2010) also species a SIM, but this has never
been implemented commercially. The specication of
the interface between the Mobile Equipment and the
SIM is given in the RCR STD-27 annex 4. The Subscriber Identity Module Expert Group was a committee
of specialists assembled by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to draw up the specications (GSM 11.11) for interfacing between smart cards
and mobile telephones. In 1994, the name SIMEG was
changed to SMG9.
Japans current and next generation cellular systems are
based on W-CDMA (UMTS) and CDMA2000 and all
use SIM cards. However, Japanese CDMA2000-based
phones are locked to the R-UIM they are associated with
and thus, the cards are not interchangeable with other
Japanese CDMA2000 handsets (though they may be inserted into GSM/WCDMA handsets for roaming purposes outside Japan).
CDMA-based devices originally did not use a removable
card, and the service for these phones bound to a unique
identier contained in the handset itself. This is most
prevalent in operators in the Americas. The rst publication of the TIA-820 standard (also known as 3GPP2
C.S0023) in 2000 dened the Removable User Identity
Module (R-UIM). Card-based CDMA devices are most
prevalent in Asia.
The equivalent of a SIM in UMTS is called the Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC), which runs a USIM
application. The UICC is still colloquially called a SIM
card.
SIM card for Thuraya satellite phone
KDDI's au IC-Card
NTT DoCoMo's FOMA Card
UMTS modem with SIM card
SIM card and the mobile phone
Three UK SIM Card with Packaging
Chunghwa Telecom's LTE Card
China Mobile's LTE SIM card
48.7 Usage in mobile phone standards
H2O Wireless prepaid SIM card
The use of SIM cards is mandatory in GSM devices.
Dual SIM slots as shown on a Lenovo A369i.
Hotlink (Maxis) Nano SIM card
222
48.8 SIM and carriers
48.10 See also
The SIM card introduced a new and signicant business

opportunity for MVNOs mobile virtual network operators who lease capacity from one of the network
operators rather than owning or operating a cellular telecoms network, and only provide a SIM card to their customers. MVNOs rst appeared in Denmark, Hong Kong,
Finland and the UK. Today they exist in over 50 countries, including most of Europe, United States, Canada,
Mexico, Australia and parts of Asia, and account for approximately 10% of all mobile phone subscribers around
the world.
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)
On some networks, the mobile phone is locked to its carrier SIM card, meaning that the phone only works with
SIM cards from the specic carrier. This is more common in markets where mobile phones are heavily subsidised by the carriers, and the business model depends on
the customer staying with the service provider for a minimum term (typically 12, 18 or 24 months). SIM cards
that are issued by providers with an associated contract
are called SIM only deals. Common examples are the
GSM networks in the United States, Canada, Australia,
the UK and Poland. Many businesses oer the ability to
remove the SIM lock from a phone, eectively making it
possible to then use the phone on any network by inserting a dierent SIM card. Mostly, GSM and 3G mobile
handsets can easily be unlocked and used on any suitable
network with any SIM card.
VMAC
In countries where the phones are not subsidised, e.g., India, Israel and Belgium, all phones are unlocked. Where
the phone is not locked to its SIM card, the users can easily switch networks by simply replacing the SIM card of
one network with that of another while using only one
phone. This is typical, for example, among users who
may want to optimise their carriers trac by dierent
taris to dierent friends on dierent networks, or when
traveling internationally.
48.9 Multiple-SIM devices

Main article: Dual SIM
Devices with two SIM slots are known as dual SIMs.
Dual-SIM mobile phones usually come with two slots for
SIMs, one behind the battery and another on the side of
the phone, though in some devices both slots can be found
on the battery tray, or on the side of the phone if the device does not have a removable battery. In the Western
world dual-SIM devices are less common, and even less
so with multiple-SIM phones, but are commonplace in
developing markets such as in Africa, East Asia, the Indian subcontinent and South East Asia, where billing rates
and variable network coverage make it desirable for consumers to use multiple SIMs from competing networks.
GSM 03.48
SIM cloning
SIM connector
IP Multimedia Services Identity Module (ISIM)
W-SIM (Willcom-SIM)
Mobile equipment identier (MEID)
Mobile signature
Single Wire Protocol (SWP)
SIM Application Toolkit (STK)
Mobile broadband
Tethering
Smart card
SIM only Deals
Regional lockout
48.11 References
[1] Asif, Saad Z. (2011). Next Generation Mobile Communications Ecosystem. John Wiley & Sons. p. 306. ISBN
1119995817.
[2] History of Giesecke & Devrient
[3] ITU-T, ITU-T Recommendation E.118, The international telecommunication charge card, Revision history,
Revision 05/2006
[4] ETSI, ETSI Recommendation GSM 11.11, Specications
of the SIM-ME Interface, Version 3.16.0
[5] Hackers crack open mobile network. bbc.co.uk. 20
April 2011. Retrieved 13 August 2011.
[6] What is a microsim card?". SimOnlyPro.nl. Retrieved
14 October 2012.
[7] Gaby Lenhart (1 April 2006). The Smart Card Platform. ETSI Technical Committee Smart Card Platform (TB SCP). Retrieved 30 January 2010. SCP is cooperating on both technical and service aspects with a
number of other committees both within and outside the
telecommunications sector.
[8] Segan, Sascha (27 January 2010). Inside the iPad Lurks
the 'Micro SIM'". PC Magazine. Retrieved 30 January
2010.
223
[9] DRAFT Report of the SMG9 UMTS Working Party,

meeting #7 hosted by Nokia in Copenhagen, 1516 December 1998 (PDF). 3GPP. 25 January 1999. Retrieved
27 January 2010. One manufacturer stated that it may be
dicult to meeting ISO mechanical standards for a combined ID-1/micro-SIM card.
GSM 11.14 Specication of the SIM Application

Toolkit for the Subscriber Identity Module Mobile
Equipment (SIM-ME) interface
[10] Antipolis, Sophia (8 December 2003). New form factor for smart cards introduced. SmartCard Trends. Retrieved 30 January 2010. The work item for the so-called
Third Form Factor, 3FF, was agreed, after intensive discussions, at the SCP meeting held last week in London.
GSM 03.48 Java API API and realization of GSM

03.48 in Java
GSM 03.48 Specication of the security mechanisms for SIM application toolkit
ITU-T E.118 The International Telecommunication Charge Card 2006 ITU-T
[11] How to make MicroSIM on YouTube

[12] Dr. Klaus Vedder (18 January 2012). The UICC
Recent Work of ETSI TC Smart Card Platform (PDF).
ETSI. p. 12. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
[13] Diana ben-Aaron (18 November 2010). GSMA Explores Software-Based Replacement for Mobile SIM
Cards. Bloomberg. p. 1. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
[14] Ziegler, Chris (June 1, 2012). Embedded SIMs: they're
happening, and Apple thinks they could be in consumer
products. The Verge. Vox Media, Inc. Retrieved October 25, 2014.
[15] Bruno, Duarte (September 27, 2014).
eUICC
embedded Universal Integrated Circuit Card.
COSWITCHED.COM. Retrieved October 25, 2014.
[16] Hacker sollen Kreditkarten freirubbeln, accessed 201307-22
[17] Encryption Bug in SIM Card Can be Used to Hack Millions of Phones, published 2013-07-21, accessed 201307-22
[18] Rooting SIM cards, SR Labs, accessed 2013-07-22
[19] BlackHat, accessed 2013-07-21
[20] UPDATE 1-UN warns on mobile cybersecurity bugs in
bid to prevent attacks, Reuters, 2013-07-21, accessed
2013-07-21
[21] The Great SIM Heist - How Spies Stole the Keys to the
Encryption Castle. The Intercept. The Intercept (First
Look Media). February 19, 2015. Retrieved February
19, 2015.
[22] Gemalto: NSA/GCHQ Hack Probably Happened But
Didnt Include Mass SIM Key Theft. techcrunch.com.
February 25, 2015. Retrieved April 2, 2015.
[23] http://www.prlog.org/
12429409-simless-unveils-worlds-first-gsm-phone-without-sim-card-slot.
html

ETSI Smart Card standards (102 221)
GSM 11.11 Specication of the Subscriber Identity Module Mobile Equipment (SIM-ME) interface.
Chapter 49
Luhn algorithm
The Luhn algorithm or Luhn formula, also known as modulo 10 (in equation form, (67 9 mod 10)). In algothe "modulus 10 or mod 10 algorithm, is a simple rithm form:
checksum formula used to validate a variety of identication numbers, such as credit card numbers, IMEI num1. Compute the sum of the non-check digits (67).
bers, National Provider Identier numbers in the US, and
2. Multiply by 9 (603).
Canadian Social Insurance Numbers. It was created by
IBM scientist Hans Peter Luhn and described in U.S.
3. The last digit, 3, is the check digit. Thus, x=3.
Patent No. 2,950,048, led on January 6, 1954, and
granted on August 23, 1960.
(Alternative method) The check digit (x) is obtained by
The algorithm is in the public domain and is in wide use
computing the sum of the other digits then subtracting the
today. It is specied in ISO/IEC 78121.[1] It is not inunits digit from 10 (67 => Units digit 7; 10 7 = check
tended to be a cryptographically secure hash function;
digit 3). In algorithm form:
it was designed to protect against accidental errors, not
malicious attacks. Most credit cards and many govern1. Compute the sum of the digits (67).
ment identication numbers use the algorithm as a simple
method of distinguishing valid numbers from mistyped or
2. Take the units digit (7).
otherwise incorrect numbers.
3. Subtract the units digit from 10.
4. The result (3) is the check digit. In case the sum of
digits ends in 0, 0 is the check digit.
49.1 Description
The formula veries a number against its included check

digit, which is usually appended to a partial account num- This, makes the full account number read 79927398713.
ber to generate the full account number. This number Each of the numbers 79927398710, 79927398711,
must pass the following test:
79927398712,
79927398713,
79927398714,
79927398715,
79927398716,
79927398717,
79927398718,
79927398719
can
be
validated as
1. From the rightmost digit, which is the check digit,
follows.
moving left, double the value of every second digit;
if the product of this doubling operation is greater
than 9 (e.g., 8 2 = 16), then sum the digits of the
1. Double every second digit, from the rightmost:
products (e.g., 16: 1 + 6 = 7, 18: 1 + 8 = 9).
(12) = 2, (82) = 16, (32) = 6, (22) = 4, (92)
= 18
2. Take the sum of all the digits.
2. Sum all the individual digits (digits in parentheses
3. If the total modulo 10 is equal to 0 (if the total ends
are the products from Step 1): x (the check digit) +
in zero) then the number is valid according to the
(2) + 7 + (1+6) + 9 + (6) + 7 + (4) + 9 + (1+8) + 7
Luhn formula; else it is not valid.
= x + 67.
Assume an example of an account number 7992739871
that will have a check digit added, making it of the form
7992739871x:
3. If the sum is a multiple of 10, the account number

is possibly valid. Note that 3 is the only valid digit
that produces a sum (70) that is a multiple of 10.
The sum of all the digits in the third row is 67+x.
4. Thus these account numbers are all invalid except

possibly 79927398713 which has the correct check
digit.
The check digit (x) is obtained by computing the sum of

the non-check digits then computing 9 times that value
224
49.4. SEE ALSO
225
Alternately (if you don't want to confuse yourself by performing an algorithm on the whole number including the
checksum digit), you can use the same checksum creation algorithm (mentioned a couple paragraphs up), ignoring the checksum already in place, as if it had not yet
been calculated, and now you were calculating it for the
rst time. Then calculate the checksum and compare this
calculated checksum to the original checksum included
with the credit card number. If the included checksum
matches the calculated checksum, then the number is
valid.
49.3.1 Verication of the check digit

def luhn_checksum(card_number):
def digits_of(n):
return [int(d) for d in str(n)] digits
=
digits_of(card_number)
odd_digits
=
digits[1::2] even_digits = digits[2::2] checksum = sum(odd_digits) for d in even_digits:
checksum += sum(digits_of(d*2)) return checksum % 10 def is_luhn_valid(card_number): return
luhn_checksum(card_number) == 0
49.3.2 Calculation of the check digit
49.2 Strengths and weaknesses

The Luhn algorithm will detect any single-digit error, as
well as almost all transpositions of adjacent digits. It
will not, however, detect transposition of the two-digit
sequence 09 to 90 (or vice versa). It will detect 7 of the
10 possible twin errors (it will not detect 22 55, 33
66 or 44 77).
The algorithm above checks the validity of an input with

a check digit. Calculating the check digit requires only a
slight adaptation of the algorithmnamely:
1. Append a zero check digit to the partial number and
calculate checksum
2. If the (sum mod 10) == 0, then the check digit is 0
3. Else, the check digit = 10 - (sum mod 10)
Other, more complex check-digit algorithms (such as the

Verhoe algorithm and the Damm algorithm) can detect def calculate_luhn(partial_card_number): check_digit
more transcription errors. The Luhn mod N algorithm is = luhn_checksum(int(partial_card_number) * 10) return check_digit if check_digit == 0 else 10 - check_digit
an extension that supports non-numerical strings.
Because the algorithm operates on the digits in a right-toleft manner and zero digits aect the result only if they
cause shift in position, zero-padding the beginning of a
string of numbers does not aect the calculation. Therefore, systems that pad to a specic number of digits (by
converting 1234 to 0001234 for instance) can perform
Luhn validation before or after the padding and achieve
the same result.
Prepending a 0 to odd-length numbers enables you to process the number from left to right rather than right to left,
doubling the odd-place digits.
[2]
The algorithm appeared in a US Patent for a hand-held,

mechanical device for computing the checksum. It was
therefore required to be rather simple. The device took
the mod 10 sum by mechanical means. The substitution
digits, that is, the results of the double and reduce procedure, were not produced mechanically. Rather, the digits
were marked in their permuted order on the body of the
machine.
49.4 See also

Bank card number
49.5 References
[1] ISO/IEC 7812-1:2006 Identication cards -- Identication of issuers -- Part 1: Numbering system
[2] US Patent 2,950,048 - Computer for Verifying Numbers,
Hans P Luhn, August 23, 1960
49.6 External links

Implementation in 88 languages on the Rosetta
Code project
Open Source implementation in PowerShell
49.3 Implementation of standard

Mod 10
Luhn implementations in JavaScript

Validation of Luhn in PHP
Implementation in C
The implementations below are in Python.
Ruby: Luhn validation, Luhn generation
226
Luhn validation class in C#
Luhn validation implementation in Java
Luhn validation in SQL
Luhn algorythms for non-numeric characters
CHAPTER 49. LUHN ALGORITHM
Chapter 50
International mobile subscriber identity

The International Mobile Subscriber Identity or
IMSI /mzi/ is used to identify the user of a cellular
network and is a unique identication associated with all
cellular networks. It is stored as a 64 bit eld and is sent
by the phone to the network. It is also used for acquiring
other details of the mobile in the home location register
(HLR) or as locally copied in the visitor location register. To prevent eavesdroppers identifying and tracking
the subscriber on the radio interface, the IMSI is sent as
rarely as possible and a randomly generated TMSI is sent
instead.
The IMSI is used in any mobile network that interconnects with other networks. For GSM, UMTS and LTE
network, this number is provisioned in the SIM card and
for CDMA2000 in the phone directly or in the R-UIM
card (the CDMA2000 analogue to a SIM card for GSM).
An IMSI is usually presented as a 15 digit long number,
but can be shorter. For example MTN South Africa's old
IMSIs that are still being used in the market are shown
as 14 digits. The rst 3 digits are the mobile country
code (MCC), which are followed by the mobile network
code (MNC), either 2 digits (European standard) or 3
digits (North American standard). The length of the
MNC depends on the value of the MCC.[1] The remaining digits are the mobile subscription identication number (MSIN) within the networks customer base.
IMSI must be converted to a Global Title, which can

then be used for accessing the subscribers data in the
remote HLR. This is mainly important for international
mobile roaming. Outside North America the IMSI is converted to the Mobile Global Title (MGT) format, standard E.214, which is similar to but dierent from E.164
number (more or less a telephone number). E.214 provides a method to convert the IMSI into a number that can
be used for routing to international SS7 switches. E.214
can be interpreted as implying that there are two separate
stages of conversion; rst determine the MCC and convert to E.164 country calling code then determine MNC
and convert to national network code for the carriers network. But this process is not used in practice and the
GSM numbering authority has clearly stated that a onestage process is used .
In North America, the IMSI is directly converted to an
E.212 number with no modication of its value. This can
be routed directly on American SS7 networks.
After this conversion, SCCP is used to send the message
to its nal destination. For details, see Global Title Translation.
50.2.1 Example of outside World Area 1
The IMSI conforms to the ITU E.212 numbering stan- This example shows the actual practice which is not
clearly described in the standards.
dard.
Translation rule:
50.1 Examples of IMSI numeric

presentation
match numbers starting 28401 (Bulgaria mobile

country code + MobilTel MNC)
identify this as belonging to MobilTel-Bulgaria network
50.2 IMSI analysis
remove rst ve digits (length of MCC+MNC)

IMSI analysis is the process of examining a subscribers
IMSI to identify the network the IMSI belongs to, and
whether subscribers from that network may use a given
network (if they are not local subscribers, this requires a
roaming agreement).
If the subscriber is not from the providers network, the
227
prepend 35988 (Bulgaria E.164 country code + a

Bulgarian local prex reaching MobilTels network)
mark the number as having E.214 numbering plan.
route message on Global Title across SCCP network
228
CHAPTER 50. INTERNATIONAL MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY
Therefore,
284011234567890
becomes
359881234567890 under the E.214 numbering plan.
Translation rule:
match numbers starting 310150 (America rst MCC
+ Cingular MNC)
remove rst six digits (length of MCC+MNC)
prepend 14054 (North America E.164 country code
+ Network Code for Cingular)
Therefore,
310150123456789
becomes
The result is an E.214 compliant Global Title,
(Numbering Plan Indicator is set to 7 in the SCCP
message). This number can now be sent to Global Title
Analysis.
50.4 See also

IMEI
MEID
Electronic Serial Number
MSISDN
IMSI-catcher
50.5 References
[1] 3GPP specication 23.003
50.6 External links

Cellular Networking Perspectives article in Wireless Telecom Magazine
IMSI oversight council responsible for allocating
IMSI ranges in the USA
IMSI Lookup Utility
50.2.2
Example inside World Area 1

(North America)
Translation rule:
match number starting 28401 (Bulgaria MCC + MobilTel MNC)
identify this as belonging to MobilTel-Bulgaria network
do not alter the digits of the number
Therefore,
284011234567890
becomes
This number has to be converted on the ANSI to ITU
boundary. For more details please see Global Title Translation.
50.3 Home Network Identity

The Home Network Identity (HNI) is the combination of
the MCC and the MNC. This is the number which fully
identies a subscribers home network. This combination
is also known as the PLMN.
Explanation of GSM numbering plans
Chapter 51
Mobile equipment identier

For the town in Somalia, see Maydh.
51.2 Display formats
A mobile equipment identier (MEID) is a globally

unique number identifying a physical piece of CDMA
mobile station equipment. The number format is dened
by the 3GPP2 report S.R0048 but in practical terms, it
can be seen as an IMEI but with hexadecimal digits.
There are two standard formats for MEIDs, and both can
include an optional check-digit. This is dened by 3GPP2
standard X.S0008.
An MEID is 56 bits long (14 hex digits). It consists

of three elds, including an 8-bit regional code (RR),
a 24-bit manufacturer code, and a 24-bit manufacturerassigned serial number. The check digit (CD) is not considered part of the MEID.
The hexadecimal form is specied to be 14 digits grouped

together and applies whether all digits are in the decimal
range or whether some are in the range 'A'-'F'. In the rst
case, all digits are in the range '0'-'9', the check-digit is
calculated using the normal base 10 Luhn algorithm, but
if at least one digit is in the range 'A'-'F' this check digit algorithm uses base 16 arithmetic. The check-digit is never
transmitted or stored. It is intended to detect most (but
not all) input errors, it is not intended to be a checksum
or CRC to detect transmission errors. Consequently, it
may be printed on phones or their packaging in case of
manual entry of an MEID (e.g. because there is no bar
code or the bar code is unreadable).
The MEID was created to replace ESNs, whose virgin form was exhausted in November 2008.[1] As of
TIA/EIA/IS-41 Revision D and TIA/EIA/IS-2000 Rev
C, the ESN is still a required eld in many messages
for compatibility, devices with an MEID can use a pseudo
ESN (pESN), which is a manufacturer code of 0x80 (formerly reserved) followed by the least signicant 24 bits The decimal form is specied to be 18 digits grouped in
a 5 5 4 4 pattern and is calculated by converting the manof the SHA-1 hash of the MEID.[2]
ufacturer code portion (32 bits) to decimal and padding
on the left with '0' digits to 10 digits and separately converting the serial number portion to decimal and padding
51.1 Administration
on the left to 8 digits. A check-digit can be calculated
from the 18 digit result using the standard base 10 Luhn
The separation between international mobile equipment algorithm and appended to the end. Note that to produce
identiers (IMEIs) used by GSM/UMTS and MEIDs is this form the MEID digits are treated as base 16 numbers
based on the number ranges. There are two administra- even if all of them are in the range '0'-'9'.
tors: the global decimal administrator (GDA) for IMEIs
and the global hexadecimal administrator (GHA).
As of August 2006, the TIA acts as the GHA to assign 51.3 pESN conicts
MEID code prexes (0xA0 and up), and the GSM Association acts as the global decimal administrator. http: Because the pESN is formed by a hash on the MEID there
//www.babt.com/gsm-imei-number-allocation.asp
is the potential for hash collisions. These will cause an
The TIA also allocates IMEI codes, specically destined extremely rare condition known as a 'collision' on a pure
for dual-technology phones, out of the RR=99 range. ESN-only network as the ESN is used for the calculation
Other administrators working under GSMA may also al- of the Public Long Code Mask (PLCM) used for comlocate any IMEI for use in dual-technology phones. Ev- munication with the base-station. Two mobiles using the
ery IMEI can also be used as an MEID in CDMA2000 same pESN within the same base-station area (operating
devices (as well as in single-mode devices designed with on the same frequency) can result in call setup and page
GSM or other 3GPP protocols) but MEID codes may also failures.
contain hexadecimal digits and this class of MEID codes The probability of a collision has been carefully
cannot be used as an IMEI.
examined.[3] Roughly, it is estimated that even on a heav229
230
ily loaded network the frequency of this situation is closer
to 1 out of 1 million calls than to 1 out of 100 000.
3GPP2 specication C.S0072 provides a solution to this
problem by allowing the PLCM to be established by the
base station. It is easy for the base station to ensure that
all PLCM codes are unique when this is done. This specication also allows the PLCM to be based on the MEID
or IMSI.
A dierent problem occurs when ESN codes are stored
in a database (such as for OTASP). In this situation,
the risk of at least two phones having the same pseudoESN can be calculated using the birthday paradox and
works out to about a 50 per cent probability in a database
with 4,800 pseudo-ESN entries. 3GPP2 specications
C.S0016 (Revision C or higher) and C.S0066 have been
modied to allow the replacement MEID identier to be
transmitted, resolving this problem.
Another problem is that messages delivered on the forward paging channel using the pESN as an address could
be delivered to multiple mobiles seemingly randomly.
This problem can be avoided by using mobile identication number (MIN) or IMSI based addressing instead.
51.4 Code to convert

This short Python script will convert an MEID to a pESN.
import hashlib meid = raw_input(Enter an MEID:
").upper() s = hashlib.sha1(meid.decode('hex')) #decode
the hex MEID (convert it to binary!) pesn = 80 +
s.hexdigest()[6:].upper() #put the last 6 digits of the
hash after 80 print pESN: " + pesn
The CDG also provides a javascript calculator with more
conversion options.
51.5 References
[1] ESN Migration to MEID - Milestones & Timeline,
The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA),
November 30, 2011
[2] CDG Resources on MEID and EUIMID
[3] Pellegrino G, Quick F. White Paper on Pseudo-ESN Collisions. TIA. 26 May 2005.
51.6 External links

Ocial TIA Resource Page for MEID
PhoneScoop MEID article
CDMA Development Group MEID resource page
CHAPTER 51. MOBILE EQUIPMENT IDENTIFIER
Chapter 52
SIM lock
A SIM lock, simlock, network lock or subsidy lock is a
capability built into GSM mobile phones by mobile phone
manufacturers. Network providers use this capability to
restrict the use of these phones to specic countries and
network providers. A phone sold without a SIM lock is
called a SIM-free or unlocked phone and the purchaser
can insert a SIM card of their choice.
Generally, phones can be locked to accept only SIM cards
with certain International Mobile Subscriber Identities
(IMSIs); IMSIs may be restricted by:
Mobile country code (MCC; e.g., will only work
with SIM issued in one country)
Mobile network code (MNC; e.g., AT&T Mobility,
T-Mobile, Vodafone, Bell Mobility etc.)
Mobile subscriber identication number (MSIN;
i.e., only one SIM can be used with the phone)
Additionally, some phones, especially Nokia phones, can
lock group IDs which are used in voice group call service.
In the United States and other areas, where carriers often
oer deeply discounted cell phones in exchange for an
exclusive agreement with a carrier, that phone will often
be locked so it will not work with another carrier.[1]
Most mobile phones can be unlocked to work with any
GSM network provider, but the phone may still display
the original branding and may not support features of
the new carrier; besides the locking, phones may also
have rmware installed on them which is specic to the
network provider. For example, a Vodafone or Telstra
branded phone in Australia will display the relevant logo
and may only support features provided by that network
(e.g. Vodafone Live!). This rmware is installed by the
service provider and is separate from the locking mechanism. Most phones can be unbranded by reashing a different rmware version, a procedure recommended for
advanced users only.
contract. Such discounts are worth up to several hundred

U.S. dollars. If the phones were not locked, users might
sign a contract with one company, get the discounted
phone, then stop paying the monthly bill (thus breaking
the contract) and start using the phone on another network or even sell the phone for a prot.[2] SIM locking
curbs this by prohibiting change of network (using a new
SIM). SIM locking is very common if subsidized phones
are sold with prepaid contracts. It is important to note,
however, that the technology associated with the phone
must be compatible with the technology being used by
the network carrier. A GSM cell phone will only work
with a GSM carrier and will not work on a CDMA network provider. Likewise, a CDMA cell phone will only
work with a CDMA carrier and will not work on a GSM
network provider.[3]
In some jurisdictions, including China, Israel, and Singapore, SIM locking is illegal , but in other countries, carriers do not provide unlocking codes, or oblige the consumer to pay a fee. Despite this, unlocking a phone without carrier consent may be legal in some jurisdictions.[4]
Additionally, it is often legal for carriers to force SIM
locks for certain amounts of time, varying by region.[5]
52.1 Unlocking technology
A handset can be unlocked by entering a code provided

by the network operator. Alternative mechanisms include
software running on the handset or a computer attached to
the handset, hardware devices that connect to the handset
or over-the-air by the carrier. Usually the unlock process
is permanent. The code required to remove all locks from
a phone is referred to as the master code, network code
key, or multilock code. There can also be multiple levels
of locks placed on the phone by networks, which block
the use of other networks SIM cards. These are usually
referred to as Network (NCK) or Service Provider
The reason many network providers SIM lock their (SPCK) locks and can be removed using the correspondare unique to each phone dephones is that they oer phones at a discount to cus- ing unlock codes, which
[6]
pending
on
its
IMEI.
tomers in exchange for a contract to pay for the use of
the network for a specied time period, usually between Typically, a locked handset will display a message if a reone and three years. This business model allows the com- stricted SIM is used, requesting the unlock code. On repany to recoup the cost of the phone over the life of the cent phone models running Android software, the phone
231
232
will display a message saying SIM network unlock PIN
or Enter Network Lock Control Key if network locked.
Windows phones will display the message, This SIM
card can only be used on specic networks. Contact
your customer service center for the unlock code. Other
handsets may display dierent messages such as Enter
special code or Enter unlocking code, or in some cases
the handset will simply display a message stating that it
is locked. Once a valid code is entered, the handset will
display Network unlocked or Network unlock successful.
The unlock code is veried by the handset and is generated by the manufacturer, typically by an algorithm
such as a one way hash or trapdoor function. Sometimes big telecom providers change the original factory
unlock codes as an extra layer of security against unlocking services. For various big brands such as Samsung and
Motorola there is no algorithm but just a random code
generator where the unlock codes are programmed in the
phone itself and then saved in a big database managed by
the manufacturer. For the other brands where the unlock
codes are still based on algorithms those are based on the
IMEI number and the MCC code and have been reverseengineered, stolen or leaked. Some handsets can be unlocked using software that generates an unlock code from
an IMEI number and country and operator details using
the algorithm specic to the handset. Other manufacturers have taken a more cautious approach, and embed a
random number in the handsets rmware that is retained
by the network on whose behalf the lock was applied and
the manufacturer. These handsets can still be unlocked
by online services that have access to either inside people with the manufacturer or with the telecom networks,
or they need to be connected to the computer with a cable where specic software will bypass the security and
SIM-unlock the phone. Sometimes this is done by advanced calculations to bypass the security the ocial way
and other times using exploits or overwriting parts of the
rmware where the lock status is kept, and often even recover a phone that is bricked or completely damaged in
the software sense.
CHAPTER 52. SIM LOCK

A hardlocked phone is one in which a telecom provider
has modied the rmware on the phone to make it impossible to manually enter the unlock codes in any way. The
only solution to SIM-unlock such a phone is to change the
rmware to a rmware which has not been modied by
any telecom provider, a so-called unbranded rmware.
52.1.1 Economics
Handset manufacturers have economic incentives both
to strengthen SIM lock security (which placates network
providers and enables exclusivity deals) and to weaken it
(broadening a handsets appeal to customers who are not
interested in the service provider that oers it). Also,
making it too dicult to unlock a handset might make
it less appealing to network service providers who have a
legal obligation to provide unlock codes for certain handsets or in certain countries.
In some cases, a SIM-locked handset is sold at a substantially lower price than an unlocked one, because the service provider expects income through its service. SIM
locks are employed on cheaper (pay-as-you-go) handsets,
while discounts on more expensive handsets require a
subscription that provides guaranteed income. Unlocked
handsets have a higher market value, even more so if they
are debranded. Debranding involves reashing or replacing the rmware to remove the operator logo or any limitations or customisations that have been imposed on the
handset by the operator, and is usually accomplished with
software designed for a particular handset model, however most smart-phones can be debranded and unlocked
solely with use of special software.
The main reason to unlock a handset is to be able to use it
with a dierent SIM card. Consumers may wish to continue using their previous provider with a new handset or
when traveling abroad they may wish to connect to a foreign network with a prepaid subscription.
Nevertheless, the fundamental principle of GSM and its
successors, is open interfaces which encourage competition among multiple vendors. This is the reason a mobile phone is, in fact, a combination of phone and the
subscriber identity (SIM). Locking the phone to a network is not much dierent from having the SIM built
into the mobile phone. Network operators in industrialized countries are not bound by law to give the phone
unlocking code to subscribers even after the expiry of the
contract period. Mobile phones with multiple SIM cards
are quite common in India. Most phones sold in the UK
are network locked and single SIM but SIM-free phones
are available.[7]
Most handsets have security measures built into their

rmware that protects them from repeated attempts to
guess the unlock code. After entering more than a certain number of incorrect codes the phone becomes frozen.
This is a state where the phone will display a security message that the phone needs service. Older phones could not
be used at all anymore at this point, but modern smartphones often keep on working with the original SIM but
need extra work to then unlock them the right way. Depending on the brand this frozen state can sometimes be
resolved both by a special unfreeze code (Samsung) and
cable solution and other brands need special cable solutions. In the worst situations one would need a special socalled JTAG hardware solution to x the phone. This is 52.1.2 Box breaking
often needed when there is more damage to the software,
Main article: Box breaker
often including software damage to the bootloader.
52.2. LAWS AND PRACTICES

A practice known as box breaking is common [8] in the
United Kingdom and other markets. This involves purchasing subsidized handsets (usually pay-as-you-go) from
retail stores, unlocking the phones, and then selling them
(often abroad) for a higher price than the subsidised retail
price. The SIM card that came with the handset is then
either thrown away, sold or used elsewhere. This practice is legal in the UK and provides a de facto limit to
the extent to which networks are willing to subsidize payas-you-go handsets. While the act of box breaking is legal, some businesses are also engaging in illegal activities
such as exporting the box-broken phones to other countries, to sell as grey market goods without paying import
duties (known as Carousel Fraud) or substituting counterfeit batteries and chargers.[9][10]
52.1.3
Unlocking services
Some companies oer an online unlocking service. This

service requires that individuals who wish to unlock a
handset provide their IMEI number and sometimes also
country and operator details to the company, either via
email or a web site. The company will then provide the
unlock code for the handset. For some brands such as
Nokia and Samsung various services also oer special
remote unlock software with instructions where a cable
is needed to remove the SIM lock at home. Such companies may email the unlocking code or software which
will remotely unlock the device. Some companies also
oer unlocking services that require sending IMEI number. Other companies sell unlocking hardware, including
devices which t between the SIM card and the phone to
spoof the original network id during registration and devices to read and edit the handsets rmware. The pricing
for unlocking a device will vary depending on the network it is locked to and the model itself, as each unlock
code is unique to the handset. On average it typically
costs around 15 USD depending on model and make, but
for newer phones the price can go as high as 50 USD (for
Apple unlocking even as high as 150 USD). Some service
providers oer unlocking services for their subscribers
worldwide.
Unlock code generators

There are online services that will provide an IMEI
unlocking service for DCT4 and DCT3 Nokia mobile
phones. This method of unlock requires the user to know
which carrier the mobile phone is locked to, and also
needs to provide an IMEI. Generally, older model Nokia
unlock codes are free and instantly retrievable by these
services. The unlock codes retrieved must be entered into
the mobile phone using the keypad.
233
nally ends with a "#". Depending on the carrier which
the phone is locked to, only some codes will work with
the mobile phone. Most phones respond to the unlock
codes ending in +1# or +7#, however some phones are
congured to allow only one of the seven codes to work.
The following is an example of a DCT4/DCT3 unlock
code:
# pw+931882753035021+7#
DCT4 and DCT3 Nokia will only allow a maximum of
ve unlock attempts using the unlock code method. After
ve codes have been inputted, the phone will not allow the
user to try any more codes (even if it is correct) and will
require the owner to try other unlock methods.
There are many free services available online. As smartphones become more advanced, the unlocking of older
handsets becomes much more available.[11]
52.2 Laws and practices

Many countries listed below have some form of SIMlocking laws specifying the period of SIM locking and
the cost of obtaining unlocking codes.
52.2.1 Andorra
In Andorra, the state-owned communications mobile
company Mobiland does not sell SIM-locked phones. As
there is no competition, consumers usually buy standard
mobile phones that are not locked to any specic carrier.
52.2.2 Austria
In Austria, unlocking is allowed at any time by the owner
of the device. A lawsuit was decided in favor of a mobile operator who encouraged the unlocking of phones
by providing links to free/cheap unlocking services.[12]
T-Mobile Austria charges 150 euro to unlock the iPhone
for prepaid subscribers and in contract subscribers. For
subscribers who have nished their 2-year iPhone contract, T-Mobile Austria charges 50 euro to unlock the
iPhone.[13]
52.2.3 Australia
In Australia, carriers can choose whether to
SIM/Network Lock handsets or not and usually
tend to only SIM/Network lock prepaid handsets. There
does not appear to be any regulation or law on SIM
locking in Australia.
For DCT4 and DCT3 Nokia, unlock codes consist of a One law professor, Dale Clapperton, gave a talk stating
"#" key, followed by pw+", 10 (DCT3) or 15 (DCT4) that bundling iPhone and mobile phone service could be
digits, "+", and another number ranging from 1-7, and violating the Trade Practices Act.[14] However, no other
234
legal professional or academic has come out in support of

this viewpoint.[15] This also doesn't address SIM locking
per se, only as applied to subsidised iPhone purchases, and
persistence of the lock beyond the contractual period.
52.2.4
Belgium
Until 2007 Belgium had laws prohibiting bundling, but

they were challenged as violating European Directive
2005/29/EC The Unfair Commercial Practices Directive.
originally designed to be capable of supporting those network technologies. Such a move does not result in violation of the ban on phone locking. For example, an iPhone
6 was designed to be capable of supporting LTE FDD,
LTE TD, CDMA, and WCDMA technologies but China
Mobile reached a deal with Apple to create a special
model for China Mobile in addition to the o-contract
retail model sold by Apple and third party vendors with
the capability to support LTE FDD, CDMA, WCDMA,
which are the technologies not used by China Mobile, disabled, eectively making such special contract model incompatible with the 3G and 4G networks of other carriers
even though such phones are never locked.
On April 23, 2009, the European Court of Justice ruled

against Belgium and struck down Belgiums anti-bundling
law.[16] The Belgian government was given until May
2009 to change the law, failing which the European Com52.2.8
mission would commence proceedings against Belgium.
This leaves China, Singapore and Israel as the only countries in the world that forbid SIM locking and contract/phone bundling outright.[17] Chile initiated a ban as
of January 1, 2012.
52.2.5
Brazil
In Brazil, SIM locks are not prohibited. However, the

mobile carrier must inform the consumer of the existence of a SIM lock. Anatel, Brazils telecom regulator,
requires the carrier to unlock free of charge the mobile
phone if required by the user. After this regulation most
telecom operators started voluntarily unlocking the devices as soon as it was purchased so one could leave the
store with an unlocked phone.[18]
52.2.6
Colombia
Starting October 1, 2011, all the mobile telephone services providers, must sell to all users unlocked devices
and provide free of charge support to unlock previously
sold devices. This regulation was ordered to enable
mobile number portability and to facilitate the reduction
on costs ordered simultaneously.[21]
52.2.9 Chile
Chile requires that carriers unlock any device for free
starting 1 January 2012. Any company providing mobile telephone services must unlock any device for free.
Newly sold phones must be unlocked or be labeled with
information about how to get them unlocked. The regulation was put in place in order to implement mobile number portability.[22]
Canada
52.2.10 Croatia
On June 3, 2013, the Canadian Radio-television and

Telecommunications Commission announced[19] a new
wireless code [20] which encompasses a variety of consumer benets, including the right of consumers to have
their cellphones unlocked after 90 days, or immediately
if they paid for the device in full. The code is eective
2013-12-02.
52.2.7
In Croatia, the mobile operator is allowed to SIM lock

the device only if its bought on contract and only for the
duration of the contract. After the contracts expiration
or termination, the operator must provide the unlock code
on the users request free of charge. For devices bought on
a prepaid plan, the operator must provide the unlock code
on the users request after 12 months free of charge.[23]
China
52.2.11 Denmark
Under a regulation enacted by the Ministry of Industry

and Information Technology, locking phones to a specic
carrier is prohibited if other carriers are also using the
same type of network technology. Therefore, all phones
approved to be sold in China are never locked to begin
with regardless of whether the consumer purchased the
phone under a contract or not. However, since all three
Chinese carriers each uses a dierent network technology
after the adoption of 3G, carriers started to ask phone
manufacturers to disable support for network technologies not used by such carrier even if the phone has been
The carrier can choose to bind contracts up to 6 months

from the contracts start. Many of the carriers choose not
to lock the phones. Only Hi3G (3) lock their phones,
but can only do so for six months.[24] If the phone needs
to be unlocked within the rst six months, the carrier
can charge DKK 500 (~ 67)[24] for the unlock. After
six months, the carrier is obliged by law to unlock the
phone free of charge. But the consumer needs to contact
the original supplier, and provide the IMEI and original
phone number for which the phone was sold.
52.2.12
235
Ecuador
Mobile, and it was locked to T-Mobiles network. They

began to provide unlocking codes for that phone after
Although there is no specic law preventing SIM lock- they were sued by Vodafone and a temporary injunction
ing, as of December 2009 Ecuador's two biggest carri- was issued requiring T-Mobile to do so. Vodafones iners, Porta and Movistar, unlock phones previously sold junction was later overturned, and the iPhone is again
by them, without charge.[25]
available exclusively locked to T-Mobile.[29] While TMobile Germany told the court that they would unlock
the iPhone after the contract, they were doing it volun52.2.13 European Union
tarily.
Countries in the European Union (EU) each have their
own legislation on SIM locking, but must comply with
the EU Unfair Commercial Practices Directive (Directive 2005/29/EC of 2005). As noted above, this directive has been successfully applied in Belgium to overturn
that countrys previous ban on bundling phones with contracts. However, carriers in many countries in the EU do
not necessarily associate a phones SIM lock status to the
customers tie-in contract status.
As of 2012, usually only prepaid mobile phones are sold

with a SIM lock. Phones sold with a contract stipulating monthly payments are not typically locked (as the
monthly payments are due no matter what network the
phone is used on). Also, most providers will unlock the
phone on demand. Usually a fee is charged during the
rst two years after purchase; afterwards the unlocking is
free.
52.2.17 Honduras
52.2.14
Finland
In Finland, carriers are not allowed to sell SIM-locked

GSM phones, nor are they allowed to oer tie-in sales
on GSM equipment. Under Finnish law, a tie-in sale is
dened as selling the equipment for a discounted price
contingent on the consumer also acquiring a new service
contract from the seller. Under the terms of a provisional
exception, valid from 2006 until 2009, tie-in sales were
permitted with 3G handsets, and 3G equipment which
is purchased under such tie-in sales may be SIM-locked.
The SIM lock must be removed free of charge at the conclusion of the tie-in contract, within a maximum duration of 2 years.[26] In 2008, the Finnish government was
preparing to extend the exception, and at the same time,
was considering reducing the duration of tie-in contracts
to one year.[27]
52.2.15
France
In Honduras, there is a general law applicable to all consumer relations engaged in the national territory and provided by natural or legal persons, public or private. This
law is called Ley de Proteccion al Consumidor[30] or
Consumer Protection Act of Honduras, approved by
Legislative Decree No.24-2008, and it regulates the activities of any goods and services providers stating the
principles that they must follow in order to operate in this
country.
Article 20 of this law states the prohibitions that sellers
are obliged to abide when selling a good or providing a
service to people. Paragraph 7 of this article states that
it is prohibited to a provider to place seals, adhesives,
duct tapes or analogous mechanisms, which prevent the
consumer to make free use of the product, except those
mechanisms used by the manufacturer for warranty purposes;".
Even though the existence of this law, local carriers continue to apply SIM restrictions to the phones they sell.
For example, the iPhone is sold by Claro in Honduras
and is SIM-locked,.[31] which suggests that this general
consumer protection law does not prohibit SIM locking
of cell phones
In France, SIM locks are not prohibited. However, the

mobile operator must inform the consumer of the existence of a SIM lock, and the subscriber has the right to request that the lock be removed at any time. No later than
three months after the subscription of the contract, the
mobile operator must systematically and free of charge
provide the subscriber with a procedure to deactivate the 52.2.18 Hong Kong
SIM lock. Proposal to shorten the time that operators
may charge a fee for removing the SIM lock prior from In Hong Kong, carriers are not allowed to SIM-lock a
phone for the sole purpose of tying customers to their netsix-month to the three-month deadline.[28]
work. But Hong Kong carriers can SIM-lock a phone to
protect the handset subsidy, to enforce mobile plan contracts or to protect from theft.[32] After the initial pur52.2.16 Germany
chase subsidy has been recovered, or the full cost of the
In Germany, there does not appear to be any eective law equipment has been paid up under a rental or installment
regulating SIM locking. For example, the iPhone was ini- agreement, the carrier must provide a detailed procedure
tially oered for sale in Germany exclusively through T- for unlocking the equipment free of charge upon request.
236
52.2.19
India
SIM locking is not common in India. Initially, each state

in India had a dierent mobile network operator and
roaming across states was prohibitive. It was cheaper
to change the SIM card than pay high roaming charges.
The number of inter-state travelers demanded unlocked
phones. Usually, phones and SIM cards are sold separately. Mobile phone manufacturers sell phones directly
to customers rather than through network operators. Dual
SIM phones are quite common in use, with users choosing to make calls using a cheaper operator suitable for the
particular call and time of the day from a Dual SIM phone
without even switching it o. This along with other factors, encouraged competition among network operators
and brought down the mobile phone call charges in from
the initial 32 (US$0.75) in 1996 to 0.50 (US$0.005
approx.) in 2011. The rates still dier from one service
provider to another and across dierent tari schemes
provided by the same operator. Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) is the independent regulator of
the telecommunications business in India,[33] established
to check call rates and resolve all communication related
issues and holds the upper hand in xing call rates.
52.2.20
Israel
tary code of conduct into legislation is not needed. Thus

there are no SIM locking laws in the Netherlands.[41]
52.2.23 New Zealand

Locking had occurred in New Zealand only to a limited degree[42] before May 2008 when Vodafone New
Zealand announced they would begin locking handsets
and charge $50 to unlock them. It is speculated that locking began due to the fact Telecom New Zealand were
building their new XT Mobile Network based on UMTS
technology, allowing handsets to change networks for the
rst time as Telecoms existing network (the only other
network at that time) was based on CDMA technology.
2degrees were also building their mobile network at this
time. After pressure from the Commerce Commission,
Vodafone relented on its locking policy and will unlock
any locked phones for free once they have been owned
for nine months. You can pay to have it unlocked prior to
this.[43][44][45] Following speculation of a new lower cost,
MNVO of Telecom XT details were leaked regarding the
Skinny Mobile Network, which would SIM lock handsets.
As of 2015, Vodafone, 2Degrees and Skinny all charge a
$30 unlock fee for phones owned for less than 9 months.
According to the Arrangements Law passed on Decem- 52.2.24 Pakistan

ber 29, 2010, Israeli carriers are banned from locking
handsets sold by them, and are obligated to unlock any
Ufone has started SIM Locking with the release of its new
handset previously sold at no charge.[34]
smartphone named Smart U5 developed by Emitac Services, UAE. U5 comes SIM locked to Ufone only. No
other SIM can be used on the U5.
52.2.21
Italy
Italy has SIM locking laws requiring that carriers must 52.2.25 Peru
specify the amount of subsidies, and allow subscribers to
obtain unlocking codes after nine months by paying half
According to OSIPTEL Perus telecom regulator, article
of the listed subsidies. After 18 months, the SIM lock
23 of the Terms of use, mobile carriers can sell phones
must be removed.[35]
locked for a lower price for 12, 18 or 24-month contracts,
but also must sell unlocked devices for the full price. The
same article dictates the customer can request the unlock
52.2.22 Netherlands
code for free after 12 months from the purchase date, no
matter if the contract is still in place. The sole exception
Dutch mobile carriers have an agreement [36] with the is if the customer cancels the contract before its end and
Netherlands telecom regulator, OPTA, to establish a pays the remaining cost, at which point the customer can
code of conduct [37] with respect to SIM locking request the device be unlocked at any time. OSIPTEL
specically, unlocking fees can be charged within the plans to reduce the time customers must wait to remove
rst 12 months and SIM lock cannot last longer than 12 their sim locks to 6 months.
months.[38]
In a 2002 letter to the Dutch Secretary of State of Economic Aairs, OPTA stated that the telecom regulator
has decided to start working on the formalization of the
voluntary code of conduct into legislation.[39] However, a
2006 report written by the Dutch Ministry of Economic
Aairs,[40] stated that competition in the Dutch mobile
market is sucient and the formalization of the volun-
52.2.26 Portugal
A 2006 study sponsored by the Portugal regulator,
ANACOM, on handset subsidies and SIM locking concluded that there are no special regulatory concerns on
oering subsidized SIM-locked equipment in exchange

for signing a contract tying a customer to a particular network. Network providers are allowed to apply SIM locks
as they see t, and they may voluntarily remove them if
they choose to do so. In the paper, the author stated that
the average unlocking fee charged by Portuguese carriers
is 90-100 euros.[46] A recently approved law [47] requires
network operators to unlock a device free of charge if the
respective contract has already expired (But they refuse to
do so charging at least 10 euros). It also establishes limits
to the fees that operators may charge to unlock a device
while it is still under contract.
237
52.2.30 Sweden
In Sweden, carriers are required to unlock handsets after 12 months since purchase. This applies both to oncontract and pay as you go phones. All carriers will
charge a fee of 300 SEK (approximately $45) or 350 SEK
(approximately $50),depending on carrier, to unlock the
handset.
52.2.31 Thailand
Thailand is also another country that forbids outright SIM

locking and as a result, no phones are sold in the market are subsidized by carriers. Up until recently mobile
Romanian telecom regulator ANCOM signed a code of
phone manufacturers have their own store fronts and moconduct with several Romanian carriers providing that as
bile carriers are only the service providers.
of September 1, 2009 mobile operators selling handsets
locked within their own network have to inform clients
whether the handset is locked and provide unlocking upon
request. It is self-regulation by the carriers to prevent 52.2.32 United Kingdom
the regulator from actually imposing regulations on them.
If the handset is not purchased together with other elec- In the United Kingdom, mobile phone network providers
tronic communications services, the mobile telephony are not obliged to provide unlocking, even after the end
operator that sells it will bear the unlocking costs and will of the contract. Ofcom, UKs telecom regulator, allowed
the SIM card permanot bind the terminal unlocking by the purchase of other 3 UK to sell a mobile phone with
[51]
nently
superglued
to
the
phone.
Most operators oer
services or by the payment of other fees.
some form of unlocking service, depending on the state
If the handset is purchased as part of a promotional pack- of the contract and the model of phone, but usually for
age or at a preferential price and the customer requires the a charge. The full Oftel 2002 SIM-lock position paper
unlocking before the expiry of the minimum period pro- species that there is no SIM-locking law in the UK;
vided in the contract for communications services con- the regulator wants only consumer awareness. The excluded with the operator, the customer will have to pay amples within the position paper are just examples of
both the unlocking fee and the penalty for the anticipated current carrier practices for illustration purposes, but do
unlocking of the handset. The price charged to unlock not reect any ocial Oftel regulation.[52] The main nethandsets will not exceed the costs of this operation and works often agree to unlock handsets for a charge, either
operators are obliged to meet unlocking requests within at the end of a contract or, for prepaid handsets, after
15 days.[48]
several months. Some Blackberry handsets supplied by
Vodafone (e.g., Storm)[53] are examples of a UK carrier
not oering unlocking codes. As of April 2011 O2 will
52.2.28 Singapore
unlock any of their pay-monthly phones for free, even if
they're still in contract, with the exception of handsets
Singapore is the rst country that forbids outright
made exclusively for them, such as their Palm devices.
SIM locking and contract/phone bundling. Singapores
Carphone Warehouse, one of the largest UK phone retelecommunications regulator has ruled that the comtailers, oers unlocked phones with most PAYG deals.
petition clause in mobile carriers licenses means SIMlocking is not allowed, and has warned at least one operator for selling SIM-locked phones [49]
52.2.27
Romania
52.2.29
Spain
In 1998, the Spanish telecom regulator, Comisin del

Mercado de las Telecomunicaciones, saw that Spanish
mobile carriers already provided unlocking codes voluntarily for a fee within the rst 12 months and for free
after 12 months, so CMT decided not to put any legal
framework in Spain.[50] CMT has not revisited this decision since then, therefore there are no SIM-locking laws
in Spain.
One of the two United States GSM carriers, T-Mobile,[54]

will unlock handsets for those with active account in good
standing for at least 40 days and no unlock code request in
the last 90 days. The other, AT&T Mobility, is required
to do so upon request (with some exceptions and requirements after ninety days of active service) under the terms
of a class action settlement negotiated by Scott A Bursors
class action law rm.[55] Prior to the settlement, AT&T
would [56] usually do so once one has concluded their contract, and in some other situations. AT&T had in the past
238
stated that it would not unlock iPhones under any circumstances, regardless of the legality of doing so, even after customers are out of contract. However, AT&T has
since announced that starting April 8, 2012, it will begin unlocking o-contract iPhones, provided that the customers account is in good standing.[57] AT&T also has
an unannounced policy of unlocking iPhones for United
States service members who are deployed overseas
even if they are still under contract.[58]
Before carriers began voluntarily providing unlock codes
for all phone models, in 2010 the Electronic Frontier
Foundation (EFF) successfully convinced the U.S. Copyright Oce to allow an exemption to the general prohibition on circumvention of copyright protection systems
under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 for
unlocking of phones through user self-help (sometimes
referred to as hacking).[59] This exemption has become
less important now that most carriers are voluntarily providing unlock codes.
52.4 References
[1] Wholesale unlocked cell phones.
[2] What is a Locked Phone and Why do Carriers Lock
Them?".
[3] 10 Most Frequently Asked Questions Answered Pertaining the FCC Guidelines on Mobile Device Unlocking.
[4] Is iPhone unlocking illegal?". SimonlymetInternet. Retrieved 23 September 2012.
[5] Butters, Kerry (26 March 2012). Unlocking Codes: legal
or illegal?". Unlock.my. Retrieved 23 September 2012.
[6] Dierent Types of Unlock Code for Changing Network.
MobileUnlocked.com. 17 August 2012.
[7] SIM Free Phones. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
[8] Box breaking investigation exposes retail sta breaches.
Mobile News Online. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
According to a ruling eective October 28, 2012, it

[9] Fraud cases up, nancial losses down. Retrieved 7 Ocwill be illegal to unlock phones purchased 90 days after
tober 2014.
[60]
this date or later without the carriers permission.
In
other words, users can already unlock phones they already [10]
own, and phones purchased before January 29, 2013, but
phones purchased after this point can only be unlocked [11] Blackberry Unlocking. Great Domain Names for Your
Online Presence from Buzzolo. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
with the carriers permission.
In March 2013, the Obama administration and the [12] YESSS! gegen T-Mobile Klage erfolgreich,
Telekompresse-Bericht ber das Urteil zugunsten
Federal Communications Commission said consumers
von YESSS!, 2005-06-29
should also be able to switch carriers and keep their actual
[61]
phones.
[13] Entsperrung des iPhone. Faq.t-mobile.at. 2010-05-14.
On August 1, 2014, President Obama signed into law the
Unlocking Consumer Choice and Wireless Competition [14] Latest Reviews. February 25, 2008.
Act (S. 517; 113th Congress), a bill legalizing unlocking
cellphones in the U.S.[62][63] The bill passed in the United [15] TechRepublic - A Resource for IT Professionals.
Builderau.com.au. Retrieved 2013-06-21.
States Senate on July 15, 2014, and in the United States
House of Representatives on July 25, 2014.
[16] Belgium law was struck down.. Retrieved 7 October
2014.
Recently, a few carriers such as Sprint have agreed to allow domestic unlocking on all mobile devices launched
[17] High iPhone Price Blamed on Subsidy Ban. Retrieved
and after February 15, 2015.[64]
7 October 2014.
It is possible to buy unlocked phones in the US. Some
[18] Bloqueio (in Portuguese). Anatel. Retrieved 25 Octoonline retailers sell phones that come unlocked from the
ber 2012.
manufacturer, that is, they were never locked in the rst
place.
[19] Canadians can cancel their wireless contracts after two
years under new CRTC wireless code. crtc.gc.ca. Retrieved 2013-06-03.
52.3 See also

Regional lockout
Android rooting
Hardware restrictions
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)
iOS jailbreaking
Vendor lock-in
[20] Information about the Wireless Code. crtc.gc.ca. Retrieved 2013-06-03.

[21] Desde el 1 de octubre los colombianos podrn comprar
los celulares con las bandas abiertas, una medida del gobierno que fortalece los derechos de los usuarios de telecomunicaciones en el pas. Mintic.gov.co. Retrieved 201306-21.
[22] Chilean
regulator
statement
(Spanish)
http:
//www.subtel.gob.cl/prontus_subtel/site/artic/20111228/
pags/20111228200541.html
52.4. REFERENCES
239
[23] Pravilnik o nainu i uvjetima obavljanja djelatnosti

elektronikih komunikacijskih mrea i usluga (PDF).
HAKOM. Retrieved 2014-05-19.
[48] Operatorii de telefonie mobila vor debloca, la cerere,

telefoanele codate in reteaua proprie (in Romanian). Ancom. 29 September 2009.
[24] Teleselskaber dropper simls.
[49] TAS Fines M1 For Unauthorised Frequency Transmission And Issues Warning Over Sale Of SIM-Locked Cellular Phones (Press release). Infocomm Development
Authority of Singapore. 1997-09-08.
[25] Claro - Ecuador. Porta.net. Retrieved 2013-06-21.

[26] Communications Market Act
[27] Finland to keep 3G exception in tie-in sales ban
[50] Spanish telecom regulator decided not to legislate SIM

locking in 1998.
[28] Proposition de loi relative aux tlcommunications.

Senat.fr. Retrieved 2013-06-21.
[51] 3 UK superglued SIM card into the cell phone.. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
[29] Deutsche Telekom Wins Ruling in IPhone Sales Dispute

(Update3)". Bloomberg. December 4, 2007.
[52] OFCOM Review of SIM-locking policy. Retrieved 7

October 2014.
[30] Decreto No.24-2008 : El Congreso Nacional (PDF).

Sic.gob.hn. Retrieved 2013-08-24.
[53] Vodafone UKs position on not oering unlocking codes

to Blackberry Storm. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
[31] iPhone: Wireless carrier support and features. Support.apple.com. 2013-06-17. Retrieved 2013-06-21.
[54] SIM Unlock your phone | Support.

mobile.com. Retrieved 2013-06-21.
[32] OFTA, Oce of the Telecommunications Authority,

Hong Kong
[55] http://www.attlockinglawsuits.com/pdf/meolinot.pdf
(Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/
67XpFxapm)
[33] TRAI website. Retrieved 2008-08-19.

[34] "
(hebrew .)"TheMarker. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
[35] Consumer friendlier SIM-lock mechanism
[36] Dutch Ministry of Economic Aair paper stating OPTA
agreement with Dutch mobile carriers. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
[37] Establishment of Conduct of Conduct. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
[38] OPTA website on sim-locking
[39] OPTA letter to EZ (PDF). Retrieved 7 October 2014.
[40] EZ 2006 Report. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
[41] In the runup of the European launch of the iPhone, a
Dutch Macintosh website asked a lawyer to provide a simple summary of the SIM-locking situation in the Netherlands.
[42] unlock - Help - Vodafone NZ. Help.vodafone.co.nz.
Support.t-
[56] Pegoraro, Rob (2008-05-29). Its Not The Money, Can

You Hear Me?". The Washington Post. Retrieved 201005-23.
[57] Golson, Jordan (April 6, 2012). AT&T Will Unlock
O-Contract iPhones Starting Sunday, April 8. MacRumors.com. Retrieved April 11, 2012.
[58] Golson, Jordan (April 9, 2012). AT&T Unlocking
In-Contract iPhones for Deployed Service Members.
MacRumors.com. Retrieved April 11, 2012.
[59] U.S. Copyright Oce (July 27, 2010). U.S. Copyright Oce Final 2010 Anti-Circumvention Rulemaking
(PDF). Federal Register. Retrieved August 21, 2012.
[60] U.S. Copyright Oce (October 22, 2012). Exemption
to Prohibition on Circumvention of Copyright Protection
Systems for Access Control Technologies (PDF). Federal
Register.
[61] F.C.C. Backs Consumers in Unlocking of Cellphones
March 4, 2013 NYT
[62] Hattem, Julian (25 July 2014). House votes to allow cellphone 'unlocking'". The Hill. Retrieved 25 July 2014.
[43] How to unlock your mobile phone - Vodafone NZ
[63] President signs cell phone unlocking bill into law. cnet.
August 2, 2014.
[44] Vodafone relents on mobile lock. Stu.co.nz. May 27,

2008. Retrieved November 11, 2011.
[64] Legal / Regulatory & Consumer Resources.
[45] Grin, Peter (May 2, 2008). Vodafones mobile phone

lock-down. The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved
November 11, 2011.
[46] Handset Subsidies an Empirical Investigation
[47] ANACOM - Desbloqueamento de telemveis - novas regras. Anacom.pt. 2010-07-13. Retrieved 2013-06-21.
Chapter 53
Mobile phone
Cell Phone redirects here. For the lm, see Cell Phone
(lm).
Handphone redirects here. For the lm, see Handphone
(lm).
port a wide variety of other services such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet access, short-range wireless
communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, gaming, and photography. Mobile phones that offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones.
The rst hand-held cell phone was demonstrated by John
F. Mitchell[1][2] and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973,
using a handset weighing around 4.4 pounds (2 kg).[3] In
1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the rst to be commercially available. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile
phone subscriptions grew from zero to over 7 billion, penetrating 100% of the global population and reaching the
bottom of the economic pyramid.[4] In 2014, the top cell
phone manufacturers were Samsung, Nokia, Apple, and
LG.[5]
53.1 History
Evolution of mobile phones, through early smartphone
A mobile phone (also known as a cellular phone, cell

phone, hand phone, or simply a phone) is a phone that
can make and receive telephone calls over a radio link
while moving around a wide geographic area. It does so
by connecting to a cellular network provided by a mobile
phone operator, allowing access to the public telephone
network. By contrast, a cordless telephone is used only
within the short range of a single, private base station.
Main article: History of mobile phones

A hand-held mobile radiotelephone is an old dream of
radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt led a patent for what he described as a pocket-size
folding telephone with a very thin carbon microphone.
Among other early descriptions is one found in the 1948
science ction novel Space Cadet by Robert Heinlein. The
protagonist, who has just traveled to Colorado from his
home in Iowa, receives a call from his father on a telephone in his pocket. Before leaving for earth orbit, he
decides to ship the telephone home since it was limited
by its short range to the neighborhood of an earth-side
[i.e. terrestrial] relay oce. Ten years later, an essay by
Arthur C. Clarke envisioned a personal transceiver, so
small and compact that every man carries one. Clarke
wrote: the time will come when we will be able to call
a person anywhere on Earth merely by dialing a number. Such a device would also, in Clarkes vision, include means for global positioning so that no one need
ever again be lost. In his 1962 Proles of the Future, he
predicted the advent of such a device taking place in the
mid-1980s.[6]
In addition to telephony, modern mobile phones also sup- Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog ra240
53.1. HISTORY
241
Martin Cooper of Motorola made the rst publicized handheld

mobile phone call on a prototype DynaTAC model on April 4,
1973. This is a reenactment in 2007.
dio communications from ships and trains. The race to

create truly portable telephone devices began after World
War II, with developments taking place in many countries. The advances in mobile telephony have been traced
in successive generations from the early 0G (zeroth generation) services like the Bell System's Mobile Telephone
Service and its successor, Improved Mobile Telephone
Service. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported
few simultaneous calls, and were very expensive.
The rst handheld mobile cell phone was demonstrated
by Motorola in 1973. The rst commercial automated
cellular network was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone in 1979. In 1981, this was followed
by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system in Denmark, Finland, Norway and The Motorola DynaTAC 8000X. First commercially available,
Sweden.[7] Several other countries then followed in the hand-held cellular mobile phone, 1984
early to mid-1980s. These rst generation (1G) systems could support far more simultaneous calls, but still
used analog technology.
(HSPA) family, allowing UMTS networks to have higher
In 1991, the second generation (2G) digital cellular tech- data transfer speeds and capacity.
nology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point,
GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of
as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G net- bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming media.[9]
work operators.
Consequently, the industry began looking to dataTen years later, in 2001, the third generation (3G) was
launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA
standard.[8] This was followed by 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo
3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access
optimized fourth generation technologies, with the

promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. The rst two commercially available
technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard (of-
242
CHAPTER 53. MOBILE PHONE
fered in North America by Sprint) and the LTE standard, VoIP phone service, with someone elses WiFi/internet
rst oered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.
connection.[12]
53.2 Features
Main article: Mobile phone features
See also: Smartphone
Several phone series have been introduced to address

specic market segments, such as the RIM BlackBerry
focusing on enterprise/corporate customer email needs;
the Sony-Ericsson 'Walkman' series of music/phones and
'Cyber-shot' series of camera/phones; the Nokia Nseries
of multimedia phones, the Palm Pre the HTC Dream and
the Apple iPhone.
All mobile phones have a number of features in common, but manufacturers also seek product dierentiation 53.2.2 Text messaging
by adding functions to make them more attractive to consumers. This has led to great innovation in mobile phone
Main article: SMS
development over the past 20 years.
The common components found on all phones are:
The most commonly used data application on mobile

phones is SMS text messaging. The rst SMS text mesA battery, providing the power source for the phone sage was sent from a computer to a mobile phone in 1992
functions.
in the UK, while the rst person-to-person SMS from
phone to phone was sent in Finland in 1993.
An input mechanism to allow the user to interact
with the phone. The most common input mecha- The rst mobile news service, delivered via SMS, was
nism is a keypad, but touch screens are also found launched in Finland in 2000, and subsequently many
organizations provided on-demand and instant news
in most smartphones.
services by SMS.
A screen which echoes the users typing, displays
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) was introduced in
text messages, contacts and more.
2001.
Basic mobile phone services to allow users to make
calls and send text messages.
53.2.3 SIM card
All GSM phones use a SIM card to allow an account

to be swapped among devices. Some CDMA de- Main articles:
Subscriber Identity Module and
vices also have a similar card called a R-UIM.
Removable User Identity Module
GSM feature phones require a small microchip called
Individual GSM, WCDMA, iDEN and some a Subscriber Identity Module or SIM card, to function.
satellite phone devices are uniquely identied by The SIM card is approximately the size of a small
an International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) postage stamp and is usually placed underneath the
number.
battery in the rear of the unit. The SIM securely stores
the service-subscriber key (IMSI) and the K used to
Low-end mobile phones are often referred to as feature identify and authenticate the user of the mobile phone.
phones, and oer basic telephony. Handsets with more The SIM card allows users to change phones by simply
advanced computing ability through the use of native removing the SIM card from one mobile phone and
software applications became known as smartphones.
inserting it into another mobile phone or broadband
telephony device, provided that this is not prevented by
a SIM lock.
53.2.1
Sound quality
The rst SIM card was made in 1991 by Munich smart

card maker Giesecke & Devrient for the Finnish wireless
In sound quality, smartphones and feature phones vary
network operator Radiolinja.
little. Some audio-quality enhancing features like Voice
over LTE and HD Voice have appeared and are often
available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can re53.2.4 Multi-card hybrid phones
main a problem with both, as this depends, not so much
on the phone itself, as on the quality of the network, and in
case of long distance calls, the bottlenecks/choke points A hybrid mobile phone can hold up to four SIM cards.
allow
met along the way.[10][11] As such, on long-distance calls SIM and RUIM cards may be mixed together to
[13][14]
both
GSM
and
CDMA
networks
to
be
accessed.
even features such as Voice over LTE, HD voice may
not improve things. In some cases smartphones can im- From 2010 onwards they became popular in India and
prove audio quality even on long-distance calls, by using Indonesia and other emerging markets,[15] attributed to
53.4. MANUFACTURERS
243
Growth in mobile phone subscribers per country from 1980 to

2009.
over 10 million subscribers each, and over 150 mobile

operators had at least one million subscribers by the end
of 2009.[20] In 2014, there were more than seven billion
mobile phone subscribers worldwide, a number that is expected to keep growing.
53.4 Manufacturers
See also: List of best-selling mobile phones and List of
mobile phone makers by country
Typical mobile phone SIM card
the desire to obtain the lowest on-net calling rate. In Q3

2011, Nokia shipped 18 million of its low cost dual SIM
phone range in an attempt to make up lost ground in the
higher end smartphone market.[16]
53.2.5
Kosher phones
There are Jewish orthodox religious restrictions which,

by some interpretations, standard mobile telephones do
not meet. To solve this issue, some rabbinical organizations have recommended that phones with text messaging capability not be used by children.[17] These restricted
phones are known as kosher phones and have rabbinical
approval for use in Israel and elsewhere by observant
Orthodox Jews. Although these phones are intended to
prevent immodesty, some vendors report good sales to
adults who prefer the simplicity of the devices. Some
phones are even approved for use by essential workers (such as health, security and public services) on the
sabbath, even though use of any electrical device is generally prohibited.[18]
53.3 Mobile phone operators

Main article: Mobile phone operator
Prior to 2010, Nokia was the market leader. However,

since then competition emerged in the Asia Pacic region
with brands such as Micromax, Nexian, and i-Mobile and
chipped away at Nokias market share. Android powered smartphones also gained momentum across the region at the expense of Nokia. In India, their market
share also dropped signicantly to around 31 percent
from 56 percent in the same period. Their share was displaced by Chinese and Indian vendors of low-end mobile
phones.[21]
In Q1 2012, based on Strategy Analytics, Samsung surpassed Nokia, selling 93.5 million units and 82.7 million
units, respectively. Standard & Poors has also downgraded Nokia to 'junk' status at BB+/B with negative outlook due to high loss and still declined with growth of Lumia smartphones was not sucient to oset a rapid decline in revenue from Symbian-based smartphones over
the next few quarters.[22]
In Q3 2014, the top 10 manufacturers were Samsung
(20.6%), Nokia (9.5%), Apple Inc. (8.4%), LG (4.2%),
Huawei (3.6%), TCL Communication (3.5), Xiaomi
(3.5%), Lenovo (3.3%), ZTE (3.0%) and Micromax
(2.2%).[23]
Note: Vendor shipments are branded shipments and exclude OEM sales for all vendors
Other manufacturers outside the top ve include TCL

Communication, Lenovo, Sony Mobile CommunicaThe worlds largest individual mobile operator by sub- tions, Motorola. Smaller current and past players inscribers is China Mobile with over 500 million mobile clude Karbonn Mobile, Audiovox (now UTStarcom),
phone subscribers.[19] Over 50 mobile operators have BenQ-Siemens, BlackBerry, Casio, CECT, Coolpad,
244
Fujitsu, HTC, Just5, Kyocera, Lumigon, Micromax

Mobile, Mitsubishi Electric, Modu, NEC, Neonode,
Openmoko, Panasonic, Palm, Pantech Wireless Inc.,
Philips, Qualcomm Inc., Sagem, Sanyo, Sharp, Sierra
Wireless, SK Teletech, Soutec, Trium, Toshiba, and Vidalco.
53.5 Use of mobile phones

53.5.1
In general
Mobile phone subscribers per 100 inhabitants 1997-2014
140
Developed
120
Developing
World
The United Nations reported that mobile phones

have spread faster than any other technology and
can improve the livelihood of the poorest people in
developing countries by providing access to information in places where landlines or the Internet are
not available, especially in the least developed countries. Use of mobile phones also spawns a wealth of
micro-enterprises, by providing work, such as selling airtime on the streets and repairing or refurbishing handsets.[30]
In Mali and other African countries, people used to
travel from village to village to let friends and relatives know about weddings, births and other events,
which is now avoided within mobile phone coverage
areas, which are usually more extensive than land
line penetration.
100
80
60
40
20
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014*
Mobile phone subscribers per 100 inhabitants. 2014 gure is

estimated.
The TV industry has recently started using mobile

phones to drive live TV viewing through mobile
apps, advertising, social tv, and mobile TV.[31] 86%
of Americans use their mobile phone while watching TV.
In parts of the world, mobile phone sharing is common. It is prevalent in urban India, as families and
groups of friends often share one or more mobiles
among their members. There are obvious economic
benets, but often familial customs and traditional
gender roles play a part.[32] It is common for a village to have access to only one mobile phone, perhaps owned by a teacher or missionary, but available
to all members of the village for necessary calls.[33]
Mobile phones are used for a variety of purposes, including keeping in touch with family members, conducting
business, and having access to a telephone in the event
of an emergency. Some people carry more than one cell
phone for dierent purposes, such as for business and
personal use. Multiple SIM cards may also be used to
take advantage of the benets of dierent calling plans
a particular plan might provide cheaper local calls, long- 53.5.2
distance calls, international calls, or roaming. The mobile
phone has also been used in a variety of diverse contexts
in society, for example:
Smartphones
Active mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants
90
A study by Motorola found that one in ten cell phone

subscribers have a second phone that is often kept
secret from other family members. These phones
may be used to engage in activities including extramarital aairs or clandestine business dealings.[26]
Some organizations assist victims of domestic violence by providing mobile phones for use in emergencies. They are often refurbished phones.[27]
80
Developed
70
Developing
World
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014*
The advent of widespread text messaging has re- Active mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, from
ITU
sulted in the cell phone novel; the rst literary genre
to emerge from the cellular age via text messaging
Smartphones have a number of distinguishing features
to a website that collects the novels as a whole.[28]
but the ITU measures those with internet connection
Mobile telephony also facilitates activism and pub- which it calls Active Mobile-Broadband subscriptions
lic journalism being explored by Reuters and (which includes tablets etc.) In the developed world these
Yahoo![29] and small independent news companies have now overtaken the usage of earlier mobile systems
such as Jasmine News in Sri Lanka.
but in the developing world account for only 20%.
53.5. USE OF MOBILE PHONES
53.5.3
245
For distributing content
and Singapore ban both handheld and hands-free use of

a mobile phone; others including the UK, France, and
In 1998, one of the rst examples of distributing and sell- many U.S. statesban handheld phone use only, allowing media content through the mobile phone was the sale ing hands-free use.
of ringtones by Radiolinja in Finland. Soon afterwards, Due to the increasing complexity of mobile phones, they
other media content appeared such as news, video games, are often more like mobile computers in their available
jokes, horoscopes, TV content and advertising. Most uses. This has introduced additional diculties for law
early content for mobile tended to be copies of legacy enforcement ocials in distinguishing one usage from
media, such as the banner advertisement or the TV news another as drivers use their devices. This is more aphighlight video clip. Recently, unique content for mobile parent in those countries which ban both handheld and
has been emerging, from the ringing tones and ringback hands-free usage, rather than those who have banned
tones in music to mobisodes, video content that has handheld use only, as ocials cannot easily tell which
been produced exclusively for mobile phones.
function of the mobile phone is being used simply by
In 2006, the total value of mobile-phone-paid media content exceeded Internet-paid media content and was worth
31 billion dollars.[34] The value of music on phones was
worth 9.3 billion dollars in 2007 and gaming was worth
over 5 billion dollars in 2007.[35]
53.5.4
While driving
looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being

stopped for using their device illegally on a phone call
when, in fact, they were using the device for a legal purpose such as the phones incorporated controls for car
stereo or satnav.
A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of mobile phone use
while cycling and its eects on behaviour and safety.[36]
Main article: Mobile phones and driving safety

53.5.5
Mobile phone use while driving is common but contro-
Mobile banking and payments
Mobile payment system
Main articles: Mobile banking and Mobile payment

See also: Branchless banking and Contactless payment
In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide
mobile banking services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenyas M-PESA mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator
Safaricom to hold cash balances which are recorded on
their SIM cards. Cash may be deposited or withdrawn
A sign along Bellaire Boulevard in Southside Place, Texas from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets lo(Greater Houston) states that using mobile phones while driving cated throughout the country, and may be transferred
is prohibited from 7:30 AM to 9:30 AM and from 2:00 PM to
electronically from person to person as well as used to
4:15 PM
pay bills to companies.
versial. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle
has been shown to increase the risk of accidents. Because of this, many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal
Branchless banking has also been successful in South

Africa and the Philippines. A pilot project in Bali was
launched in 2011 by the International Finance Corporation and an Indonesian bank Bank Mandiri.[37]
246
Another application of mobile banking technology is

Zidisha, a US-based nonprot micro-lending platform
that allows residents of developing countries to raise small
business loans from Web users worldwide. Zidisha uses
mobile banking for loan disbursements and repayments,
transferring funds from lenders in the United States to the
borrowers in rural Africa using the Internet and mobile
phones.[38]
in case of theft. The petition is part of a joint eort by

New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman and San
Francisco District Attorney George Gascn and was directed to the CEOs of the major smartphone manufacturers and telecommunication carriers.[48]
On Monday, 10 June 2013, Apple announced it would
install a kill switch on its next iPhone operating system,
due to debut in October 2013.[49]
Mobile payments were rst trialled in Finland in 1998

when two Coca-Cola vending machines in Espoo were
enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea 53.6 Health eects
spread and in 1999 the Philippines launched the countrys
rst commercial mobile payments systems on the mobile
Main article: Mobile phone radiation and health
operators Globe and Smart.
Further information: Mobile phones on aircraft
Some mobile phone can make mobile payments via direct
mobile billing schemes or through contactless payments
The eect mobile phone radiation has on human health is
if the phone and point of sale support near eld communithe subject of recent interest and study, as a result of the
[39]
cation (NFC). This requires the co-operation of manenormous increase in mobile phone usage throughout the
ufacturers, network operators and retail merchants to enworld. Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation in
able contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile
the microwave range, which some believe may be harm[40][41][42]
phones.
ful to human health. A large body of research exists, both
epidemiological and experimental, in non-human animals
and in humans, of which the majority shows no denite
53.5.6 Tracking and privacy
causative relationship between exposure to mobile phones
See also: Cellphone surveillance and Mobile phone and harmful biological eects in humans. This is often
paraphrased simply as the balance of evidence showing
tracking
no harm to humans from mobile phones, although a signicant number of individual studies do suggest such a
Mobile phones are also commonly used to collect loca- relationship, or are inconclusive. Other digital wireless
tion data. While the phone is turned on, the geographi- systems, such as data communication networks, produce
cal location of a mobile phone can be determined easily similar radiation.
(whether it is being used or not), using a technique known
as multilateration to calculate the dierences in time for On 31 May 2011, the World Health Organization stated
a signal to travel from the cell phone to each of several that mobile phone use may possibly represent a long-term
health risk,[50][51] classifying mobile phone radiation as
cell towers near the owner of the phone.[43][44]
possibly carcinogenic to humans after a team of sciThe movements of a mobile phone user can be tracked by entists reviewed studies on cell phone safety.[52] Mobile
their service provider and, if desired, by law enforcement phones are in category 2B, which ranks it alongside coee
agencies and their government. Both the SIM card and and other possibly carcinogenic substances.[53][54]
the handset can be tracked.[43]
At least some recent studies have found an association
China has proposed using this technology to track com- between cell phone use and certain kinds of brain and
muting patterns of Beijing city residents.[45] In the UK salivary gland tumors. Lennart Hardell and other authors
and US, law enforcement and intelligence services use of a 2009 meta-analysis of 11 studies from peer-reviewed
mobiles to perform surveillance. They possess technol- journals concluded that cell phone usage for at least ten
ogy to activate the microphones in cell phones remotely years approximately doubles the risk of being diagnosed
in order to listen to conversations that take place near the with a brain tumor on the same ('ipsilateral') side of the
phone.[46][47]
head as that preferred for cell phone use.[55]
53.5.7
Thefts
According to the Federal Communications Commission,

one out of three robberies involved the theft of a cellular phone. Police data in San Francisco showed that
one-half of all robberies in 2012 were thefts of cellular
phones. An online petition on Change.org called Secure
our Smartphones urged smartphone manufacturers to install kill switches in their devices to make them unusable
One study of past cell phone use cited in the report

showed a 40% increased risk for gliomas (brain cancer)
in the highest category of heavy users (reported average:
30 minutes per day over a 10year period).[56] This is
a reversal from their prior position that cancer was unlikely to be caused by cellular phones or their base stations and that reviews had found no convincing evidence
for other health eects.[51][57] Certain countries, including France, have warned against the use of cell phones
especially by minors due to health risk uncertainties.[58]
53.9. CONFLICT MINERALS
247
However, a study published 24 March 2012 in the British 53.9 Conict minerals
Medical Journal questioned these estimates, because the
increase in brain cancers has not paralleled the increase See also: Conict minerals
in mobile phone use.[59]
53.7 Future evolution

Main article: 5G
Demand for metals found in mobile phones and other

electroncs fuelled the Second Congo War. The war
claimed almost 5.5 million lives.[64] In a 2012 news story,
The Guardian reported, In unsafe mines deep underground in eastern Congo, children are working to extract minerals essential for the electronics industry. The
prots from the minerals nance the bloodiest conict
since the second world war; the war has lasted nearly 20
years and has recently ared up again. ... For the last 15
years, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been a
major source of natural resources for the mobile phone
industry.[65]
5G is a technology used in research papers and projects to

denote the next major phase of mobile telecommunication standards beyond the 4G/IMT-Advanced standards.
5G is not ocially used for any specication or ocial
document yet made public by telecommunication companies or standardization bodies such as 3GPP, WiMAX FairPhone is an attempt to develop a mobile phone which
Forum, or ITU-R. New standard releases beyond 4G are does not contain conict minerals.
in progress by standardization bodies, but are at this time
not considered as new mobile generations but under the
4G umbrella.
53.10 See also
Deloitte is predicting a collapse in wireless performance

to come as soon as 2016, as more devices using more and
more services compete for limited bandwidth.[60]
53.11 References
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250

Media related to Mobile phones at Wikimedia Commons
How Cell Phones Work at HowStuWorks
The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone, 15 photos
with captions from Time magazine
Cell Phone, the ring heard around the worlda
video documentary by the Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation
Chapter 54
Cellular frequencies
The cellular frequencies are the sets of frequency ranges
within the ultra high frequency band that have been allocated for cellular phone use. All cellular phone networks
worldwide use a portion of the radio frequency spectrum
designated as ultra high frequency, or UHF, for the
transmission and reception of their signals. The ultra high
frequency band is also shared with television, Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth transmission.
Many
GSM
phones
support
three
bands
(900/1,800/1,900 MHz or 850/1,800/1,900 MHz)
or four bands (850/900/1,800/1,900 MHz), and are
usually referred to as tri-band and quad-band phones, or
world phones; with such a phone one can travel internationally and use the same handset. This portability is
not as extensive with IS-95 phones, however, as IS-95
networks do not exist in most of Europe.
For historical reasons, radio frequencies used for cellular networks dier in the Americas, Europe, Africa and
Asia. The rst commercial standard for mobile connection in the United States was AMPS, which was in
the 800 MHz frequency band. In Nordic countries of
Europe, the rst widespread automatic mobile network
was based on the NMT-450 standard, which was in the
450 MHz band. As mobile phones became more popular
and aordable, mobile providers encountered a problem
because they couldn't provide service to the increasing
number of customers. They had to develop their existing networks and eventually introduce new standards, often based on other frequencies. Some European countries (and Japan) adopted TACS operating in 900 MHz.
The GSM standard, which appeared in Europe to replace NMT-450 and other standards, initially used the
900 MHz band too. As demand grew, carriers acquired
licenses in the 1,800 MHz band. (Generally speaking,
lower frequencies allow carriers to provide coverage over
a larger area, while higher frequencies allow carriers to
provide service to more customers in a smaller area.)
Mobile networks based on dierent standards may use the

same frequency range; for example, AMPS, D-AMPS,
N-AMPS and IS-95 all use the 800 MHz frequency band.
Moreover, one can nd both AMPS and IS-95 networks
in use on the same frequency in the same area that do
not interfere with each other. This is achieved by the use
of dierent channels to carry data. The actual frequency
used by a particular phone can vary from place to place,
depending on the settings of the carriers base station.
54.1 Frequency bands recommended by ITU (UMTS)

Main article: UMTS frequency bands
ITU-R approved in June 2003 the following bands to the
terrestrial Mobile telecommunication IMT-2000: 806
960 MHz, 1,7102,025 MHz, 2,1102,200 MHz and
2,5002,690 MHz.
In the U.S., the analog AMPS standard that used the cellular band (800 MHz) was replaced by a number of digital
systems. Initially, systems based upon the AMPS mobile phone model were popular, including IS-95 (often 54.2 United States Carrier Freknown as "CDMA", the air interface technology it uses)
quency Use
and IS-136 (often known as D-AMPS, Digital AMPS, or
"TDMA", the air interface technology it uses). Eventually, IS-136 on these frequencies was replaced by most 54.3 Frequency bands by region
operators with GSM. GSM had already been running for
some time on US PCS (1,900 MHz) frequencies.
And, some NMT-450 analog networks have been replaced with digital networks using the same frequency. In
Professional wireless microphones used the 700
Russia and some other countries, local carriers received
MHz band until 2010 when they were made illegal,
licenses for 450 MHz frequency to provide CDMA mobut equipment still exists in use that may interfere
bile coverage area.
with 3G and 4G technologies. [1]
251
252
The usage of frequencies within the United States is
regulated by the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC). The US is then divided geographically into a number of Trading Areas. A mobile operator (or other interested parties) must bid on each trading area individually.
A bidder can use the frequency spectrum for whatever
purpose they want.
CHAPTER 54. CELLULAR FREQUENCIES

CDMA and LTE technology on this band. As of 2
September 2011, the FCC has approved several CDMA
devices for use on the SMR band.
More bands are under consideration for auction by the
FCC. These are currently used by DoD, NASA, and other
government agencies.
Cellular and PCS bands are also used in other countries

The 869894 MHz cellular band is divided into 2 fre- in the Americas.
quency blocks (A and B). There are 306 Metropolitan
Service Areas and 428 rural service areas. Each trading
area consists of one or more counties.
54.3.2 Other Regions
The 18501990 MHz PCS band is divided into six frequency blocks (A through F). Each block is between 54.4 See also
10 MHz and 30 MHz bandwidth. License (A or B) is
granted for Major Trading Areas (MTAs). License (C
to F) is granted for Basic Trading Areas (BTAs). Li- Detailed lists:
cense (G), where issued, is granted for Economic Areas
Bands by technology:
(EAs). There are 51 MTAs, 493 BTAs and 175 EAs in
the United States.
GSM frequency bands
A: 18501865 MHz and 19301945 MHz (30
MHz)
B: 18701885 MHz and 19501965 MHz (30
MHz)

E-UTRA#Frequency bands and channel bandwidths (LTE frequency bands)
Deployed networks by technology
C: 18951910 MHz and 19751990 MHz (30 MHz,

15 MHz or 10 MHz)
List of HSDPA networks
D: 18651870 MHz and 19451950 MHz (10

MHz)
List of UMTS networks
E: 18851890 MHz and 19651970 MHz

F: 18901895 MHz and 19701975 MHz
G: 19101915 MHz and 19901995 MHz[2]
The Advanced Wireless Services (AWS) bands, auctioned in the summer of 2006, were for 1,7101,755
MHz, and 2,1102,155 MHz. The spectrum was divided
into blocks: A blocks were for Cellular Market Areas,
based on existing cellular (1G) licenses, and were 2 10
MHz. B and C blocks (2 10 MHz and 2 5 MHz respectively) were for Basic Economic Areas, larger than
CMAs, usually comprising large portions of single states.
D, E, and F blocks covered huge areas of the country,
typically several states at a time, and covered 2 5 MHz
for D and E blocks, 2 10 MHz for F.[3]
List of LTE networks

List of deployed WiMAX networks
Deployed networks by country (including technology and frequencies)
List of mobile network operators of Europe
List of mobile network operators of the Americas
List of mobile network operators of the Asia
Pacic region
List of mobile network operators of the Middle East and Africa
List of mobile network operators (summary)
Mobile country code - code, frequency, and technology for each operator in each country
The 700 MHz band was auctioned in early 2008 using Other articles:
spectrum previously used by television stations analog
broadcasts, with Verizon Wireless and AT&T Mobility
winning the majority of available spectrum. Qualcomm
and Echostar were winners of a signicant amount of
3GPP
broadcast-oriented spectrum. Verizon Wireless will use
the upper band of the 700 MHz spectrum to deploy their
Roaming
LTE network starting on Dec 5, 2010.
Dual-band
The SMR 800 MHz band was used exclusively for iDEN
technology, however, Sprint Corporation is deploying
Tri-band

Quad-band
700 MHz wireless spectrum auction
Microwave
4G
3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE)
Title 47 of the Code of Federal Regulations
54.5 References
[1] https://www.fcc.gov/encyclopedia/
wireless-microphones
[2] http://www.fcc.gov/encyclopedia/
broadband-personal-communications-service-pcs
[3] AWS References
54.6 External links

Wireless Advisor
FCC
New bands considered by FCC
Spectrum Frequency Chart - most common forward
link (base station to mobile) frequencies and channelization
Frequencies by Provider
253
Chapter 55
Tethering
For other uses, see Tether (disambiguation).
4.2.5 (or later) on iPhone 4, 4S, 5, iPad (3rd generation),
Tethering is connecting one device to another. In the certain Windows Mobile 6.5 devices like the HTC HD2,
Windows Phone 7, 8 and 8.1 devices (varies by manufacturer and model), and certain Android phones (varies
widely depending on carrier, manufacturer, and software
version).[2]
For IPv4 networks, the tethering normally works via NAT
on the handsets existing data connection, so from the network point of view, there is just one device with a single
IPv4 network address, though it is technically possible to
attempt to identify multiple machines.
On some networks, this feature is only contractually available by paying to add a tethering package to a data plan
or choosing a data plan that includes tethering. This is
done primarily because with a computer sharing the network connection, there may well be a substantial increase
in the customers mobile data use, for which the network
A phone tethered to a laptop
may not have budgeted in their network design and priccontext of mobile phones and tablet computers, tethering structures.
ing allows sharing the Internet connection of the phone Some network-provided handsets have carrier-specic
or tablet with other devices such as laptops. Connection software that may deny the inbuilt tethering ability norof the phone or tablet with other devices can be done over mally available on the handset, or only enable it if the
wireless LAN (Wi-Fi), over Bluetooth or by physical con- subscriber pays an additional fee. Some operators have
nection using a cable, for example through USB.
asked Google or any mobile producer using Android to
If tethering is done over Wi-Fi, the feature may be completely remove tethering[3]support from the operating
branded as a mobile hotspot. Mobile hotspot is a feature system on certain handsets. Handsets purchased SIMpresent in smartphones nowadays which lets you convert free, without a network provider subsidy, are often unyour smartphone into a portable router. One can setup hindered with regards to tethering.
a password protection to it easily so that no one without
the password can connect to your smartphones.[1] The
Internet-connected mobile device can act as a portable
wireless access point and router for devices connected to
it.
55.1 Mobile devices OS support
There are, however, several ways to enable tethering on

restriced devices without paying the carrier for it, including 3rd party USB Tethering apps such as PDAnet,
rooting Android devices or jailbreaking iOS devices and
installing a tethering application on the device.[4] Tethering is also available as a downloadable third-party application on most Symbian mobile phones[5] as well as on
the MeeGo platform[6] and on WebOS mobiles phones.[7]
Many mobile phones are equipped with software to oer

tethered Internet access. Windows Mobile 6.5, Windows
Phone 7, Android (starting from version 2.2), and iOS
3.0 (or later) oer tethering over a Bluetooth PAN or a
USB connection. Tethering over Wi-Fi, also known as
Personal Hotspot, is available on iOS starting with iOS
254
55.3. IN CARRIERS CONTRACTS
55.2 Operating system support for

tethering by the receiving devices
If the receiving device (for example a laptop) connects
to the mobile device sharing the internet connection (i.e.
3G, 4G, ...) via USB, or any other connection method
than ethernet, and that devices uses Linux, receiving the
internet connection/setting it up may not be straightforward. A lot will depend on the exact Linux distribution
used and the exact model of device sharing the internet
connection used.[8][9]
55.3 In carriers contracts
255
Unless explicitly permitted by your Data
Plan, other uses, including for example, using
your Device as a modem or tethering your Device to a personal computer or other hardware,
are not permitted.[13]
T-Mobiles Simple Family or Simple Business plans offer Hotspot from devices that oer that function (such
as Apple iPhone) to up to 5 devices. Since 2014-03-27,
1000 MB/month is free in the USA with cellular service.
The host device has unlimited slow internet for the rest
of the month, and all month while roaming in 100 countries, but with no tethering. For $10 or $20/month more
per host device, the amount of data available for tethering can be increased markedly. The host device cellular
services can be canceled, added, or changed at any time,
pro-rated, data tethering levels can be changed month-tomonth, and T-Mobile no longer requires any long-term
service contracts, allowing users to bring their own devices or buy devices from them, independent of whether
they continue service with them.
Depending on the wireless carrier, a users phone may

have restricted functionality. While tethering may be allowed at no extra cost, some carriers impose a one-time
charge to enable tethering and others forbid tethering or
impose added data charges. Contracts that advertise unAs of 2013 Verizon Wireless and AT&T Mobility oer
limited data usage often have limits detailed in a Fair
wired tethering to their plans for a fee, while Sprint Nexusage policy.
tel oers a Wi-Fi connected mobile hotspot tethering
feature at an added charge. However, actions by the FCC
and a small claims court in California may make it eas55.3.1 New Zealand
ier for consumers to tether. On July 31, 2012, the FCC
released an unocial announcement of Commission acIn New Zealand, tethering is permitted on all carriers tion, decreeing Verizon Wireless must pay US$1.25 milwithout exception.
lion to resolve the investigation regarding compliance
of the C Block Spectrum (see US Wireless Spectrum
Auction of 2008).[14] The announcement also stated that
55.3.2 United Kingdom
"(Verizon) recently revised its service oerings such that
consumers on usage-based pricing plans may tether, usIn the UK, two tethering-permitted mobile plans oered ing any application, without paying an additional fee.
unlimited data: The Full Monty[10] on T-Mobile, and The After that judgement Verizon release Share Everything
One Plan on Three. Three oered tethering as a standard plans that enable tethering, however users must drop old
feature until early 2012, retaining it on selected plans. T- plans they were grandfathered under (such as the UnlimMobile dropped tethering on its unlimited data plans in ited Data plans) and switch, or pay a tethering fee.
late 2012.[11]
In another instance, Judge Russell Nadel awarded Matt
Spaccarelli US$850 via the Ventura Superior Court, despite the fact that Spaccarelli had violated his terms of
55.3.3 United States of America
service by jailbreaking his iPhone in order to fully utilize his iPhones hardware. Spaccarelli demonstrated that
As cited in Sprint Nextel's Terms of Service":
AT&T had unfairly throttled his data connection. His
data shows that AT&T had been throttling his connection after approximately 2GB of data was used.[15] SpacExcept with Phone-as-Modem plans, you
carelli responded by creating a personal web page in order
may not use a phone (including a Bluetooth
to provide information that allows others to le a similar
phone) as a modem in connection with a comlawsuit, found at http://www.taporc.com, commenting :
puter, PDA, or similar device. We reserve the
right to deny or terminate service without notice for any misuse or any use that adversely
aects network performance.[12]
Hopefully with all this concrete data and
the courts on our side, AT&T will be forced to
T-Mobile USA has a similar clause in its Terms & Conchange something. Lets just hope it chooses
ditions":
to go the way of Sprint, not T-Mobile.[16]
256
55.4 See also

Internet Connection Sharing
Smartphone
Mobile broadband
Mobile Modem
Mobile Internet device (MID)
Smartbook
Open Garden
55.5 References
[1] GoingTechy.com: What is WiFi Hotspot?
[2] Geek.com: Android 2.2. to support tethering
[3] http://www.techdirt.com/blog/wireless/
articles/20110711/17464515050/
you-dont-own-what-you-thought-you-bought-verizon-breaks-phones-turns-off-feature.
shtml
[4] http://www.androidcentral.com/android-internet-tether
[5] http://www.joiku.com
[6] http://www.joikusoft.com/
[7] http://www.webos-internals.org/wiki/Application:
FreeTether
[8] Setting up wireless 3G modem on Linux
[9] 3G modem in Linux
[10] Davies, Chris. T-Mobile UK Full Monty plan oers
true unlimited voice, calls, data, tethering. Slash Gear.
[11] Woods, Ben. T-Mobile quietly removes tethering for its
unlimited data plans. Slash Gear. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
[12] Sprint Terms & Conditions - US. sprint.com. Retrieved
2010-10-13.
[13] T-Mobile Terms & Conditions - US. t-mobile.com. Retrieved 2011-03-14.
[14] Verizon Pays $1.25MM for Blocking Mobile Broadband
Applications (PDF). Retrieved 22 August 2012.
[15] Spaccarella, Matt. Matt Spaccarellis Personal Web
Page. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
[16] Hugo, Brendan. AT&Ts throttling is nothing more than
a ploy according to study, California judge Page. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
CHAPTER 55. TETHERING
Chapter 56
Mobile phone accessories

Shells
Mobile phone accessories include any hardware or

software that is not integral to the operation of a mobile
phone as designed by the manufacturer.
Skins
Bumpers
56.1 Cases
Flip cases and wallets[2]
Cases, which are designed to attach to, support, or otherwise hold a mobile phone, are popular accessories for
many phones, particularly mainstream smartphones.
Screen protection and body lms

Drop and shock protection
Holsters are commonly used alone for devices that include
rubberized padding, or are made of plastic and without
exposed rigid corners.
A Standing case improves user experience, being specially recommended for multimedia, videos and audio. Folio case is a combination case and stand, and
may include a keyboard (USB for OTG smartphones or
bluetooth keyboard).
Heavy duty cases are designed to protect from drops and
scratches.
Skins and design covers can serve for protection and personalization. These are the result of the relatively naked
Combination case and stand
designs produced by manufacturers such as Apple, where
the metal and glass components of the device are exposed
and vulnerable to damage. They are distinct from holsters, in allowing use of the device while in the case, but
in many instances include a belt clip or other device giving it the functionality of a holster. They are made of hard
plastic, rubber, or in the newer market adhesive-backed
vinyl pieces. Vinyl skins can be ordered on many websites
and come pre-cut to t your cell phone or another electronic device. Vinyl material may be calendared or cast,
with the latter being more expensive. Calendared vinyl
is expected to only be used for short durations while cast
vinyl is used on a more long term basis. Calendered vinyl
Pouch case made to dangle
also tends to shrink in the heat, and fade. Cast vinyl avoids
Case measures are based on the display inches (e.g. 5 these problems, but costs up to 250% more (which still is
not high). 3M has manufactured a cast vinyl product that
inch display). There are dierent types:[1]
they call Controltac. This vinyl cover maintains a more
glossy look and provides an air release channel that pre Pouches and sleeves
vents bubbles during placement. The more popular is the
Holsters
cast vinyl because of the range of designs.
257
258
CHAPTER 56. MOBILE PHONE ACCESSORIES
Customized phone cases use custom printing. Dierent

companies have dierent methods of printing on cases,
some utilize sublimation for printing on mobile phone
cases, other methods include inkjet printed skins and
Dye-Sublimation 3D printing methods.
Some phones have a replaceable cover.[3] A release button
on the cover lets it pop o to be replaced with the new cell
cover. Phones that lack a replaceable cover can accept a
slip on or snap on cover.[4] These come in leather, vinyl,
silicone, or hard plastic.
Functional cases can integrate an external battery, a USB
/ Bluetooth / WiFi keyboard and touchpad mouse in a
similar way to tablets.
Micro-B USB plug
56.2 Anti-lost and seles wireless

companions
Antilost keychain can easily locate the cellphone through
the GPS and Bluetooth low energy features of the smartphone. Once the user is out of range, both phone and
companion will alert him / her. It also can be used to
take sele.
56.3 Mass storage

See also: Bluetooth
Some smartphones feature SD card slots (Usually the
smaller Micro-SD variant). These, in combination with
a compatible SD card, can be used to transfer les from
one device to another, or simply to increase the storage
capacity of the phone.
Wi-Fi SDs are Wi-Fi communication devices on a special
SD card inserted into the SD card slot. They can move
pictures to a local computer or an online photo sharing
service.
Additionally, many devices have USB On-The-Go and
support USB storage, in most cases using either a special
usb micro-B ash drive or an adapter for a standard usb
port. Such adapters can also be used with various other
USB devices, such as hardware mice and keyboards.
Qi logo
56.4 Chargers and external batteries

See also: Solar cell phone charger
USB. (Apple devices still use proprietary cables, though

the form-factor of their 30-pin plug used on older devices
Cell phone chargers have gone through a diverse evolution has shown up elsewhere.)
that included cradles, plug-in cords and obscure connec- External batteries can be included in the case (power
tors. However, more recent devices generally use micro- case). Also external batteries can include rubber suction.
56.8. REFERENCES
56.5 Photo accessories

Smart lenses are larger and more capable than the phones
camera, having optical zoom and other features. They
connect to the smartphone by Wi-Fi and an app.[5] They
are compatible with most smartphones.[6]
Smart ash can be used also for seles.
56.6 HDMI and Projector

Micro USB to HDMI cables are used in smartphones with
MHL.
56.7 See also

Modular smartphone
Near eld communication
Screen protector
Smart camera
Smart band
56.8 References
[1] Buying Guide: iPhone 5 cases
[2] http://www.coverscart.com/nokia/nokia-x
[3] Designer iPhone 6 Plus case
[4] Designer Snap on iPhone 6 case
[5] Olympus Air is a lens camera that pairs with your smartphone
[6] Smart lens Sony.com
259
260
56.9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

56.9.1
Text
International Mobile Station Equipment Identity Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Mobile_Station_Equipment_

Identity?oldid=674637568 Contributors: Egil, Plop, ShaeErisson~enwiki, Harvester, Wikiborg, Mendor, LMB, Sjorford, TomPhil, RedWolf, TimothyPilgrim, Enceladus, Baloo rch, Spellbinder, Alan Liefting, DocWatson42, Brouhaha, ChrisMilton, Mobius, Crazysim, DRE,
Elektron, TonyW, KeithTyler, Abdull, Rich Farmbrough, Pmsyyz, Sockatume, Huntster, Kwamikagami, Verement, Larsie, Wiki-Ed,
Towel401, M.L, Danski14, DenisHowe, Guy Harris, M7, Paul1337, EAi, Umapathy, Dismas, Firsfron, David Haslam, Armando, Admrboltz, Wikiklrsc, Artrmindia, Elvey, Vegaswikian, FlaBot, RexNL, WikiWikiPhil, YurikBot, Phantomsteve, Sasuke Sarutobi, Carleeto,
Bovineone, Kennethmac2000, Grafen, Bota47, Dtemp, GraemeL, Adammw, ViperSnake151, Asterion, Luk, SmackBot, C.Fred, David n
m bond, Algont, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Liaor, EncMstr, Colonies Chris, Tomekpe, Rrburke, Ianmacm, Plustgarten, Kirils, MacPrince,
DMacks, DiddyWolf, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, Gobonobo, Twredsh, Rogerbrent, Arkrishna, Vonvon, Sniper1xp, Blakegripling ph, Curriegrad2004, Woodshed, Nicd, GBuilder, Leopheard, Unionhawk, Cydebot, Daniel Barlow, Chemagato~enwiki, Kingdelrosario, Thijs!bot,
DulcetTone, Nimakha, Dgies, Uusitunnus, Deective, Jahoe, VoABot II, Tonyfaull, Bwooce, DavidRCrowe, Jim.henderson, Eplack,
Acalamari, Gunnar Guvararson, LeilaniLad, A4bot, Gnomeza, Jamelan, Greg searle, Insanity Incarnate, Brianga, SieBot, VVVBot,
Phe-bot, Inchka, GrooveDog, Flyer22, Jojalozzo, Daculas, Mama0101~enwiki, JoshCheeseNelson, Svick, Ainsleyf, Yen hung, Ossguy,
ClueBot, Fyyer, FieldMarine, Iandiver, Adrian dakota, Easter r0x, Yjk83, Frozen4322, Nukeless, XLinkBot, NellieBly, Arseny1992,
MystBot, Addbot, Ronhjones, LaaknorBot, AndersBot, Scelestus, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Wireless friend, Monassist,
, Luckas-bot, Naudefjbot~enwiki, Daif, AnomieBOT, 9258fahskh917fas, Materialscientist, Nobbipunktcom, LilHelpa, Ordishj,
Hrimhariw, Shirik, Bellerophon, Shadowjams, Mamamobile, Full-date unlinking bot, Karthik MTIL, Thebossman123, Fitoschido, John
of Reading, Dewritech, Brandmeister, MaGa, , Gogy82, ClueBot NG, ForensicRanger, YuMaNuMa, Widr, DeepersD, CasualVisitor,
Trackimei, , Compfreak7, Allan Javier Aguilar Castillo, Rcptech1, Qoushik, Hmainsbot1, Lugia2453, Lemnaminor, Voidz,
Nightbraker, SefBau, JaconaFrere, Chevypowell, Surdovski, Christopher Belanger, Sdxu, Jrdharma, Cuongnq01, Cstdomains, Wehelpwiki,
Julijaelberg and Anonymous: 320
3GPP Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3GPP?oldid=674274084 Contributors: The Anome, Ahoerstemeier, Jpatokal, Pigsonthewing,
Josep1c, Matt Crypto, Pgan002, Smyth, Zygmunt lozinski, ChrisUK, Stephan Leeds, Mindmatrix, Armando, Xaliqen, Isnow, Phoenixforgotten, Rjwilmsi, Salix alba, Vegaswikian, Alejo2083, FlaBot, Lmatt, Tyagi, Siddhant, YurikBot, Splash, Voidxor, BOT-Superzerocool,
Zzuuzz, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, Bluezy, Nic Doye, SmackBot, Melchoir, Jerome Charles Potts, Fontles, Ohconfucius, Arkrishna,
David e cooper, Idyls, KyraVixen, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Thijs!bot, Davidmathiraj, Dawnseeker2000, DJ Rubbie, Jale86, Drizzd~enwiki,
Magioladitis, VoABot II, XMog, Conquerist, STBot, CommonsDelinker, Squiggleslash, Mange01, Mojodaddy, Darin-0, Carre, McSly,
Chancheelam, Jhendry24, Mlewis000, Lears Fool, Charmi99, Jmoz2989, Stevellco, Dafocus, Anchor Link Bot, Fyyer, Iandiver, Muhandes,
Stdjmax, DumZiBoT, 3gppman, King Willan Bot~enwiki, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Download, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, GrouchoBot,
ZZ9, Karghazini, Wo.luren, Takayoshi3, W163, Chris81w, ChuispastonBot, MelbourneStar, Daveduv, Frmin, Mirsm, ChrisGualtieri,
Describeit, Babitaarora, Suketu.h, Dwashingtonc and Anonymous: 87
International Telecommunication Union Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union?oldid=
669114974 Contributors: Stephen Gilbert, Shii, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Liftarn, Lquilter, Yann, Glenn, Jiang, Thg, Radiojon, Itai, Bevo, Topbanana, Jusjih, Denelson83, Rogper~enwiki, Bearcat, Robbot, Nurg, Postdlf, Varlaam, Ssd, Jfdwol, Alvestrand, Peter Ellis, Tipiac,
Gadum, Information Habitat, Bolo1729, Gdr, Andyabides, SimoM, Icairns, Mormegil, Poccil, Pmsyyz, Jordancpeterson, Quistnix, Bender235, Swid, Violetriga, Dataphile, El C, Joanjoc~enwiki, Ren, Jumbuck, WideArc, PaulHanson, Guy Harris, Calton, Alinor, Lugevas,
Geraldshields11, Tomlzz1, Instantnood, Benoni, Armando, Knuckles, HappyApple, Eyreland, Jon Harald Sby, MarkPos, Mandarax,
Ictlogist, Graham87, Dmountain, Mulligatawny, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Cat5nap, Mkehrt, FlaBot, Itinerant1, Anonym1ty, Parutakupiu,
RockOfVictory, Chobot, Frappyjohn, Slimey.limey, YurikBot, Borgx, MGodwin, Rsrikanth05, Marcus Cyron, Maggu, Howcheng, Saper,
BertK, Danlaycock, Tachs, Malepheasant, Ninly, Larroney, Bensons, Thomas Blomberg, Eteru, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Eskimbot, Mauls,
David H, Donama, Kmarinas86, MalafayaBot, DHN-bot~enwiki, Addshore, DinosaursLoveExistence, Cybercobra, Derek R Bullamore,
Ohconfucius, Ozhiker, John, CmdrObot, R9tgokunks, Usgnus, Bioran23, Cydebot, Sa.vakilian, Kozuch, Dweiss, Rjm656s, Thijs!bot, ITU,
Gkhan, Harryzilber, Jahoe, Dcollard, Avicennasis, Adam Grenberg, Xtifr, Ashishbhatnagar72, Crunkcar, RockMFR, J.delanoy, BandwidthSeek.Net, Maurice Carbonaro, AKA MBG, Sukee3, ABlockedUser, VolkovBot, RingtailedFox, TXiKiBoT, Youlia~enwiki, JhsBot, Yk Yk Yk, Altermike, AlleborgoBot, Pigdog234, Byassine, SieBot, Yintan, D'Ranged 1, Alexbrn, Lightmouse, BenoniBot~enwiki,
Kristine.clara, Taximes, Denisarona, Tuxa, Bwfrank, Tvol, Arcaist, DaveBurstein, Interfase, MusicTree3, L.tak, Mykkerin, DumZiBoT,
Antti29, DidiWeidmann, Dthomsen8, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Otisjimmy1, Zarcadia, NjardarBot, Download, CarsracBot, Numbo3bot, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, , AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Galoubet, Xqbot, TheAMmollusc, Madjar,
Davshul, The Evil IP address, Isheden, Omnipaedista, January2009, Karlstar, D'ohBot, OgreBot, 10metreh, Foxhound66, Jschnur, Lars
Washington, Mentmic, Jonkerz, Lotje, Danigro456, Bornae, Mean as custard, TjBot, Bhawani Gautam, EmausBot, China Dialogue News,
BillyPreset, Rajwhite, WikiAnthony, Peaceray, Dcirovic, Slawekb, Wikignome0530, Erianna, Umni2, Josie62, Targaryen, ClueBot NG,
Coleemma, FinFihlman, Newyorkadam, Piersletcher, Johnwest1999, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Vagobot, AvocatoBot, Compfreak7,
Japinderum, Polmandc, Whym, Tosek, Mdann52, Julien Houle, PhoneGuy86, Hucklebur, Potor111, SmileyLlama, Rp8083, TheBlueCanoe, Skt12345, ThePassengerOfFreedom, Theoretical.Ideation, 83000bastian, Hendrick 99, Deepakkumarpooja.kumar3, Duckbeaver,
Tahmina.tithi, JaconaFrere, Filedelinkerbot, Taimurijaz97, Pmajor48 and Anonymous: 120
H.331 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.331?oldid=626479823 Contributors: Tzf, Gary, SmackBot, Radagast83, Dl2000, MarshBot, Fabrictramp, TheAMmollusc, Mattg82, PigFlu Oink, A412, John of Reading, DoctorKubla and Anonymous: 3
ICANN Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICANN?oldid=674429296 Contributors: Zundark, Toby Bartels, Paul~enwiki, Shii, Kurt
Jansson, Nealmcb, Tim Starling, Polimerek, Ixfd64, Lquilter, TakuyaMurata, Tregoweth, CesarB, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Glenn, Jiang,
Schneelocke, Hashar, WhisperToMe, Furrykef, Omegatron, Bevo, Philippe Batreau, Joy, Robbot, Tobias, GerardM, Mushroom, Diberri,
Particle, Counsell, Behnam, Alvestrand, Stevietheman, SamH, Piotrus, Jawed, Brianjd, Rich Farmbrough, Hydrox, Kjd, YUL89YYZ, Violetriga, El C, Kwamikagami, Coolcaesar, Drmagic, Arancaytar, Yonghokim, Cherlin, Wrs1864, Amcl, Wempain, Jumbuck, Alansohn,
M7, JohnAlbertRigali, Weltall~enwiki, Water Bottle, Cdc, DreamGuy, Tomlzz1, Versageek, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Dandv, Josephf,
Futhark, Preisler, Greg~enwiki, Gettingtoit, Graham87, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Coemgenus, JVz, Jog1973, Erebus555, Funnyhat, Ligulem,
Wwwhatsup, Jrlevine, Utuado, Greebowarrior, FlaBot, Pogoman, RobertG, Jak123, Mschweigert, Flowerparty, Intgr, RockOfVictory,
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56.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
261
Hux, Rex the rst, KnowledgeOfSelf, DuncanBCS, Unyoyega, Serte, JoshHendo, Eskimbot, Alsandro, Ohnoitsjamie, Mindeye, Macdu,
Iwaszkiewicz, Jprg1966, Master of Puppets, Snori, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Colonies Chris, Dethme0w, Aquarius Rising,
Greenshed, Wine Guy, Cybercobra, Nakon, Drphilharmonic, Risssa, Ardenn, Microchip08, Wickethewok, Ckatz, 16@r, Beefyt, Joseph
Solis in Australia, IvanLanin, Wwallacee, Danlev, Thatbox, CmdrObot, Sir Vicious, Aenesidemos, Orayzio, ShelfSkewed, WeggeBot,
Thijs!bot, Daniel, Headbomb, Dmendell, SusanLesch, AntiVandalBot, Freddiem, JusticeForICANNsVictims, JAnDbot, Namecritic, Deective, MER-C, Cjkporter, SiobhanHansa, Magioladitis, Raymond King, SHCarter, Donlibes, Everton1984, Avicennasis, LookingGlass,
Shaunak.s, Kgeischmann, GreenJoe, BenjaminZCliord, Vbertola, Jmiah, J.delanoy, Numbo3, Jesant13, Lawtechgeek, WebHamster,
AngryBear, TheNewPhobia, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, Je G., Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, Qxz, DennyColt, Don4of4, Abdullais4u,
Metalaw, Stryik, Kbrose, Fanatix, Calliopejen1, ToePeu.bot, Bobandersen, COBot, Pinkadelica, ImageRemovalBot, Wolface, Purefusion,
ClueBot, Kai-Hendrik, Binksternet, The Thing That Should Not Be, Nsk92, Piledhigheranddeeper, Stepshep, Reconrmer, MantisEars,
Sun Creator, MacedonianBoy, Louise666, Cenarium, Shrips, Lqferreira, BOTarate, Another Believer, Callinus, SF007, DumZiBoT, Dancroak, Dthomsen8, Santacruzette, Mifter, Addbot, Melab-1, Tothwolf, Zarcadia, Cst17, ChenzwBot, 5 albert square, Lightbot, SasiSasi,
, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, MarkPDF, Richigi, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, Xqbot, Wimpole, TruthPraiser,
Almabot, Gbruen, Omnipaedista, Locobot, N419BH, RegistrarHistorian, Kaaa, FrescoBot, Wikiwikiwho, Costaroussos, TobeBot, SmartyBoots, Lotje, John of Reading, 478jjjz, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Kkm010, Euloiix, Ziggyseventh, Lmq2401, Securawiki, SporkBot,
Erianna, TcomptonMA, W163, Andattaca2010, RedSoxFan274, Orange Suede Sofa, Adotrde, LawEditor2010, TYelliot, Serenewaes,
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OwenVersteeg, Nodove, Bernardwoodpecker, FooCow, Skr15081997, Amcconachie, Fyddlestix, Granhil, ChamithN, Yolittle and Anonymous: 197
American Registry for Internet Numbers Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Registry_for_Internet_Numbers?oldid=
674004641 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Tzartzam, Sam Francis, Havardk, Marcod'Itri, WhisperToMe, Csurguine, Merovingian, SmilingBoy, Bobblewik, Joseph Dwayne, Vina, CaribDigita, Chmod007, Rich Farmbrough, WhiteTimberwolf, Ardric47, ShaneKerr, FlaBot, Raindeer, YurikBot, Bovineone, Cloudbound, Closedmouth, SmackBot, Rjayres, Hmains, Bluebot, Will Beback, BrownHairedGirl, Mr. Lefty, 16@r, JHunterJ, CmdrObot, Bwoodcock, NorthernThunder, Epbr123, Widefox, Magioladitis, The Anomebot2,
VolkovBot, Dac93, Kumioko (renamed), Jcurranz, Huggi, Dhuberma, Ygasuasu, Ron2you, ARIN Sta, Mortense, Jasper Deng, Dr Zimbu,
Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Megan at ARIN, Owendelong, LucienBOT, EmausBot, Laargo, ISPman, Minipc101, TcomptonMA, Prkwiki,
Chmarkine, Hmainsbot1, Dustin V. S., ArmbrustBot and Anonymous: 37
Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America_and_Caribbean_
Network_Information_Centre?oldid=666071980 Contributors: Havardk, Marcod'Itri, WhisperToMe, Merovingian, SmilingBoy, DO'Neil,
Joseph Dwayne, CaribDigita, Chmod007, Rjwilmsi, AVM, Closedmouth, SmackBot, Reedy, Hairouna, LeContexte, CmdrObot, Thijs!bot,
Everton1984, CommonsDelinker, Hugo999, TXiKiBoT, Genium, Huggi, Martarius, Fadesga, Gnowxilef, MystBot, Addbot, EdgarMCMLXXXI, SpBot, Lightbot, Dr Zimbu, FabioMr, Velocitas, Xqbot, Thayts, DrilBot, Lars Washington, Eche13, Orobles, Lotje, Miracle Pen,
Ida Shaw, AvicAWB, RaptureBot, TcomptonMA, Chmarkine, ArmbrustBot, Monkbot, SaltySeas and Anonymous: 17
3G Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3G?oldid=673553668 Contributors: Mswake, Earth, Ixfd64, Arpingstone, Minesweeper, Tregoweth, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Jpatokal, Darkwind, Julesd, Glenn, Andres, Jiang, Stephenw32768, Fuzheado, Radiojon, IceKarma, Tpbradbury, Ryuch, Morwen, Mowgli~enwiki, Wernher, Secretlondon, Jeq, Cfaerber, ZimZalaBim, Nurg, T0ky0, SchmuckyTheCat, Baloo rch,
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Togo~enwiki, Vbs, Jokestress, Cihan, Ary29, Jcw69, Chrisbolt, Freakofnurture, Rich Farmbrough, Andros 1337, EliasAlucard, Horkana,
Darren Olivier, ESkog, Kbh3rd, Jarsyl, Violetriga, Cacophony, Triona, James.pole, Sole Soul, Smalljim, Shenme, Viriditas, Camitommy, Courtarro, Giraedata, Cncxbox, Towel401, Loti, Bijee~enwiki, HasharBot~enwiki, Jigen III, Danski14, Ricky81682, Yamla,
RoySmith, Pantosys, Yuckfoo, Stephan Leeds, Evil Monkey, Simone, RainbowOfLight, Sciurin, Mikeo, Dan100, Feezo, Boothy443,
Mindmatrix, LOL, Morton.lin, Robert K S, Adpenaranda~enwiki, Gerbon689, Prashanthns, Marudubshinki, RuM, Squallwc, BD2412,
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DumbBOT, Kozuch, Rjm656s, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Hervegirod, Dpareit, Mojo Hand, Trevyn, James086, Phooto, Mafmafmaf, Samdlaw,
Dawnseeker2000, Dikteren, Nisselua, BokicaK, Saimhe, Obiwankenobi, Seaphoto, Hoosteen5, Aminul, Qasdfdsaq, Noodlenut, Gh5046,
Alphachimpbot, Ctrow, Cctan-daphanelg, RuED~enwiki, MikeLynch, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Davewho2, Drizzd~enwiki, Freddy011,
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Gja822, Conquerist, MartinBot, STBot, Paracel63, Knowledge lover1123, Fleetame, Verdatum, Nono64, AgarwalSumeet, Lilac Soul,
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Strandist, P.wormer, Adamdiament, Chancheelam, Crakkpot, Sanmele, Jeepday, Georgeonoh, Gurchzilla, Chriswiki, SJP, Hanacy, TottyBot, Bonadea, Laager, Pdcook, JavierMC, Shaktiyadav, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Christopher Mann McKay, Sexyman48, Meiskam,
VolkovBot, ABF, Je G., AlnoktaBOT, Saddy Dumpington, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Pahari Sahib, Vipinhari, Rei-bot, Prateekchanda, Leafyplant, Broadbot, LeaveSleaves, Raymondwinn, Whereisjim, BotKung, Graymornings, Falcon8765, Pmicel, 1-555-conde, GoLLoMboje,
Insanity Incarnate, Le Fou, Kalanziut, Timewatcher, NHRHS2010, EmxBot, Fanatix, Jamessungjin.kim, SieBot, ChigoZ, Nubiatech, Yintan, Audrius u, Bentogoa, Behind The Wall Of Sleep, Nirala nagar, Lightmouse, Jonpaulusa, Tomi T Ahonen, OKBot, Telecomwave, Mr.
Stradivarius, Allanrod, Digisus, Denisarona, Wdwd, Elassint, ClueBot, LAX, Ethridgela, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, Matdrodes, Supertouch, Kamath.nakul, Drmies, DanielDeibler, Blanchardb, Edknol, Kurumban, TellWeb, Excirial, Naerii, M4gnum0n, Wikitumnus, Abrech, Radiosband, Muhandes, Hadiyana, DonBronson, Shiro jdn, Erunestian, Peter.C, At.thehotcorner, Thingg, Aitias, Certes,
262
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Fluernutter, Wildrider99, Download, LaaknorBot, Alvord12, CarsracBot, Joycloete, Tsange, Tide rolls, Gail, -, Ettrig, SunowerZZZ, Ben Ben, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Bunnyhop11, Arunprabu.v, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Bugnot, KamikazeBot,
Sedathut, Teksosyete, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Elavendran, Jim1138, IRP, Galoubet, Debpratim.ghosh, Materialscientist, Allseen, Maxis
ftw, Sheki nitk, ArthurBot, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Termininja, Chuckwits, Jsharpminor, Anna Frodesiak, Jaizanuar, Nasa-verve, GrouchoBot,
Abce2, Monaarora84, Ab1, Rbarpar, Mosh1111, Amaury, OnionBlanc, Denilsen, Harshthegreat89, FrescoBot, Ksarawar, Amarhindustani, Jmlinden7, HJ Mitchell, Weetoddid, Wireless Keyboard, Cannolis, Biker Biker, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Hariboneagle927,
Kanthamohan, Adlerbot, Skaterdan323, Xfact, Pikiwyn, MastiBot, MondalorBot, Fui in terra aliena, FRHD, Springclean, Barras, Turian,
Sajalkdas, Trappist the monk, Zhernovoi, Binyamin Goldstein, Ravenperch, Lotje, Shipitin, Dinamik-bot, Mauri96, Lord of the Pit, Hornlitz, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Techhead7890, DASHBot, Kronf, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, John of Reading,
Orphan Wiki, Sagale, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, Super48paul, Dewritech, DiiCinta, Solarra, GJDR, Tommy2010, ValC, Husseinjh, John
Cline, F, Nigel XX, Tushargkwd, KuduIO, Aeonx, H3llBot, Akshay2212, Wayne Slam, Ocaasi, OnePt618, Zblumz, Tolly4bolly, Erianna, Wikitrke, Zanlok, Aliceokello, Munawarmuniruae, Senjuto, Daften, MonoAV, Donner60, Wiki.0hlic, VictorianMutant, Saebvn,
Awesomepothi, 28bot, Asaliyev, Sonicyouth86, Boosi, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Haresh06, Ghildiyalsumit, MelbourneStar, Satellizer, Alexhch, Amjadk, My name7, CopperSquare, Widr, Antiqueight, Zefcan, Jmail.gmail, Frmin, Strike Eagle, Calabe1992, BG19bot,
Hz.tiang, Shinra.Electric.Power.Company, Rovasscript, PhnomPencil, Nen, Stephenwanjau, Mark Arsten, Sanjay250, Felidofractals, Sunnyamirr, Eshiv, Salientraven, Minsbot, Ziggypowe, Faisalabadian, Adnan bogi, Mogism, Anijatsu, Digitalcrowd, Doridrovirus, Numbermaniac, Mandi bhalwal, TechPaper, Okliolki, Jmg56558, Sonanto, Musabbir Islam, Quenhitran, Ravishyam Bangalore, Dhhssausb, Dasprem,
NQ, Pratikshit, Dai Pritchard, Zarsadman, Zamiulcse, Pennyrawalker and Anonymous: 1132
TD-SCDMA Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TD-SCDMA?oldid=669226443 Contributors: Pnm, Ixfd64, Jpatokal, Fuzheado,
Jusjih, Cfaerber, ElBenevolente, Zigger, Brockert, Vc-wp, Chrisbolt, Andros 1337, R6144, Pmetzger, Guy Harris, Wtmitchell, Boothy443,
Fortythree, FlaBot, Weihao.chiu~enwiki, Gurch, YurikBot, RussBot, Tony1, SmackBot, Nil Einne, Jupix, Chris the speller, Robertyhn,
Ulmer, DylanW, Ironfrost, Eplondke, TastyPoutine, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Mivens, Thijs!bot, EwaDuan, Gzli888, Hassocks5489, Harryzilber, Sebras, Conquerist, R'n'B, Squiggleslash, Mange01, Mojodaddy, LordAnubisBOT, Paddad64, TXiKiBoT, Epengfei~enwiki, JKofoed,
Svick, Loren.wilton, Hadiyana, Carsrac, Loop 9, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Jelsova, Yobot, Wikiknol, DeFre, Full-date unlinking bot, Wo.luren,
WikitanvirBot, BG19bot, Cerabot~enwiki, Adnroid, Nightwalker-87 and Anonymous: 50
TD-CDMA Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TD-CDMA?oldid=639936767 Contributors: Cfaerber, Guy Harris, Mr pand, Harryzilber, JaGa, Conquerist, Squiggleslash, Mojodaddy, Muhandes, Addbot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Sswsonic, H3llBot, Davebaty,
Nightwalker-87 and Anonymous: 5
Time division multiple access Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_division_multiple_access?oldid=672733293 Contributors:
The Anome, Kowloonese, Youssefsan, Jpatokal, Zztzed, Fuzheado, TimR, Baloo rch, ElBenevolente, TriMesh, Ancheta Wis, Lrreiche,
Goofrider, Beland, Maximaximax, Mozzerati, Hellisp, Derat, Andros 1337, Pavel Vozenilek, Khalid, Cmdrjameson, Towel401, Guy Harris, Jiing, Suruena, HenkvD, Dave.Dunford, Rjhanson54, Tabletop, Isnow, Ke6alv, Graham87, Vegaswikian, Mirror Vax, Srleer, Chobot,
YurikBot, Alex Bakharev, PrologFan, Kyle Barbour, Josh3580, Zvika, SmackBot, NuShrike, KnowledgeOfSelf, Les-cheques, Daviddavid,
Gorman, Bluebot, Oli Filth, Colonies Chris, J. Straub, DylanW, Jon Awbrey, A5b, Ksn, Robosh, Brian Gunderson, Kvng, IvanLanin,
JohnTechnologist, Jesse Viviano, Starionwolf, Optimist on the run, Thijs!bot, Ppchailley, CosineKitty, Thaiber123z, Photobiker, MartinBot, Morki, Lihui912, Squiggleslash, Mange01, Mojodaddy, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, Rei-bot, Acprisip, Riick, Fransko~enwiki,
Wdwd, DragonBot, Muhandes, BOTarate, Lovighzi~enwiki, InternetMeme, ZooFari, Addbot, Robaston, SpBot, Waveletrules, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Adeliine, Santhosh29, Materialscientist, Obersachsebot, Omnipaedista, Twisterplus, RetiredWikipedian789,
Prari, FrescoBot, Ch Th Jo, 802geek, Itusg15q4user, Yahia.barie, Chronulator, PleaseStand, Fipblizip, VoteITP, MerlIwBot, Danielh32,
MusikAnimal, Oliver webley, Mehdiakhondi and Anonymous: 103
Bluetooth Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth?oldid=674375218 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Epopt, David Parker, Timo
Honkasalo, Ed Poor, LA2, Kowloonese, Heron, Netesq, Roybadami, Vkem~enwiki, Jdlh, Edward, Infrogmation, JohnOwens, Michael
Hardy, Ezra Wax, Modster, Lexor, DopeshJustin, David Martland, Aezram, Mahjongg, Dan Koehl, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Tompagenet, Ixfd64,
Sannse, 6birc, Delirium, Mythril, Haakon, Mac, Ronz, William M. Connolley, Angela, Jebba, Julesd, Glenn, Kimiko, Nikai, IMSoP,
Harvester, Ehn, Dwo, Jerec, RodC, Crissov, Juxo, Wikiborg, Ww, Dysprosia, Wik, Haukurth, Tpbradbury, Mrand, Morwen, Omegatron, Mowgli~enwiki, Ed g2s, Frazzydee, Jeq, Dmytro, Phil Boswell, EdwinHJ, Freitasm, Robbot, Ktims, The Phoenix, Pigsonthewing,
Iam, Sappe, RedWolf, Altenmann, Romanm, Rfc1394, Puckly, Auric, Zidane2k1, Seajay, Sunray, Hadal, Patcat88, Mushroom, Lupo,
TPK, Lzur, Salty-horse, Tobias Bergemann, Gobeirne, Matthew Stannard, Giftlite, Paul Richter, DavidCary, Jao, Dinomite, KenBentubo,
Nichalp, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Curps, Markus Kuhn, Joconnor, Ssd, Scott Wilson, Guanaco, SheldonYoung, AlistairMcMillan, Foobar, Khalid hassani, Matt Crypto, Jackol, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Golbez, Mooquackwooftweetmeow, Vadmium, Isidore, ChicXulub, Dyfrgi,
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Vozenilek, MarkS, Kenb215, IanGM, BonzoESC, Dpotter, CanisRufus, El C, Dajhorn, Mwanner, Jantangring, WibblyLeMoende, Nile,
Sietse Snel, Bdoserror, Leif, N.o.bouvin, Femto, Peter M Gerdes, Bobo192, Rivo~enwiki, Whosyourjudas, Dystopos, Apyule, Carradee,
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263
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lynx, Wikitumnus, Harleyosborne1234, Tris121, D1991jb, Howie1989, Proximitia, BobKawanaka, Narendra Sisodiya, CasperGhosty,
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grand, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, Skarebo, WikHead, Mimarx, Alexius08, Noctibus, Dzero-net, Abomasnow, Psmonu, Airplaneman,
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Menon, Stued cat, Kristen Eriksen, Littleworld73, Jim1138, JackieBot, Piano non troppo, Dracony, DigitHead, AdjustShift, Materialscientist, NXTguru, Vinod58, Glarrg, Danno uk, Felyza, ADNewsom, Ears04, ArthurBot, Kevin chen2003, LilHelpa, Andrewmc123, Xqbot,
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Train, Jvanthou, RenamedUser01302013, Devin, Wdrdoctor, Winner 42, Jlou us, Wikipelli, Egwyn3, ZroBot, John Cline, F, Bollyje,
Hfkids, Tecnova, Kiwi128, Ebrambot, H3llBot, L.H.N.Prasad, Makecat, OnePt618, Mltinus, Sbmeirow, Enap007, Ready, Donner60, Zlatan8621, Holdenmcrutch, Psicho1963, Abmmhasan, 28bot, Mrbluetooth, WMC, Petrb, Lohith92, ClueBot NG, Shajure, Suid-Afrikaanse,
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264
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Krimuk90, BG19bot, Nandeda narayan, Cooljohnpan, Senabluetooth, Hz.tiang, Scutigeramorpha, Pwesolek, Klaus5512, Daanyaal4Sirran,
MusikAnimal, Metricopolus, Titoncio, Compfreak7, Fifthman, Per1234, Freakoutwithme, Yourmummm, Snow Blizzard, Yourmummmm,
Gbluecathy, Sucwingse, Glacialfox, Mesayre, Lindsaypeattie, Ekroeter, Achowat, Vkusske, Tonyprasanna05, Rbwiki, Blink89x, BattyBot,
Cryptos2k, Riley Huntley, Jimw338, The Illusive Man, ChrisGualtieri, EditorE, Dobie80, Ppooya99, Trinity.Ralphie, Thomasw90, BrightStarSky, Rezonansowy, Webclient101, HelicopterLlama, Hair, Nicceg, Jamesx12345, Tomhak, Revolver4u, 069952497a, Dave Braunschweig, Svnti fav, I am One of Many, Adventures9, Edric Chandra, Tentinator, Jakec, Sssemil, AnthonyJ Lock, Ssofrigid, Svoboman,
Anuja Ray, Ginsuloft, Reenu rajbir, Surie woods, Mikele venditt, Diference, 7Sidz, Brad Dyer, Wyn.junior, Clouviere4440, Trynitagain2c,
Jweaver120, Highway 231, Filedelinkerbot, Punkpop ladd, Betty Jeong, HMSLavender, Freelancer2013, EoRdE6, Krishnatomar1986oct,
Sridharnaidu, JackMurph, Genovif, KingReaperXD, KasparBot, Sravanadire, Techmesho, Whizrayon, CaseyMillerWiki, Epiklyfail77 and
Anonymous: 2080
IEEE 802.16 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.16?oldid=669827864 Contributors: Ansible, Booyabazooka, Pnm, TakuyaMurata, Davodd, Rchandra, Julien~enwiki, Brianhe, Babomb, Wrs1864, Jhd, Water Bottle, Astralnaut, Stephan Leeds, Lerdsuwa, Mindmatrix, Armando, Pol098, Buxtehude, Imnotminkus, Chobot, DVdm, Yyy, Mlc, Phil Holmes, Nelson50, Yonir, Porttikivi, Evdo, SmackBot,
KelleyCook, George Rodney Maruri Game, Danielcohn, Frap, Iapetus, Cybercobra, TJJFV, Palopt, Notmicro, Samuel.dellit, Kvng, Hu12,
Phatom87, Djg2006, AlexeyV, Headbomb, Dawnseeker2000, Nisselua, Chaitanya.lala, Cyclonius, Alro, Mange01, PCock, Tsystems, Psbsub, Mistertheman, Editore99, Le Pied-bot~enwiki, Elch Yenn, Ottawahitech, Auntof6, Goodvac, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Jovianeye,
Addbot, A1, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Nasa-verve, W Nowicki, SpaceFlight89, FoxBot, EmausBot, Ahen1020,
Mo ainm, Xxiehero, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Vsevastos, Mypslim, SomeFreakOnTheInternet and Anonymous: 76
Wireless broadband Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_broadband?oldid=666696292 Contributors: CesarB, Dysprosia, AlexPlank, Nurg, Jondel, Dehumanizer, BenFrantzDale, Nicholsr, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, ChicXulub, Ot, Arosa, Ruprecht~enwiki, Kinettisaizah, AllyUnion, Deryck Chan, Sysiphe, ProductBox, Jrleighton, Versageek, Spraints, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, Ground Zero, BradBeattie, RussBot, Robertvan1, PrologFan, Tony1, Petri Krohn, Nelson50, SmackBot, Rockydallas, A. B., Jmlk17, Flyguy649, Ianmacm,
M414, Notmicro, Kopf1988, Dicklyon, Johno3300, Willcannings, Cparry, Phatom87, Hebrides, Kozuch, Djonesx, Dawnseeker2000,
Escarbot, Sarajb53, Calltech, Jim.henderson, Nono64, DanDoughty, Dorftrottel, Mlewis000, Bslavin~enwiki, Vchimpanzee, Patparks,
Anggraeni, Yintan, Editore99, StaticGull, Nijuabraham, Abackus~enwiki, Bassmstr9, Ottawahitech, Anon lynx, Hakware, Mlas, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Laser brain, MystBot, Osayi, Pateldivakar, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Newportm, Cyanoa Crylate, Mongoliaian, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Tabledhote, FrescoBot, W Nowicki, Adlerbot, Wakelamp, Pierpao, Wingman4l7, ,
Football1502, O.Koslowski, Widr, Digitalinspiration, Tony Tan, Dsurapol, MrBill3, Happenstancial, Chrisxue815, BattyBot, Ds82ro, UNOwenNYC, Alishir58, Ritajeerson, Knight91B and Anonymous: 83
IEEE 802 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802?oldid=673498860 Contributors: The Anome, LA2, Jtk, Nixdorf, Timwi, Itai,
Nil0lab, Asbestos, Hellisp, Discospinster, Cmdrjameson, Matt Britt, Wrs1864, Nsaa, Guy Harris, Sligocki, Rick Sidwell, Aka, Mindmatrix, DenesVadasz, Graham87, Casey Abell, FlaBot, Intgr, Hede2000, Grubber, Ugur Basak, Nathan8225, Steven Hepting, Maxwell
Rain~enwiki, Rwwww, Diagraph01~enwiki, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Hydrogen Iodide, Gilliam, Oli Filth, DHN-bot~enwiki, JonHarder, Calicat, Wassini, Kirils, Aarktica, Kvng, OS2Warp, FunPika, Djg2006, Corpx, Etienne.navarro, Kozuch, Thijs!bot, Raveeshworldwide, Scru323, JAnDbot, Bpmullins, Freedomlinux, JamesBWatson, Soulbot, Rmurias, R'n'B, Lcabanel, LordAnubisBOT, Ianb888, Alinja, Tsystems, A4bot, Flashpoint145, Don4of4, C-M, Frees, Nubiatech, Int21h, Jacob.jose, Denisarona, ClueBot, Jirae, Tyler, Terra
Xin, Versus22, Johnuniq, Addbot, DaniRoisman, Vishnava, CanadianLinuxUser, Debresser, Numbo3-bot, Yobot, X746e, AnomieBOT,
Sonia, Gowr, Materialscientist, Roux-HG, J G Campbell, Qinghao, Nasa-verve, AntiAbuseBot, 2ndjpeg, GliderMaven, JThywiss, Rapsar, Lumag Lumag, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Mo ainm, Plodder81, ZroBot, Rigger151, ClueBot NG, BattyBot, Darylgolden, GoShow,
Reatlas, Faizan, Babitaarora and Anonymous: 93
Media access control Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_access_control?oldid=666508560 Contributors: Youssefsan,
Notheruser, Angela, Evercat, Timwi, Zoicon5, Itai, GPHemsley, Robbot, Nurg, Giftlite, Joconnor, Alexander.stohr, Brianhe, A purple wikiuser, Zachlipton, Guy Harris, Caesura, Rick Sidwell, Cburnett, Suruena, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, DenesVadasz, Casey
Abell, ErikHaugen, HappyCamper, FlaBot, Intgr, Srleer, Borgx, Stassats, NawlinWiki, Steven Hepting, Closedmouth, Extraordinary,
LeonardoRob0t, Sardanaphalus, Leon Hunt, KnightRider~enwiki, Irnavash, KelleyCook, ProveIt, Zanetu, Gilliam, @modi, Snori, OrangeDog, DHN-bot~enwiki, HarisM, Lus Felipe Braga, Khazar, Breno, Mr Stephen, Dicklyon, Arkrishna, Dominio~enwiki, Kvng, Arathald,
Beno1000, Mellery, Jesse Viviano, Cydebot, Djg2006, Tawkerbot4, Ebrahim, Thijs!bot, Dawnseeker2000, Widefox, JAnDbot, .anacondabot, Enjoi4586, Willy on Wheels over Ethernet, Lihui912, FDD, Mange01, Mojodaddy, Philip Trueman, Crazy Murdoc, PaulTanenbaum,
Figureskatingfan, Vitz-RS, JFSM~enwiki, Logan, Kbrose, SieBot, Nubiatech, Ghez, Bentogoa, Treekids, ClueBot, Gwalker nz, Jusdafax,
Mlas, Johnuniq, Pgallert, Dgtsyb, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, TaBOT-zerem, Nallimbot, Xqbot, Loosecannon93, GliderMaven, Nageh, W Nowicki, Tolly4bolly, RyanQuinlan, MerlIwBot, Avitesh, YiFeiBot and Anonymous: 106
Logical link control Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_link_control?oldid=636647847 Contributors: The Anome, Bearcat,
Hgfernan, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Indil, Wayfarer, Guy Harris, ErikHaugen, FlaBot, Ysangkok, Anrie Nord, YurikBot, Borgx,
Fsiler, Sardanaphalus, Qoqnous, Od Mishehu, KelleyCook, DHN-bot~enwiki, Frap, Dicklyon, Beno1000, Tawkerbot2, Phatom87, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Widefox, Kauczuk, Ppchailley, JAnDbot, GermanX, BaomoVW, Mange01, Laurusnobilis, Inwind, Rei-bot, PaulTanenbaum, Alcmaeonid, AlleborgoBot, Kbrose, Very Input, Muhandes, Pgallert, SilvonenBot, Dgtsyb, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Luckasbot, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Doulos Christos, Erik9bot, Itusg15q4user, Dinamik-bot, Krmboya, ZroBot, Chester Markel, Karthick.s5,
Masssly, Titodutta and Anonymous: 55
HiperLAN Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HiperLAN?oldid=634582439 Contributors: The Anome, Patrick, Modster, Pnm,
Wapcaplet, Mulad, Crissov, Pmcray, Snowdog, Vanished user 1234567890, EagleOne, Monkeyman, Alansohn, DariuszT, Rupl,
KnightRider~enwiki, Rutja76, SonicTheHedgehog, Pieoncar, GBL, Thumperward, Palopt, Tawkerbot2, Thijs!bot, Dawnseeker2000,
Widefox, JeromeJerome, Mange01, Adavidb, PipepBot, Jereh172, Dthomsen8, Asksatan42, Addbot, Yobot, LittleWink, Dewritech,
Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Pit7~enwiki, Itsmyline, Khag94 and Anonymous: 47
Ubiquiti Networks Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquiti_Networks?oldid=674443536 Contributors: Bearcat, Esrogs,
Knuckle007, BD2412, Arado, DRosenbach, Reedy, Nakon, Ljvillanueva, Dawnseeker2000, CommonsDelinker, l, Shortride, Haseo9999,
Nathan thorpe, 7, Stickee, WikHead, Download, AnomieBOT, Jafxi, W Nowicki, John of Reading, Timtempleton, GoingBatty, AsceticRose, Justinhornberger, James.d.higley, BG19bot, Nen, Sstrycker, Khazar2, Johnleftylee, Tartantroosers, Semsi Paco Virchow, Orthogonal1, Zalkida, Sarr Cat and Anonymous: 25
Evolved HSPA Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolved_HSPA?oldid=674385717 Contributors: Roybadami, Kku, Joy, Chowbok,
JereyN, DmitryKo, Andros 1337, Vinko, Caedwa, LindsayH, Causa sui, Timl, Steveklein, The RedBurn, Ringbang, Firsfron, Armando,
265
Zippo, Lensovet, Rjwilmsi, Jnlayson, SLi, Zayani, WikiWikiPhil, Siddhant, MMuzammils, Johantheghost, Saper, Shawnrouse, Habbie,
Porttikivi, SmackBot, Darkman007e, Unforgettableid, Stoinov, Alphathon, Ecwpa, Derek R Bullamore, LapTop006, DHR, DrMoslehi,
Devourer09, Acfrazier, Imcdnzl, Cydebot, Hebrides, Pmeth, Greg L, Anarchyson, Drizzd~enwiki, Fogelmania, Magioladitis, Ch604,
Retroneo, Dennisthe2, 7free, Xiphosurus, Mange01, Mojodaddy, Darin-0, Adavidb, Botbck, Aboutmovies, Servel333, FrenchChris, LittleBenW, TashTish, SieBot, Cros79, Nopetro, Lightmouse, Ollihokkanen, Sitush, Bbb2007, Ncrashb, DumZiBoT, A.h. king, MystBot,
Kbdankbot, Addbot, Dr rdb, LaaknorBot, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ruchira88, Eikoseidel, LilHelpa, Xqbot, FileAnt,
MobileIP, Yadavjpr, Kyng, DooMMeeR, Goles, Ledba, Boci, Hgb asicwizard, Btilm, , Full-date unlinking bot, LukeFrmUttley, Kau
mad, Bestcallumuk, Alwin1403, Marek265, Editorpl, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, Tuankiet65, WikitanvirBot, Djpalmer93, Austin.nassau,
Nasula, ZroBot, H3llBot, Davidlimcg23, BroadBandAC, ClueBot NG, Jdperkins, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, BG19bot, Mark Arsten,
Kgizdov, Svk sadgat, Adnan bogi, Pwairjae, Kyousuke.k, MrCellular, Comp.arch, Nightwalker-87, Djeradsoane, Hampton11235 and
Anonymous: 169
W-CDMA (UMTS) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W-CDMA_(UMTS)?oldid=668961311 Contributors: Jakub~enwiki, Egil,
Ronz, Jpatokal, Julesd, Darkov, Fuzheado, Rohan Jayasekera, Jusjih, Frazzydee, Msasi~enwiki, Robbot, RedWolf, Cfaerber, Jondel,
Baloo rch, DocWatson42, Bsoft, Edcolins, Goofrider, Slowking Man, Mark alec, Mozzerati, Tooki, Abdull, Markalex, Discospinster,
Hhielscher, Lachatdelarue, James.pole, Bobo192, .:Ajvol:., Get It, Espoo, Vanished user lkjsdkf34ij48fjhk4, Guy Harris, The RedBurn, Jiing, Supergloom, Kinema, Morton.lin, Armando, Sprog, Marudubshinki, Ketiltrout, Vegaswikian, FlaBot, Weihao.chiu~enwiki,
Gurch, LeCire~enwiki, Chobot, Elfguy, Hairy Dude, Shell Kinney, Bovineone, KJPurscell, Alohawolf, Ejdzej, MonMan, Scope creep,
Rdschwarz, Yonir, Porttikivi, That Guy, From That Show!, Evdo, SmackBot, Jupix, Bluebot, Robertyhn, Oli Filth, DHN-bot~enwiki,
DylanW, TJJFV, Condem, Kvng, Wirelessman, JohnTechnologist, Irwangatot, Pan Camel, Bigglescat, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Landroo,
Thijs!bot, Khottorp, Rees11, Saimhe, Rsocol, Skarkkai, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Magioladitis, Atomsf, VoABot II, Sanoj1234, Retroneo,
S3000, Dwattttt, MartinBot, Jim.henderson, Squiggleslash, Mange01, Mojodaddy, Rjransijn, Hamoodi, LordAnubisBOT, Chancheelam,
Sanmele, Wvereeck, TXiKiBoT, Yonpari, SieBot, Laoris, Happysailor, ReluctantPhilosopher, Ottawahitech, Sauralf, PixelBot, MacGod,
LeviathinXII, InternetMeme, MystBot, Addbot, AndersBot, SpBot, Semiwiki, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, Xqbot,
Termininja, SuBWaReZ, Kyng, Hymek, GiacomoV, FrescoBot, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, Timtempleton, Nasula, Alpha Quadrant, Ceresta~enwiki, Robertojl, Snotbot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Titodutta, Altar, Adnan bogi, Anthony E. Alvarez, Spyglasses, Nightwalker-87, Youkseo, Duke7553 and Anonymous: 147
3.5G Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3.5G?oldid=672041425 Contributors: Radiojon, Bearcat, Bobblewik, Andros 1337, David
Levy, Mathiastck, Probell,
robot, Richmeister, R'n'B, Mange01, Addbot, Dawynn, Anna Frodesiak, Alvin Seville, EmausBot, GJDR,
6ii9, Epicgenius, Corsista1 and Anonymous: 7
High Speed Packet Access Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Speed_Packet_Access?oldid=671498519 Contributors: Ambrosen, Mac, Ehn, Darkov, Dale Arnett, Jonth, Fudoreaper, Everyking, Chaerani, Robert Brockway, Imroy, Vinko, Bobo192, Mcornelius,
Atlant, MoraSique, Stephan Leeds, Tabletop, Mandarax, Tslocum, David Levy, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Swya, Mathiastck, Froggey, Siddhant, Borgx, Stephenb, Voidxor, Tony1, Jeremy Visser, SmackBot, Oli Filth, Villarinho, Jerome Charles Potts, Glloq, Jpjust~enwiki,
Bigmantonyd, Khazar, DouglasCalvert, Hukkinen, Creek23, Cydebot, Alaibot, Electron9, Dawnseeker2000, Harryzilber, Bhamv, MERC, Nthep, Drizzd~enwiki, Xoneca, KJRehberg, Retroneo, Seashorewiki, Mojodaddy, Darin-0, Rbrewer42, Andareed, Reacocard, Behzad.farmand, Nishantchoudhary, TelecomsTim, THeCodeGuY, IndulgentReader, Kbrose, Jmoz2989, Editore99, Lightmouse, TuxyQ,
Ossguy, Mild Bill Hiccup, PixelBot, Hadiyana, Nukeless, Bodosom, BOTarate, Ranjan shab, DumZiBoT, WikHead, SilvonenBot, Hypermax~enwiki, MystBot, Osarius, Addbot, Willking1979, Download, LaaknorBot, Chathurangawav, Lightbot, Mateus RM, Yobot, 4th-otaku,
AnomieBOT, Eikoseidel, TheAMmollusc, , Addihockey10, TechBot, Lonniev, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Kyng, Lonaowna,
Chockyboy, Lisa Andersson, Lallolu, Chris Caven, Jonkerz, Lotje, NortuRE, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, Nasula, K6ka, Seikku Kaita,
AvicBot, Dariel 01, ChuispastonBot, Diamondland, ClueBot NG, Wifuk, Rezabot, Widr, Ammar Al Sarraj, Frmin, BattyBot, Adnan
bogi, Mogism, Comp.arch, Spyglasses, Saivenkat961921992, AliDabbirKhan and Anonymous: 141
Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_Data_Rates_for_GSM_Evolution?oldid=
674419093 Contributors: Nate Silva, Maury Markowitz, Nealmcb, Michael Hardy, Egil, Mac, Jid~enwiki, Uriber, Darkov, Fuzheado,
Snickerdo, Timc, Omegatron, Shizhao, Johnleemk, Robbot, Cfaerber, Jra, Baloo rch, Hadal, David Edgar, Profoss, Lzur, Joaopaulo1511,
Joconnor, Bobblewik, Goofrider, Anthonywong, Quadell, Nibor.org, Flora~enwiki, Discospinster, Sladen, FT2, Andros 1337, Alistair1978,
Nabber00, Bartolo5, Phil websurfer@yahoo.com, Rdummarf, Cacophony, Agoode, Rcsheets, Apecat, W8TVI, Viriditas, Matt Britt, Srl,
Mikel Ward, Timl, Dennis Valeev, Man vyi, Mmansoor, Helix84, Mikelevin, Jumbuck, Mithent, Kalleboo, The RedBurn, Echuck215,
Ronark, Saga City, Sparky2004, Danhash, Anthony Ivano, Jackerhack, Oswaldo~enwiki, Yasget, Dan100, RyanGerbil10, Antonypranata,
Sapte, Armando, Fortythree, Pol098, Beej, Tabletop, Sprog, GregorB, Palica, Steve Max, Ketiltrout, Ademkader, FlaBot, Wikiliki,
Mathiastck, Terrien, Intgr, Tedder, Mrschimpf, YurikBot, Klingoncowboy4, Charles Gaudette, MMuzammils, RussBot, Peter S., Piet
Delport, Danrha, Yyy, Eleassar, Bovineone, John Lucas, Dureo, Dmoss, CecilWard, JulesH, Alex43223, Bota47, Ryu Kojiro, Bseker,
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Tex23, Bco2003, Bluebot, Flurry, Jishnua, Chrisedwards, Ghost.scream, Larre~enwiki, Oli Filth, Octahedron80, Jdthood, Zaian, Deathtrap3000, Boren, Unomano, Wutzofant, NotMuchToSay, Cyzor, Asix, Shattered, Nicholas1520, Friend4u, David e cooper, EdC~enwiki,
Iridescent, Ro2000, JimpsEd, KevinBullock, Sabb0ur, Shanmuga cit, Baqu11, JohnTechnologist, Ale jrb, ShelfSkewed, Ntg sf, Chrisahn,
Ken Gallager, Flamejob, Cydebot, Fl, O mores, Wordbuilder, Khatru2, Pkruger, Blaisorblade, Fedandr, 00tony, Sirkbulio, AdamRoach,
Marek69, Phooto, Jhdaly, Mm11, Dawnseeker2000, Pavelbd, AntiVandalBot, Nisselua, Jawsper, Abunet, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Arch
dude, Severo, .anacondabot, Raanoo, Magioladitis, Zobh, Dragonbeast, Sosaited, Dima1, Topspin~enwiki, Indon, Lizmm, Jonsg, Rasho,
KL5it, Anthraxbrz, Conquerist, Rbaal, Jonabo, Wlodzimierz, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Mange01, Mojodaddy, Sqush101, Maurice Carbonaro, Vfbp-geyf, Pipeinformatico~enwiki, Cmichael, Danda Panda, Davecrosby uk, Idioma-bot, Signalhead, Enzzot, Eurolite
x3, 99DBSIMLR, Elimerl, LeaveSleaves, BotKung, Richard Kervin, SQL, Spinningspark, GoLLoMboje, Gdn, SieBot, TJRC, Arifulnr,
Tvdijk, Chipaca, Jmeyer83, Jmoz2989, Qst, EnTheMohammad, Oxymoron83, Grspider, Aspects, Sublite, Crimson Vs Purple, Lightmouse, Yakman66, Smshaner, Nmalon, Jorgeren, Engineerism, Tannline, Kdevin, Peppery9, Peturrunar, Klaus100, Digisus, Sfan00 IMG,
ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Jeshan, Wangjia, TJ Dimacali, Tobenvontoben, Supaklailert, Saad.durrani, Drh104, DragonBot,
Ejay, Hadiyana, Shiro jdn, Mkusk~enwiki, Epiovesan, Narender2727, Versus22, LeviathinXII, Stevenrasnick, InternetMeme, Liturahman, Addbot, Speer320, Mike Babic, Igiveinfo, Yuanyelele, SpillingBot, Joycloete, Economist-83, Debresser, Sudeeprg, Kukabura, Echo
R314, E.R.UT, Jpors, Krano, , Luckas-bot, Yobot, Akhilkrishna03, AnomieBOT, Noq, Jim1138, Yigitbilgin, Elisabeth
Hillman, ItchyDE~enwiki, Frajerji007, Materialscientist, Calvinbasti, Xqbot, TheAMmollusc, Zct823, Harbinary, RibotBOT, Karghazini,
JanneW, FrescoBot, Lisa Andersson, Cody Cooper, RedBot, Cnwilliams, Thelittlemouse, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Tuankiet65, Wikipelli,
Mikefoo, , ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Theopolisme, Frmin, BG19bot, M0rphzone, AvocatoBot, Auteny, BattyBot, AndreyKovalevsky, ChrisGualtieri, Adnan bogi, Mukeshkamaliya, Dexbot, Mediaba, MrCellular, Nightwalker-87, Digitalimager, Sovereigns,
266
Mianusman39 and Anonymous: 502

Phase-shift keying Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-shift_keying?oldid=665308237 Contributors: CYD, Bryan Derksen,
Heron, Michael Hardy, Glenn, Grendelkhan, Lensi, Johnleemk, Cedars, DavidCary, Karn, Fleminra, Ssd, Rchandra, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Pgan002, Ary29, Qef, DmitryKo, Danh, Pt, R. S. Shaw, Neonumbers, Marudubshinki, BD2412, Sjakkalle, HappyCamper,
Ligulem, Alejo2083, King of Hearts, Roboto de Ajvol, The Rambling Man, Wavelength, RussBot, Splash, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05,
Willpo~enwiki, Welsh, Brandon, Mhasabel, Spondoolicks, GrinBot~enwiki, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Eskimbot, KelleyCook, Lacbil, Oli Filth, OrphanBot, Adamantios, Radagast83, Dreadstar, Rspanton, Anttipng, Lvazquez, Ksn,
JoshuaZ, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, RomanSpa, Vanished user 8ij3r8jwe, Rogerbrent, Dicklyon, David e cooper, Hu12, Sakurambo,
Chrumps, Requestion, MC10, Tshb, Luispic, Ring0, CynicalMe, Gioto, Esromneb, Fiberware, Anarchyson, CosineKitty, Jheiv, Animum,
Kf4yfd, Jim.henderson, Haner, Mange01, It Is Me Here, Dtneilson, Djodjo~enwiki, Tiggerjay, Mathuranathan, Scls19fr, Hqb, Colmanian, Leonardomio, Gekritzl, Warddr, Squam, Mahira75249, Henrikholm, Thunderbird2, DaHeik, Spartan-James, Kittani, Jd185152,
ClueBot, Falkonry, Scottydog010, Johnuniq, Max613, Cerireid, Mitch Ames, Addbot, Joshgu, Fgnievinski, , Legobot,
Yobot, Gsmcoupe, Simard, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Living001, Citation bot, TheAMmollusc, Omnipaedista, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, Geek2003, I dream of horses, Sohaibafzal, RCHenningsgard, WildBot, Acather96, Seikku Kaita, Chandankuila, EWikist, Wiki
contributor 21, Ramjar, Teaktl17, ClueBot NG, JackieTW, MerlIwBot, Nen, Tshuva, Mrtrandaithang, Ol Spanky, Gaurav647, Zycxm
and Anonymous: 188
Minimum-shift keying Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum-shift_keying?oldid=654433421 Contributors: The Anome,
Glenn, Munford, Piels, DavidCary, Karn, One-dimensional Tangent, Atlant, BD2412, Alejo2083, SmackBot, Oli Filth, TripleF, Memming,
Radagast83, Dicklyon, Glrx, Mange01, Rod57, AntiSpamBot, The Original Wildbear, Serrano24, Jamelan, Mild Bill Hiccup, WikHead,
Addbot, Braithwa, Gsmcoupe, Rswanca, Living001, Doojsdad, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, 2A4Fh56OSA, Mir09, GoingBatty, ClueBot
NG, LaurentianShield, Ericcc65, MSheshera, MitchRandall and Anonymous: 46
Constellation diagram Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation_diagram?oldid=563822154 Contributors: Michael Hardy,
Glenn, Conti, DavidCary, Whosasking, YurikBot, Splash, KSchutte, Mazer, Sam8, Lacbil, Oli Filth, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Sakurambo,
Rod57, Scls19fr, Alinja, Leonardomio, McM.bot, Muhandes, Addbot, OlEnglish, Ptbotgourou, Shadowjams, LucienBOT, ZroBot, ClueBot NG, YFdyh-bot, Kishore407 and Anonymous: 22
General Packet Radio Service Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Packet_Radio_Service?oldid=674501789 Contributors:
Rjstott, Youssefsan, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Europrobe, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Liftarn, Ixfd64, Karada, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Pratyeka,
Conti, Dysprosia, Fuzheado, Wik, Radiojon, Maximus Rex, Omegatron, Thue, Frazzydee, Robbot, Astronautics~enwiki, Plasmaroo, Hemanshu, Baloo rch, Hadal, Carnildo, Silvermane, Inter, Vk2tds, Fleminra, AlistairMcMillan, Bobblewik, Nwynder, Pgan002, Vanished
user 1234567890, Esnible, Mozzerati, Tooki, Neale Monks, Trevor MacInnis, Jacooks, EagleOne, Jonathanriddell, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Pmsyyz, Andros 1337, Alistair1978, Bender235, Andrejj, *drew, PhilHibbs, Cacophony, Vipul, Smalljim, Bering, Alastairgbrown, Wrs1864, Jumbuck, ChrisUK, Monty Dickerson, Seancdaug, PeteVerdon, Hohum, Wtmitchell, Jackerhack, Lerdsuwa, Dennis
Bratland, Pbook8989, Woohookitty, RHaworth, Tyz, LoopZilla, Wikiklrsc, Yury Tarasievich, Winged-stone, MC MasterChef, Zzedar,
, Hallje, Vegaswikian, DoubleBlue, BirdbrainedPhoenix, Utuado, N0YKG, FlaBot, Wikiliki, Mathiastck, Intgr, Jasonauk, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Hede2000, Hydrargyrum, Gaius Cornelius, Kb1koi, Anetode, Plamka, Hobotraveler.com, Ltwiki-bot, Extraordinary, Pb30, Roberts83, Katieh5584, Ergosteur, Tom Morris, SmackBot, Slashme, Nil Einne, Tex23, Ohnoitsjamie,
Raohammad, Crashmatrix, Oli Filth, DHN-bot~enwiki, Jnavas, Nakon, Jklin, A5b, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Nmnogueira, Palopt, Ksn, Abldvlpr, Stuart Ward UK, Kvng, Joseph Solis in Australia, Svinodh, ALM scientist, INkubusse, Smhanov, Pan Camel, Abhinavvaid, Requestion, Inzy, Cydebot, Swhitehead, ST47, Tawkerbot4, Thierry Bingen, Thijs!bot, Richardcraib, EwaDuan, Pemboid, Defeatedfear, Dr.
Zaret, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Obiwankenobi, Seaphoto, Prolog, Qasdfdsaq, JAnDbot, MER-C, VoABot
II, Email4mobile, Rich257, Mittosi, DerHexer, Manumg, Conquerist, Jemuel~enwiki, Jim.henderson, Rettetast, Mange01, Mojodaddy,
Carre, Gzkn, Andareed, Bot-Schafter, DorganBot, Hgonzale, Aninhumer, VolkovBot, Barneca, TXiKiBoT, One half 3544, Billinghurst,
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That Should Not Be, Iandiver, Shinpah1, Bensci54, 4th guy, Stinkinrich88, Billylikeswikis, Hadiyana, Kmbsww, Ricky lais, LeviathinXII,
Berean Hunter, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Skarebo, SilvonenBot, Dgtsyb, Antonski, Kbdankbot, Addbot, TutterMouse, Leszek Jaczuk,
CarsracBot, AndersBot, Sudeeprg, Numbo3-bot, Gail, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, 24alpha, Piano non troppo, Wapxana, Materialscientist, Luen, Capricorn42, Jerey Mall, Shahzad11, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, Shadowjams, Sesu Prime, Captain-n00dle,
Depictionimage, Nageh, FH 3, HamburgerRadio, RedBot, SpaceFlight89, EdoDodo, Banej, Abc518, Cvgs 0007, TobeBot, DixonDBot,
Wo.luren, Diannaa, Bhawani Gautam, EmausBot, Angrytoast, Starszz, Wt8008, Tommy2010, Seikku Kaita, , Gjivan, Hhan,
Tolly4bolly, Thine Antique Pen, Learns visits aw, IGeMiNix, ClueBot NG, Rajeshnawal, Spel-Punc-Gram, Widr, WikiSysop2, Tommike125, Arvinarya, BG19bot, Dentalplanlisa, BattyBot, Abduljalil859, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, Dexbot, Dhani.sahani, Shangri-l, Ginsuloft, ChenZhangYan and Anonymous: 396
Spectral eciency Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_efficiency?oldid=596889632 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Stewartadcock, Richy, Graeme Bartlett, Karn, Imroy, DanielCD, Longhair, Rmz, Emvee~enwiki, Cburnett, Stephan Leeds, Gene Nygaard,
Mandarax, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, SLi, Adoniscik, YurikBot, NorsemanII, SmackBot, Reedy, Oli Filth, Cantalamessa, TheKMan, Lambiam, Dicklyon, Djg2006, CosineKitty, Jacobko, Gwern, Khr0n0s, Jim.henderson, Mange01, Darin-0, Stuyvoid, Mehwoot, Canaima,
Jamelan, Thunderbird2, SieBot, Fratrep, ClueBot, DumZiBoT, Addbot, LaaknorBot, SpBot, Pateldivakar, LilHelpa, Isheden, Mnmngb,
MaxDel, Vrenator, Hardikvasa, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 45
Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Enhanced_Cordless_
Telecommunications?oldid=671438227 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, The Anome, VincentV, Andre Engels,
RobertBrook, Aldie, Hephaestos, Tedernst, Norm, Liftarn, Arpingstone, Mac, Glenn, Palmpilot900, Hashar, Htaccess, Ww, Radiojon,
Traroth, MrWeeble, Robbot, Sbisolo, Donreed, Cfaerber, Inkling, Jason Quinn, Rchandra, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Wpjonathan, Isidore,
Beland, Wiml, BrianWilloughby, SimonEast, JTN, Roo72, Xezbeth, Ht1848, Rimshot, BigRiz, Cenora, ChrisUK, Arthena, Jeltz, Rwendland, Wtshymanski, Max Naylor, Skor, Armando, Pol098, Tabletop, Dovid, Graham87, Rjwilmsi, SNIyer12, Fosnez, GreyCat, Synchrite,
Peterl, Siddhant, YurikBot, Wavelength, Mikepenn, SpikeJones, Pelago, Welsh, Sfear, CecilWard, Brucevdk, Polpo, Xedaf, CLW,
ChrisHibbert, John Broughton, Eptin, Kingboyk, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Video99, Sam8, KelleyCook, Nil Einne, Unforgettableid,
Betacommand, Evilandi, Shinigami@wiki~enwiki, Thumperward, Snori, Alphathon, Azumanga1, Georgeccampbell, Matt Whyndham,
D1~enwiki, Just plain Bill, Chrisb802, Ecozeppelin, Anand Karia, BeSherman, Dl2000, Johntimering, Requestion, CompRhetoric,
Lironl, Phatom87, Cydebot, W-sky, BetacommandBot, Thijs!bot, Electron9, Khottorp, Lyondif02, Dawnseeker2000, BlkMtn,
Andrewrutherford, Harryzilber, MER-C, Enzo78~enwiki, .anacondabot, Magioladitis, RBBrittain, Rezd, Moggie2002, Jim.henderson,
267
KTo288, Squiggleslash, Codnchips, Mojodaddy, Bellagio99, LordAnubisBOT, STBotD, Ross Fraser, Ericatkin, Mlewis000, VolkovBot,
Je G., Lrz35, WinTakeAll, Thanatos666, SieBot, Threebytesfull, Mxl, JKofoed, Rob.ashwell, Callidior, Nijuabraham, Alecs.y.rodez,
Sfan00 IMG, Benjamin-ziebarth, Excirial, AndrewBud, Resoru, Muhandes, Jonverve, KitchM, Emiliosic, Verbal, Legobot, Bpantalone,
Yobot, EnTerr, AnomieBOT, Paulturner1981, ArthurBot, Lungpool, Grim23, Nasa-verve, Hymek, A.amitkumar, FrescoBot, Sesoe,
Sae1962, Jgombos, Trappist the monk, Kynetx, Nevin.williams, EmausBot, GoingBatty, Osakanataro, ZroBot, Dolovis, MajorVariola,
Sbmeirow, Skarthi wi, ClueBot NG, DieSwartzPunkt, Reify-tech, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mrmshane, Fresnel57, Digital Brains, BattyBot,
Lemnaminor, Stamptrader, Roy.broeren, Monkbot, Albanerendk, KasparBot and Anonymous: 181
WiMAX Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiMAX?oldid=674900969 Contributors: Jimbo Wales, William Avery, Maury Markowitz,
KYSoh, Edward, Booyabazooka, Tompagenet, Sheldon Rampton, Frank Shearar, TakuyaMurata, Skysmith, Gbleem, Ahoerstemeier,
Haakon, Mac, TUF-KAT, Angela, Mxn, Ehn, Redjar, Darkov, Charles Matthews, Ww, Kbk, Itai, Nv8200pa, LMB, Fvw, Johnleemk,
Jeq, Chealer, Vespristiano, RedWolf, ZimZalaBim, Nurg, Romanm, Rfc1394, Jondel, Davodd, Wereon, Asparagus, Mdmcginn, Giftlite,
Cokoli, 0x0077BE, Jyril, Wolfkeeper, Fudoreaper, MeirM, Filceolaire, ZeroJanvier, Mboverload, Siroxo, Adamfranco~enwiki, Jaan513,
Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Edcolins, OldakQuill, Chowbok, Pgan002, Toytoy, Mendel, CryptoDerk, Beland, ShakataGaNai, Almit39,
Mozzerati, Bk0, Kevin143, Biot, Willhsmit, BrianWilloughby, Jennypei, Mike Rosoft, AliveFreeHappy, Monkeyman, Imroy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Oliver Lineham, R6144, Wk muriithi, ArnoldReinhold, Jordancpeterson, JimR, Cswilly, Closeapple,
Evice, Spearhead, RoyBoy, Just zis Guy, you know?, Agoode, Babomb, MarkWahl, NeonLego, Polluks, Chrisvls, Kensai, Blhole~enwiki,
Obradovic Goran, Glaucus, Sysiphe, Johntinker, Poweroid, Alansohn, Guy Harris, Interiot, Neonumbers, Andrewpmk, K8la, Nbertram,
Ahruman, Kurt Shaped Box, Gomi no sensei, Hadlock, BBird, Uucp, Mr ea, Paul1337, Jrleighton, Stephan Leeds, Lokedhs, Costoa, Computerjoe, Mmsarfraz, Algocu, Uceboyx, Kenyon, Dismas, Oleg Alexandrov, Novacatz, Cyclotronwiki, Yeastbeast, Gabriel Kent, Muftak,
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John Lucas, Moritz, Albedo, PrologFan, CTownsend, Luqi~enwiki, Misza13, SixSix, Alex43223, PyreneesJIM, Kmonet, WiMAX Pro,
Shah andre, Mistercow, Fignamoya, Plamka, Gwydion The Quick, Searchme, FF2010, Kermit2, Zzuuzz, WiMAXPro, X1cygnus, Chase
me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Closedmouth, Extraordinary, Abune, Bushing, Fakrul, GraemeL, Jforster, Alasdair, Phil Holmes, Nelson50,
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Editore99, Nopetro, Rajeshsweb, Jimthing, Mat du Lac, Helloife, Paulrosenthal, D a keldsen, Nuttycoconut, Lightmouse, Autumn Wind,
Sunrise, Ingenieurmt, Jfromcanada, Ktassin, C0nanPayne, Gran knee, Elch Yenn, Tuxa, ClueBot, Samuel Grant, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Eric Wester, Aintneo~enwiki, Rodhullandemu, Marcwbrooks, Jarmo s, JimRCarlson, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mustafaerg, Ms 2007
Cn, TarzanASG, Auntof6, Rockfang, Notbonbon, Robert Skyhawk, Excirial, Alexbot, Zaingenius, Muhandes, Hadiyana, Jan1jan1, Shiro
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Download, Joycloete, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Vasi, Ramiza Tasneem, Vakaris, , Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Povlhp, Kmolnar, Sureshraspayle, Dkang, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Bugnot, Govinda1pk, Abaqus, Viking59, Jalal0, HidariMigi, Gataya, Backslash
Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Bctwriter, EEgirl18, Rubinbot, Preamt, Docanand, AnnaPfeier, Ashroney, Blandine01, Kingpin13, Vikrant singh dadwal, Flewis, Materialscientist, 90 Auto, TheRealNightRider, Xqbot, Poetnk, Capricorn42, Gensanders, Stephenthornton, Monaarora84, Wizardist, Ultraman2008, Yurigagarin1, Tabledhote, Sesu Prime, SD5, Smitprakash, Engineernm25, Jepuente,
Slingbroadband, Nasir1973, KirbyRandolf, Kk0071987, Lonaowna, ScriitorulAnonim, W Nowicki, Noloop, StaticVision, Doedoejohn,
Poettx, Miguel.rodrigez, Palash bco, Vishal Singhal, Louperibot, Raydex, Vicenarian, BRUTE, Mrman208, Amn12, DixonDBot, Ashu vns,
Markstar, Thisisabore, Sg gower, Ctownsend1000, Firefoxian, Surajit.gupta08, RjwilmsiBot, Najeeb.H, Basangbur, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Abeijon, Grillmaster423, Gnulinux, Xomm, Kkm010, John Cline, AnonymousWikier, Mar4d, QEDK, Shermaineliu,
Gsarwa, 28bot, ClueBot NG, Ethear, Satellizer, Nanners14, MerlIwBot, Alirezanoorian, Frmin, Duncan23, NukeofEarl, Cyprianio,
Compfreak7, Greenpacket, NorthCoastReader, Comfr, Abismo02, Mypslim, JYBot, Junkyardsparkle, Liamklay14, Spencer.mccormick, I
am One of Many, Richagd, Xpxpsi, WikiU2013, Captain Conundrum, Wikiuser13, Drvipinlalt, , Lagoset, TerryAlex, Douglas Mwangi,
Bantusdiego and Anonymous: 1352
5G Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5G?oldid=674686971 Contributors: Michael Hardy, DmitryKo, Discospinster, Andros 1337,
StephanKetz, Jlin, Etrigan, Wtmitchell, DePiep, Rjwilmsi, Trlovejoy, Naraht, Bhny, Cwlq, Stephenb, Bachrach44, Arthur Rubin, Mhenriday, SmackBot, Jenny MacKinnon, Frap, KevM, Khazar, Oioisaveloy, Kashmiri, Melody Concerto, Mark999, Kvng, Hollomis, Ice Ardor,
MER-C, XAKxRUSx, David Eppstein, An Sealgair, R'n'B, Mange01, Acalamari, Shadowaltar, Psheld, Jpgs, GcSwRhIc, Lordvolton,
268
WereSpielChequers, Flyer22, Jimthing, Sfan00 IMG, Plastikspork, Supremedemency, Muhandes, Arjayay, InternetMeme, Amitnaik,
XLinkBot, MystBot, Bazj, Addbot, C933103, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, KamikazeBot, Langthorne, AnomieBOT, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, DynamoDegsy, Xqbot, Anna Frodesiak, SilverSurfer477, Shadowjams, A.amitkumar, Ch Th Jo, Nageh, Sanpitch, Jonesey95,
Robvanvee, Trappist the monk, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Dewritech, RA0808, ZroBot,
Illegitimate Barrister, Thayora, Ftprinc, ChuispastonBot, Marcelocantos, ClueBot NG, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Novusuna, Imthiyaz5g,
BG19bot, AvocatoBot, Civeel, Suryaips, Andreas.kagedal, Piano1900, Demsiti, Hamish59, Sni56996, Klilidiplomus, BattyBot, 3enix,
Cleliasayswhat, John from Idegon, EuroCarGT, Alxsnc12, TomoK12, Mogism, Digitalcrowd, Frosty, MrCellular, Vanamonde93, Psatsankhya, Jakec, Comp.arch, Wiskica, Melody Lavender, D Eaketts, Jomondel, SJ Defender, Dario.sabella, Wow560, Tamersaadeh, Drvipinlalt, Wyn.junior, 22merlin, Jackiecsq123, DrBoris1, Ebonelm, Cheval55, Alex1961, Manunamboodiri, Shahzad.tut, Aytk, Jtxxtj, Alimxd1,
Alexm38, Enkakad, Infopaktel, Sunilkumargc, Jerodlycett, Sridhar vasanth sri, Hajisamik, Crazy crayon and Anonymous: 180
Virtual retinal display Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_retinal_display?oldid=670660286 Contributors: Zundark, Maury
Markowitz, Fuelbottle, HaeB, Discospinster, Famousdog, Jakew, Vadim Makarov, Mindmatrix, Ma Baker, Lmendo, Waldir, Toussaint,
Hulagutten, Zarano, Rockingbeat, Alvin-cs, Tedder, Frappyjohn, YurikBot, JLaTondre, Banus, Eptin, SmackBot, Davepape, DXBari,
Unyoyega, Cesoid, Gamester17, Chris3145, Derek R Bullamore, Ninjagecko, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Camilo Sanchez, Ithakiboy, 5amsara~enwiki, CompRhetoric, Cydebot, Protious, IndianGeneralist, Barek, The Transhumanist, Havanafreestone, Russell Freeman, Oanjao, Someguy1221, Cuddlyable3, Domchi, VanishedUserABC, Judgeking, Sound-Mind, Bentogoa, Toddst1, Jimthing, Svick, JL-Bot,
Addbot, Zhitelew, Yobot, Themfromspace, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Kjellmikal, Kotu Kubin, Rustemas, Albertcobo, J04n, Solphusion~enwiki, J. Andrew G., Sanpitch, Hussainhssn, SkyMachine, Vipl0ve, EmausBot, Chrislenhart, , Ewalta, JaneStillman,
Wingman4l7, AVarchaeologist, ClueBot NG, Someguyfromcrowd, ZPhilp, Antiqueight, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jparker2589, Ben.kenobi.wan,
Virtualerian, Dantasticmantastic, Sriharid, Rage, Rage against..., Eugenious monk, Xoegki, Insertcleverphrasehere and Anonymous: 81
2G Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2G?oldid=674660974 Contributors: DavidWBrooks, Jpatokal, Darrell Greenwood, Glenn,
Smack, Conti, Jwrosenzweig, Snickerdo, Radiojon, Maximus Rex, Shizhao, Wst~enwiki, Baloo rch, Josep1c, Fudoreaper, BenFrantzDale, Goofrider, Utcursch, LiDaobing, Gscshoyru, Oknazevad, Frenchwhale, Markalex, Andros 1337, Bobo192, Wayfarer, Alansohn,
Wtmitchell, Dremora, TigerShark, Guy M, Marudubshinki, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, N0YKG, Tedder, Chobot, DVdm, Borgx,
Phobie, MMuzammils, Malcolma, Voidxor, Denisutku, Fang Aili, Bressen, SmackBot, Vassyana, Gilliam, MechMykl, JoelLimberg, Ksn,
Redeagle688, Newone, JohnTechnologist, Eric, Lironl, Cydebot, Danindenver, Thijs!bot, Mgloerich, RLE64, EwaDuan, Mafmafmaf, Nisselua, Seaphoto, Gh5046, JAnDbot, HellDragon, MB1972, Acroterion, STBot, Rettetast, R'n'B, Pekaje, Mange01, Mojodaddy, Jesant13,
Jayden54, Travidillo, Mlewis000, RingtailedFox, Broadbot, AlleborgoBot, Logan, Mikemoral, Arda Xi, Lightmouse, Tomi T Ahonen,
Treekids, Dlrohrer2003, ClueBot, Cli, Iandiver, DragonBot, Alexbot, Muhandes, Hadiyana, Rhododendrites, Mikaey, Thingg, InternetMeme, Addbot, Otrfan, Comediante, Chaldor, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Utility Knife, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, LovesMacs,
Xqbot, Anna Frodesiak, Nasa-verve, Mbehrns, Sae1962, Bshewmake, LittleWink, RedBot, Dom1986, Suusion of Yellow, Rahuloof,
DASHBot, TGCP, Daveespionage, EmausBot, EleferenBot, Naveenvrnew, Pun, ChuispastonBot, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Satellizer,
Rezabot, Masssly, Vkgenjoy, TrevorBriggsCook, AvocatoBot, Gurrag, Webclient101, RazrRekr201, The Quirky Kitty, Adzad, Hillbillyholiday, Epicgenius, Diferens, Bobbyblee, Alexlock, GottaGoFast and Anonymous: 146
LTE (telecommunication) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LTE_(telecommunication)?oldid=674192135 Contributors: Damian
Yerrick, The Anome, Tommy~enwiki, Mrwojo, Nealmcb, Egil, Ronz, Julesd, Conti, Tali, Wikiborg, Andrewman327, Omegatron, Bevo,
Jni, Robbot, Cedars, Fudoreaper, Mcapdevila, Joconnor, St3vo, Edcolins, Chowbok, Paradoxian, Maikel, DmitryKo, Oliyoung, Rich Farmbrough, Alexkon, FT2, Andros 1337, Bender235, Mwanner, MaxHund, Mikel Ward, Guspaz, ChadCloman, Fatphil, Rajivts, Guy Harris,
The RedBurn, Wdfarmer, Jb 007clone, SidP, Tomlzz1, Mindmatrix, Camw, David Haslam, Tabletop, Mheart, Uvb~enwiki, BD2412, David
Levy, Rjwilmsi, Iolaire, Nightscream, Intgr, NotJackhorkheimer, Chobot, Siddhant, McGinnis, MMuzammils, Groogle, Manop, Gaius
Cornelius, ZacBowling, Aler, ICanAlwaysChangeThisLater, Opt 05, Tony1, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, Fstorino~enwiki, Nelson50,
John Broughton, EXonyte, Maryhit, SmackBot, Semiautomata, GregA, Elk Salmon, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, TRosenbaum, Cs-wolves,
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Metageek, Escottf, ProtocolOH, Lostart, DylanW, Malambis, Daniel.Cardenas, Davipo, Khazar, Hmbr, Swellesley, Stefan2, Bssc81, JWaters, JHunterJ, 81120906713, Jmgonzalez, Dicklyon, Ariel Pontes, Mihitha, Vocaro, JustinRossi, Iansanderson, Paultt, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Kushal one, Jesse Viviano, Cycloneopp, Phatom87, Cydebot, Raamin, Mblumber, Rockneedsasavior, Kanags, Altaphon, Myscrnnm,
Vladimirko, Kozuch, SpK, Ashokec, Chris01720, Uruiamme, Dawnseeker2000, SvenAERTS, Mattew~enwiki, Firetwuck, Vernapp, Yellowdesk, Bernopedia, Hayesgm, Hijklmno, Harryzilber, MER-C, Dhkkim, Magioladitis, TheAllSeeingEye, Adrianski, Kevinmon, Orionist,
SandStone, Tbleher, Boob, Fbiots, JefeMixtli, Retroneo, JaGa, Conquerist, RP88, Jim.henderson, Nikpapag, Squiggleslash, Mange01,
Mojodaddy, Darin-0, Kaltros, Hgmyung, Acalamari, Cfeet77, Bryanshook, Mafeu, Goingstuckey, Garthps2002, Isoman00, Santiperez,
Benignbala, Epameinondas, Muhdbunahmad, Mills00013, Fishbert, VolkovBot, A yacout, Je G., Wrev, Philip Trueman, Prasad ark,
Avamsik, Jpat34721, Don4of4, Wordsmith, Spiral5800, Billinghurst, Charliearcuri, Adamr81, Lamro, Dcarriso, GoLLoMboje, AlleborgoBot, Kbrose, MC-CDMA, Jamessungjin.kim, Mvadu, Chmyr, Mwaisberg, Editore99, CutOTies, Rupert baines, Byrialbot, Lightmouse, Eouw0o83hf, AlanUS, Go2Null, TheHoax, Kartks, M2Ys4U, Engsoonhock, Tuxa, ClueBot, Aintneo~enwiki, Unbuttered Parsnip,
MichaelVernonDavis, 1983px, Spotticus, Scrapking, Balaji280283, Jlf~enwiki, Scatter98, Psigmon, LukeTheSpook, Bbb2007, Excirial,
QueueNut, Muhandes, Brotheryu, Louisarogers, BOTarate, Ranjithsutari, TY-214, Egmontaz, DumZiBoT, InternetMeme, Nick in syd,
XLinkBot, Akshaygs, Mwolleben, Setherson, Madiator, Smnc, MystBot, Gabriel2008, Deineka, Addbot, Mortense, LatitudeBot, Alexandre.2.beaudry, Capstar12, Toowoomba, MrOllie, SpBot, Navwikiadroit, Georgematewiki, Lightbot, Gerti W, Stefoun, TheBigZzz, Luckasbot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Letireur, DemocraticLuntz, Bctwriter, Flexar, Jim1138, Grolltech, Elisabeth Hillman, Eikoseidel, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Brian2wood, MauritsBot, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, Futureseer, Lonniev, Isheden, Schwijker, Armbrust, Solphusion~enwiki, Omnipaedista, Jspaid, Kyng, Dngnta, Remind me never, Miguelameida, Governor Jerjerrod, Konst1977, Saini613, FrescoBot, KirbyRandolf, Nageh, Mynetworks, Lisa Andersson, Sanpitch, Sunowermalta, Dipankar biswas,
Haeinous, Vishal Singhal, Dagamer34, Orgio89, OgreBot, Soyguapa, Javert, Chenopodiaceous, Biker Biker, Jonesey95, Alexander Chervov, RedBot, Impala2009, Tahir mq, Chris gustafson, Johnnyjagger, Nicknrm, Kakisgr, Ensconsed, Banej, Sajalkdas, Vega702, Bnc319,
Jimys salonika, Tamahome5555, Etxkesa, Crati, Wo.luren, Jakeroot, Carson1968, Koryosaram, Wirelessgal, Dwonak, Diannaa, Brendabum, Ptrlow, Dalyswe, RjwilmsiBot, Xaltotun, TjBot, Basangbur, Envelopetracker, EmausBot, John of Reading, Jsung123, Ehugne,
Merf64, Gcfreeland, Nasula, Mpelcat, AsceticRose, Ponydepression, Dariel 01, Alakh.jai, Wksam, H3llBot, Cactusman2, DaMan92,
Alansu, Secator, TechWriterNJ, Marv moskowitz, Gsarwa, Tech2010, Daithibaru, ChuispastonBot, Blin22, Dorsacato, Joerasmussen,
Rmashhadi, Doris Meier, ClueBot NG, Jorny32, Rashed-NJITWILL, Amjadk, Dru of Id, C. Jeremy Wong, Pnk3-NJITWILL, Masssly,
Widr, Luca Lategan, GosiLomKj2, Frmin, Ejder.bastug, BG19bot, Bouteloua, Encyclopedant, Doodlebug777, Buddy12345, AvocatoBot, Sandakelum, Zach Vega, Kcipsirhc, Reebsauce, Nabeelaslamkolassery, LogicalFinance33, Royal misha, Ajklein5211, HTML2011,
IRedRat, Skunk44, Hasenburg, Pratyya Ghosh, AndreyKovalevsky, Withemy, TheComputerMan, SFK2, Prashantlte, MrCellular, Awesomeguy529, Carolinamed, Spetalnick, Epicgenius, TheFrog001, Lemnaminor, Acetotyce, Ipod3g, Camobrien, Nodove, Ronraverivera,
269
JaconaFrere, Skr15081997, Carbonoatom, Melcous, Ritajeerson, YJAX, Maverick972, Vikibilim, OutlawStar6891, Louis King - Edits
for Everyone, Telecomwiz, Java1245, Jtxxtj, Vfhouse, Spuriousvarlot, AlbertC99, Drkd3vil, KreatorSveta, NoobishSVK, ProprioMe OW
and Anonymous: 592
4G Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G?oldid=674888077 Contributors: The Anome, Markc113, B4hand, Edward, Dcljr, CesarB,
Ronz, Jpatokal, Julesd, Glenn, Mxn, Fuzheado, LMB, Thue, Bevo, Tsanth, Cluth, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Cfaerber, Dittaeva, Nurg, Merovingian, Auric, Pseudonym, Tobias Bergemann, Alerante, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Mat-C, Mcapdevila, Scotth1, Varlaam, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Utcursch, CryptoDerk, Beland, Gene203, CaribDigita, Oknazevad, Quota, Ukexpat, Thorwald, Frankchn, Rich Farmbrough, FT2,
Andros 1337, D-Notice, Bender235, Neko-chan, Cacophony, Moilleadir, Bobo192, Mikel Ward, Cheung1303, Towel401, Sysiphe, Accord, Niklas a, Alansohn, Jcsutton, Retran, Guy Harris, Andrewpmk, Rcbarnes, Muttster, Axl, Justinbb, Bete, Sligocki, Dalm, Velella,
Ronark, Dalillama, Suruena, RJFJR, Spellcheck, Prattora~enwiki, Boothy443, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Nirion, Robert K S, Tabletop, RealLeo, Triddle, Doco, Gimboid13, BD2412, CarbonUnit, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, XP1, Vegaswikian, FlaBot, Ground Zero,
Jak123, AL SAM, Baryn, Planetneutral, Moocha, Benlisquare, Shaggyjacobs, Cirne, Siddhant, Cuahl, YurikBot, Mushin, Charles Gaudette,
MMuzammils, RussBot, Madkayaker, Sasuke Sarutobi, Stephenb, Manop, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Bovineone, Bmhcjs, Anomie,
DJ Bungi, Worldicez, Topperfalkon, Asten77, Prolineserver, Tony1, Alex43223, Vlad, Lcmortensen, Square87~enwiki, Spondoolicks,
Tdangkhoa, Back ache, Wainstead, JLaTondre, DoriSmith, Katieh5584, Thomas Blomberg, DasBub, Benandorsqueaks, Bruce78, SmackBot, Simon Beavis, Marc Lacoste, Mjrichardson1, Jrockley, Delldot, Msmolnikar, Two stripe, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Jcarroll, Armeria,
Teemu Ruskeep, SlimJim, CrookedAsterisk, Cattus, JDCMAN, Thumperward, Jeysaba, Bazonka, Mithaca, ABACA, DHN-bot~enwiki,
Colonies Chris, Mattyw, Noodles25, Frap, Alphathon, N3c, Ne0Freedom, Pastudan, Malambis, Wizardman, The Extremist, Rupaheli,
Nishkid64, Turbo852, Cmlau, A-Ge0, Optimale, Jmgonzalez, Tigger-oN, Hu12, Muhaidib, Joseph Solis in Australia, Skapur, Mihitha,
Ro2000, Dave420, M4tth3wg, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Mazmohad, Wargamer, Toby.e.hawkins, Citidel, Cydebot, Steel, Hebrides, Bzinimho,
A n k u r, Synergy, PKT, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Wikid77, HighTechGeek, Mojo Hand, Marek69, John254, Nick Number, Uruiamme,
Trakon, Dawnseeker2000, Phy1729, AntiVandalBot, Nisselua, Saimhe, Widefox, Opelio, Bridgeplayer, Pichote, Yellowdesk, Dougher,
Sathish.visu, NapoliRoma, MER-C, Drizzd~enwiki, Seddon, Wser, Geniac, Yosh3000, MaxPont, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, TheAllSeeingEye, SHCarter, BanRay, Pappnese, Andryono, Adavies42, Wikied~enwiki, Canyouhearmenow, JefeMixtli, Retroneo, Chris G, Vchava,
Kgeischmann, Dm8233, Lenin1991, HeeQue, Tracer9999, Khr0n0s, Ryper, Conquerist, MartinBot, Lijunjie, Jim.henderson, Coogeeboy, Koraiem, Verdatum, Nono64, Jehall318, EdBever, Squiggleslash, Ceros, J.delanoy, Mange01, Mojodaddy, Trusilver, Darin-0, Jesant13, Dbiel, Ginsengbomb, Madzyzome, Kenshinyer, FrummerThanThou, Brooklyndodger, Gebjon, SaskatchewanSenator, Davandron, Tidywave, DarrylJH, Lbparker40, Cometstyles, Tjgould, Bonadea, Jaychan00, HighKing, Ronbo76, TheNewPhobia, Squids and
Chips, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Stuyvoid, Lights, Satbir13, VolkovBot, Raza514, Wiki-ay, DSRH, Flyingidiot, Je G., Indubitably,
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Mortense, Willking1979, DOI bot, Robaston, Ironholds, Jchap1590, CanadianLinuxUser, Download, Aunva6, Billsunny, CosmiCarl, Mobit, Gomoker, Mfhulskemper, Ettrig, Rojypala, Vegaswikian1, Wcam, Ben Ben, Math Champion, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Legobot
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bot 1, Chenopodiaceous, Redrose64, Symplectic Map, I dream of horses, Calmer Waters, Yahia.barie, Toonmore, MastiBot, IceBlade710,
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Tsx11, Cristapone, DASHBot, Steve03Mills, John of Reading, Dolescum, Siddhartha 90, WikitanvirBot, Avenue X at Cicero, Craxyxarc,
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J349, Widr, Starpchack, User 30860135, 6Anesthesia, Mtking, Theopolisme, Nairobi123, Technoblitz, Helpful Pixie Bot, HisanKazamaru, Debadeba, Bigint, Frmin, HMSSolent, Ejder.bastug, Strike Eagle, BG19bot, Murry1975, TonyRichards2, True Tech Talk Time,
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Riley Huntley, Pratyya Ghosh, Rjpaats, Scopecreep, GoShow, Garamond Lethe, Khazar2, JamesHaigh, Mypslim, Amconners, Coolbondin,
Benson 26, Emandrawkcab, BigJolly9, SoledadKabocha, Mogism, Alexandre Gouraud, Cryptchrysaetos, Digitalcrowd, Gothgeek1, Donperfectodewiki, Danielyoung88, JohnOhman, Sandrabf, Jamesx12345, Dave Bowman - Discovery Won, Lorenrb, MrCellular, Spury98,
Bhwang24, Reatlas, Daniyal7871, Faizan, Malayalibuji, Mirfanmaqsood, AltynAsyr, Consider42, I am One of Many, Wanishahrukh,
Jodosma, Psatsankhya, Musabbir Islam, Sindhoor preeetham, Robertomouracar4melo, LCS check, Henryparachutegale, AndrejSpSk,
Comp.arch, Trevnerdio, Ronraverivera, Wikiuser13, Mihir Pandey, The Herald, Coee&tv, Contact.Talal, Cammello03, Insert Bill Here,
Ellistev, Deb2569, Alexidh, Pmlnlahore, Stamptrader, Bigdaddybangbang, MSBadrajith, Thewikiguru1, Deepcruze, Joy2035, Faizannehal, Wyn.junior, Dev7229, Monkbot, Vp734, Naeemirza, Rajanib, The Last Arietta, TheMagikCow, Sirgrossgergeocial, Rafacvo,
Bpmeller, Adieqwener, Pddu78000, Aytk, Paisley Liverpool, Eagleo, Davidtunderthesea, Enkakad, FivePillarPurist, OussDB, Alexander93nj, Xavierchiang and Anonymous: 961
IP Multimedia Subsystem Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_Multimedia_Subsystem?oldid=660736520 Contributors: The
Anome, Michael Hardy, Plop, Ijon, Conti, Ehn, .mau., Netje, Dbenbenn, Joconnor, Frencheigh, Mboverload, Bobblewik, Edcolins,
Pgan002, Oneiros, Asqueella, Discospinster, ZayZayEM, SpeedyGonsales, Matt tw, Sysiphe, Poweroid, Etxrge, Ringbang, Armando, Nfvs,
Rickjpelleg, Bluemoose, Arunr, Radiant!, Tbird20d, Rjwilmsi, Sarg, Tedder, Tyagi, Bgwhite, Manscher, Siddhant, Ecemaml, Zmding,
Conscious, DJ Bungi, Brandon, Reneh, Layer~enwiki, Tony1, Bota47, Petri Krohn, Batsonjay, Bluezy, Katieh5584, Veinor, SmackBot, Eskimbot, Ngsayjoe, Gilliam, Dingar, Bluebot, ABACA, A. B., Daveg1k, JonHarder, Jmlk17, Isj-wikipedia, JanCeuleers, PPBlais,
270
DylanW, Dburhans, Joneslee319, DKEdwards, TJJFV, Markje, Rait, Soumyasch, Beetstra, Bodulo~enwiki, Kvng, The Haunted Angel, SkyWalker, Mapet~enwiki, CmdrObot, Phatom87, Cydebot, Mblumber, Tokosk16, Ejores, Compozer, Alny, DmitTrix, West Brom
4ever, AntiVandalBot, DekuDekuplex, Harryzilber, .anacondabot, Nyttend, Pausch, Kgeischmann, STBot, ASG123, R'n'B, Verdatum,
Ercraig2, Kineto ss, Squiggleslash, Mange01, Mojodaddy, McSly, Bertra g, VolkovBot, 3GPP guru, Blither, Elimerl, LeaveSleaves, Jamelan, Wirelesspont, Andy Dingley, Brianga, Kbrose, Ahaapaka, Barkeep, Gkansal, France3470, Flyer22, Matthi2, Pkbeaumont, Ims guy,
Tmaufer, Leedryburgh, RSStockdale, Eventhelix, Rstonehouse, Mpeylo, Martarius, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Aintneo~enwiki, Diana cionoiu,
Niceguyedc, StigBot, Auntof6, Varkonyib, Muhandes, Mlas, Vadivelji, Jommike, Balance500, Vances, XLinkBot, Dgtsyb, Ha runner,
Kbdankbot, Addbot, Ylva Hubatsa, Kjboyleii, MrOllie, Zirion~enwiki, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Santryl, Rubinbot, Citation bot, Brian2wood,
Wikalicious, SimonInns, Kanardzilla, FrescoBot, BebelA4, Dinamik-bot, Dwonak, Chronulator, DexDor, EmausBot, Vingarzan, John
Aronsson, GoingBatty, WCroslan, I don't remember my username, Jay-Sebastos, Sassospicco, ClueBot NG, Ontist, Cn2000, Widr, Frmin,
Arvindverma77, BG19bot, Sst01, Compfreak7, CitationCleanerBot, Armstrongsoo, Rizwan bhawra, Twasono, Mogism, Spilton, MChesterMC, Mircea paciu, Bilorv, Jesus.munozb, Pparco and Anonymous: 286
IS-95 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IS-95?oldid=673558326 Contributors: CesarB, Docu, Jpatokal, Salsa Shark, Ka9q, Fuzheado,
Securiger, Centrx, Ryanrs, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Rohini, Beland, Grunt, Andros 1337, MCBastos, Longhair, AllyUnion, Wrs1864, Pearle,
Guy Harris, Apoc2400, Mindmatrix, BoLingua, Triddle, Isnow, Mckoss, N0YKG, Saksham, Mathiastck, Siddhant, Petri Krohn, Rdschwarz, Jarrodchambers, SmackBot, DylanW, Rait, Ksn, Kozuch, BetacommandBot, Thijs!bot, Marvinglenn, Nisselua, Tilgon, Harryzilber, Mysterioususer, Dulciana, KJRehberg, Asankakr, Mojodaddy, Idioma-bot, Rei-bot, McM.bot, Richard Kervin, Maimone, Tomi T
Ahonen, Dillard421, Iandiver, Sepia tone, Alexbot, Jonverve, InternetMeme, Kbdankbot, Addbot, D p hieu, Osayi, Diarmuidmallon, Tide
rolls, Zagothal, AnomieBOT, , Hardikvasa, Chester Markel, Bibaza, Jmdwp, Khazar2 and Anonymous: 52
CDMA2000 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA2000?oldid=666812912 Contributors: NuclearWinner, Jpatokal, DropDeadGorgias, Fuzheado, Toreau, Rohan Jayasekera, Jusjih, Skyre, Vespristiano, RedWolf, Hadal, Fudoreaper, Joaopaulo1511, Zigger, Karn,
Khalid hassani, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Goofrider, Aughtandzero, Beland, Mozzerati, Asqueella, DmitryKo, Markalex, Andros 1337, Swid,
Jensbn, PhilHibbs, James.pole, Brons, Zygmunt lozinski, Guy Harris, Cdc, Helixblue, Kinema, Firsfron, Woohookitty, RHaworth, StradivariusTV, Armando, Rjairam, Sega381, Makru, Intgr, Chobot, WriterHound, Petiatil, Alohawolf, Tne80, Kooky, Petri Krohn, Rdschwarz,
Bluezy, Porttikivi, Crystallina, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Henri de Solages, Betacommand, MichaelWheeley, Hongooi, JonHarder,
Mikefzhu, Cmgross, DylanW, Owt, Cipz, Protean, Ksn, Breno, Mr. Vernon, JustinRossi, Trialsanderrors, Devourer09, VoxLuna, CmdrObot, Imcdnzl, Jesse Viviano, Requestion, Bgurg, Jewel96, Sewebster, Ren0, Cydebot, Kozuch, Bdragon, Thijs!bot, RFerreira, Jhdaly,
Nisselua, Kauczuk, The Fifth Horseman, Harryzilber, DuncanHill, Yosh3000, Email4mobile, KJRehberg, Ablabla459, Asankakr, Mojodaddy, Smileglance, Elume, Chengli.liu~enwiki, Musically ut, Jabz10, Je G., Lesswire, Eurolite x3, Umbrau44, Xxxccc, GeneralBelly, Haruyasha, Omiazad, Chrisf8657, Thunderbird2, Gdn, Nkcmt, Jmoz2989, Qst, Editore99, Sakimori, Engineerism, Wdwd, ClueBot,
Supaklailert, Bercenicity, Sauralf, Axylight, LeviStrauss, Ario28, Jonverve, Johnuniq, InternetMeme, Stickee, Drjmb, Avik pram, Kbdankbot, Addbot, John Chamberlain, Ginosbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Crimsonedge34, Zagothal, Joviman, LilHelpa, Dudyk al,
Adaryanto~enwiki, RibotBOT, Kyng, Shankarcps, DrilBot, Delan006, Lappkast, Vishyvoice, EmausBot, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG,
Compfreak7, Comp.arch, Ecbf and Anonymous: 275
Service layer Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_layer?oldid=607028324 Contributors: Lockley, SmackBot, Frap, R'n'B,
Mange01, MagicBanana, Kbrose, 1ForTheMoney, Addbot, Legobot II, JackieBot, SimonInns, Fiftytwo thirty, John of Reading, Rushton2010, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058 and Anonymous: 1
Open Mobile Alliance Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Mobile_Alliance?oldid=659069904 Contributors: The Anome,
Ghakko, Rl, Wikiborg, Bearcat, Vespristiano, Thierryc, Pgan002, CaribDigita, D6, ArnoldReinhold, Danwarne, Mike Schwartz, Maurreen,
Towel401, Algocu, Mindmatrix, Armando, Bluemoose, Mgarlop, Radiant!, SteveW, Jamie, Jivecat, Forage, FlaBot, Mathiastck, YurikBot,
Nowa, Debot~enwiki, Mattiasw, JLaTondre, Garion96, Bluezy, Gilliam, Tasmanian Angel, Invenio, Philggg, Coolestguru, DabMachine,
VoxLuna, TheTito, Stefankroon, Dw2cco, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, Mojodaddy, Econgiu, Celltick, Glossologist, DancingMan, Trachten, Ilia
Kr., Jamelan, Ulf Abrahamsson~enwiki, Antoniogartime ule, Chmyr, Iandiver, Stachelsch, Discretix, BOTarate, Ksmetana, Deineka,
Addbot, Ghettoblaster, Arbitrarily0, Luckas-bot, Lkt1126, Samarkham, Subviking, Samthemander, FrescoBot, Gentleben8282, MastiBot, Tahir mq, Shashank Reddy.P, David Hedlund, EmausBot, John of Reading, K6ka, Compfreak7, Sureshchitturi, Lagoset, Dianafoi,
Dianafusion and Anonymous: 34
Telecoms & Internet converged Services & Protocols for Advanced Networks Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecoms_%26_
Internet_converged_Services_%26_Protocols_for_Advanced_Networks?oldid=541109490 Contributors: Pgan002, Icairns, Sesse, Mailer
diablo, Stemonitis, FlaBot, Phil Holmes, Bluezy, SmackBot, JanCeuleers, Hu12, TXiKiBoT, JL-Bot, Addbot, Yobot, FrescoBot, Frmin
and Anonymous: 22
GSM services Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM_services?oldid=657522559 Contributors: Zoicon5, Omegatron, Cluth, Cek,
Monedula, Beland, Mozzerati, TonyW, Sladen, Andros 1337, Sietse Snel, Cacophony, Jpgordon, Cmdrjameson, Espoo, ChrisUK, Stephan
Leeds, Gpvos, Bookandcoee, Marudubshinki, Mandarax, BD2412, Dpv, Vegaswikian, WouterBot, YurikBot, Crazytales, Tyler.szabo,
Anomalocaris, Moe Epsilon, Wknight94, Deville, Bluezy, SmackBot, Gene.thomas, Unforgettableid, Ohnoitsjamie, Jnavas, Je Wheeler,
Calum Macisdean, CmdrObot, Pan Camel, Cydebot, Kozuch, Prouzet, Busyanuj, VoABot II, Calltech, R'n'B, Carre, CrZTgR, WPinNYC, Tomi T Ahonen, Niceguyedc, Johnuniq, XLinkBot, Dgtsyb, Addbot, Dimikaz, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Fraggle81, THEN WHO WAS
PHONE?, Materialscientist, FaTony, FrescoBot, Canopus49, Btilm, Cnwilliams, Vrenator, Onel5969, EmausBot, ZroBot, Likri, BattyBot, W.D., Rita2008, HHubi and Anonymous: 88
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Mobile_Telecommunications_System?
oldid=674390124 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, The Anome, Guppie, Rjstott, Youssefsan, Maartsen, Michael Hardy, Modster, Liftarn,
Jakub~enwiki, CesarB, Mac, Jpatokal, BigFatBuddha, IMSoP, Ghewgill, Samuel~enwiki, Tobias Conradi, Conti, Crissov, Malcohol, Fuzheado, Snickerdo, Zoicon5, Maximus Rex, Omegatron, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Cfaerber, Christopherwoods, Baloo rch, Hadal, Netje,
Lproven, Marius~enwiki, Hylaride, Fudoreaper, Zigger, Alex.atkins, Everyking, David Johnson, Jdavidb, Enfors, Bsoft, Pascal666, AlistairMcMillan, Thomas Ludwig, Uzume, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Golbez, Goofrider, Nedlowe, Tim Pritlove, SimonArlott, Maximaximax,
Richietjpr, Kphua, Picapica, Abdull, Karvendhan, Markalex, AAAAA, Imroy, Noisy, Discospinster, Oliver Lineham, Cfailde, Andros
1337, Wk muriithi, YUL89YYZ, TacoJim, Azurepalm, Djordjes, Nikkaro, Techtoucian, Shanes, RoyBoy, Cacophony, Jtact, Bobo192,
Primawan, Kensai, Nk, Travisyoung, Towel401, Espoo, Gmmour, Guy Harris, Gbeeker, Paul1337, Stephan Leeds, Danthemankhan,
Dziban303, Dan100, Ceyockey, Woohookitty, Armando, Brentdax, Beej, Wamatt, Mihhkel, Jackcall, Broccoli, Pdelong, Rillian, Sarg,
N0YKG, FlaBot, AGuerrieri, Wikiliki, Vclaw, RAMChYLD, Mathiastck, Fragglet, RobyWayne, Intgr, NotJackhorkheimer, Preslethe,
Chobot, Siddhant, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, MMuzammils, DogGunn, Epolk, Sasuke Sarutobi, Jasonb, Gaius Cornelius, Bovineone, Varnav, Probell, Kennethmac2000, Jaxl, Joel7687, Epugachev, Voidxor, Gmatsuda, Nicolaiplum, Vlad, Ruchira, Ke6jjj, Daniel C, Orioane,
271
KGasso, Abune, Petri Krohn, Rearden9, Rdschwarz, Matt croxson, Zquack, Porttikivi, DrJolo, SmackBot, Leion, GregA, Monkeyblue, PEHowland, KnowledgeOfSelf, Tcolgan001, Agentbla, Frymaster, Nil Einne, Richmeister, Jupix, Quadratic, Mattrix18, Knuckleskin, Chris
the speller, DStoykov, Robertyhn, Thumperward, Oli Filth, Stevage, Epastore, ABACA, JoeOnSunset, OrphanBot, JonHarder, Amargosa,
Adamantios, Jmnbatista, MureninC, TechPurism, Jhonan, DylanW, Andrewpayneaqa, SashatoBot, NotMuchToSay, Stamppot, Notmicro,
Kashmiri, Shattered, Jmgonzalez, Arkrishna, Nakedcellist, Chris Price, Speedarius, Paul Foxworthy, Frank Lofaro Jr., Embryonated, JohnTechnologist, GFellows, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Tpatricio, StarlitGlitter, SkylineEvo, Requestion, Cydebot, Johannylindskog, Corpx, Dancter,
Kozuch, Dog 65, Thijs!bot, EwaDuan, DmitTrix, JustAGal, Scaredpoet, Vodomar, Dawnseeker2000, Michas pi, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot,
Nisselua, Saimhe, DJ Rubbie, Pichote, Yubal, Lbecque, Dougher, Husond, Harryzilber, Medconn, Drizzd~enwiki, Byeee, Magioladitis,
SHCarter, Andryono, JPG-GR, KJRehberg, SandStone, Lizmm, DrSeehas, Retroneo, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Squiggleslash, Nath85, Mange01, MITBeaverRocks, Mojodaddy, Darin-0, Thenoyzone, Murmurr, Skier Dude, Davandron, Plasticup, Yabbakazoo, DavidOrme, Sdudah, Totsugeki, Cavort, Nielchiano, Bwaav, Contemno~enwiki, Signalhead, DagnyB, Navshot, TXiKiBoT, Jess,
Dj stone, Prasad ark, Broadbot, Amelshabrawy, BotKung, Jamelan, Tri400, Billinghurst, Henrik46, Spinningspark, Amakader, Tsaitgaist,
Jamessungjin.kim, ToePeu.bot, Cydho, Jmoz2989, MI canuck, Sublite, Lightmouse, Int21h, Engineerism, Jaykaynam, Treekids, Moritz der
Moralapostel, Duhaggie, Martarius, Ghoctor, Bbb2007, PixelBot, Muhandes, Hadiyana, Estirabot, MrBeauGiles, Cyberglobe, Mlas, La
Pianista, InternetMeme, FenSerkan, Dgtsyb, Mr4top, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Xp54321, Speer320, JBsupreme, Mortense, CL, Wildrider99,
SoSaysChappy, Joycloete, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Mpitt, SN74LS00, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, ErikTheBikeMan, Materialscientist, GenQuest, Omnipaedista, Chrismiceli, Kyng, FrescoBot, Ch Th Jo, Nageh, D'ohBot, Kwiki, Tahir mq, Sajalkdas,
EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Zollerriia, TuHan-Bot, AvicBot, SIPH0R, Greatpouya2, , Rcsprinter123, Pun,
Everlasting enigma, Doris Meier, ClueBot NG, Widr, Chillllls, Helpful Pixie Bot, Helifella, Kjabbe, Bouteloua, RodkaRom, Herbert44,
ChrisGualtieri, Rusmr1, SFK2, Acharya 87, Epicgenius, Wuerzele, Nightwalker-87, Lesser Cartographies, MSheshera, Juncaceres and
Anonymous: 462
IDEN Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDEN?oldid=670603263 Contributors: Taral, Danny, Nate Silva, CesarB, Egil, Arteitle, Fuzheado, Nv8200pa, Fibonacci, Joy, Dale Arnett, Boy b, Altenmann, Securiger, Patcat88, Fennec, EJDyksen, Rchandra, AdamJacobMuller, Bobblewik, CaribDigita, Terinthanas, Qui1che, Andros 1337, Pavel Vozenilek, Cacophony, Cmdrjameson, Peter Shearan, Guy
Harris, Lkinkade, Qnonsense, Armando, Admrboltz, David Levy, Isaac Rabinovitch, Vary, Viakenny, Vegaswikian, Sango123, A Man In
Black, N0YKG, FlaBot, Wikiliki, Planetneutral, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Petiatil, Alohawolf, NawlinWiki, Polpo, Watgap, Cellulardreams, David Jordan, GraemeL, JLaTondre, Jmchu, SmackBot, Nmulder, Gilliam, Miquonranger03, Robth, Feathers, Krich, Cybercobra, DylanW, Salamurai, Fellipec, ArglebargleIV, AmiDaniel, Evan Robidoux, PseudoSudo, Rawmustard, Basem, Bresolver, Skapur,
Aeons, Tawkerbot2, Sergioag, OS2Warp, CmdrObot, Jesse Viviano, BaRiMzI, Mattmitchell, Jonathan Daley, Hoosss, Cydebot, Q43,
Landroo, Thijs!bot, MrChrome, Scaredpoet, Cslibby, JAnDbot, Shaul1, Jhansonxi, MyNameIsNeo, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Juansidious,
RockMFR, Betty456, Mojodaddy, Maertsria, Tomgibbons, Lithis7, Parker007, Aymatth2, Newark777, Tiddly Tom, Jmoz2989, Oxymoron83, BIGShorts, Elch Yenn, ClueBot, Kenglen76, VQuakr, Niceguyedc, Snip3rM00n, Versus22, Jax 0677, Cmh044, Aisaacson,
Addbot, Speer320, Tanhabot, , Szcy2008, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, FrescoBot, Ilnyc8, John of Reading, Southernsontn,
ClueBot NG, ChrisGualtieri, Focalpointfecta, MOThistory, Wikicuentaus and Anonymous: 176
Satellite phone Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_phone?oldid=673937261 Contributors: Robert Merkel, Michael Hardy,
Stw, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Haabet, Andres, Tristanb, RickK, Radiojon, Saltine, Taxman, Bearcat, Fredrik, Jondel, Hcheney, DocWatson42,
Michael Devore, 159753, Sleepygreen~enwiki, Rhobite, Guanabot, Srd2005, Xcriteria, West London Dweller, Sleske, Towel401, Insomniacity, Alansohn, Mgaved, GNU4eva, Andrewpmk, RobertStar20, Apoc2400, Wtmitchell, Lkinkade, Toyoda, Woohookitty, Armando,
MarkPos, Descendall, Rjwilmsi, XP1, Vegaswikian, NeonMerlin, CannotResolveSymbol, Tequendamia, Bgwhite, YurikBot, MMuzammils, DKSalazar, CambridgeBayWeather, Grafen, Super Rad!, GraemeL, Draco avus, Shufengbai, SmackBot, Kittynboi, RedSpruce,
Gilliam, Bluebot, Suamme1, Thumperward, Oli Filth, Kungming2, Digitrics, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Frap, JonHarder, BIL, Trieste, DylanW, Bengl, Parrot of Doom, WayKurat, Moniker42, Laugh~enwiki, Dasune, Euchiasmus, Jbonneau, Rsnake123, Hu12, IvanLanin, Seven of Nine, Erencexor, Gogo Dodo, Omicronpersei8, OfFire, BetacommandBot, InfernalPanda, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Jc3,
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Smartphone Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone?oldid=674862270 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Ansible, Maury
Markowitz, Juan M. Gonzalez, Vkem~enwiki, Nealmcb, Patrick, Nixdorf, Dcljr, GTBacchus, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks,
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272
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Ktsai503, Ztan0015, BethNaught, 27thPW, Uboa297, Macaulay94, HennersJCL, Soa Koutsouveli, Pjatusf, MartinPoint, Eman1003,
Hamza1909, Helddtheblog, KaiserKIS, Dilshankgc, YORCELYLUNA, Akashtablet, JPNEX, Cole2235, A8v, Wasill37, Momen.Kazi,
Ajayy99, ChamithN, Sdarw, Stefansoc, Lobcitizen32, Hellokitty123 qwer, Madhav the king, Groop3UNH, Psavageknepshield, Whereismylunch, GeorginaMat, KristinaMcloud, Connordudes, Pishcal, Morrism1, Aytk, Bripat, Aeminigs, Techexpertist, Degenerate prodigy,
273
A0145247, Bananaleaf13, Regsocks1987, Fix101, Mh2135428,

,
, Thesyberplace, Supdiop,
, KasparBot, Purnaregmi, Amoon ahmed, Rasik01, Raghunathdark, NeonHD, Celebsbio, Prajwalbizzies, Cmare740, Atiqur515,
Qasimali7071, Mejamkabilokyuk, Dubbzup, M3mb3rsh1p and Anonymous: 1291
Subscriber identity module Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subscriber_identity_module?oldid=674861531 Contributors:
Alex.tan, Gorm, Heron, Olivier, Michael Hardy, Modster, Pnm, Egil, Mac, Jpatokal, Julesd, Slusk, Glueball, Darac, Audin, Omegatron,
Ed g2s, Cuye, Jeq, Rossumcapek, Jni, Twang, Dale Arnett, Sanders muc, Yelyos, T0ky0, Ashwin, Baloo rch, Dodger~enwiki, Hadal,
Mushroom, Matt Gies, DocWatson42, Mintleaf~enwiki, Niteowlneils, Bsoft, Nathan Hamblen, Uzume, Gadum, Mackeriv, CaribDigita,
Talrias, TonyW, KeithTyler, Salimfadhley, Julien~enwiki, Abdull, Squash, Snukin~enwiki, Wfaulk, Andros 1337, Alexburke, Clawed,
Andrewferrier, Smyth, Paul August, Xrtc, Daemondust, Nanda~enwiki, Cap'n Refsmmat, Stesmo, Smalljim, Toh, Jtjdt, Zr40, Towel401,
ClementSeveillac, Mroach, Virgofenix, Espoo, Gary, LtNOWIS, Guy Harris, Potjernik, Improv, Sligocki, Yvh11a, Velella, L33th4x0rguy,
Ashkhan, Stephan Leeds, Dtcdthingy, Anthony Ivano, Mmsarfraz, Tom.k, Dtobias, Skeejay, Unixxx, Simon Shek, Pol098, Dodiad,
Plaws, Wikiklrsc, Julo, Isnow, Sega381, Justin Ormont, RadioActive~enwiki, Krymson, Teque5, Rjwilmsi, TitaniumDreads, Vegaswikian, Guinness2702, Brighterorange, Bratch, Utuado, Titoxd, SystemBuilder, Wikiliki, Tfeledy, Nivix, Bogybogy~enwiki, Eole,
Gr8dude, Kedadi, Raindeer, Chobot, Moocha, Bubbachuck, YurikBot, RobotE, Phantomsteve, Jengelh, Hydrargyrum, Zimbricchio,
Kennethmac2000, Aeusoes1, Grafen, Ravedave, Jbroderi, Xompanthy, Foofy, Gamelore, Bota47, ObuK, Watgap, Debasish Dey,
Shirishag75, Nelhage, TBadger, Katieh5584, Williampoetra, Edin1, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Leion, David Traynor, Aido2002,
Unyoyega, DWaterson, KelleyCook, Cvdr, Imzadi1979, Nil Einne, Mauls, Zephyris, Xaosux, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Chris the speller,
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Starshadow, Metageek, Radagast83, Plustgarten, Duckbill, Mr Minchin, Dreadstar, Daniel.o.jenkins, A5b, Mksword, Aled D, Freewol,
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SHCarter, Nikevich, DerHexer, DavidRCrowe, ChuckBiggs2, CommonsDelinker, DBlomgren, C Ruth, Mojodaddy, Silverxxx, Jesant13,
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MARKELLOS, Petertorr, DragonBot, Jarijokela, Excirial, Jusdafax, Vicentemf, Sin Harvest, SchreiberBike, Muro Bot, Johnuniq,
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Deadpixel1, Alan, I am One of Many, Louismax, Connorl9382, Ankitawakde, PotfromKP, Jppcap, Skr15081997, Apoorv Chauhan,
Joeleoj123, Sparky rad, Ntsm, Agrefski, Yaser09363239065, Mohammed rafath, Genius boy me, HenryEvary and Anonymous: 430
Luhn algorithm Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luhn_algorithm?oldid=673955786 Contributors: The Epopt, Wapcaplet, Chinju,
Minesweeper, Tregoweth, Michael Shields, Wael Ellithy, Charles Matthews, Dcoetzee, Ike9898, Dysprosia, Nricardo, Slawojarek, Psychonaut, Giftlite, Inkling, JimD, Workman161, PuzzleMeister, RandalSchwartz, Flex, Ericamick, Bennylin, Mrnaz, Travix, Billymac00,
AdamAtlas, MaxHund, Foobaz, Quasicharacter, Glutnix, Mikething, Richwales, Oleg Alexandrov, George Hernandez, Mindmatrix, Bellhalla, Wry, SDC, Mandarax, Graham87, Darguz Parsilvan, SystemBuilder, Ecb29, Quuxplusone, Intgr, Chorny, UkPaolo, Roboto de Ajvol,
Gene.arboit, Clib, VinceBowdren, Yarin Kaul, Werdna, Arthur Rubin, Fang Aili, Frigoris, JLaTondre, Kle0012, GrinBot~enwiki, Cmglee, Oyigit, SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Toschlog, Rouenpucelle, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Isnoop, Bluebot, Cchenoweth, SIZIK, Konstable, Zx2c4, Sartan, Acdx, A5b, Cumbrowski, Exekute, Shamanx, A. Parrot, Loadmaster, MTSbot~enwiki, Tawkerbot2, EdgarSanchez,
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Biranjan, Xcbsmith, Sopermi, Squarehead9454, F73, W96, Zorro1024, Rubyaxles, Gusennan, Leonardo H Almeida, Sidnext2none,
S.emiliozzi, Tsaukpaetra, Biblioworm, Kvantikos afros, Psychemaster, Vivek kumar indian and Anonymous: 304
International mobile subscriber identity Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_mobile_subscriber_identity?oldid=
674016332 Contributors: Egil, Plop, Yaronf, Dysprosia, Topbanana, RedWolf, TimothyPilgrim, Nach0king, Baloo rch, Skagedal, Rchandra, Pgan002, Elektron, Mozzerati, TonyW, KeithTyler, AnandKumria, Bornintheguz, Guanabot, Wk muriithi, Kwamikagami, Zr40,
Helix84, Espoo, M.L, Abesford, Stephan Leeds, Kaiser matias, Ruud Koot, Palica, Jimgawn, FlaBot, Lord Yaar, Moocha, YurikBot,
BogdanRa, CLW, Cmskog, Garion96, Mustafa.golam, DocendoDiscimus, SmackBot, D'n, David n m bond, Gilliam, Chris the speller,
Bazonka, Kashmiri, Jmgonzalez, Condem, Hu12, Janax 3rd, Neelix, Cydebot, Peripitus, Starionwolf, Thijs!bot, Electron9, Mack2, JAnDbot, Deective, .anacondabot, A3nm, Sukendro, Simon Arons, Lihui912, Verdatum, Mojodaddy, AA, Suresh govinda, VolkovBot, Jamelan, Michaeldsuarez, Peppery9, Dezwitser, Syn1kk, Ledpup, Inufuusen, Iandiver, Rrmorris, InternetMeme, Addbot, Innv, Old Aylesburian, Yobot, Sreekanthys, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Gaga.vaa, Materialscientist, Marchash, Apdreamland, PigFlu Oink, DrilBot, Tahir
mq, EmausBot, Danieldavidturner76, Bu4man, Efenna, ClueBot NG, Enzomich, Darcro89, Kendall-K1, Lliang1900, DavidD12, GSMfan,
Mustaz012, Rubel0172209, Ohmygeek, Halfpad and Anonymous: 111
274
Mobile equipment identier Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_equipment_identifier?oldid=665705169 Contributors: Radiojon, Elektron, Rich Farmbrough, Wikiklrsc, Ketiltrout, Vegaswikian, RussBot, Grafen, Tony1, Alin0Steglinski, SmackBot, Bluebot,
Metageek, Cybercobra, Weekilter, Quasar Jarosz, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Dawnseeker2000, Darklilac, Bwooce, DavidRCrowe, Logan, ClueBot, Blanchardb, Zabwung~enwiki, Middayexpress, Yobot, DrilBot, ClueBot NG, Testing10, Lemnaminor, JaconaFrere, Drock2369 and
Anonymous: 15
SIM lock Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIM_lock?oldid=673130745 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Dreamyshade, The Anome,
Stephen Gilbert, Rjstott, William Avery, Bob Jonkman, Patrick, JohnOwens, Georey~enwiki, Ronz, Plop, Julesd, Miernik, Dale Arnett, Psychonaut, Mervyn, Hadal, Aomarks, Brian Kendig, Hazzamon, Orrc, Thewikipedian, Beland, Mzajac, TonyW, JulieADriver,
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Cstdomains, Nocturnt, SoniaFulton, Vijay.singularity.krish, Nicu madalin, Mirrorguy, Maka42 and Anonymous: 512
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275
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277
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Cellular frequencies Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_frequencies?oldid=671667374 Contributors: CesarB, Kingturtle,
Cluth, Merovingian, Rdcole, Rchandra, Beland, Mind21 98, Canterbury Tail, Andros 1337, Vsmith, Swid, Pmetzger, Giraedata, Atlant,
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Xanzzibar, Pne, OwenBlacker, John Foley, Welshie, Jaruzel, AllyUnion, Ashlux, Gbeeker, Lensovet, GregorB, Sega381, Mortenf, Foxmulder, CecilWard, D'Agosta, BiH, Borisbaran, SmackBot, Melchoir, KVDP, Brianski, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Snori, Jgera5, Jdthood, Jnavas, Frap, MrRadioGuy, MichaelBillington, Esrever, Hvn0413, Kvng, IvanLanin, Semper malus, Pithecanthropus, Zds, Kozuch,
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Miracle Pen, Mjolnir1134, Andrewshousha, EmausBot, Ms.henrick, Dewritech, Dhomstad, ZroBot, Harcom, Joel8520, Wingman4l7,
Hamiltha, A Bloke Wandering, Yukix9, DancingGerbil, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Sfarry, BG19bot, WikiTryHardDieHard, Eshiv,
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Anonymous: 120
Mobile phone accessories Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone_accessories?oldid=672884616 Contributors: Ronz,
Bearcat, Orangemike, Antandrus, Rich Farmbrough, Lankiveil, BD2412, RussBot, Closedmouth, Banana04131, SmackBot, McGeddon,
Gjs238, Ctbolt, IronGargoyle, Noah Salzman, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Gogo Dodo, PamD, MER-C, Y2kcrazyjoker4, T@nn,
Jim.henderson, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Martino3, Largoplazo, Biscuittin, L32007, Jojalozzo, EoGuy, Pcpersons, CANlms, Yobot,
OregonD00d, AnomieBOT, TracyMcClark, I dream of horses, LittleWink, Pianoplonkers, Aoidh, Bobgoldy, Autumnalmonk, RAN1, Emmalewis1, Mosiurrahman, ClueBot NG, BuyItFlogIt, Vibhijain, Strike Eagle, Baayi, Adallace, Nancypreetha, Zhgfsh, EagerToddler39,
Shiv.k.gupta, Epicgenius, Red-eyed demon, Yea55, Eyesnore, Sailvan, Rdumobile, Sam Hollingsworth, Lagoset, Filedelinkerbot, KH-1,
Emorigift, Alyastark and Anonymous: 42
56.9.2
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International Mobile Station Equipment Identity

IMEI and the law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Blacklists of stolen devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Structure of the IMEI and IMEISV (IMEI Software Version) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Check digit computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Usage on satellite phone networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Market Representation Partners

2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

International Telecommunication Union

Legal framework of ITU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Directors and Secretaries-General of ITU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

World Summit on the Information Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

World Conference on International Telecommunications 2012 (WCIT-12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Changes to International Telecommunication Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Proposed Changes to the Treaty And Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

WCIT-12 Conference Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Governmental Advisory Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Proposed elimination of public DNS whois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IBSA proposal (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . .

Global Multistakeholder Meeting on the Future of Internet Governance (2013) . . . . . . .

NetMundial Initiative (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

American Registry for Internet Numbers

Policy development services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Former service regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre

Countries - LACNIC region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LACNIC cooperation agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Number Resource Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Deployment and usage

10.1 Standardized implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11 Time division multiple access

11.1 TDMA characteristics

11.2 TDMA in mobile phone systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.3 TDMA in wired networks

11.4 Comparison with other multiple-access schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.5 Dynamic TDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.1 Name and logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.2.1 Communication and connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.3.1 Bluetooth proles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.3.2 List of applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.3.3 Bluetooth vs. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.4 Computer requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.4.1 Operating system implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.5 Specications and features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.5.1 Bluetooth v1.0 and v1.0B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.5.2 Bluetooth v1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.5.3 Bluetooth v1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.5.4 Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.5.5 Bluetooth v2.1 + EDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.5.6 Bluetooth v3.0 + HS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.5.7 Bluetooth v4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.5.8 Bluetooth v4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.5.9 Bluetooth v4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.6 Technical information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.6.1 Bluetooth protocol stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.6.2 Baseband error correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.6.3 Setting up connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.6.4 Pairing and bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.6.5 Air interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.7.3 History of security concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .