Digestive system

The main components of the digestive tract are:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Oral cavity
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Rectum and anus

The entire digestive tract can be considered as a hollow tube surrounded by a wall
composed of four main layers:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis externa
Serosa or adventitia

1. Mucosa
- The mucosa consists of:
a. Epithelium (lining of the lumen)
i. Forms a selective barrier between the external environment
(lumen) and the body
ii. May contain goblet cells that secrete mucus for lubrication
iii. Endocrine cells: are common in the epithelium and produce
polypeptide hormones, which play a role in the regulation of the
digestive process
b. Lamina propria (loose connective tissue)
i. Below epithelium; consists of loose CT with an abundant blood
supply
ii. Lymphatic nodules, lymphocytes and plasma cells are common
iii. Forms first line of immunological defense against bacterial and
viral invasion
c. Muscularis mucosae (thin layer of smooth muscle cells)
i. Causes local muscular contractions in the mucosa
2. Submucosa
- The submucosa consists of dense CT and Meissners nerve plexus
3. Muscularis
- 2 sublayers ofsmooth muscle cells: inner circular layer & outer longitudinal
layer)
o Involved in the peristaltic movements of the intestine
o Responsible for the propelling and mixing of the food
o Auerbachs (mysenteric) nerve plexus: found between the 2 muscle
layers
Generates movements in the digestive tract (rhythmic peristaltic
contractions)

The neurons of the plexus can be visualized by silver

impregnation techniques
Plexuses consist of aggregates of nerve cells in the form of small
parasympathetic ganglia
4. Serosa or adventitia
- Serosa:Has thin layer of loose CT covered by simple squamous epithelium
(mesothelium)
- Serosa: Present in parts of the intestinal tract that are present in the
peritoneal cavity
- Adventitia: outer layer of loose CT that holds in place the regions in the
digestive tract that are not present in the cavity.

I.

ESOPHAGUS:
a. Identification points:
i. Mucosa lined by stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium
ii. Submucosa containing esophageal glands
iii. Muscularis externa containing inner circular and outer
longitudinal muscle layer
A straight muscular tube connecting the oral cavity to the stomach
Contains 4 basic layers common to the rest of the digestive tract
Mucosa: innermost
o Lined by stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium which is
resting on the basement membrane
o Surface epithelium may contain few specialized cells belonging to
APUD (amine precursor uptake and decarboxylation) cell system
Lamina propria:
o Beneath the epithelium
o A layer of loose CT; folded into many finger like projections called
papillae
Papillae: help in firm attachment of surface epithelium to the
underlying lamina propria
o In the upper and lower one-third of the esophagus, lamina propria may
contain few small lymphoid aggregations and tubule-alveolar mucous
glands
Muscularis mucosa:
o has thin layer of bundles of longitudinal muscle fibers
o Development:
absent or poorly developed in the upper one-third of the
esophagus,
moderately developed in the middle one-third and
very distinct in the lower one-third
submucosa:
o loose areolar CT rich in CT fibers, cells and blood vessels
o characterized by the presence of numerous compound tubule alveolar
mucous glands also called esophageal glands
muscularis externa:
o beneath submucosa

consists of inner layer of circular muscles and outer layer of

longitudinal muscle fibers
o muscle types:
upper one third: striated muscle
middle one third: mixed striated and smooth muscle
lower one third: purely smooth muscle
o it is assumed that the muscle fibers present in the lower end of
esophagus may form cardio-esophageal sphincter but anatomically it is
not accepted
- adventitia
o outermost protective layer
o dense irregular CT
II.
STOMACH
a. Identification points: Fundus
i. Mucosa lined by simple columnar epithelium
ii. Numerous chief and parietal cells in lamina propria
iii. Muscularis externa containing inner oblique, middle circular and
outer longitudinal muscle layer
- muscular bag like structure which stores the food temporarily for few hours
- 3 major parts: fundus, body and pylorus
- Histologically speaking, it is divided into 2
o Fundus and body
o Pylorus
o

FUNDUS
-

Mucosa:
o Fundic stomach is folded into many rugae which disappear on
expansion
o Lined with simple columnar epithelium which are resting on basement
o Most of the places it dips into the underlying lamina propria forming
walls of depression known as gastric pits
o Gastric pits: shallow in fundic part of stomach and form abouth one
fourth of the total thickness of mucosa
Lamina propria:
o Rich in fundic glands consisting of following types of cells:
1. Stem cells:
a. these are active, undifferentiated cells found at the base of
lamina propria which gives rise to all other types of cells
2. Enteroendocrine cells:
a. special type of cells found just above stem cells
b. AKA argentaffin cells (stained by silver salts)
c. Belong to APUD cell system
d. Produce some local hormones like somatostatin and gastrin
3. Chief cells:
a. Small cuboidal cells which lie upon the enteroendocrine cells
b. Very large in number with basophilic cytoplasm and few
zymogen granules
c. Referred to as zymogenic cells

d. Known as peptic cells: they produce protein digestive

enzyme like pepsin
4. Oxyntic cells:
a. Large pyramidal or polyhedral cells with central nucleus
found lying between mucous neck cells and chief cells
b. Present in the upper half of the lamina propria and are easily
identified by its strong bright eosinophilic cytoplasmhence
oxyntic cells
c. AKA parietal cells as they lie against the basement
membrane of surface epithelium
5. Mucous neck cells:
a. Low columnar cells present near neck of the gastric glands
b. Large cells with flat nucleus at its base and whole cell is
accumulated by acid mucous
c. They open into gastric pits and secrete acid mucous
Muscularis mucosa:
o Has thin layer of inner circular and outer longitudinal muscle fibers
extending into the lamina propria here and there
Submucosa
o Made up of Loose areolar CT
o Rich in CT fibers and cells with many blood vessels in it
o Also contains Meissners plexus of nerve fibers in it
Muscularis externa:
o Made up of inner oblique, middle circular and outer longitudinal muscle
layers
o Between circular and longitudinal muscle layer, few mysenteric
(Auerbachs) plexus of nerve fibers are seen
Serosa:
o Outermost layer made up of few CT cells and fibers covered by
mesothelium of the visceral peritoneum

PYLORUS
-

Gastric pits
o Longer and wider than the pits of the fundus or body
Gastric glands
o Shorter and more coiled
o Consists almost entirely of mucus secreting cells
o No parietal or zymogen cells
o Also secrete lysozyme
Endocrine cells
o Include cells secreting gastrin which stimulates acid secretion by the
parietal cells
Muscularis
o Composed of 3 layers of smooth muscle (not always easily
distinguishable in histo sections)
External longitudinal layer
Middle circular layer
Internal oblique layer

Pyloric sphincter:
Controls discharge of stomach contents to the duodenum
Consists of an enlarged middle layer of smooth muscle
III.
SMALL INTESTINE
- Main site of absorption of digested food
- Specialized for the completion of the digestion process and the subsequent
absorption of the digested product
- Overall length: 5 meters
- 3 main segments:
o Duodenum
o Jejunum
o Ileum
- Characteristic features of the small intestine include:
a. Intestinal villi:
i. Finger-like projections into the lumen (consisting of surface
epithelium and underlying lamina propria)
ii. Lining epithelium: simple columnar heterogenous epithelium
with goblet cells
Apical surface (absorptive epithelial cells): has a brush
borderresulting from an orderly arrangement of
closely-packed microvilli
Microvilli
a. In the transmission electron microscope, have a
central core of actin filaments
b. Main function: increase the surface area available
for absorption
c. The absorptive cells have oval nuclei, typically in
the basal half of the cells
iii. Lamina propria:
Formed form loose CT
Contains blood vessels, nerves, large lymphatic vessels
(site of absorption of lipids) and cells of the immune
system (usually lymphatic nodules
b. Intestinal glands
i. Simple tubular glands that open to the intestinal lumen between
the base of the villi
ii. Sometimes called Crypts of Lieberkuhn
iii. Secretory cells or Paneth Cells:
With large acidophilic granules are found at the base of
the intestinal glands
Function not fully understood but know to secrete
lysozyme (antibacterial properties)
c. Valves of Kerckring:
i. Lining of the small intestine has permanent folds known as
Valves of Kerckring or plicae circulares
ii. Most prominent in the jejunum
iii. Seen macroscopically in transverse sections, consist of mucosa
and submucosa
o

DUODENUM
A. Identification points:
i.
Numerous villi
ii.
Crypts of lieburkuhn present
iii.
Brunners glands in submucosa
- Shortest segment of small intestine (25 cm)
- Divided into 4 parts:
o Superior
o Descending
o Horizontal
o Ascending
- The transverse section of duodenum shows the following different layers:
o Mucosa:
Innermost layer of duodenum lined by simple columnar
epithelium with fine microvilli at its tip
Few goblet cells are also present in surface epithelium
Mucosa is in large folds or finger-like projections called villi
(helps in increasing the surface area of absorption
Typical villus is lined by surface epithelium and lamina propria
projecting into it. It contains loose areolar CT and a central core
of lymphatics called Lacteal
Just below the mucosa there exists lamina propria containing
simple tubular intestinal glands which open into the crypts of
villi and are also called Crypts of Lieburkuhn
Cells in the crypts of Lieburkuhn:
a) Stem cells: undifferentiated cells undergoing continuous
mitotic cell division which migrates, eventually replaces
the old surface eputhelium thus forming enterocytes
b) Goblet cells: secretes mucous
c) Entero-endocrine cells: also called argentaffin cells;
belongs to APUD cell system and secrete local hormones
(secretin, cholesystokinin pancreozymin
d) Paneth cells: AKA zymogenic cells (rich in zinc and
zymogen granules in it); produce digestive enzymes and
lysozymes
o Muscularis Mucosa:
Seen below lamina propria and made up of thin layer of
disrupted circular muscle fibers
o Submucosa:
It contains loose areolar CT with numerous mucous secreting
duodenal glands called Brunners gland
They secrete an alkaline fluid in bicarbonate
Combined secretion of Brunners gland and intestinal gland is
called succus entericus.
o Muscularis externa:
Muscular coat made up of inner circular and outer longitudinal
muscle fibers in it

In between the two muscle layers few parasympathetic

ganglionic cells of mysenteric plexus can be seen
Serosa:
It is the outermost layer made up of connective tissue cells,
adipocytes and few blood vessels
Also blended by visceral peritoneum

JEJUNUM
A. Identification points:
i.
Tall villi lined by simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells
ii.
Absence of Brunners glands in submucosa
iii.
Absence of Peyers patches
- Histological features of jejunum are almost same as that of duodenal except
in few places where jejunum shows:
o Mucosal villi are rich in mucous secreting goblet cells and along with
submucosa they form prominent circular folds called plicae circularis or
valves of kerkring
o Small region of mucosa cpntaining loose areolar CT and absence of
Brunners gland
ILEUM
A. Identification points:
i.
Small villi rich in goblet cells
ii.
Crypts of Lieburkuhn present
iii.
Mucosa containing Peyers patches
- Mucosa
o Lined by simple columnar epithelium and villi are very small
o Lamina propria contains few intestinal glands and numerous
aggregations of lympatic modules called peyers patches.
o Muscularis mucosa is disrupted
- Submucosa
o Very thin and small
o Made up of loose areolar CT
o Also contains some lymphoid tissue which is migrated from lamina
propria
- Muscularis externa
o Made up of thin layer of inner circular and outer longitudinal muscle
fibers
- Serosa
o Contains connective tissue cells with a layer of visceral peritoneum
IV.
LARGE INTESTINE
a. Identification points:
i. Mucosa with folds but no villi
ii. Numerous goblet cells
iii. Prominent taenia coli
- Mucosa:
o Lined by simple columnar epithelium rich in in mucous secreting goblet
cells

Does not contain villi

Below mucosa, there are numerous intestinal glands (crypts of
lieberkuhn) distributed within the lamina propria, however, it does not
contain paneth cells
Submucosa
o Made up of loose areolar CT and fibers with numerous adipocytes in it
Muscularis externa
o Consists of inner circular and outer longitudinal muscle layer
o In certain regions of colon, longitudinal muscle layers becomes very
thick resulting in formation of three bands like structures called taenia
coli
Serosa
o It is said to be incomplete in posterior aspect of ascending and
descending colon
o Appendices epiploicaemany peritoneal pockets filled with adipose
tissue
o
o