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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES

2003-01-2258

42V Integrated Starter/Alternator Systems

R. Jayabalan and A. Emadi
Illinois Institute of Technology

Future Transportation Technology Conference

Costa Mesa, California
June 23 - 25, 2003
400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760 Web: www.sae.org

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2003-01-2258

42V Integrated Starter/Alternator Systems

R. Jayabalan and A. Emadi
Illinois Institute of Technology
Copyright 2003 SAE International

ABSTRACT
The increasing power demand in vehicles has resulted in
a need for a higher onboard generation capacity. With
the increasing generation requirement, the torque levels
of the generator are found to closely converge with that
of the starter motor. Hence, integrating the two machines
and using a single machine for the two purposes would
be technically viable and economically advantageous.
This results in a more compact design solution as well.
The Integrated Starter/Alternator (ISA) will be integrated
directly to the crankshaft of the Internal Combustion
Engine (ICE) and deliver 5 kW average and 12-15 kW
peak power at 42V.

are mitigated by the fact that they considerably improve

fuel economy. Also, technology exists today that can be
used to overcome these system issues.

INTRODUCTION
The power demand in automobiles has been increasing
considerably over the past few decades Figure 1 [1]. The
initial electrical loads in automobiles were a few lighting
loads and a starter motor. However, with emerging
safety and infotainment loads, that are now becoming
more and more as standard vehicle equipment impose a
high level of load demand on the present 12V system.
Also, there is an increasing need to replace the
traditional pneumatic, hydraulic and mechanical driven
loads to be now driven electrically for improved
performance, efficiency and reliability. This transition
brings about the concept of Power on Demand, making
power available when required [2]-[4]. The average
power demand in the future vehicles will thus be about 5
kW and the peak demand will be as high as 12-15 kW.
Performance loads such as Electromagnetic Valve Train
(EVT), which have power requirements that increase
from 1 kW to 4 kW with speed and electric steering that
have peak loads of 1.5 kW, impose high stress on
vehicular power system.
Although, the number of safety and luxury loads in
vehicles is more compared to the performance loads, the
power demands made by the former are quite low. The
new performance loads enhance overall vehicle system
performance, but do severely impact the electrical
system in terms of power drain, voltage dip and load
dump mainly because the load being power on demand
nature. However, these drawbacks of performance loads

Figure 1. Increase in power demand in automobiles.

The current power generation systems in automobiles
such as the conventional production alternator can
generate power efficiently up to 1.5-2 kW. An attempt to
generate higher power would result in substantial power
loss and an unacceptable cooling requirement, thereby
lowering system efficiency. In this context, an Integrated
Starter/Alternator (ISA) is an alternative solution that
provides high power both efficiently and reliably. It is
essentially a single machine performing the function of
both, the starter motor and alternator and is directly
coupled to the crankshaft of the Internal Combustion
Engine (ICE) and hence referred to as integrated
starter/alternator.

INTEGRATED STARTER/ALTERNATOR
To meet the higher power requirements, new alternator
have to be designed that would enable to take larger
torque input in order to generate the high power. The
torque curves of these new alternators almost coincide
with that of the starter motor. This opens the opportunity
to seamlessly integrate the two, that is, a single machine
that performs the function of both, the starter motor and
the alternator.

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In automobiles, the starter motor is used for starting the

engine only. Once the engine is started, the starter motor
is not operated at all and remains ideal for the rest of the
drive period. During starting or cranking period, little or
no power is generated by the alternator even-though it is
always engaged to the belt drive system and behaves as
a drag torque.
The ISA is an electromagnetic drive that will be
connected directly to the crankshaft of the ICE Figure 2.
The ISA machine has a stator and a rotor like any other
electric machine. The rotor of the ISA is placed directly
on the crankshaft while the yoke of the stator is fixed on
to the body of the engine. The rotor on the crankshaft
eliminates the belt/gear engagement mechanisms and
their associated losses, wear and tear thus reducing
system components and increasing reliability. This also
highlight the cause for the need of a larger dimensional
machine than the present alternator as the speed ratio of
the ISA to crankshaft is 1:1 rather than 10:1. The ISA
therefore operates over a wide speed range of 400-600
rpm idle speed to 6000 rpm, cruzing speed.

system in the vehicular power system architecture is

shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. A typical ISA based vehicular power system

architecture.
The 42V integrated starter alternator will be mechanically
integrated to the crankshaft and electrically connected to
a power source comprising of a 36V battery and an ultracapacitor Figure 4 and Figure 5. The 36V battery will
store and supply power to the loads while the ultracapacitor will enable large amount of power to be
supplied over a short period of time such as during
cranking periods which are for 0.1s or efficiently store
high power during regeneration. The ultra-capacitor even
absorbs large voltage during load dump where the
voltage goes up as high as 58V for a 42V PowerNet
system. It also helps in extending the battery life, as the
system operates on the concept of power on demand,
where large loads of 1.5 to 3 kW are frequently turned on
and off, including the ISA that provides torque support to
the ICE.

Figure 2. Starter/alternator integrated to the crankshaft of

the ICE.
The ISA rotor has a diameter of 250-325 mm and a
depth of 50-60 mm. The depth of the rotor being small
makes the machine compact to be placed between the
engine and the transmission or at the front end of the
engine where the present belt drive exits. The position
where the ISA is placed is a choice between ease of
design and servicing. The ISA also enable the
replacement of the flywheel by its own rotor, further
reducing component requirement.

ISA SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

Generating high power of 5 kW at the conventional 14V
would involve high current, higher and more expensive
insulation and thicker cables. Thus, considering a 42V
ISA would be an ideal solution. Also, the performance
loads that require high power will be more efficient at
42V than at 14V. However, the conventional loads such
as lighting and infotainment loads would be operated
better at 6 and 12V. The integrated starter alternator

Figure 4. Integrated starter/alternator system

configuration.

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from the machine has violent oscillations due to nonoptimal machine parameters such as slip.

Figure 5. System overview.

The ISA driver is a power semiconductor switch module
that drives the ISA. The controller on the basis of signal
received from Integrated Power Management (IPM) unit
provides the ISA driver with the necessary gate drive
command and also make the ISA operate as a motor or
an alternator.

INTEGRATED STARTER/ALTERNATOR
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
The ISA will be a no-maintenance, integrated semiintelligent system meeting the prime objectives of the
future. The ISA will essentially be a four-quadrant drive
and an active element having multiple functional modes.
The engine operating conditions will dictate its operation
as a generator or motor.
The ISA will have wide constant power speed
characteristics to be able to deliver atleast 5 kW over the
entire speed range of 1:10 during generation, Figure 6.
Developing the controls for such operation would be a
major task. Being placed on the crankshaft and having a
larger dimension, it has the capacity to deliver high
torque of 150-300 N-m compared to 150-200 N-m by the
conventional starter for engine start-up. However, there
is no specific minimum torque required for engine startup, it is usually preferred to be about 150 N-m [5]. Also,
the high power density and torque per ampere of ISA will
facilitate a reliable engine start-up.
The speed of rotation of the present starter motor used
for cranking up the engine is about 100-150 rpm. On the
other hand, the ISA will crank up the engine at a speed
of 400 rpm for fast engine start up, thus enabling a start
up time of 0.1s compared to 2-2.5s by conventional
starters. This enables the ISA to reap the benefits of
reduced fuel consumption and lower emissions.
However, there are a few factors that delay the cranking
operation, such as, lags in microprocessors used in the
control circuit, large electrical time constant of the
machine and power electronic components etc. In
machines such as IM, the time required for building up of
the magnetic field contributes to the delay. But, if the
cranking speeds are very high, above 500 rpm, it would
lead to prolonged time for start up as the combustion
stabilization benefits are reduced and the hydrodynamic
friction components increases [6]. Also, the DC output

Figure 6. Integrated starter/alternator power and torque

vs. speed characteristics.
The ISA also addresses the issue of cold starting of the
engine. For instance, at very low temperatures the
engine oil viscosity is very high leading to high
hydrodynamic friction. The initial crankshaft position also
effects cranking, due to non-uniform distribution of
hydrodynamic friction. Another issue is, at low
temperature the battery voltage falls, thereby the
maximum cranking speed attainable is reduced however
this factor depends on the machine that is used as ISA
[6].
The increasing safety loads in vehicles driven by electric
power, would demand for a reliable power source. Thus,
the ISA will have high fault tolerance and under an
extreme case resulting in a fault, it would still be able to
deliver power under reduced performance.
When ISAs are mounted to the crankshaft, they would
be exposed to extremes of harshness in terms of high
temperatures and vibrations. Thus, the system would
need to be as rugged as possible and an effective
cooling, either air or liquid cooling should be provided.
The ISAs should also have low noise levels, particularly
at speeds below 3000 rpm, as above this the engine
noise level dominates.
The ISA when operating as a generator will be able to
generate high power at high efficiency. Also, in the
generation mode, are the issues of load dumps
situations that have to be accounted for. For the Lundell
alternator, the load dump is the worst-case scenario,
however it may not be the case for other machines [7].
The present Lundell, which operates at 14V, faces 40V
on load dump, a near 285% higher voltage [6]. On the
other hand, ISA operating at 42V would face 58V on load
dump, which is just 50% higher voltage, Figure 7 [1].

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power. The ISA has efficiency greater than 90% during

generation and with the increased size and capacity,
provides a regenerative braking as high as 10 kW for
very short duration that can be efficiently stored and
used by the loads.

Figure 7. Voltages at various operating conditions in 14

and 42 volt systems.
Since the ISA would be operating under different modes,
but primarily either as a motor or generator, there is a
need for a smooth transition from one mode to the other.
This may be done by disconnecting the ISA from the
power system for a momentary period and may also be
required to be done over a certain speed ranges, for
example, after the engine starts up at about 400 rpm, the
transition could be made at any speed between idling
speed and 500 rpm.
As for the mechanical structure of ISA, it will be a simple,
light weight, compact, having low rotor inertia and of all,
would be required to be of low cost. Low rotor inertia
requirement would be of particular interest for offset
coupled ISA to reduce belt slippage.

ISA APPLICATIONS
The ISA is primarily for starting and generating power,
thereby performing the function of starter and generator
respectively. However, its application can be extended
much beyond which also behave as a driving force for
the ISA to be implemented as a new technology in the
automotive industry. These would be the start-stop and
regenerative breaking application which will bring about
reduced fuel consumption and lower emissions, thereby
providing OEMs with an option of achieving and
compiling with the increasingly stringent CAF and
emission standards.
The start-stop application primarily involves, the engine
to shut down a few seconds after the vehicle comes to a
halt and the engine is idling. Once the gas pedal is
depressed the engine starts up seamlessly due to high
speed cranking capabilities of the ISA. This eliminates
the fuel being consumed during idling condition. The
regenerative breaking makes use of the kinetic energy of
the vehicle during the breaking to generate power,
thereby eliminating the fuel consumption to generate that

ISA also provides the advantage of acceleration support.

The present starter motor cranks up the engine and the
ignition takes place before the idling speed. This results
in fuel wastage and high emission due to incomplete
combustion of fuel [8]. However, in the case of ISA, it
would cranks up the engine, the ignition would take place
and the ISA would continue to crank the engine up to the
idle speed. This brings about reduced fuel consumption
and lower emissions due to complete combustion of fuel.
Also, since with ISA, it is possible to carry out the ignition
at higher speed levels, the hydrodynamic frictions will be
less and at the same time can benefit from better
combustion stabilization [6]. This in the process also
ensures a reliable engine start up.
Being a high performance system, the ISA enables to
scale down the idling speed of the engine, thereby
resulting in reduced fuel consumption. Also, being of
high power capacity the ISA avoids killing of the engine
by preventing the engine from falling below its ideal
speed.
The use of the ISA technology for automotive application
and extracting the utmost from its fuel saving capabilities
would result in a 20-30% improvement in the fuel
economy of the vehicle. ISA can also provide active
engine vibration damping, in which case referred to as
Integrated Starter/Alternator Damper (ISAD), thus
offering a smoother vehicular drive and also enhances
the life of the power train. This can be achieved by
providing torque pulsations that cancel out the pulsations
of the engine Figure 8, [9]. Similarly, the ISA can also be
extended to provide torque pulses during coasting with
engine shut down. When the engine is shutdown during
the coasting period jerks are produced in the vehicle due
to slow compression and expansion and also due to
vaccum being created during each expansion. Thus, by
providing torque pulses at particular crankshaft or piston
positions the jerks can be eliminated, thereby providing a
smooth ride.

Figure 8. Active engine vibration damping using an ISA.

ISA being a high power machine and connected to the
crankshaft, its application may be further extended to
provide a low speed, short distance electric drive, similar

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to an electric vehicle. However, this would not be

possible with offset coupled configuration.

removed whose function would be served by the rotor of

the machine.

COUPLING CONFIGURATIONS OF
INTEGRATED STARTER/ALTERNATOR

In direct coupling, there is only one cluck used in the

drive train that either engages/disengages both the
engine and the ISA. With the stator of the ISA fixed to
the body of the engine, will have the rotor that is placed
on the crankshaft, rotating internal to it Figure 11. This
will be ideal for Induction Machine and Switched
Reluctance Machine based integrated starter alternators
in particular [11]-[13]. However, for Permanent Magnet
(PM) based integrated starter alternator, it imposes
issues of outward centrifugal forces on the magnets and
high stress levels in and around the magnets. This
configuration can be used at both, the transmission end
and the front end of the engine.

The ISA can be placed either between the transmission

and the engine or on the accessory side (front end of the
engine). However, the later would require the extension
of the shaft external to the engine, thereby posing a
problem, leading to the wear of the bearings Figure 9.
Also, the size of the machine/engine has to be reconfigured, as the space is available at a premium,
especially if the engine is transverse mounted. The
former configuration involves packaging issue, as the
drive train has to be modified to accommodate the ISA
Figure 10.

Figure 9. Direct coupled ISA accessory side.

Figure 11. ISA on the transmission end rotor internal to

the stator.
The rotor may also be made to rotate external to the
stator, ideal for PM integrated starter alternator, Figure
12 and Figure 13. This also gives the advantage on
space saving by placing the torque converter inside the
rotor Figure 14.

Figure 10. Direct coupled ISA transmission side.

Placing the integrated starter alternator on the
transmission side also frees up the front end of the
engine and gives the designers an optional approach to
reduce the hood line or place other new loads in its
place. Servicing of the ISA in such cases would involve
removing the entire engine from the vehicle to open up
the transmission casing inside which the ISA is placed.
But, considering the time frame of 10-15 years for
servicing, this could be acceptable. However, the ISA
performance at either position is the same.
This transmission side coupling offers silent start, high
power generation of greater than 5 kW (and up to 12-15
kW peak) and lower speed operation of alternator [10].
This eliminates the use of pulley, tensioners and belt.
Depending on the design, the flywheel may also be

Figure 12. ISA on the transmission end with rotor

external to the stator.

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Figure 13. Rotor construction when rotor is external to

stator.

Under the direct drive configuration, the ISA is placed in

a 1:1 speed ratio for generation and starting. At present
a coupling speed step-up ratio of typically 12 is being
used. This results in a need for a larger and heavier
machine that would be able to provide all the necessary
starting torque. The increased size would be mitigated by
the fact that a single machine is being used instead of
two. Direct coupling also places the ISA under severe
environmental conditions of high temperature and
vibration. Thus, due to these issues, more effective
cooling and a machine with larger air-gap would be
required to be specially designed and developed. Each
coupling strategy highlight their own individuality in terms
of design constrains, performance, cost and other
applications.
The offset coupling of ISA is very similar to the present
day coupling techniques; it can be easily incorporated
without much change near the engine. The offset
coupling may be done, either of the way chain, gear or
by belt. Figure 16 shows an offset coupled ISA using a
belt drive [6].

Figure 14. Torque converter placed inside the ISA rotor.

An alternative can also be, a decoupled transmission
and crankshaft, that is, the transmission and the
crankshaft are coupled magnetically and not
mechanically Figure 15. Here, the rotor will be placed on
the crankshaft and the stator on the transmission axis
and the stator is made to rotate external to the rotor by
using drag field. In this coupling, the stator is no more a
stationary component of the machines and that both the
stator and rotor rotate. There will be a few mechanical
alignment arrangements that will be required and the
design involves issues related to reliability.

Figure 16. Belt driven offset coupled ISA.

The chain coupling involves the use of the chain to run
over the pulleys. This coupling requires the ISA to be
placed near to the transmission. The chain drive gives
the advantage of using chains that have smaller width
compared to when a belt is used, due to high durability,
strength and longer life for the same fatigue [6]. The gear
drive coupling also involves coupling at the transmission
side. A major issue to be considered here is that, the
high speed not high torque levels affect the gear drives
performance.

Figure 15. Transmission and crankshaft decoupled

configuration.
Axial magnetic disc plate rotor and stator on the
crankshaft and transmission shaft respectively, when
used, will require alignment components and that this
configuration does not lend to very high power levels.
Here too both the stator and the rotor will rotate.

In the case of the ISA with a belt drive option, there is a

need to increase the width of the belt compared to the
width that is currently used in order to accommodate
increased load capacity or can use two separate belt
drive one for accessories and the other for ISA. The
later reduces cost but would put increased stress on the
bearing of the shaft due to overhanging. The belt drive
offers silent operation, more packaging freedom and a
low cost solution.

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The offset coupling offers the advantage to be easily

incorporated and is easier to service the system. With
offset coupling, power generation of up to 5kW is
possible beyond which there would be heavy stress on
the belt and mechanical parts and the system making it
unable to deliver high power [4]. Thus, the drawback with
offset coupling would be the mechanical reliability issues
of the chains, gears and belts, not just at high power but
even at low power levels.

MACHINE TOPOLOGY FOR ISA

Brushless machine such as Induction Motor (IM),
Surface Permanent Magnet (SPM), Interior Permanent
Magnet (IPM) and Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) are
the most competing machine topologies for integrated
starter/alternator applications.
Rugged rotor configuration, mature manufacturing
technology and low maintenance features places IM as a
serious contender for ISA application. However its major
drawbacks is that its torque output falls with increasing
frequency which hinders its capability to provide wide
constant power speed operation. But this can be
overcome by over-sizing the machine and converter
ratings or alternatively use control techniques such as
vector control, tapped stator winding or relay switched
inverters. Although the alternative techniques provide a
better solution they make the system complex and less
reliable.
Surface permanent magnet machines that carry magnets
on the surface of the rotor are simple in construction but
cannot be used for very high speed (23000 rpm)
applications due to low mechanical stability of the rotor.
In the context of its application in indirect coupled starter
alternator may be a question where the speed of
operation can be as high as 21000 rpm, but would be of
no concern for a direct coupled starter alternator
configuration where the maximum attainable speed is
around 6000 rpm. The high torque and power density
available from SPM make them ideal for ISA application.
However the major drawback for the SPM is the linear
rise of back EMF with speed and the low phase
inductance available for flux weakening that make it
difficult to achieve a wide constant power speed
operation. Also, the potential existence of high voltage at
high speed raises packaging and safety issues. The
interior permanent magnet machine on the other hand
can provide a constant power over a wide speed range
and has a more robust rotor construction where the
magnets are placed internal to the rotor. Since the torque
here is available from both, the magnet and iron saliency,
it give the designer an additional degree of freedom and
also provides an option to use less magnet compared to
SPM for the same machine rating [14]. The need for
embedding the magnets inside the rotor make the
manufacturing and magnetization process complex and
also makes the system more expensive. Both, SPM and
IPM when used for ISA application, will be placed inside
the transmission casing of the engine where it will be
exposed to various chemicals, liquids, vapors and high

temperatures making them extremely prone to corrosion

and permanent demagnetization of the magnet.
Switched reluctance motor are most ideal for ISA
application from the point of robust rotor structure that do
not carry any rotor windings or magnets and the simple
manufacturing procedure involving sliding the externally
wound stator winding over the stator poles makes the
entire machine cost the lowest. The high torque per
ampere and the very wide constant power speed
characteristics also make them very attractive for this
application [15], [16]. The non-sinusoidal excitation used
in SRM leads to high torque ripples which is a major
drawback, but this can well addressed by using better
converter designs with increased number of phase to
keep the ripples below 15% or to optimally use these
ripples for vibration damping of crankshaft [11].
For commercialization of ISA it is essential that its cost
does not exceed 500USD per unit [5]. Any higher cost
would slow the product market penetration mitigating the
potentials of ISA. The Engineering Cost Analysis based
on cost per component relieves the fact that the ISA
converter to machine cost ratio is nearly 10:1 Figure 17.
However with yearly decreasing cost of semiconductors
switches, the converter cost would drop significantly
making low cost machines like SRM economically
feasible to be adopted commercially to take advantage of
its features.

Figure 17. Cost comparison of different machine

topologies.

CONCLUSION
The integrated starter/alternator stands as a strong
prospective solution to the increasing power demand in
vehicles and provides an alternative solution for the
automotive manufacturers to comply with increasingly
stringent higher fuel economy CAF standards and also
to reduce the emission levels. Thus, the incorporation of
ISA in automobiles results in a substantial fuel savings,
in terms of millions of gallons per year, and for a country
like the United States, this is an opportunity to reduce its
dependence on foreign oil.

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CONTACT
Prof. Ali Emadi
Grainger Power Electronics and Motor Drives Laboratory
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department
Illinois Institute of Technology
Chicago, IL 60616-3793
Phone: (312) 567-8940
Fax: (312) 567-8976
EML: emadi@iit.edu
URL: http://www.ece.iit.edu/~emadi/