3.1

Motivation

In tradition compressible flow classes there is very little discussion about speed
of sound outside the ideal gas. This author think that approach has many shortcomings. In recent consultation an engineer1 A design of industrial system that
contains converting diverging nozzle with filter to remove small particles from air.
The engineer was well aware about the calculation of the nozzle. Thus, engineer
was able to predict that was a chocking point. Yet, the engineer was not ware what
is the effect of particles on the speed of sound. Hence, the actual flow rate was
only half of his prediction. As it will shown in this chapter, the particles reduces the
speed of sound by almost half. With the new knowledge of the consultation the
calculations were within the range of acceptable results.
The above situation is not unique in the industry. It should be expected
that engineers know how to manged this situation of non pure substances (like
clean air). The fact that the engineer know about the chocking is great but it is
enough for today sophisticated industry2 . In this chapter an introductory discussion
about different situations that can appear the industry in regards to speed of sound.

3.2

Introduction

1 Aerospace

engineer that alumni of University of Minnesota.

but a joke is must in this situation. A cat is pursuing a mouse and the mouse escape and
hide in the hole. Suddenly, the mouse hear a barking dog and a cat yelling. The mouse go out to
investigate, and cat is catching the mouse. The mouse ask the cat I thought I hear a dog. The cat reply,
yes you right. My teacher was right, one language is not enough today.
2 Pardon,

25

26

CHAPTER 3. SPEED OF SOUND

The people had recognized for several hundred years that sound is
sound wave
dU
velocity=dU
a variation of pressure. The ears
c
sense the variations by frequency
P+dP
P

+d
and magnitude to transfer to the
brain which translates to voice.
Thus, it raises the question: what is
Fig. 3.1: A very slow moving piston in a still gas
the speed of the small disturbance
travel in a quiet medium. This velocity is referred to as the speed of sound.
To answer this question consider a piston moving from the right to the
left at a relatively small velocity (see Figure 3.1). The information that the piston is
moving passes thorough a single pressure pulse. It is assumed that if the velocity
of the piston is infinitesimally small, the pules will be infinitesimally small. Thus,
the pressure and density can be assumed to be continuous.
In the control volume it is convenient to look
Control volume around
at a control volume which
the sound wave
c-dU
c
is attached to a pressure
P+dP
pulse. Applying the mass
P
+d

balance yields


 
 



Fig. 3.2: stationary sound wave and gas move relative to

the pulse

(3.1)
or when the higher term


 is neglected yields









(3.2)

From the energy equation (Bernoullis equation), assuming isentropic flow and
neglecting the gravity results



 !
"

#

%$

'&

(3.3)

neglecting second term (

 ) yield



(
Substituting the expression for


+*

%$

)&

(3.4)

from equation (3.2) into equation (3.4) yields



-,

$


 

%$

(3.5)

3.3. SPEED OF SOUND IN IDEAL AND PERFECT GASES

27

An expression is needed to represent the right hand side of equation (3.5). For
ideal gas $ is a function of two independent variables. Here, it is considered that
$  $ 
 where  is the entropy. The full differential of the pressure can be
expressed as follows:


%$

$






$






(3.6)

In the derivations for the speed of sound it was assumed that the flow is isentropic,
therefore it can be written

$

$



(3.7)



Note that the equation (3.5) can be obtained by utilizing the momentum
equation instead of the energy equation.
Example 3.1:
Demonstrate that equation (3.5) can be derived from the momentum equation.
S OLUTION
The momentum equation written for the control volume shown in Figure (3.2) is


  



$
%$+  $



 
 "

+  %


(3.8)

Neglecting all the relative small terms results in



%$

 ! #

 "$ #

 


$

&

" #

 

&
%

 


'



(3.9)

(3.10)

This yields the same equation as (3.5).

3.3

Speed of sound in ideal and perfect gases

The speed of sound can be obtained easily for the equation of state for an ideal
gas (also perfect gas as a sub set) because of a simple mathematical expression.
The pressure for ideal gas can be expressed as a simple function of density, , and
a function molecular structure or ratio of specific heats, & namely

'
('*)

(+-, ) +/.

10

(3.11)

28

CHAPTER 3. SPEED OF SOUND

and hence



%$




.
&

('*)



(+-, ) +/.

10

&



Remember that $
written as

(3.12)

  


 +-, ) + .

$
.

&

is defined for ideal gas as



'*)

, and equation (3.12) can be

&

(3.13)

   and  &

Example 3.2:
#
Calculate the speed of sound in water vapor at &
steam table (b) assuming ideal gas.

, (a) utilizes the

S OLUTION
The solution can be estimated by using the data from steam table3

 $  "!$# &%(')#*%

#
0/ 4 1
At &   and  & : s = 6.9563 + . -, 0/21
= 6.61376 + 35
At 67    and  & : s = 7.0100 + . -, 0/ 1
= 6.46956 + 3 0/ 4 1
0/
At 67    and  &&   : s = 6.8226 + . -, 0/21
= 7.13216 + 3 4 1



(3.14)

After interpretation of the temperature:



At 67  and 89;:  : s 6.9563 + . <, 0/ 1
6.94199 + 3 0/ 4 1
0

and substituting into the equation yields

>=



# &&&&&


& # #

&
9  7  :*7 9? + @ A
1

(3.15)

for ideal gas assumption (data taken from Van Wylen and Sontag, Classical Thermodynamics, table A 8.)



 B 
>C 6 9  # : EDF 6    &
&

 #

:* :8:269  + @ A
1
#

Note that a better approximation can be done with a steam table, and it
will be part of the future program (pottoGDC).
3 This data is taken form Van Wylen and Sontag Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics 2nd
edition

3.4. SPEED OF SOUND IN REAL GAS

29

Example 3.3:
The temperature in the atmosphere can be assumed to be a linear function of the
height for some distances. What is the time it take for sound to travel from point
A to point B under this assumption.?

S OLUTION
The temperature is denoted at A as  and temperature in B is
. The distance
between A and B is denoted as .




 


Where the distance  is the variable distance. It should be noted that velocity is
provided as a function of the distance and not the time (another reverse problem).
For an infinitesimal time
+ is equal to


+

C  

&

=  





&


   




integration of the above equation yields

+

# 

   




&

4

6


,


(3.16)

For assumption of constant temperature the time is


+

 B 


(3.17)

&

Hence the correction factor

+

"! %
+

   

This correction factor approaches one when

3.4




*




,



4


6
%

(3.18)

.
is it reasonable to put a
discussion here about atmosphere and other affects on
the air?

Speed of Sound in Real Gas

The ideal gas model can be improved by introducing the compressibility factor. The
compressibility factor represent the deviation from the ideal gas.
Thus, a real gas equation can be expressed in many cases as

$

(3.19)

30

CHAPTER 3. SPEED OF SOUND

Fig. 3.3: The Compressibility Chart

The speed of sound of any gas is (3.7). To obtain the expression for gas that obey
the law expressed by (3.19) some mathematical expression are needed. Recalling
from thermodynamics, the Gibbs function (3.20) is used to obtain

$


 


(3.20)

The definition of pressure specific heat for a pure substance is



*


(3.21)

The definition of volumetric specific heat for a pure substance is








,





,


(3.22)

3.4. SPEED OF SOUND IN REAL GAS

31

From thermodynamics, it can be shown 4



 



(3.23)


 $ and thus
6





*
*
*



(3.24)
$

, $
,

Substitute the equation
(3.23) results
 (3.24) into equation




 

The specific volumetric is the inverse of the density as

  



 



$

* *









"

$
$

%$
,

*  

$


$


6


(3.25)



  
 
 




*


Utilizing Gibbs equation (3.20)

 



,

$

 *

Simplifying equation (3.25) to became

  

$


%$
,

(3.26)






,

6


(3.27)

Letting
 )& for isentropic process results in

$
$





(3.28)

B

Equation (3.28) can be integrated

by parts. However, it is more convenient to

express

in terms of
and

as following

4 See



 
$#


,

&%

Van Wylen p. 372 SI version, perhaps to insert the discussion here.

(3.29)

32

CHAPTER 3. SPEED OF SOUND

Equating the right hand side of equations (3.28) and (3.29) results in

 

*


,


Rearranging equation (3.30) yields

%$
$


%$
$





 
 
#






(3.30)

 

(3.31)
%

If the terms in the square parentheses are constant in the range under the interest
in this study equation (3.31) can be integrated. For short hand writing convenience,
)
is defined as
0
  
)

Note that ) approach to & when

equation (3.31) yields

 


 

,


 

 

 

and when

$


$ 

(3.32)

 is constant. The integration of

(3.33)

Equation (3.33) the similar to equation (3.11). What is different in these derivation
the relationship between coefficient ) to & was established. The relationship (3.33)
isnt new, and infact any thermodynamics book show this relationship. But with the
definition of ) in equation (3.32) provide a tool to estimate ) In the same manner
as the ideal gas speed of sound the speed of sound for real gas can be obtained.

%$

(3.34)



689 D : 689 D 

6   
7:    

Example 3.4:
,
Calculate the speed of sound of air at &
and atmospheric pressure #
.


&
) 
&
The specific heat for air is &
,
, and  &
.
Make the calculation based on the ideal gas model and compare these
#
 &  .
calculation to real gas model (compressibility factor). Assume that 

9 

S OLUTION
According to the ideal gas model the speed of sound should be

  
  86 9 D & : # 27 :  &&  D 7 9 6   A

@

&
D
For the real gas first the coefficient
69  has

   
  689 D & 
& 9  
A # 7 :
 &&  DF 9;:  @  A

@



&

*

3.5. SPEED OF SOUND IN ALMOST INCOMPRESSIBLE LIQUID

33

The correction of speed of sound of air in normal condition (atmospheric condition

plus even increase of pressure) is minimal on the speed of sound. However, the
change of temperature can have dramatical change in the speed of sound. For example, at relative moderate pressure but low temperature common in atmosphere,
the compressibility
factor,   &
and ) #
which means that speed of sound is

 

only

3.5



9

factor (0.5) to calculated by ideal gas model.

Speed of Sound in Almost Incompressible Liquid

Even liquid normally is assumed to be incompressible in reality has a small and

important compressible aspect. The ratio of the change in the fractional volume
to pressure or compression is referred to as the bulk modulus of the material. For
# #
& 
 . At a depth of about
.
example, the average bulk modulus for water is

&




4,000 meters, the pressure is about .
. The fractional volume change
is only about 1.8% even under this pressure nevertheless it is a change.
The compressibility of the substance is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus. The amount of compression of almost all liquids is seen to be very small as
given in Table (3.5). The mathematical definition of bulk modulus as following

D 6

9 6
@

$



(3.35)

In physical terms can be written as


For example for water

A
)

   A 

A
  A 


,1 +

*+ ,

'

'

9 &&& 6 &    @

6  @

# #

!

&

*+




(3.36)

6D@ 


This agrees well with the measured speed of sound in water, 1482 m/s
at 20 C. Many researchers have looked at this velocity, and for purposes of comparison it is given in Table (3.5)
The effect of impurity and temperature is relatively large, as can be observed from the equation (3.37). For example, with an increase of 34 degrees
from 0 C there is an increase in the velocity from about 1430 m/sec to about 1546
[m/sec]. According to Wilson5 , the speed of sound in sea water depends on temperature, salinity, and hydrostatic pressure.
Wilsons empirical formula appears as follows:



$+ '


 
 


 

(3.37)

5 J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 1960, vol.32, N 10, p. 1357. Wilsons formula is accepted by the National
Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) USA for computer processing of hydrological information.

34

CHAPTER 3. SPEED OF SOUND

Remark
Fresh Water (20 C)

Distilled Water at (25 C)

Water distilled

reference
Cutnell, John D. & Kenneth W.
Johnson. Physics. New York:
Wiley, 1997: 468.
The World Book Encyclopedia.
Chicago: World Book, 1999. 601
Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics. Ohio: Chemical Rubber
Co., 1967-1968: E37

Value [m/sec]
1492

1496
1494

Table 3.1: Water speed of sound from different sources

6 D8D  9 6 D

where

is about clean/pure water,
 is a function tempera


ture, and
is a function salinity,
is a function pressure, and
  is a correction
factor between coupling of the different parameters.

material
Glycerol
Sea water
Mercury
Kerosene
Methyl alcohol
Carbon tetrachloride

reference

25 C

Value [m/sec]
1904
1533
1450
1324
1143
926

Table 3.2: Liquids speed of sound, after Aldred, John, Manual of Sound Recording, London:
Fountain Press, 1972

In summary, the speed of sound in liquids is about 3 to 5 relative to the

speed of sound in gases.

3.6

Speed of Sound in Solids

The situation with solids is considerably more complicated, with different speeds
in different directions, in different kinds of geometries, and differences between
transverse and longitudinal waves. Nevertheless, the speed of sound in solids is
larger than in liquids and definitely larger than in gases.
Youngs Modulus for a representative value for the bulk modulus for steel
is 160 & N /  .
Speed of sound in solid of steel, using a general tabulated value for the
bulk modulus, gives a sound speed for structural steel of

3.7. SOUND SPEED IN TWO PHASE MEDIUM

material
Diamond
Pyrex glass
Steel
Steel
Steel

35

reference

longitudinal wave
transverse shear
longitudinal wave (extensional
wave)

Value [m/sec]
12000
5640
5790
3100
5000

Iron
Aluminum
Brass
Copper
Gold
Lucite
Lead
Rubber

5130
5100
4700
3560
3240
2680
1322
1600

Table 3.3: Solids speed of sound, after Aldred, John, Manual of Sound Recording, London:Fountain Press, 1972

 

6 F & &6 &     @ 

:*7 F  @
.




D B6 # @ 


(3.38)

Compared to one tabulated value the example values for stainless steel
lays between the speed for longitudinal and transverse waves.

3.7

Sound Speed in Two Phase Medium

The gas flow in many industrial situations contains other particles. In actuality,
there could be more than one speed of sound for two phase flow. Indeed there is
double chocking phenomenon in two phase flow. However, for homogeneous and
under certain condition a single velocity can be considered. There can be several
models that approached this problem. For simplicity, it assumed that two materials
are homogeneously mixed. Topic for none homogeneous mixing are beyond the
scope of this book. It further assumed that no heat and mass transfer occurs
between the particles. In that case, three extreme cases suggest themselves:
the flow is mostly gas with drops of the other phase (liquid or solid), about equal
parts of gas and the liquid phase, and liquid with some bubbles. The first case is
analyzed.
The equation of state for the gas can be written as

'

'

' 
'

(3.39)

36

CHAPTER 3. SPEED OF SOUND

The average density can be expressed as

33


6
' 

(3.40)

  is the mass ratio of the materials.



where

For small value of

equation (3.40) can be approximated as

'  6 @

3 3   


(3.41)

is mass flow rate per gas flow rate.

The gas density can be replaced by equation (3.39) and substituted into
equation (3.41)
where

6 @

(3.42)

A approximation of addition droplets of liquid or dust (solid) results in reduction of

and yet approximate equation similar to ideal gas was obtained. It must noticed

'*)  +-, ) + . If the droplets (or the solid particles) can be assumed to have
that
the same velocity as the gas with no heat transfer or fiction between the particles
isentropic relation can be assumed as

'

)
'*)
0

 +-, ) +

(3.43)

Assuming that partial pressure of the particles is constant and applying the second
law for the mixture yields

0! &%

& 



 


/'





$
$



%$
$

(3.44)

Therefore, the mixture isentropic relationship can be expressed as

$ 
 )
'*)

where

 

Recalling that





6


 +-, ) +





(3.45)

(3.46)

reduces equation (3.46) into

-




@
@

(3.47)

3.7. SOUND SPEED IN TWO PHASE MEDIUM

33

correction factors for the specific heat is not linear.

37

 33

In a way the definition of  was so chosen that

effective specific pressure heat



and effective specific volumetric heat are 

and
respectively. The
Since the equations are the same as before hence the familiar equation
for speed of sound can be applied as

C  3 



(3.48)

It can be noticed that   and  are smaller than similar variables in a pure
gas. Hence, this analysis results in lower speed of sound compared to pure gas.
Generally, the velocity of mixtures with large gas component is smaller of of the
pure gas. For example, the velocity of sound in slightly wed steam can be about
one third of the pure steam speed of sound.

Meta

or a mixture of two phases, speed of sound can be expressed as


 
where 

$


    


(3.49)

is defined as

Meta End

 
 $


$

(3.50)

Insert example with small

steel particles with air up to
20%

At this stage the other models

for two phase are left for next
version (0.6).

38

CHAPTER 3. SPEED OF SOUND