Applied Electronics

AppliedElectronics
AnwarAliSahito

Discussion timing after class

Discussiontimingafterclass
Follow
Followstrictlythediscussiontiming
strictly the discussion timing
Nodiscussionatthetimewhenthereisclass
of any other subject
ofanyothersubject
Day
D
Wednesday
Th d
Thursday
Saturday

Time
Ti
1.00to1..30
1 00 t 1.30
1.00to
1 30
12.00to1.00

Teaching Plan
TeachingPlan
Sr.#

Topic

Lectures

1.

IntroductiontoSubject

01

2.

Photo Transistors
PhotoTransistors

01

3.

Thermistors

02

4
4.

Li h D
LightDependentResistors(L.D.R)
d
R i
(L D R)

01

5.

Photocells

02

6.

VacuumDiode&VacuumTriode

02

7.

y
(
)
CathodeRayTube(CRT)

02

Teaching Plan (Cont.)

TeachingPlan(Cont.)
Sr.#

Topic

Lectures

8.

Bandwidth, Distortion and Noise

02

9.

Transistor Amplifier

01

10.

Classification of Amplifiers (CE. CB, CC

configuration)

02

11.

Feedback Amplifiers

02

12.

p
Amplifiers
p
Introduction to Operational

01

13.

Inverting and Non-Inverting OP- Amplifiers

02

14
14.

Input impedance of Inverting and Non

NonInverting OP- Amplifiers

02

Teaching Plan (Cont.)

TeachingPlan(Cont.)
Sr.#

Topic

Lectures

22.

Synchronization

02

23
23.

Multi-vibrators ( stable, mono-stable and

Bi-stable)

02

24.

Active Filters

02

25.

Filter Classification

02

26.
27.
28.

Losses and heat dissipation in solid state

power devices
d i
Junction temperature and Thermal
resistance
Electrical model of heat-sink and design of
Cooling system

02
01
01

Teaching Plan (Cont.)

TeachingPlan(Cont.)
Sr.#

Topic

Lectures

29.

Electromagnetic Interference ( EMI )

01

30.

Conducted and Radiated Noise

01

31.
32.

Electromagnetic, Electrostatic and common

impedance coupling
Methods of elimination and minimization of
Interference and Noise

01
02

Presentations
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before31st ofJuly2011.
Nogroupcanhavemorethan2studentsfromtop20
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p
Groupmembersandtopicmaybechanged
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Topics for the Presentations

TopicsforthePresentations

Phototransistor
Photo
transistor
Thermistor
Lightdependentresistor(LDR)
i h d
d
i
(
)
Photovoltaiccell
Vacuumdiode
Vacuum triode
Vacuumtriode
CRT

TransistorAmplifierconfiguration\
Transistor
Amplifier configuration\
OperationalAmplifiers
Operations of operational Amplifiers
OperationsofoperationalAmplifiers
FeedbackAmplifiers
P
PowerAmplifiers
A lifi
Oscillators
TypesofOscillators
UJTRelaxationoscillator

555timerIC
555
timer IC
Multivibrators
Active Filters
ActiveFilters
Noiseanddistortion
El t
ElectromagneticInterference
ti I t f
Voltagefollower
OpAmpvoltageadderandSubstractor
OpAmpintegratoranddifferentiator

Phototransistor

Phototransistor
The phototransistor is similar to a regular BJT except that
the base current
c rrent is produced
prod ced and controlled by
b light instead
of a voltage source.
The phototransistor effectively converts variations in light
energy to
t an electrical
l t i l signal
i l
The collector-base pn junction is exposed to incident light
through a lens opening in the transistor package.
The phototransistor is a transistor in which base current is
produced when light strikes the photosensitive
semiconductor base region.
When there is no incident light, there is only a small
thermally generated collector-to-emitter leakage current i.e.
I(CEO), this is called the dark current and is typically in the
range off nA.
A

 When light strikes the collector-base pn junction, a

b
base
current, I, is
i produced
d d that
h is
i directly
di l
proportional to the light intensity.
This action produces a collector current that
increases with I .
Except for the way base current is generated,
generated the
phototransistor behaves as a conventional BJT.
In many
y cases there is no electrical connection to
the base
The relationship between the collector current and
the
h light-generated
li h
d bbase current iin a phototransistor
h
i
is IC = DC * I .

Phototransistor symbol
Phototransistorsymbol

Phototransistor Chip structure

PhototransistorChipstructure
Sincetheactualphoto
generationofbasecurrent
occursinthecollectorbase
region,thelargerthe
physical area of this region,
physicalareaofthisregion,
themorebasecurrentis
generated.
Thus,atypical
phototransistorisdesigned
toofferalargeareatothe
incidentlight.

 Aphototransistorcanbe
either a two lead or a three
eitheratwoleadorathree
leaddevice.
Inthethreelead
configuration,thebaseleadis
fi
ti
th b
l di
broughtoutsothatthe
devicecanbeusedasa
conventionalBJTwithor
ti
l BJT ith
withouttheadditionallight
sensitivityfeature.
Inthetwoleadconfiguration,
thebaseisnotelectrically
available,andthedevicecan
,
beusedonlywithlightasthe
input.Inmanyapplications,
p
thephototransistorisusedin
thetwoleadversion.

Phototransistor Biasing Circuit

PhototransistorBiasingCircuit

Phototransistor collector characteristics

Phototransistorcollectorcharacteristics
Eachindividualcurve
onthegraph
corresponds toa
certain valueoflight
value of light
intensity(inthis
case,theunitsare
mW/cm2 )andthat
) and that
thecollectorcurrent
increaseswithlight
intensity.

Phototransistorsarenotsensitivetoalllightbutonlyto
lightwithinacertainrangeofwavelengths.
They are most sensitive to particular wavelengths as
Theyaremostsensitivetoparticularwavelengths,as
shownbythepeakofthespectralresponsecurveinFigure

Photodarlington
Photodarlington
Thephotodarlington
consistsofa
phototransistor connected
inadarlington
g
arrangementwitha
conventionalBJT,asshown
inFigure.
g
Becauseofthehigher
currentgain,thisdevice
has a much higher
hasamuchhigher
collectorcurrentand
exhibitsagreaterlight
sensitivity thandoesa
than does a
regularphototransistor.

Applications of Phototransistor
ApplicationsofPhototransistor
Phototransistorsareusedinawidevarietyof
y
applications.
AlightoperatedrelaycircuitisshowninFigure.
ThephototransistorQ1 drivestheBJTQ2.When
thereissufficientincidentlightonQ1,transistor
Q2 isdrivenintosaturation,andcollectorcurrent
is driven into saturation, and collector current
throughtherelaycoilenergizestherelay.
Thediodeacrosstherelaycoilpreventsbyits
li i i
limitingaction,alargevoltagetransientfrom
i
l
l
i
f
occurringatthecollectorofQ2 whenthe
transistorturnsoff.

 Figureshowsacircuitin
which a relay is de
whicharelayisde
energizedbyincident
lightonthe
phototransistor.
phototransistor
Whenthereis
g ,
insufficientlight,
transistorQ2 isbiased
on,keepingtherelay
energized.
energized
Whenthereissufficient
g p
light,phototransistorQ
1
turnson;thispullsthe
baseofQ2 low,thus
turning Q2 offandde
turningQ
off and de
energizingtherelay.

 Theserelaycircuitscanbeusedinavarietyof
applications such as automatic door activators
applicationssuchasautomaticdooractivators,
processcountersandvariousalarmsystems.
AnothersimpleapplicationisillustratedinFigure.
Another simple application is illustrated in Figure.
Thephototransistorisnormallyon,holdingthe
gateoftheSCRlow.
Whenthelightisinterrupted,thephototransistor
turnsoff.
Thehighgoingtransitiononthecollectortriggers
The high going transition on the collector triggers
theSCRandsetsoffthealarmmechanism.
ThemomentarycontactswitchSW
y
providesfor
1p
resettingthealarm.
Smokedetectionandintrusiondetectionare
possibleusesforthiscircuit.
ibl
f thi i it

Thermistor

Thermistor
Thermistor,awordformedbycombining
,
y
g
thermal with resistor,
referstoadevicewhoseelectricalresistance,orability
t
toconductelectricity,iscontrolledbytemperature.
d t l t i it i
t ll d b t
t
Athermistorisatemperaturesensingelement
composed of semiconductor material which exhibits a
composedofsemiconductormaterialwhichexhibitsa
largechangeinresistanceproportionaltoasmall
changeintemperature.
Thermistorsarewidelyusedasinrush current limiters,
temperature sensors,selfresettingovercurrent
protectors, and selfregulating
protectors,andself
regulating heatingelements.
heating elements.

 Assuming
Assuming,asafirst
as a firstorder
orderapproximation,that
approximation that
therelationshipbetweenresistanceand
temperature is linear,then:
temperatureis
linear then:
R=kT
Where
Wh
R =changeinresistance
h
i
i
T =changeintemperature
k =firstordertemperaturecoefficientof
resistance

Types of Thermistors
TypesofThermistors
Thermistorscanbeclassifiedintotwotypes,depending
yp , p
g
onthesignof k.
If k is positive,theresistanceincreaseswithincreasing
t
temperature,andthedeviceiscalleda
t
d th d i i
ll d positive
iti
temperaturecoefficient (PTC)thermistor,or posistor.
If k isnegative,theresistancedecreaseswith
is negative, the resistance decreases with
increasingtemperature,andthedeviceiscalled
a negativetemperaturecoefficient (NTC)thermistor.
Resistorsthatarenotthermistorsaredesignedtohave
a k asclosetozeroaspossible(smallestpossiblek),so
that their resistance remains nearly constant over a
thattheirresistanceremainsnearlyconstantovera
widetemperaturerange

 Instead
Insteadofthetemperature
of the temperature
coefficient k,sometimes
the temperaturecoefficientof
p
resistance (alpha)or T isused.
Itisdefinedas
It is defined as
For
Forexample,forthecommon
example for the common
PT100sensor, =0.00385 or
0 385 %/
0.385
%/C
C.

Resistance=Voltage Current

Atconstanttemperaturethelineisstraight,sothethermistorresistanceis
constant
Ifthetemperatureincreasestheresistancedecreases
Ifthetemperaturedecreasestheresistanceincreases
Thermistor

High temperature
Current
Low temperature

Potential Difference

NTC Thermistor
NTCThermistor
Many
ManyNTCthermistorsaremadefromapressed
NTC thermistors are made from a pressed
discor cast chipofa semiconductor suchasa
sinteredmetal oxide.
Theyworkbecauseraisingthetemperatureofa
semiconductor increases the number of
semiconductorincreasesthenumberof
electrons abletomoveaboutandcarry charge it
promotesthemintothe conductionband.
p
Themorechargecarriersthatareavailable,the
more current amaterialcanconduct.

 I =electriccurrent(amperes)
electric current (amperes)
n =densityofchargecarriers(count/m)
A =crosssectionalareaofthematerial(m)
v =velocityofchargecarriers(m/s)
= velocity of charge carriers (m/s)
e =chargeofanelectron( coulomb)
Thecurrentismeasuredusingan ammeter.
Overlargechangesintemperature,calibrationisnecessary.
O
l
h
i t
t
lib ti i
Oversmallchangesintemperature,iftheright
semiconductorisused,theresistanceofthematerialis
li
linearlyproportionaltothetemperature.
l
ti
l t th t
t
Therearemanydifferentsemiconductingthermistorswith
arangefromabout0.01 kelvin to2,000kelvins (273.14C
to1,700C).
1 700 C)

PTC Thermistors
PTCThermistors
MostPTCthermistorsareofthe"switching"type,whichmeansthat
theirresistancerisessuddenlyatacertaincriticaltemperature.
Thedevicesaremadeofadopedpolycrystalline
The devices are made of a doped polycrystalline ceramic
ceramic
containing bariumtitanate (BaTiO3)andothercompounds.
The dielectricconstant ofthis ferroelectric materialvarieswith
temperature.
temperature.
Belowthe Curiepointtemperature,thehigh dielectric
constant preventstheformationofpotentialbarriersbetweenthe
crystalgrains,leadingtoalowresistance.
Inthisregionthedevicehasasmallnegativetemperature
coefficient.
AttheCuriepointtemperature,thedielectricconstantdrops
sufficiently to allow the formation of potential barriers at the grain
sufficientlytoallowtheformationofpotentialbarriersatthegrain
boundaries,andtheresistanceincreasessharply.
Atevenhighertemperatures,thematerialrevertstoNTCbehaviour.

 AnothertypeofPTCthermistoristhe polymer PTC,whichissold

underbrandnamessuchasPolyswitch","Semifuse",and
"Multifuse".
Thisconsistsofasliceofplasticwith carbon grainsembeddedinit.
Whenthe
When the plastic iscool,thecarbongrainsareallincontactwitheach
is cool the carbon grains are all in contact with each
other,forminga conductive paththroughthedevice.
Whentheplasticheatsup,itexpands,forcingthecarbongrains
apart and causing the resistance of the device to rise rapidly
apart,andcausingtheresistanceofthedevicetoriserapidly.
LiketheBaTiO3thermistor,thisdevicehasahighlynonlinear
resistance/temperatureresponseandisusedforswitching,notfor
proportionaltemperaturemeasurement.
ti
lt
t
t
Yetanothertypeofthermistorisa silistor,athermallysensitive
siliconresistor.
Silistors aresimilarlyconstructedandoperateonthesameprinciples
asotherthermistors,butemploysiliconasthesemiconductive
componentmaterial.

Shapes of Thermistor
ShapesofThermistor
Thermistor has different shapes such as,
as Disc
type Thermistor, Washer type Thermistor,
Bead type Thermistor
Thermistor, Bulb type Thermistor.
Thermistor

Advantages of Thermistors
AdvantagesofThermistors
Thermistor
Thermistorischemicallystable.
is chemically stable
Itisusedinnuclearenvironment.
Thermistorisforseriesparallelarrangement
h
i
i f
i
ll l
forusingpowerhandlingcapacity.
Itisalsousedtomeasurethetemperature

Applications of Thermistor
ApplicationsofThermistor
PTCthermistorscanbeusedascurrentlimitingdevicesfor
circuitprotection,asreplacementsforfuses.
Currentthroughthedevicecausesasmallamountofresistive
heating.
Ifthecurrentislargeenoughtogeneratemoreheatthanthe
f h
l
h
h
h
h
devicecanlosetoitssurroundings,thedeviceheatsup,causing
itsresistancetoincrease,andthereforecausingevenmore
heating.
heating.
Thiscreatesaselfreinforcingeffectthatdrivestheresistance
upwards,reducingthecurrentandvoltageavailabletothe
device.

NTCthermistorsareusedas resistancethermometers in
lowtemperaturemeasurementsoftheorderof10 K.

 NTCthermistorscanbeusedasinrushcurrentlimiting
devicesinpowersupplycircuits.
p
pp y
Theypresentahigherresistanceinitiallywhichpreventslarge
currentsfromflowingatturnon,andthenheatupandbecome
muchlowerresistancetoallowhighercurrentflowduring
normaloperation.
l
ti
Thesethermistorsareusuallymuchlargerthanmeasuringtype
thermistors,andarepurposelydesignedforthisapplication.

NTC
NTCthermistorsareregularlyusedinautomotive
thermistors are regularly used in automotive
applications.
Forexample,theymonitorthingslikecoolanttemperature
and/or oil temperature inside the engine and provide data to
and/oroiltemperatureinsidetheengineandprovidedatato
theECUand,indirectly,tothedashboard.

NTCthermistorscanbealsousedtomonitorthe
temperature of an incubator
temperatureofanincubator.
Thermistorsarealsocommonlyusedinmodern digital
thermostats andtomonitorthetemperatureofbattery
packs while charging
packswhilecharging.

LDR(LightDependentResistor)

LDR or photoresistor
LDRorphotoresistor
LDRsorLightDependentResistorsareveryusefulespeciallyin
li ht/d k
light/darksensorcircuits.
i it
NormallytheresistanceofanLDRisveryhigh,sometimesashigh
as10Megaohms,butwhentheyareilluminatedwithlight
resistance drops dramatically
resistancedropsdramatically.
A photoresistor or lightdependentresistor (LDR)is
a resistor whose resistance decreaseswithincreasingincidentlight
intensity.
Itcanalsobereferredtoasa photoconductor.
Aphotoresistor ismadeofahighresistance semiconductor.
Iflightfallingonthedeviceisofhighenoughfrequency,photons
g
g
g
g
q
y, p
absorbedbythesemiconductorgivebound electrons enough
energytojumpintothe conductionband.
Theresultingfreeelectron(andits hole partner)conductelectricity,
thereby lowering resistance
therebylowering

LDRproperties
Resistance

Lux

Symbol is as above
It consists of 2 metal grids or electrodes that intersect each other whose space between
is filled with a semiconductor material e.g. cadmium sulphide doped with copper
When light is incident on the semiconductor material, the number of electrons in the
semiconductor
i d
that
h are free
f
to conduct
d
i
increases
Light intensity is measured in lux which is a unit used to measure the light power
incident per unit area of a surface
The higher the intensity of light on the LDR,
LDR the greater the number of electrons that
can move freely hence as intensity of light increases, the resistance of the LDR
decreases i.e. more current, same p.d. R decreases
yp
LDR data: ((a)) normal room lighting
g
g 450 lux,, LDR resistance 900 ohms
Typical
(b) sunlight
28000 lux, LDR resistance 100 ohms
42

Resistance=Voltage Current

Atconstantlightintensitylevelsthelineisstraight,sotheLDRresistanceis
constant
Ifthelightintensityincreasestheresistancedecreases
Ifthelightintensitydecreasestheresistanceincreases
LDR

Bright light
Current
Dim light
g

Potential Difference

Intrinsic&Extrinsic
Aphotoelectricdevicecanbeeitherintrinsicorextrinsic.
Anintrinsicsemiconductorhasitsownchargecarriers
g
and
isnotanefficientsemiconductor,e.g.silicon.
Inintrinsicdevicestheonlyavailableelectronsarein
the valenceband,andhencethephotonmusthaveenough
valence band, and hence the photon must have enough
energytoexcitetheelectronacrosstheentire bandgap.
Extrinsicdeviceshaveimpurities,alsocalleddopants added
whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction
whosegroundstateenergyisclosertotheconduction
band;sincetheelectronsdonothaveasfartojump,lower
energyphotons(i.e.,longerwavelengthsandlower
frequencies)aresufficienttotriggerthedevice.
q
)
gg
Ifasampleofsiliconhassomeofitsatomsreplacedby
phosphorusatoms(impurities),therewillbeextra
electronsavailableforconduction.
Thisisanexampleofanextrinsicsemiconductor.

 Photoresistors comeinmanydifferenttypes.
come in many different types
Inexpensive cadmiumsulfide cellscanbefoundin
manyconsumeritemssuchascameralightmeters,
streetlights,clockradios, alarms,andoutdoorclocks.
Theyarealsousedinsome dynamic
compressors togetherwithasmall
together with a small incandescent
incandescent
lamp or lightemittingdiode tocontrolgainreduction.
Leadsulfide (PbS)and indiumantimonide (InSb)LDRs
areusedforthemidinfraredspectralregion.
Ge:Cu photoconductorsareamongthebestfar
infrared detectorsavailable,andareusedforinfrared
detectors available and are used for infrared
astronomy and infraredspectroscopy.

PhotoCell
Photo
Cell
SolarCell

Solar Cell
SolarCell
A solarcell(photovoltaiccell)isa solidstate electrical
devicethatconvertstheenergyof light directly
into electricity bythe photovoltaiceffect.
Assembliesofcellsusedtomake solarmodules whichare
usedtocaptureenergyfrom sunlight,areknownas solar
panels.
Theenergygeneratedfromthesesolarmodules,referred
toas solarpower,isanexampleof solarenergy.
Cellsaredescribedas photovoltaiccells whenthelight
sourceisnotnecessarilysunlight.
y
g
Theseareusedfordetectinglightorother electromagnetic
radiation nearthevisiblerange,forexampleinfrared
detectors,ormeasurementoflightintensity.
,
g
y

 Solarcellsarecomposedofvarioussemiconducting
materials.
t i l
Semiconductorsarematerials,whichbecome
electricallyconductivewhensuppliedwithlightor
heat,butwhichoperateasinsulatorsatlow
temperatures.
Over95%ofallthesolarcellsproducedworldwideare
Over 95% of all the solar cells produced worldwide are
composedofthesemiconductormaterialSilicon(Si).
Asthesecondmostabundantelementinearth`scrust,
silicon has the advantage of being available in
siliconhastheadvantage,ofbeingavailablein
sufficientquantities,andadditionallyprocessingthe
materialdoesnotburdentheenvironment.
Toproduceasolarcell,thesemiconductoris
T
d
l
ll h
i d
i
contaminatedor"doped".

BIAS
Circuit
BIASCircuit

Silicon Solar Cell manufacturing

SiliconSolarCellmanufacturing

Working of PV
WorkingofPV

TounderstandtheoperationofaPVcell,weneedtoconsiderboththe
nature of the material and the nature of sunlight
natureofthematerialandthenatureofsunlight.
Solarcellsconsistoftwotypesofmaterial,ptypesiliconandntype
silicon.
g
g
theatomsinthesiliconand
Lightofcertainwavelengthsisabletoionise
theinternalfieldproducedbythejunctionseparatessomeofthe
positivecharges("holes")fromthenegativecharges(electrons)within
thephotovoltaicdevice.
The holes are swept into the positive or player
Theholesaresweptintothepositiveorp
layerandtheelectronsare
and the electrons are
sweptintothenegativeornlayer.
Althoughtheseoppositechargesareattractedtoeachother,mostof
themcanonlyrecombinebypassingthroughanexternalcircuitoutside
the material because of the internal potential energy barrier
thematerialbecauseoftheinternalpotentialenergybarrier.
Thereforeifacircuitismade,powercanbeproducedfromthecells
underillumination,sincethefreeelectronshavetopassthroughthe
loadtorecombinewiththepositiveholes.

 The
TheamountofpoweravailablefromaPV
amount of power available from a PV
deviceisdeterminedby;
thetypeandareaofthematerial
the type and area of the material
theintensityofthesunlight
thewavelengthofthesunlight
the wavelength of the sunlight

 AtypicalsinglecrystalsiliconPVcellof100cm2 will
produce about 1.5 watts of power at 0.5 volts DC and 3
produceabout1.5wattsofpowerat0.5voltsDCand3
ampsunderfullsummersunlight(1000Wm2).
Thepoweroutputofthecellisalmostdirectly
proportionaltotheintensityofthesunlight.
Forexample,iftheintensityofthesunlightishalved
the power will also be halved
thepowerwillalsobehalved.

 AnimportantfeatureofPVcellsisthatthevoltageofthe
cell does not depend on its size and remains fairly constant
celldoesnotdependonitssize,andremainsfairlyconstant
withchanginglightintensity.
However,thecurrentinadeviceisalmostdirectly
proportional to light intensity and size
proportionaltolightintensityandsize.
Whenpeoplewanttocomparedifferentsizedcells,they
recordthecurrentdensity,orampspersquarecentimetre
ofcellarea.
f ll
Thepoweroutputofasolarcellcanbeincreasedquite
effectivelybyusingatrackingmechanismtokeepthePV
d i di tl f i th
devicedirectlyfacingthesun,orbyconcentratingthe
b
t ti th
sunlightusinglensesormirrors.
However,therearelimitstothisprocess,duetothe
complexityofthemechanisms,andtheneedtocoolthe
l it f th
h i
d th
dt
l th
cells.
Thecurrentoutputisrelativelystableathigher
temperatures,butthevoltageisreduced,leadingtoadrop
b h
l
i d d l di
d
inpowerasthecelltemperatureisincreased.

Equivalent Circuit

To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is

useful to create a model which is electrically equivalent,
and is based on discrete electrical components whose
b h i is
behavior
i well
ll known.
k
A
An id
ideall solar
l cell
ll may b
be
modelled by a current source in parallel with a diode; in
practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a
p
are added to the model.The
series resistance component
resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown above.

Construction

Siliconiscommonlyusedfor
A
solar cell consists if P-type
fabricatingsolarcells,another
and
N-type semi-conductor
constructionconsistsofP
constructionconsistsofP
type
material
(
silicon
silicon,
seleniumcoveredwithalayerofN
seleniumcoveredwithalayerofN
l i
d ith l
f N
germanium
and selenium)
typecadmium
typecadmium
oxidetoformP
oxidetoformP
N
forming a P-N junction.
junction.

The
ThesurfacelayerpfP
layersurface
pf P
Ptypematerialis
type material
Thesurface
bottom
of the iscell
extremelythin(0.5mm)sothatlight
(which
is always away from
canpenetratetothejunction.

light) covered with a

Anothermaterialusedto
continuous conductive
makesolarcellsareTh
makesolarcellsareTh
Ar
Powersolarcellsarealsofabricated
contact to which a wire lead
iattached.
inflatstripstoformefficient
( flh tllit i t f idffi) i Gt Ar
(ThalliumArsenide),Ga
(ThalliumArsenide),Ga
coverageofavailablesurfacearea.
(GalliumArsenide),In
(GalliumArsenide),InAr
The
upper surface has max:
(IndiumArsenide).
Indecentlythemaximumefficiencyof
exposed
pin converting
to light
g with
aarea
asolarcellinconvertingsunlightinto
solar cell
sunlight
into a
small contact either a long
electricalenergyisnearly15%at
present.
the edge or around the
perimeter.

Advantages
Input
Inputofsolarenergyisfreeofcost
of solar energy is free of cost
Powergenerationdoesnotaffect
environment
Unlimitedlifespan
Easytoprocess
Canbeaddedinseriesandparalleltoachieve
p
desiredvoltageandcurrentlevels

Applications

PowerGeneration
Power
Generation
Solarcars
C l l
Calculators
HomeAppliances

CathodeRayTube

Cathode Ray Tube

CathodeRayTube
The cathoderaytube (CRT)isa vacuumtube containingan electron
ggun ((asourceofelectrons)anda
)
fluorescent screen,withinternal
,
orexternalmeanstoaccelerateanddeflecttheelectronbeam,
usedtocreateimagesintheformoflightemittedfromthe
fluorescent screen.
fluorescentscreen.
Theimagemayrepresentelectrical waveforms (oscilloscope),
pictures(television,computermonitor), radar targetsandothers.
TheCRTusesanevacuatedglassenvelopewhichislarge,deep,
Th CRT
d l
l
hi h i l
d
heavy,andrelativelyfragile.
Cathoderaytubesuseanelectronbeam;beforethebasicnatureof
thebeamwasunderstood,itwascalledacathoderaybecauseit
emanatedfromthecathode(negativeelectrode)ofavacuumtube

 Theinteriorofthetubeisaverygoodvacuum,witha
pressure of around 0 01 Pa (10 7 atm) or less
pressureofaround0.01Pa(107atm)orless.
Atanygreaterpressure,collisionsofelectronswithair
moleculeswouldscattertheelectronbeamexcessively.
Thecathode,attheleftendinthefigure,israisedtoahigh
temperaturebytheheater,andelectronsevaporatefrom
thesurfaceofthecathode.
Theacceleratinganode,withasmallholeatitscenter,is
maintainedatahighpositivepotentialV1,oftheorderof1
to20kV,relativetothecathode.
Thispotentialdifferencegivesrisetoanelectricfield
directedfromrighttoleftintheregionbetweenthe
acceleratinganodeandthecathode.
Electronspassingthroughtheholeintheanodeforma
narrowbeamandtravelwithconstanthorizontalvelocity
fromtheanodetothefluorescentscreen.
Theareawheretheelectronsstrikethescreenglows
brightly

 Thecontrolgridregulatesthenumberofelectronsthat
reach the anode and hence the brightness of the spot on
reachtheanodeandhencethebrightnessofthespoton
thescreen.
Thefocusinganodeensuresthatelectronsleavingthe
cathode in slightly different directions are focused down to
cathodeinslightlydifferentdirectionsarefocuseddownto
anarrowbeamandallarriveatthesamespotonthe
screen.
Theassemblyofcathode,controlgrid,focusinganode,and
The assembly of cathode control grid focusing anode and
acceleratingelectrodeiscalledtheelectrongun.
Thebeamofelectronspassesbetweentwopairsof
deflecting plates
deflectingplates.
Anelectricfieldbetweenthefirstpairofplatesdeflectsthe
electronshorizontally,andanelectricfieldbetweenthe
second pair deflects them vertically
secondpairdeflectsthemvertically.
Ifnodeflectingfieldsarepresent,theelectronstravelina
straightlinefromtheholeintheacceleratinganodetothe
center of the screen where they produce a bright spot
centerofthescreen,wheretheyproduceabrightspot

VacuumDiode

Introduction
In 1904,, Sir J.A. Flemingg (1849-1945),
(
), an
English Physicist, invented first vacuum diode
called Flemings Valve.
Flemings valve was so sensitive that it found
little immediate applications.
Manyy improvements
p
have been made in the
vacuum diode since the invention of the first
crude model

Construction

A vacuum diode consists of two

electrodes, a cathode and an
anode
d (plate),
( l ) enclosed
l
d iin a
highly evacuated glass
envelope.

The cathode is in the form of

nickel cylinder coated with
b i
barium
and
d strontium
t
ti
outside
t id
an is heated indirectly to
provide electron emission.

The anode is generally hallow

cylinder made of nickel or
molybdenum
l bd
and
d surrounds
d the
th
cathode.

Operation

When the cathode is heated by

passing the electric current
through the heater, it emits a
large number of electrons.

The behavior of these emitted

electrons will depend upon the
anode potential with respect
to the cathode.

If the anode is at zero potential

with respect to cathode, the
emitted electrons simply cant
go to plate as the latter is
neutral. Therefore the circuit
current is zero.

The emitted electrons

start accumulating near
the cathode and form a
cloud of electrons, this is
k
known
as space charge.
h

If the plate is made

positive with respect to
cathode, then electrons
from the space charge are
attracted
tt
t d to
t the
th plate.
l t
These electrons flow from
cathode to plate to
constitute which is known
as plate current.

Conclusion

The current flows in the diode only when plate is made

positive with respect to the cathode, no current can flow
when plate is negative with respect to cathode.

Electron flow within a diode takes place only from

cathode to plate and never from plate to cathode.

This unidirectional conduction enables the diode to act

like a switch or valve.

This property permits the diode to act as a rectifier,

changing alternating current into direct current.

Characteristics of Vacuum Diode

the most important characteristic of a vacuum diode is the

plate characteristic which gives the relation between plate
voltage and plate current for a given cathode temperature.

Following points may be noted from the plate

characteristics :
1.

All the curves are coincident at low plate

voltage where the negative space charge is
voltage,
most effective in limiting plate current. This
low plate region is known as space charge
limited region.
g
In the space charge limited region the plate
current is given by the relation :

Ib = KEb3/2

Where K is constant whose value depends

upon the shape of electrodes and geometry of
tube, this relation is known as Childs Law

2.

3.

As plate voltage is
p g
y
made progressively
higher greater portion
of electrons from space
charge
g is attracted to
plate and eventually at
some plate voltage, the
space
p
charge
Ifthecathodetemperatureisraised,the
p g is
,
rateemissionisincreased.Consequently,
completely eliminated,
thesaturationpointisraised.
under such conditions
the entire supply
pp y off
emitted electrons is
attracted to the plates.
This maximum plate
current is called
saturation current.
current

Plate Resistance of Diode

The internal resistance offered

ff
by
y the diode in
known as its plate resistance.

Vacuum tube diode has two types of resistances:

1. DC plate resistance.
2. AC plate resistance.

1.

DC plate resistance:
The resistance offered by the diode to Direct
currentt is
i known
k
as DC Plate
Pl t R
Resistance.
i t

2.

AC Plate Resistance:
It is the resistance offered by the diode to
alternating
lt
ti
current.
t
OR
The ratio off a small change
g in p
plate voltage
g
across a diode to the resulting change in plate
current is known as AC Plate Resistance.

Vacuum Triode

Introduction

In 1906 Dr. Lee De Forest (1873-1961) an

American Scientist placed a third electrode in
the form of wire mesh between the cathodes and
the plate of vacuum diode, the resulting
esulting device
was called Triode.

Symbol

Construction

As the name implies, a triode

has three electrodes namely
cathode, anode and control
grid.

The cathode is located at the

centre of the tube and is
surrounded by the control grid
which is in turn surrounded by
plate,
l t

The cathode and plate have

similar construction as for a
diode.

The control grid consists of a

fine wire mesh placed very
close to the cathode.
The spacing between the turns
of the mesh are wide enough
so that the passage of the
electrons from cathode to the
plate is not obstructed by the
g
grid

CutAwayview

Action of Control Grid

The electron emitted by
y the cathode p
pass
through the opening of the control grid to reach
the plate.
As the control grid is much closer to the cathode
than the plates. Therefore
he efo e a small voltage on the
control grid has much more control on the
electron flow than a comparatively high voltage
on the plate.
plate

1.

When the control grid is at the zero potential with

respect to the cathode,
cathode the triode valve just behave like
a diode.

Fig:(1)

2.

Iff the control grid

g
is p
placed at some negative
g
p
potential
(say -5v) with respect to the cathode, it has repelling
effect on electrons, flowing towards the plates.
Consequently, fewer electrons reach the plate, there by
reducing the plate current.

Fig:(2)

3.

As the negative potential on the

grid (called Grid Bias) is increased,
increased
the plate current decreases
continuously. If sufficient negative
voltage (say -20v)
20v) is placed on the
grid, all the electrons are repelled
towards cathode. Consequently the
plate current becomes zero and the
p
triode is said to be cut off.
Grid Cut Off / Cut Off Bias:
The smallest negative grid voltage,
for a given plate voltage at which
plate current becomes zero is
known as grid cut off.

Fig:(3)

4.

If the control grid is made slightly positive (say 1v) with

respect
espect to cathode, the helping electrostatic
elect ostatic fields of plate
and grid will accelerate the electrons towards the plate
therefore the plate current is increased and at the same
time some of the electrons are attracted to the grid to
constitute the grid current. The grid current is
undesirable because it causes power loss in the grid
circuit. Therefore grid is always kept at negative
potential
i l with
i h respect to cathode.
h d

Fig:(4)

Conclusion

From the previous discussion it is concluded

that the slight change in grid potential brings
about the large change in plate current.
current

Triode Characteristics

The graphical representation of relationship

b t
between
plate
l t current,
t plate
l t voltage
lt
and
d grid
id
voltage under normal operating conditions are
known as triode characteristics.
Ib = f (Eb, Ec)
There are three variables and therefore we require
a three dimensional surface
f
to represent
p
the
relation among all the three quantities at a time.

Accordingly
A
di l plate
l t characteristic
h
t i ti ii.e. Ib /Eb. Curve
C
at constant Ec, mutual characteristic i.e. Ib/Ec
curve at constant Eb and constant current
characteristic
h
i i ii.e. Eb/Ec curve at constant Ib.