Founded 1905

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME2113
MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS I
Course Lecturer:

A/P CJ TAY

Founded 1905

SESSION 2015-16
Semester 1

ME2113 Mechanics of Materials I

Modular Credits: 3

Part I Lecture Notes

A/P CJ TAY

ii

Recommended Books

Basic Text:
A. C. Ugural, Mechanics of Materials,
McGraw-Hill, 1993
(Chapter 4, 7, 9 & 10 for part I)
Supplementary Readings:
1. F. P. Beer and E. R. Johnston, Mechanics of Materials, McGraw-Hill,
3rd Ed., 2003.
2. R. C. Hibbeler, Mechanics of Materials, Prentice Hall, 4th Ed., 2000.
3. J. M. Gere and S. P. Timoshenko, Mechanics of Materials, PWS
Publishing Company, 4th ed., 1997.
4. R. R. Craig, Jr., Mechanics of Materials, McGraw-Hill, 2nd ed., 2000.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1
ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN
1.1 STRESS
1.2 DEFORMATION AND STRAIN

Chapter 2
BENDING OF BEAMS
(SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS AND SIGN
CONVENTION)
2.1 SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS
2.2 SIGN CONVENTION

Chapter 3
STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS
3.1 PURE BENDING
3.2 SHEAR STRESSES IN BEAMS
3.3 RELATIVE MAGNITUDES OF BENDING
AND SHEAR STRESSES

Chapter 4
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
4.1 STATICALLY DETERMINATE BEAMS
4.2 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS
4.3 BEAM DEFLECTION BY MOMENT AREA
v

Chapter 1
ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN
1.1 STRESS
S2

dF

P
dA
S1

Apply general force dF on dA

dFn
Normal
n lim
dA0

Defn:

dA
dFS1
S1 lim
dA0 dA
dFS 2
S 2 lim
dA0 dA

Shear

As dA 0, stress state is at the point P.

Note: Stress values depend on magnitude of dF
and also the direction of dF.
1

1.1.1 Stress state at a point

y
yy

Stresses shown are

all positive on a
cube of 1 unit
length

yx
yz
zy P
zx

zz

xy
xz

xx
x

For a small isolated element with planes perpendicular

to coordinate axes and surrounding a point P, there
exist 9 stress components.
They are
3 normal stresses
6 shear stresses

As size of parallelepiped reduces, in the limit, these 9 stress

components will define completely, the state of stress at the
point P.

The cube is stationary (in equilibrium)

y
yy
yx

yz
zy

xy
zx

xz

xx
x

zz
Take Moment about Z-axis
z

xy 1x1 - yx 1x1 = 0
i.e. xy = yx

From equilibrium (i.e. taking moment about any

axis), we can show that:
xy yx
xz zx
yz zy

Number of unknown stresses reduced to 6.

3

1.1.2 Stress Component on Arbitrary plane (2

dimensional case)
y

yx

xy
xy

For an arbitrary plane whose normal makes an

angle with the horizontal, what are the values
of x, xy in terms of x, y and xy ?

Consider a cut section on the element

X
Ty

C
x

Tx

xy

x
A

B
yx
y

Resolving forces in the x-direction

We have
x AC 1 yx AB 1 Tx BC 1

Divide above Eq. by BC

Tx x

AC
AB
yx
x cos yx sin
BC
BC

Note: from the geometry of triangle ABC,

AC
cos
BC

AB
sin
BC

Similarly, we can show that

Ty y sin xy cos

Consider the equilibrium of forces in the x direction on

plane BC, we have
x ' BC 1 Tx BC 1 cos Ty BC 1 sin
i.e. x ' Tx cos Ty sin

Consider the equilibrium of forces in the y direction on

plane BC, we have
x ' y ' BC 1 Ty BC 1 cos Tx BC 1 sin
i.e. x ' y ' Ty cos Tx sin

Substituting for Tx and Ty into the Eqs for x ' and x ' y '
and note that xy yx , we have
x ' x cos 2 y sin 2 2 xy sin cos

and
x' y ' xy (cos 2 sin 2 ) ( y x ) sin cos

y can be found by substituting + /2 for in the

expression for x , i.e.
y ' x sin 2 y cos 2 2 xy sin cos

Rewriting,
x

( x y )
2
( x y )
2

x, y ,

( x y )
2
( x y )
2

( x y )
2

cos 2 xy sin 2

(i)

cos 2 xy sin 2

(ii)

sin 2 xy cos 2

(iii)

y'

xy

xy

x'

x
x

Stresses on element A inclined at

counter-clockwise to x-axis

Element A

Note that
When ,

x, y, 0
( x y )
2

i.e. tan 2
or

sin 2 xy cos 2 0
2 xy
( x y )

2 xy
1
tan 1
2
( x y )

(a')Eq. a

(Usually denoted as )

xx which is denoted as 1 is known as the maximum

principal stress
yy which is denoted as 2 is known as the minimum

principal stress and

, which is
is denoted
denoted asasisis
known
as the
principal
angle and
which
known
as the
principal
angle

The angle is positive for counter-clockwise

rotation.

Convention for denoting stress

1. Normal stress, ij
i indicates the direction of a normal to the plane on
which the stress component acts;
j indicates the direction of the stress.
Usually denoted by ij , e.g. xx
y

Sign convention
Stress is positive Tension (e.g. xx)
negative Compression (e.g. -xx)

yy
yx

yz

For simplicity
xx is written as x
yy is written as y

zy
zx
zz

xy
xz

xx
x

Denoting stresses
2. Shear

stress ij

i indicates the direction of a normal to the plane on

which the stress component acts;
j indicates the direction of the stress.
y
yy

e.g. xy

yx
yz

xy

zy
zx
zz

10

xz

xx
x

Sign convention

+xy

-xy

x
Positive Shear

11

x
Negative Shear

Mohrs Circle for 2-D Stresses

We have
'
x x=

( x y ) ( x y )

cos 2 xy sin 2
2
2

(xxy y) ) 2 ((x x
' (

y )y )
xx

cos
22
xy xy
sinsin
22
cos

2
2
2
2

y=y
'

'
y
y

( x y )
2

( x y )
2

cos 2 xy sin 2

(i)
2

(a)(a)

(ii)

2
( x y ) 2 2 ( x y )
2
(' (x )2y ) (( x y )) cos 2 xy sin2 2
(b)
x
y
x
y cos 2 sin 2
y 2 2
cos 2 xyxy sin 2 (b)(b)
22

2
2

( y )
x, y , x
sin 2 xy cos 2
(iii)
2

( x y )

x , y , 2
sin 2 xy cos 2
2

12

(c)

22
22
' ( xx yy)) ((xx yy))

cos22 xyxysin
sin22
xx

cos
2
2
2
2

'
y

2 2

(a(a)
)

22

2
xy)y) y )
(' x ((
2
x xy )y )y) (x((x
yy
cos
22xy
sin

cos2cos
222
xy sin
xysin

2 2 2 2 2 2

2
(

x
y
x , y , 2
sin 2 xy cos 2
2

((b)
b)

(c)

Eqs. a) + c) gives

yy 22 22 xxy2y 2 2 2
' xx
(
(xx
)) x 'xy' y'
( (
) ) xy xy
22

2 2

Eqs. b) + c) gives
x y
x y
2
( 'y x y ) 22 x22' y ' ( x y )22 2xy
( y
2 ) x' y' (
2 ) xy

13

(iv)

(v)

Eqns (iv) and (v) represent a circle in the - plane

with center

x y
2

,0)

and radius R given by:

x y
2
xy
R

National
National University
University of
of Singapore
Singapore

14

Hence the state of stress on Plane A or Plane B as shown

above can be represented by a point (point A and point
B) on the circumference of a Mohrs circle
With center at (

x y
2

x y
R
2

,0)

and radius R
P
l
a
n
e

x y
2
xy
R

(
National
National University
University of
of Singapore
Singapore

15

x y
2

,0)

2
xy

Plane B y

xy

Plane A

xy
y

Hence
of stress
the x-element
and y-plane
Hence the state of
stressthe
at state
any plane
onalong
the above
can as
be
above
can be represented
a pointcircle:
on the
represented by a shown
point on
the circumference
of abyMohrs
circumference of a Mohrs circle
y
of center ( x
,0)
2

x y
2
xy
R

and radius

I.e. the stresses on plane A is represented by a point on the

circumference and the stresses on plane B by another point on the
circumference.

P
l
a
n
e
B

16

The normal stresses at this plane are the maximum

(1) and minimum (2) principal stresses. From
Mohrs circle
1

( x y )
2

x y
2
xy
R

x y
2
xy

( x y )

x y
2
xy
2

2
2

2 xy
xy

tan 2
x y x y

2 xy
2 tan 1
x y

2 xy
1
tan 1
x y
2

Compare with earlier derivations the

angles are similar

17

2 xy
1
tan 1
2
( x y )

Eq. a

Y
Plane B

X
Plane A

On the above element, the stresses on plane A and B

are represented by points A and B on the Mohrs circle
Point D and E represent the maximum (1) and
minimum ( 2 ) principal stresses.
Line CA represents the direction of x - axis
(also the direction of x ) of the element
Line CD represents the direction of the maximum
principal stress
2 represents twice the maximum principal angle

18

 x
Plane E
Plane D

maximum principal angle =

x , y ' , x ' y '

19

Stress components at any arbitrary plane can be determined from Mohrs

circle:

x' OC Rcos(2 2 )
OC

x y
2

x y
2
xy
R

On substituting and simplifying,

)
' ( (x ) y )( (x
) y cos 2 sin 2
x
y
x
y

xy
x x
2
2 cos 2 xy sin 2
2

(cf. eqn(i))

Similarly,
Similarly,
( ) ( x y) )
x
y 2 sin 2
' ( xx y y ) (

cos
yy
2
cos 2 xy xy sin 2 and
22
2
and
( y )
x, y , x
sin 2 xy cos 2
2

Note that sense of direction of rotation of axes is same for Mohrs circle and
butrotation
rotationfor
on element
Mohrs circle
twice
that of element.
element, but
is halfisthat
of Mohrs
circle.

20

Sign convention for stresses when constructing and analyzing

Mohrs circle:
Shear stresses if the shear stresses on opposite faces of the
element produce forces that result in a clockwise couple, these
stresses are taken as positive.
on Plane B the shear stress
direction is anticlockwise,
hence it is -ve shear stress
on Mohrs circle

on Plane A the shear stress

direction is clockwise, hence
it is a +ve shear stress on
Mohrs circle

21

IMPORTANT:
Do not confuse Mohrs circle sign convention with that of an entire element

+xy

-xy

x
Positive Shear

x
Negative Shear

Sign convention for normal stresses on Mohrs circle

Positive is tensile and plotted along positive x-axis
- negative is compressive and plotted along negative x-axis

22

1.1.4 Applications of Mohrs circle

i) Spherical Pressure Vessel
Consider a spherical pressure vessel with radius
r and wall thickness t subjected to an internal
gage pressure p.

The normal stresses can be related to the

pressure p by inspecting a free body diagram of
the pressure vessel. To simplify the analysis, we
cut the vessel in half as illustrated.

23

From equilibrium, the stress around the wall

must have a net resultant to balance the internal
pressure across the cross-section.

ii) Cylindrical Pressure Vessel

24

Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel with

radius r and wall thickness t subjected to an
internal gage pressure p.

To determine the longitudinal stress, we make a

cut across the cylinder similar to analyzing the
spherical pressure vessel.

25

From equilibrium,

To determine the hoop stress, we make a cut

along the longitudinal axis.

26

From equilibrium, the hoop stress yields,

NOTE:
The above formulas are good for thin-walled
pressure vessels. ie radius r is larger than 5
times its wall thickness t (r > 5 t).
When a pressure vessel is subjected to
external pressure, the stresses are negative
since the wall is now in compression instead
of tension.
The hoop stress is twice as much as the
longitudinal stress for the cylindrical
pressure vessel. This is why an overcooked
hotdog usually cracks along the longitudinal
direction first (i.e. its skin fails from hoop
stress, generated by internal steam pressure).

27

Example 1

The state of plane stress at a point is represented

by the figure shown. Determine the stresses on
an element oriented at 300 counterclockwise
from the position shown. Illustrate your answer
on a diagram.

12 MPa

y
8 MPa
x
6 MPa

28

From Eqns. (i) to (iii), we have

(( x y) ) ((x
) y)
'
x
y
x
y
xx
cos

cos 2
2xy sin xy
2sin 2

(i)

(
)
(xx

yy)) ((x x

'
y )y
y y
xy2sin

coscos
2 2 xy sin
2

(ii)

22

2 2

x, y ,

22

( x y )
2

sin 2 xy cos 2

Substituting = 300 , we have

xx' 8.2 MPa

y'y 12.2 MPa

x, y , 5.66 MPa
To construct the Mohrs circle,

avg

x y
2

8 12
2 MPa
2

x y
2
2
2
xy
R

10

6
11.66

29

(iii)

12.2

x
Clockwise,
6
+ve shear

12.2 MPa

R = 11.66

600
xy = 5.66
x

y
8.2

12

30

From the Mohrs circle,

x' 8.2 MPa

'y 12.2 MPa

x, y , 5.66 MPa

12.2 MPa
300
8.2 MPa
y'
x
5.66 MPa

31

300

1.2 DEFORMATION AND STRAIN

Deformation is a physical phenomenon it can be
measured.
Strain is a mathematical concept.
Basic modes of deformation (displacement)
Rigid body and Non rigid body
Rigid body

Translation, Rotation

Non rigid body

Elongation, Angular Distortion

B'

A'
A

A'
P P'
O

Elongation

Angular Distortion

B'
B

B'

B
A'

P'
P
O

A'
P

A
O

Translation

32

Rotation

1.2.1 Definition of Strain

Q'

P'

Line element (direct strain)

Engineering strain of line element PQ.
P,Q, PQ

PQ

33

Rotation between two line elements (shearing

strain)

Shearing strain
,

When , is small
, tan( , )

34

1.2.2 Strain Displacement Relationships

(i) Normal Strains
The normal strains are given by:
x

v
u
w
y
z
y
x
z

(i)

where u,v and w represent the displacements in

the x, y and z directions respectively.
(ii) Shear Strains
The shear strains are given by:

xy

v u

x y

yz

v w

z y

xz

u w

z x

(ii)

35

1.2.3 Assumptions
1. Deformations are infinitesimally small
2. Displacement of a point on the element is continuous, i.e.
no cracks, overlapping, slippage, etc. and also body from
which element is isolated, is continuous throughout.
3. Element is small, i.e. surroundings within close
neighbourhood of point P.

Convention for Strains

Normal Strains

i i indicates the direction in

which the elongation or
contraction is required. (the
sides are of an undeformed
element)

C
C'

D'

Positive Strain for elongation

(e.g. x) Negative Strain for
contraction (e.g. -x)

A
A'

B'

36

Shear Strains

y
C'
D'

B'
A

A'

B
x

ij i, j indicate directions of two mutually

perpendicular sides of an undeformed element
whose extent of angular deformation is required
(e.g. xy)

37

1.2.4 Strains at a point

The strains x, y, z, xy, yz and xz are those of a
cube element surrounding the point of interest,
P(x, y, z). If the size of the cube is allowed to
become infinitesimally small, the strains can be
regarded as being the strains at point P(x, y, z)
within a body.
Thus, 6 components of strains are required to
define completely the state of strain at point.
Transformation of Axes.
Often the strain components at a point referred
to a set of axes are different from the original
axes.
For 2- D analysis, if x, y and xy are strains in
x-y plane, what are the equivalent strains x, y
and xy referred to x and y axes that make an
angle with the x-y axes

38

The three strain components referred to x-y axes which

are at an angle to x-y axes are:
x'

y'
x' y '
2

x y x y

cos 2

x y x y

x y
2

2
sin 2

cos 2

xy
2

xy
2

xy
2

cos 2

sin 2

(d)

sin 2

(e)
(f)

1.2.5 Principal Strains

There will be a plane in the element which does not
experience any shear strains,
i.e. xy=0 .
From eqn(f)
x ' y ' x y sin 2 xy cos 2
0

39

i.e.
tan 2

xy
( x y )

or
tan 1
1
2

xy
( x y )

(g)

For this value of ,

x '

y '

( x y )
2

( x y )
2

x y xy

2 2

x y

2

xy

(h)

(i)

x ' and y ' are called the maximum and minimum

principal strains respectively.
(Usually denoted by 1 and 2)
The particular angle x or y denotes the direction of the principal
axes, and is denoted by . The rotation is defined as positive for
counter-clockwise rotation.

40

1.2.6 Mohrs Circle of Strain

Re-examining eqns (d), (e) & (f) and compare with eqns
(i), (ii) & (iii) for x , y & xy
The equations are similar in form. Therefore similar to
Mohrs circle of stress, a Mohrs circle of strain can
similarly be constructed with center at
x ,

xy
2

x y

2 ,0

plane. The radius of the circle is

x y

xy
R

2
2

However for Mohrs strain circle,

x axis normal strain
y axis half shear stain .
2

41

in the

Mohrs Circle of Strain

The convention for constructing and reading shear strain values from
Mohrs strain circle is similar to that used for shear stress in Mohrs
stress circle.
However for Mohrs strain circle,
x axis normal strain
y axis half shear strain
Sign convention for Mohrs strain circle
Normal strain: elongation +ve strain
contraction -ve strain

Shear strain: Positive shear stress results in positive shear strain

i.e. A positive shear strain corresponds to a clockwise shear stress
couple.
A negative shear strain corresponds to an anti-clockwise shear stress
couple.

42

Shear strain: Positive shear stress results in positive

shear strain
y

+ve shear stress

+ve shear strain

43

44

1.2.7 Stress Strain Relationships

Stress and strain are related through the
engineering properties of the material of the
body.
Assumptions
All the stresses / strains are within the elastic
range of the material
Material is homogeneous (i.e. properties
uniform throughout)
Material is isotropic (i.e. properties
independent of direction)
Hookes law
If only x is applied in the x-direction, the strain
in the x-direction is:
x

x
E

(such as in an uniaxial tensile test)

E is the Youngs modulus

The lateral contraction in the y direction =
is the Poissons ratio.

45

x
E

If only y is applied in the y-direction, the strain

in the y-direction is:
y

y
E

The lateral contraction in the x- direction =

y
E

If x and y are applied simultaneously, we have

x
y

x
E

y
E

(a)

(i)

(b)

For three dimensions,

(a)

(b)

(c)

1
x ( y z )
E
1
y y ( x z )
E
1
z z ( x y )
E

(ii)

For shear strains,

xy

xy
G

; yz

yz
G

; xz

xz
G

(iii)

G shear modulus of elasticity.

Eqns (ii) and (iii) represent the generalized
Hookes law (for isotropic, homogeneous
materials).
46

The Hookes law is applicable to any orthogonal stress system

(stresses which are inclined at 900 to each other).
For example we can write the normal strains as

1
( r z )
E

where the directions , r, and z are perpendicular to

each other
1
1 1 ( 2 3 )
E
where the directions 1, 2, and 3 are perpendicular to
each other

Substituting the values of y in Eq. (i)b into Eq.

(i)a and express the stress in terms of strains, we
have
x

E
x y
1 2

Likewise we can obtain y by substituting the value of x

in Eq (i)a into Eq (i)b and obtain :
y

E
y x
1 2

47

EXAMPLE 2
The strain components at a point in a machine
member are given by
x = 900 , y = -100 , xy = 600 .
Using Mohrs circle, determine the principal strain and
the maximum shearing strains.
Centre of circle: (x+ y )/2 = (900 -100)/2 = 400
Radius of circle
x y xy
900 100 600


R

583
2

2
2 2
2

48

y = -100

Max shearing strain

R=583
B

Plane B

-100 , 300

A 900 , -300

x = 900

xy= +600

Plane A

400

On plane A, x = 900 , on plane A the shear

direction is anticlockwise, hence it is indicated
as a -ve shear stress on the Mohrs circle
-(xy)/2= -600/2 = -300
On plane B, y = -100 , on plane B the shear
direction is clockwise, hence it is indicated as a
+ve shear stress on the Mohrs circle
clockwise shear on plane B
(xy)/2= 600/2 = 300

From the Mohrs circle

-6

1 = 983 x 10 , 2 = -183 x 10

-6

Maximum shearing strain max = 1166 x 10

49

-6