ALEXANDER THE GREAT SCHEME

4.0 Philip of Macedonia

4.1 Personality
It is agreed on by all hands, that on the father's side, Alexander descended from Hercules by Caranus, and
from Aeacus by Neoptolemus on the mother's side. His father Philip, being in Samothrace, when he was quite
young, fell in love there with Olympias, in company with whom he was initiated in the religious ceremonies of
the country, and her father and mother being both dead, soon after, with the consent of her brother, Arymbas,
he married her. The night before the consummation of their marriage, she dreamed that a thunderbolt fell upon
her body, which kindled a great fire, whose divided flames dispersed themselves all about, and then were
extinguished. And Philip, some time after he was married, dreamt that he sealed up his wife's body with a seal,
whose impression, as be fancied, was the figure of a lion. Some of the diviners interpreted this as a warning to
Philip to look narrowly to his wife; but Aristander of Telmessus, considering how unusual it was to seal up
anything that was empty, assured him the meaning of his dream was that the queen was with child of a boy,
who would one day prove as stout and courageous as a lion. Once, moreover, a serpent was found lying by
Olympias as she slept, which more than anything else, it is said, abated Philip's passion for her; and whether
he feared her as an enchantress, or thought she had commerce with some god, and so looked on himself as
excluded, he was ever after less fond of her conversation.

After (Alexander’s taming of Bucephalus), considering (Alexander) to be of a temper easy to be led to his duty
by reason, but by no means to be compelled, (Philip) always endeavoured to persuade rather than to
command or force him to anything; and now looking upon the instruction and tuition of his youth to be of
greater difficulty and importance than to be wholly trusted to the ordinary masters in music and poetry, and the
common school subjects, and to require, as Sophocles says-"The bridle and the rudder too," he sent for
Aristotle, the most learned and most celebrated philosopher of his time, and rewarded him with a munificence
proportionable to and becoming the care he took to instruct his son. For he repeopled his native city Stagira,
which he had caused to be demolished a little before, and restored all the citizens, who were in exile or
slavery, to their habitations.

While Philip went on his expedition against the Byzantines, he left Alexander, then sixteen years old, his
lieutenant in Macedonia, committing the charge of his seal to him; who, not to sit idle, reduced the rebellious
Maedi, and having taken their chief town by storm, drove out the barbarous inhabitants, and planting a colony
of several nations in their room, called the place after his own name, Alexandropolis. At the battle of
Chaeronea, which his father fought against the Grecians, he is said to have been the first man that charged
the Thebans' sacred band. And even in my remembrance, there stood an old oak near the river Cephisus,
which people called Alexander's oak, because his tent was pitched under it. And not far off are to be seen the
graves of the Macedonians who fell in that battle. This early bravery made Philip so fond of him, that nothing
pleased him more than to hear his subjects call himself their general and Alexander their king.
(Plutarch, Life of Alexander)

P had a cynical view of human nature. He saw diplomacy as being all about self-interest.

4.2 Rise to power

Philip II of Macedonia (382-336 BC), king of Macedonia (359-336 BC), son of Amyntas II and Eurydice was
born in Pella, the capital of ancient Macedonia. During his childhood he saw the Macedonian kingdom
disintegrating while his elder brothers Alexander II and Perdiccas III, fought unsuccessfully against
insubordination of their regional vassal princes, continuous attacks by the northern Greek city Thebes, and
invasion by the Illyrians of the northwest frontier. Also, before Philips's rise, the ancient Macedonians regarded
the ancient Greeks as potentially dangerous neighbours, not as kinsmen, and similarly, the Greeks viewed the
Macedonians as barbarians (non-Greeks), and consequently treated them in the same manner in which they
treated all non-Greeks. For instance, Herodotus, relates how the Macedonian king Alexander I (498-454 BC),
the Philhellene (that is "a friend of the Greeks" and thus a non-Greek), wanted to take a part in the Olympic
games. The Greek athletes protested, saying they would not run with a barbarian. Similarly, the historian
Thucydidis also considered the Macedonians as barbarians.

Philip II was a hostage in Thebes, from 370 BC to 360 BC. During that period he observed the military
techniques of Thebes, where the great tactitian Epaminondas was in charge. Before Philips arrival, Thebes
defeated a Spartan army at Leuctra (371 BC), which was by a series of successful expeditions into the
Peloponnese (370-369, 369-368, 367, and 362). Thus, Thebes put an end to the military dominance of Sparta,
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firmly establishing itself as the biggest military power in Greece. Philip made great use of his stay in Thebes as
he later reorganized the Macedonian army on the model of the Theban phalanx. In 364 BC Philip returned to
Macedonia, and in 359 BC he was made regent for his infant nephew Amyntas, the son of his brother
Perdiccas III. Soon he seized the throne for himself, suppressing foreign and Macedonian opposition.

Philip came to the throne suddenly and unexpectedly in 359 BC, after his brother Perdiccas III was killed
together with about 4000 of his troops meeting an Illyrian invasion (Diod. 16.2.4-6). The situation in Macedonia
was grave.

• Western frontier of M was wide open to attack

• Large no of soldiers were dead
• Illyria was preparing to invade
• Paeonians already begun invasion
• 5 potential claimants for the throne (see Green p.23 for details of how P dealt with claimants)

In this moment of crisis, Philip persuaded the aristocrats to recognize him as king in place of his infant
nephew, for whom he was now serving as regent after the loss of the previous king in the field. Philip then
rallied the army by teaching the infantrymen an unstoppable new tactic (Diod. 16.3.1-3) which he had learned
from Thebes while he was captive there. Macedonian troops carried thrusting spears fourteen feet long, which
they had to hold with two hands. Philip drilled his men to handle these heavy weapons in a phalanx formation,
whose front line bristled like a lethal porcupine with outstretched spears. With the cavalry of aristocrats
deployed as a strike force to soften up the enemy and protect the infantry's flanks, Philip's reorganized army
promptly routed Macedonia's attackers and suppressed local rivals to the new king. (see Green p.24 for a
description of P’s first battle)

4.3 Reign
P did not set himself apart from his men as leader. He dressed the same as them, he spoke the same as
them. He did not even demand to be called King.

4.4 Aims and Achievements

Inter-city-state warfare was endemic in the Grk world before and during P’s time. Sparta, Thebes and Athens
vied for power and dominated the smaller city states. The inability of the Grks to form a strong national unit
allowed Persia, and later M, to gain influence over their affairs.

4.4.1 Uniting and expanding Macedonia

Philip’s ultimate aim was to increase the size of Macedonia’s territory. He planned to expand southwards and
take over the Greek states. Many of those were controlled by Persia, but Philip’s army was no match for the
powerful Persian empire. He hoped to take over them quickly and unite them under his rule, before using
religion as a pretext to convince them to fight for him against Persia, their common enemy. First, though, he
had to secure his position as King within his own country.

The Illyrians prepared to close in as the Macedonian state was further weakened by internal turmoil; additional
claimants to the throne were a serious threat to Philip's dominance, since they were supported by foreign
powers. Philip used the crisis as a great opportunity to demonstrate his diplomatic skills. He bought off his
dangerous neighbours and, with a treaty, ceded Amphipolis to Athens. In less than two years he secured the
safety of his kingdom and firmly established himself on the throne. After defeating the Illyrians in 358 BC,
Philip sought to bring all of Upper Macedonia (especially Lynkestis, the birthplace of his mother) under his
control and make them loyal to him (Isoc. 5.21; Diod. 16.3.4-7; Diod. 16.4.2-7). Apart from military, Philip had
several political inventions that helped turn Macedonia into a world power. His primary method of creating
alliances and strengthening loyalties was through marriage. In 357 BC he married Olympias, from the royal
house of Molossia, and a year later they had a son, Alexander.

Philip allowed the sons of nobles to receive education in the court of the king. Here the sons would not only
develop a fierce loyalty for the king, but it was also a way for Philip to, in a sense, hold the children hostage to
keep their parents from interfering with his authority. He also gave more people positions of power and more of

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a sense of belonging to the kingdom. This was also part of Philip’s policy to Hellenise Macedonia. He
brought tutors like Aristotle from Greece to teach the young nobles Greek literature, ideas, customs and
beliefs. Greek became the language of the army and administration.

Philip's policy, while being very tactful, was also aggressive. In 357 BC he conquered the Athenian colony of
Amphipolis in Thrace. That gave him a possession of the gold mines of Mount Pangaeus, which would later
finance his wars. In 356 BC he captured Potidea in Chalcidice, Pydna on the Thermaic Gulf, and in 355 BC the
Thracian town of Crenides, later acquiring new name Philippi. In 354 BC Philip conquered Methone, advanced
into Thessaly but did not attempt to take the pass of Thermopylae in 352 BC because it was strongly guarded
by the Athenians.

By 348 BC Philip had annexed the Chalcidice, including Olynthus, and was involved in a war over Delphi
between Phocis and its neighbors. The “Sacred War” was a golden opportunity for P. Citizens of Phocis felt
that Delphi was in their territory and that they were entitled to control the oracle. Phocis was one of Greece’s
smallest states, but the money from the oracle could support a large mercenary army for ever. The
Amphictyonic council, an interstate religious council resp for administering Delphi, appealed to P for help. He
fought Phocis and by late summer 346 P had defeated them. His help won him the Presidency of the Pythian
Games and Phocis’ 2 seats on the Amph. Council. This was a recognised pos in Greece – P was now the
most powerful ruler in Greece.

Philip wanted to be accepted in Greece -- after all, Isocrates had advised him at this time that he needed to
involve the Greeks with the Persian war -- and the Philipics weren't helping him. His philhellenism was a key
strategy of the great tactitian. He respected Athens for diplomatic reasons, but he never in his life set foot in
Athens. Furthermore, Pella had been a resort or refuge of great Greek thinkers, a curiosity given that there is
no indication that he was truly a man of the arts and humanities. His philhellenism was tolerated due to
Macedonia's military strength, although it was well-known that it was not genuine and overrated; and
Demosthenes knew how to use it. In the third of the Philippics, generally considered the finest of his orations,
the great Athenian statesman spoke of Philip II:

"... not only no Greek, nor related to the Greeks, but not even a barbarian from any place that can be named
with honours, but a pestilent knave from Macedonia, whence it was never yet possible to buy a decent slave."
Third Philippic, 31
Philip’s pro-Greek views, however, did not benefit him. His aggressive policies did not sit well with the great
Athenian orator Demosthenes, who in 351 BC delivered the first of his Philippics, a series of speeches warning
the Athenians about the Macedonian menace to Greek liberty. The Philippics (the second in 344 BC, the third
in 341 BC) and the three Olynthiacs (349 BC), in which he urged aid for Olynthus against Philip, were all
directed toward arousing Greece against the conqueror.

Demosthenes continued to agitate, and when Philip moved to absorb the European side of the straits and the
Dardanelles (340 BC), Athens and Thebes went to war with him. This was potentially devastating for
Macedonia. Thebes’ army was strong and Athens’ navy was strong, but the Macedonian barbarian defeated
the united Greek states at the bloody battle of Chaeronea at the beginning of August 338 BC and appointed
himself "Commander of the Greeks". Philip's army was outnumbered by the Athenian and Theban forces, yet
his phalanxes overwhelmed the Athenians and Thebans. This battle was followed by the establishment of
Macedonian hegemony over Greece.

4.4.2 The Macedonian Army (see 5.4)

4.4.3 Military victories
4.4.3.1 Battle of Charonea

P had seized 230 Athenian merchantmen, an act which eventually provoked Athens to declare war on M.
Athens thought she could defeat M on land. P tried to reach a diplomatic settlement at the same time as trying
to out-maneouvre the Grks. (see Green for details p.73)

30,000 Macedonians met an army of Greek allies of roughly the same size at Chaeronia in Boeotia on 2
August 338 BC. The allies held a strong position with their right wing reaching the banks of the River
Cephisus and their left extending to the foothills east of the town. On the allied right were the Thebans, the
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best infantry. On the left were the inexperienced Athenian troops, with the remaining allied troops and the
mercenaries in the middle.

On the Macedonian right Alexander, and the leading Macedonian generals, led 2000 Companion cavalry. His
charge was to spearhead the charge through the gap that Philip would open up in the allied lines. He
intended to use a withdrawing manoeuvre calling for a high degree of skill and discipline to tempt the
Athenians to pursue him. The Macedonian army was well trained and well disciplined. They were trained to
advance in a traditional phalanx charge, but then to retreat in good order. The Athenians and Thebans
thought they had defeated the Macedonians, and pursued them, rushing forward and in the process exposing
their lines. Philip exploited the opportunity and Alexander, only 18 yrs old, led a cavalry charge. The
Macedonian wings closed on the Greeks and 1000 Athenians were killed and 2000 taken prisoner, while the
Theban army was destroyed. The leaders of the anti-Macedon faction were executed or banished and an
oligarchy of 300 Macedonian exiles was set up.

Athens deserved and expected similar punishment, but Philip offered lenient terms: Athens was to disband her
confederacy and give up her claim on the Chersonnese. She would retain her possessions in the Aegean
and recover Oropus from Thebes. She was to become an ally of Macedonia and Philip undertook not to send
troops into Attica or warships into the Piraeus. Athenian prisoners would be restored without ransom. The
offer was accepted, and Athenian gratitude were shown in the grant of citizenship to the king and his son and
in the erection of a statue of Philip in the Agora.

Athens had done much better than Thebes.

Philip defeated the united Greek states at the bloody battle of Chaeronea at the beginning of August 338 BC
and appointed himself "Commander of the Greeks". Philip's army was outnumbered by the Athenian and
Theban forces, yet his phalanxes overwhelmed the Athenians and Thebans. This battle was followed by the
establishment of Macedonian hegemony over Greece.

The winner of the Battle at Charonea won the war. Philip now secured peace with the defeated Greek states,
and with that their support in the Persian war overseas. It is believed that Aristotle helped him greatly in the
constitutional details of his settlement, as he was not tutoring the young Alexander anymore.

To commemorate his great victory P decided to build a circular temple at Olympia known as The Phillipeum,
similar to the tholos at Delphi. It was a brick building containing gold and ivory portrait statues of Philip and his
family. It was intended to stimulate a quasi-divine cult of Philip himself. This was not a new idea (see Green
p.81 for precedents)

4.5.4 League of Corinth

The winner of the Battle at Charonea won the war and Philip was now virtually master of all of Greece. Philip
now secured peace with the Greeks, and with that their support in the Persian war overseas. It is believed that
Aristotle helped him greatly in the constitutional details of his settlement, as he was not tutoring the young
Alexander anymore. Philip's League of Corinth (337 BC) was intended to maintain and perpetuate a general
peace (koine eirene); it was not a league at all, for it did not have the word symachia in it. The Council
(synedrion) included delegates of all the states of Greece (except Sparta) and the islands, recognizing Philip
as its leader (hegemon). The peace was a political innovation of the Greeks themselves, used several times in
the past 50 years; neither Philip nor Macedonia had representatives on the council, though. Philip was
extremely wise to build on the earlier practice of the Greeks themselves. However, the catch was that the
hegemon influenced the decisions of the council, and was responsible for their execution. This facade of
freedom, did not deceive the Greeks. After all, it was quite obvious why the inaugural meeting took place in
Corinth, for it was one of only few Greek cities with a Macedonian garrison; the other were strategically
positioned at the Theban Cadmeia, Chalcis on Euboea and Ambracia. Therefore, Philips's settlement of
Greece was only a means for his future plans.

Philip's League of Corinth (beginning in 338 and ending in spring of 337 BC) was intended to maintain and
perpetuate a general peace (koine eirene). He had to charm the Grks to soothe their wounded pride. The
Council (synedrion) met at Corinth and included delegates of all the states of Greece (except Sparta, which
refused to submit and was not invited to become a member of the League. Instead Philip took control of all
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the territory surrounding Sparta, which weakened them significantly.) and the islands, recognizing Philip as its
leader (hegemon). States would become members of a federal union, which, when ratified, was known as the
League of Corinth. There was a variety of diff types of govt - oligarchies, tyrannies and a few democracies.
P wanted to maintain the status quo and thereby achieve regional stability. He was against anything which
would lead to war or rev change. Members would remain free and autonomous, and would take an oath to
observe a common peace and respect the constitutions of all the member states. Any breaches of the peace
would be punished by all.

Philip proposed detailed machinery to ensure that the League worked efficiently:

The Permanent Council – Prohedrion

• made up of 5 councillors (Prohedroi)

• based in Corinth, conducting the day-to-day business of the League

The Council of Representatives from each state – Synhedrion

• No of Synhedroi (representatives) sent by state, depending on its military or naval strength, took an
oath of allegiance
• Would hold meetings at the time and place of the four Panhellenic festivals
• Extraordinary meetings would be held at Corinth
• Decisions would be reached by a majority vote, though in reality Philip made the decisions
• Had judicial powers to try offenders and impose sentences
• Macedonia itself sent no representatives and was not a member of the League.

The Federal Leader – Hegemon

• Position was hereditary and for life. Philip was the first Hegemon and Alexander inherited the
position
• Would become the Strategos autocrator (military commander of the League’s forces) if required
• Had complete control of the foreign policy of the Greek states

The Oath (p.25, Artus)

The peace was a political innovation of the Greeks themselves, used several times in the past 50 years;
neither Philip nor Macedonia had representatives on the council, though. Philip was extremely wise to build on
the earlier practice of the Greeks themselves. However, the catch was that the hegemon influenced the
decisions of the council, and was responsible for their execution. This facade of freedom, did not deceive the
Greeks. After all, it was quite obvious why the inaugural meeting took place in Corinth, for it was one of only
few Greek cities with a Macedonian garrison; the other were strategically positioned at the Theban Cadmeia,
Chalcis on Euboea and Ambracia. Therefore, Philips's settlement of Greece was only a means for his future
plans.

Nevertheless, Philip was able to charm the Greek states into sending representatives to the meetings. He
treated them as equals and promised that the peace and autonomy of the member states was granted without
the need for tribute. Philip’s idea of fighting the Persians in revenge for Xerxes’ desecration of the Greek
temples was another very popular motive for joining.

Legacy of the League of Corinth

Philip secured the peace and stability of the region in order for him to prepare for the invasion of Persia. The
real benefits fell to Alexander on his succession, however.

- he had control of mainland Greece and the islands

- he gained control of the Athenian fleet and more troops

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- he received support from the Greeks for his invasion
- any Greek entering Persian service after the Oath could be treated as a traitor
- the Greeks could night fight between themselves

In summary, the League meant that Alexander could proceed with his plans for invasion knowing that Greece
was secure behind him. This was crucial, as none of the Greek states would have remained members of the
League, given the choice. Though the League was not untroubled by major rebellions (see Revolt of Agis,
333-331BC), it did not stop some Greek mercenaries from fighting for the Persians. P had not dealt with the
problems of the Grk states – he had simply driven them underground.

In the autumn of 346 Isocrates published his Address to Philip, calling for a Panhellenic crusade against
Persia. The idea was not new. (see Green p.49 for expl of ideas behind Persia attack) The synedrion duly
acclaimed Philip's idea for a Persian war early in 337 BC. Early the next year, in the spring of 336 BC, Philip
started preparing for his big invasion of Persia. He sent Attalus and Parmenion with 10,000 troops, an advance
force, over into Asia Minor.

4.5.5 Conquest of Asia

4.5.5.1 Persian Empire
4.5.5.2 Historical justification
4.5.5.3 Preparations
4.6 Olympias

M soc knew nothing of sexual romance. P took wives to breed sons, secure his position, run the household
and cement alliances. His marriages must be distinguished from his many affairs, which did not affect his
marriages in any way. The idea that a king should restrict his sexual activities to the marriage, much less have
a relationship with his wife in the modern sense, would have been foreign to a M. M wives were not subject to
fits of jealousy if their husbands took mistresses (or young boys). What annoyed Olympias was the threat to
her own royal pos. and A’s status as heir.

It is agreed on by all hands, that on the father's side, Alexander descended from Hercules by Caranus, and
from Aeacus by Neoptolemus on the mother's side. His father Philip, being in Samothrace, when he was quite
young, fell in love there with Olympias, in company with whom he was initiated in the religious ceremonies of
the country, and her father and mother being both dead, soon after, with the consent of her brother, Arymbas,
he married her. The night before the consummation of their marriage, she dreamed that a thunderbolt fell upon
her body, which kindled a great fire, whose divided flames dispersed themselves all about, and then were
extinguished. And Philip, some time after he was married, dreamt that he sealed up his wife's body with a seal,
whose impression, as be fancied, was the figure of a lion. Some of the diviners interpreted this as a warning to
Philip to look narrowly to his wife; but Aristander of Telmessus, considering how unusual it was to seal up
anything that was empty, assured him the meaning of his dream was that the queen was with child of a boy,
who would one day prove as stout and courageous as a lion. Once, moreover, a serpent was found lying by
Olympias as she slept, which more than anything else, it is said, abated Philip's passion for her; and whether
he feared her as an enchantress, or thought she had commerce with some god, and so looked on himself as
excluded, he was ever after less fond of her conversation. Others say, that the women of this country having
always been extremely addicted to the enthusiastic Orphic rites, and the wild worship of Bacchus (upon which
account they were called Clodones, and Mimallones), imitated in many things the practices of the Edonian and
Thracian women about Mount Haemus, from whom the word threskeuein seems to have been derived, as a
special term for superfluous and over-curious forms of adoration; and that Olympias, zealously, affecting these
fanatical and enthusiastic inspirations, to perform them with more barbaric dread, was wont in the dances
proper to these ceremonies to have great tame serpents about her, which sometimes creeping out of the ivy in
the mystic fans, sometimes winding themselves about the sacred spears, and the women's chaplets, made a
spectacle which men could not look upon without terror.
(Plutarch, Life of Alexander)

P and O married in summer 357. She was not yet 18 but she had already become a forceful and eccentric
personality. She was a follower of Dionysus and kept snakes. She was sullen, jealous, arrogant, headstrong
and meddlesome. She had huge pol ambition for herself and her son, and a literally murderous temper.

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Alexander and Olympias

The Macedonian king was expected to produce heirs, and often. He usually had more than one wife to help
him with this duty. He chose the wives himself and all of his sons were regarded as legitimate. This was one
of the main causes of friction and conflict however, with several different heirs to the throne, all by the same
father, but all with different mothers.

Philip’s last marriage, in 338 BC, to the Macedonian Cleopatra, a young niece of Attalus, led to a final break
with Olympia, his queen (who was a princess from Epirus, and therefore not of Macedonian descent) , who left
the country accompanied by the crown prince Alexander. The marriage caused a rift between Olympia and
Philip, but more importantly it caused bad feeling between Philip and Alexander. Alexander felt threatened by
the new union and was worried that he would not succeed his father if more heirs were produced. Philip
created this situation when he announced that he was repudiating his marriage to Olympias on grounds of
infidelity. This encouraged rumours that A might be illegitimate. It suggested that A’s succession was in
doubt. Philip miscalculated how much this marriage was going to harm his relationship with Alexander.

The wedding was a tense affair. A walked in and took the place of honour opposite his father, and said “When
my mother remarries I’ll invite you to her wedding!”

Alexander’s insecurity was made worse by a comment made by Attalus at the wedding banquet. He made a
toast asking for the Ms to pray for a legitimate heir, i.e., one that was pure Macedonian. Alexander took
exception and threw his cup at the man, and some sources say Alexander killed him. Enraged, Philip stood up
and charged at Alexander, only to trip and fall on his face. Alexander, rather upset at the scene, is said to have
shouted:

"Here is the man who was making ready to cross from Europe to Asia, and who cannot even cross from one
table to another without losing his balance."

After the wedding between Philip and Cleopatra, Olympias fled Macedonia and stayed in Epirus with
Olympias’ brother. Alexander accompanied her and went to stay in Ilyria. Philip showed that he had never
intended to put Alexander's position as crown prince in jeopardy, by taking trouble to be reconciled with
Alexander. The tension was overcome, but it was an uneasy truce, and although he was allowed to return, he
remained isolated and insecure until Philip was assassinated, in the summer of 336 BC.

Olympias attempted to convince her brother to avenge the insult to her honour. Philip persuaded Alexander
of Epirus to return, however, by promising him the hand of his niece, also called Cleopatra, the daughter of
Philip and Olympias.

4.7 Murder

see ppt
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At the grand wedding celebration of his daughter Cleopatra's marriage to Alexander of Epirus (brother of
Olympias) in 336 BC at Aegae, Philip was stabbed in the chest and mortally wounded by Pausanias, a young
Macedonian noble.

P planned to make the occasion as lavish as poss. He wanted to impress the Grks and convince them that he
was a civilised statesman. He organised a non-stop round of banquets, public games, musical festivals and
sacrifices. In the midst of preps for the wedding P’s new son was born. He was named Caranus. A’s isolation
at court was now almost complete.

On the 2nd day of the celebrations games were scheduled to take place in the theatre. Before they began a
ceremonial procession formed and was marched in. 12 statues of the Olympian gods were accompanied by a
statue of P. Finally, he appeared. He wore a white ceremonial cloak and stood between his son and his new
son-in-law. As he paused by the entrance to the arena, a member of the Bodyguard stepped forward and
stabbed him with a short-bladed celtic dagger.

The official explanation was that Pausanias was driven into committing the murder after he was denied justice
by the king in a bitter grievance against the young queen's uncle Attalus. Pausanias himself could add nothing
to it, as he was killed on the spot. Not surprisingly though, rumours came up that Olympias and Alexander
were involved in the assassination -- that they used Pausanias' anger to further their cause -- as they had most
to gain from Philip's death.

Pausanias of Orestis

Pausanias was Philip’s lover. He was jealous because another man, also called Pausanias, was attracting
Philip’s attention. He harassed the other Pausanias, who, disturbed by the harassment, told Philip before
committing suicide.

Attalus, a Macedonian commander, friend of Philip and uncle of Cleopatra (Philip’s wife), decided to revenge
Pausanias’ death. He invited Pausanias of Orestis to dinner, plied him with alcohol and gave him to his
bodyguards to beat up. Pausanias complained about this treatment to Philip. Philip was angry, but refused
to punish Attalus because he needed his military expertise for his forthcoming expedition, he held a very
influential position as a Macedonian nobleman, and he was Cleopatra’s uncle.

Instead, Philip tried to appease Pausanias by giving him generous gifts and promoting him to high rank among
his bodyguards. Pausanias was not pleased, however. During a conversation with the philosopher
Hermocrates, he asked how a person could become famous and was told “by killing the man who has done
the greatest deeds”.

Pausanias was the murderer, and was arrested and executed at the scene of the murder by Philip’s
bodyguards. Nevertheless, Plutarch and others later suggested that he was not ultimately responsible for the
death.

The case against Alexander and Olympias

Relations between Philip and his wife and son were tense in the last two years of Philip’s life.

Motives:

• Olympias was concerned her position as Philip’s main wife was threatened by his marriage to
Cleopatra. She was unpopular with the Macedonian nobles, who disapproved of her nationality and
personality, and wanted a pure Macedonian heir to the throne.

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ALEXANDER THE GREAT SCHEME
• Alexander was concerned that his succession to the throne was in jeopardy if his father married again
and produced another heir. He was sensitive to jokes about this (see above) and was quick to take
offence. In 338 BC the Great King of Persia, Artaxerxes III died. The future was uncertain for the
Persian empire and Philip wanted to be able to take advantage. An opportunity arose when
Pixodarus, ruler of Caria (a minor state in the Persian empire), offered his daughter in marriage to one
of Philip’s other sons, Philip Arrhidaeus (the half-witted son of Philip and a Thessalian woman). What
Pixodarus wanted was a defensive mil alliance with M. He had banished his sister Ada from
Halicarnassus and he was concerned about his security. But Alexander was insulted, and secretly
offered to marry the daughter himself, much to the delight of Pixodarus. Philotas told his father about
the offer and Parmenio told P. The offer fell through when Philip found out, and both Alexander and
Philip blamed each other. Philip thought Alexander had ruined his chance of securing an alliance in
Persia and banished Alexander’s accomplices including Ptolemy, Nearchus and Harpalus (not
Philotas), while Alexander felt he had seen proof that his father wished to cut him out of the
succession.

Evidence:

• Under normal circumstances Pausanias would have been arrested, and then tortured to death. The
men who killed him immediately after the murder, however, were Alexander’s friends.
• An investigation after Philip’s death found two of the Lyncestis brothers (whose father Philip had exiled)
guilty of plotting to kill Philip. Heromenes and Arrhabaeus were punished, but the third brother,
Alexander, was pardoned, despite evidence against him, and he was the first man to salute Alexander
as the new king.
• Alexander apparently encouraged Pausanias. Soon after his assault at the hands of Attalus,
Alexander apparently quoted a verse from Euripedes’ play Medea, in which Medea threatened to
punish anyone who offended her. By doing so, he suggested that Philip deserved to be punished.
• Olympias and Alexander were the chief beneficiaries of Philip’s death.
• The timing of the murder was extremely fortuitous for Alexander, who succeeded at age 20 before
Cleopatra had an heir old enough to contest the throne.

See Green p.90 for argument that O and A were guilty. P.109 for Green’s hypothesis

There have been other suggestions about the ultimate guilt of other suspects, including Antipater (a
Macedonian noble), the Greeks and the Persians.

4.0 Philip II