THE TOOLS OF THE

TRADE
Apparatus
Instruments
Glassware
Procedures

WEIGHING
ELECTRONIC BALANCE
VOCABULARY
Pan
Tare

Display
Specifications
Calibration

WEIGHING
Balance Specifications
Maximum Capacity
110 g
Readability
0.1 mg
Repeatability
0.1 mg
Linearity
0.2 mg
Sensitivity
2.5 ppm/C

WEIGHING
The weighing operation consists of:
1. Place a clean receiving vessel on the
balance pan. The mass of the empty
vessel is called the tare.
2. Press the button that resets the tare
reading to zero
3. Add the substance to be weighed to the
vessel and read its new mass

WEIGHING
An Alternate procedure (weighing by
difference) have to be used when dealing
with hygroscopic reagents.
1. Weight a capped bottle containing the
dry reagent
2. Pour some reagent from the weighing
bottle into a receiver
3. Cap the weighing bottle and weight it
again

WEIGHING

WEIGHING
THE DESSICATOR

Ground-glass rims vaselined

To keep apparatus airtight

Fused Calcium Chloride

Concentrated sulphuric acid
Phosphorus pentoxide
Silica-gel indicator: blue (dry)

WEIGHING
Silica-gel:
Hygrometer
indicator

CoCl2 + 6H2O <==> Co(H2O)62+ + 2Cl-

WEIGHING
CALIBRATION
Balances have to be
calibrated against
standard weights in order
to ensure accurate
measurements
Calibration in electronic
balances is now very
easy

WEIGHING
The balance electronics are adjusted in such a way that
the indication of the balance is equal to the mass of the
built-in weight with the built-in weight introduced to the
balance (Rs = ms)

a
Rs kgms 1-
s
k

1
a
g 1-
s

WEIGHING
a
1s

m R
a
1-

m is the true mass of the weighing object

The conventional mass of an object, is just the reading R of the balance
at 20C
when the air density is exactly 1.2 kg m-3
after adjusting the balance with a reference mass with a density of =
8000 kg m-3, in the same conditions.

MEASURING VOLUMES
BURETTES
A precisely bored glass tube with
graduations that enables us to measure
the volume of liquid delivered.
This is done by reading the level before
and after draining liquid from the burette.

BURETTES
Typical glass burettes have a teflon
stopcock
Sometimes a cap is used to keep dust out
and vapours in
When reading the height of liquid the eyes
have to be at the same level as the top of
liquid to avoid the parallax error

BURETTES Tips & tricks

Check the tip of the burette for an air
bubble and remove it.

BURETTES Tips & tricks

Rinse the tip of the burette with water from a wash bottle
and dry it carefully
After a minute, check for solution on the tip to see if your
burette is leaking
The tip should be clean and dry before you take an initial
volume reading.

BURETTES Tips & tricks

Read the bottom of the meniscus
Be sure your eye is at the level of
meniscus, not above or below to avoid the
parallax error.

VOLUMETRIC FLASKS
Are used to prepare a solution of a known volume
Are calibrated to contain a particular volume of water at
20C when the bottom of the meniscus is adjusted to the
centre of the mark
After the final dilution, remember to mix your solution
thoroughly, by inverting the flask and shaking

PIPETTES AND SYRINGES

Pipettes are used to deliver known volumes of
liquid
Transfer pipettes are calibrated to deliver a fixed
volume (such as the volumetric flasks) and are
the most accurate ones
Touch the tip of the pipette to the side of the
beaker (or receiver) and drain the liquid
Do not blow out the last drop from a transfer
pipette

PIPETTES AND SYRINGES

Measuring pipettes are calibrated to
deliver a variable volume (graduated)
A pipette pump or rubber bulb should be
used to draw solution into the pipette

PIPETTES AND SYRINGES

To deliver small volumes (microlitres)
micropipettes and syringes may be used

OTHER GLASSWARE
Erlenmeyer flasks and beakers are used
for mixing, transporting, and reacting, but
not for accurate measurements (RSD
about 5%)

OTHER GLASSWARE
Graduated cylinders are useful for measuring liquid
volumes to within about 1%
They are for general purpose use, but not for quantitative
analysis
If greater accuracy is needed, use a pipette or volumetric
flask.

FILTRATION
Precipitates for gravimetric analysis are
collected by filtration, washed and then
dried
If the precipitate does not need to be
ignited, it is collected in a fritted-glass filter
crucible
The filter crucible is used with suction by
using a Kitasato

FILTRATION

FILTRATION
Sometimes the precipitate must be isolated, then igniting
it at high temperature to convert it to a well defined
product of known composition
When the precipitate have to be ignited, it is collected in
ashless filter paper that leaves little residue when
oxidised
The paper should fit snugly and be seated with a little
liquid water
The correct procedure for filtration is shown in the
following figures

FILTRATION

FILTRATION
Particles adhering to the beaker or rod can be dislodged
with a rubber policeman and transferred with a jet of
liquid
The precipitate to be ignited is first collected in the
ashless filter
The filter should be allowed to drain thoroughly
(overnight) with the content protected with a watchglass
Lift the paper out of the funnel, fold it suitably (see figure)
and transfer it to a porcelain crucible

IGNITION

IGNITION
With the filter paper and precipitate inside the crucible,
dry the content cautiously with a small flame by
positioning the crucible above the burner with the help of
a clay triangle as indicated in the figure
After it is dry, char the filter by increasing the flame
temperature