7.

5W NON ISOLATED FORWARD

CONVERTER
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF

Bachelor of Technology
In
Electrical & Electronics Engineering
By
L.HARIKA (07241A0204)
N.JYOTHSNA DEVI (07241A0235)
B.NIHARIKA (07241A0240)
Under the guidance of Mr.M.SRIKANTH
(Assistant Professor)

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY, BACHUPALLY, HYD-90

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We

would

like

to

articulate

our

deep

gratitude

to

our

project

guide

Mr.M.Srikanth,(Asst.Professor(EEE),GRIET), who has always been source of motivation

and firm support for carrying out the project.
We express our gratitude to Mr.P.M.Sarma, ( Professor & Head of the department(EEE)
,GRIET) for his invaluable suggestions and constant encouragement all through the project
work.
We are also grateful to Dr. S. N. Saxena, (Professor (EEE) & Dean Placements) for his
valuable guidance throughout the seminars in the college.
We would like to express our sense of gratitude to Mr. M.Chakravarthy (Assoc. Professor,
EEE Dept) for always being available whenever we required his guidance as well as for
motivating us throughout the project work. We also thank Dr. J. N. Murthy,(Principal,
GRIET), for providing useful infrastructure.
We would also like to convey our sincere gratitude and indebtedness to all other faculty
members and staff of department, who bestowed their great effort and guidance at appropriate
times without which it would have been very difficult on our project work.

L.HARIKA
N.JYOTHSNA DEVI
B.NIHARIKA

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled 7.5W NON ISOLATED
FORWARD CONVERTER that is being submitted by L.HARIKA,N.JYOTHSNA,
B.NIHARIKA

in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of

Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering to the Jawaharlal Nehru

Technological University is a record of bonafide work carried out by her under my guidance
and supervision. The results embodied in this project report have not been submitted to any
other University or Institute for the award of any Post graduation degre

Mr.P.M.SARMA

Mr. M.SRIKANTH

HOD, EEE

Assistant Professor, EEE

GRIET, Hyderabad

GRIET, Hyderabad
(Internal Guide)
ii

ABSTRACT
The project 7.5W NON ISOLATED FORWARD CONVERTER is intended to
modern electronic systems require high quality, small, lightweight, reliable and efficient power
supplies. Linear power regulators, whose principle of operation is based on a voltage or current
divider, are inefficient. This is because they are limited to output voltages smaller than the
input voltage, and also their power density is low because they require low frequency(50 or 60
Hz) line transformers and filters. Linear regulators can however provide a very high quality
output voltage. Electronic devices in linear regulators operate in their active modes, but at
higher power levels switching regulators are used. Switching regulators use power electronic
semiconductor switches in ON and OFF states. Because there is a small power loss in those
states, switching regulators can achieve high energy conversion efficiencies.
Modern power electronic switches can operate at high frequencies. The higher the
operating frequency , the smaller and lighter the transformers, filter inductors, and capacitors.
In addition , the dynamic characteristics of converters improve with increasing operating
frequencies.
The forward converter is a switched mode power supply(SMPS) circuit that is used
for producing isolated and controlled dc voltage from unregulated dc input supply. The
forward converters are applicable for, low power frequency supplies, low cost multiple- output
power supplies , isolated gate drivers etc.
This project consists of a combination of startup circuit, maximum pulse width
circuit, controller circuit, power circuit of power converter, feedback circuit. These circuits are
used to control of switching pulse width using feedback circuit and controller by PWM
technique

iii

CONTENTS

Page.No

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ii

ABSTRACT

iii

LIST OF FIGURES

v-vi

NOMENCLATURE

vii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2

FORWARD CONVERTER

2.1Operation of Forward Converter

2.2 Modes of Operation

CHAPTER 3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FORWARD

CONVERTER

3.1 Start-up circuit

3.2 Maximum pulse-width circuit

10

3.3 Power circuit

11

3.4 Feedback circuit

13

3.5 Control circuit

14

3.6 Connected diagram of forward converter

17

3.7 Pin configuration of UC494C

18

CHAPTER 4

SIMULATION RESULTS

19

CHAPTER 5

HARDWARE RESULTS

24

CHAPTER 6

6.1 Applications

31

6.2 Limitations
6.3 Advantages
CHAPTER 7

FUTURE SCOPE

32

APPENDIX
REFERENCES

44
iv

55

LIST OF FIGURES
FIG NO.

NAME OF THE FIGURE

PAGE.NO

2.1

Basic circuit of forward converter

2.2

Mode 1 circuit operation

2.3

Mode 2 circuit operation

3.1

Block diagram of forward converter

3.2

Start-up circuit

3.3

Maximum pulse-width circuit

10

3.4

Power circuit

11

3.5

Mode 1 operation of power circuit

11

3.6

Mode 2 operation of power circuit

12

3.7

Feedback circuit

13

3.8

Control circuit

14

3.9

Connected diagram of forward converter

17

3.10

Pin configuration of forward converter

18

4.1

Simulation circuit

20

4.2

Input voltage

22

4.3

Gate voltage

22

4.4

Output voltage

23

4.5

Output current

23

5.1

Mounted PCB board

24

5.2

Gate voltage

25

5.3

Switch voltage

26

5.4

Ramp voltage

27

5.5

Output voltage

28

5.6

Bare PCB board

29

5.7

Components used for forward converter

30

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
4.1

NAME OF THE TABLE

Result table showing output voltages for different input
values

vi

PAGENO.
21

NOMENCLATURE
Np

Number of turns on primary

Ns

Number of turns on secondary

Edc

Input voltage

Vs

Supply voltage

Duty cycle

Vop

Output voltage

Fs

Switching frequency

Rt

Limiting resistor

Ct

Limiting capacitor

vii

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Modern electronic systems require high quality, small, lightweight, reliable and
efficient power supplies. Linear power regulators, whose principle of operation is based on a
voltage or current divider, are inefficient. This is because they are limited to output voltages
smaller than the input voltage, and also their power density is low because they require low
frequency(50 or 60 Hz) line transformers and filters. Linear regulators can however provide a
very high quality output voltage. Electronic devices in linear regulators operate in their active
modes, but at higher power levels switching regulators are used.
Switching regulators use power electronic semiconductor switches in ON and OFF
states. Because there is a small power loss in those states, switching regulators can achieve high
energy conversion efficiencies.Modern power electronic switches can operate at high
frequencies. The higher the operating frequency , the smaller and lighter the transformers, filter
inductors, and capacitors. In addition , the dynamic characteristics of converters improve with
increasing operating frequencies.
Isolation describes the electrical separation between the input and output of a dcdc converter. An isolated dc-dc converter uses a transformer to eliminate the dc path between its
input and output. Non-isolated dc-dc converter has a dc path between its input and output. Nonisolated dc-dc converter designs usually employ ICs specifically intended for that purpose.
The forward converter is a DC/DC converter that uses transformer windings to buck
or boost the voltage. The forward converter is widely used with output power below 200W,
though it can be easily constructed with a much higher output power. The limitations are due to
the inability of the power transistor to handle the voltage and current stresses. The circuit uses
two transistors that are switched ON and OFF simultaneously. The diode are used to restrict the
maximum collector voltage to Vs. Therefore the transistor with low voltage rating can be used.
1

Unlike the flyback , the forward converter requires a minimum load at the
output. Otherwise , excess output can be produced. To avoid this situation , a large load
resistance is permanently connected across the output terminals. Because the forward converter
does not store energy in the transformer, for the same output power level, the size of the
transformer can be made smaller than that for the flyback.
The output current is reasonably constant due to the action of the output
inductor and the free wheeling diode D2. As a result, the output filter capacitor can be made
smaller and its ripple current rating can be much lower than that required for the flyback.
Varying the duty cycle K can control the output voltage of a converter. There
are commercially available PWM(pulse width modulation) integrated circuit(IC) controllers that
have all the futures to built a PWM switching power supply using a minimum number of
components.

CHAPTER 2
FORWARD CONVERTER
FORWARD CONVERTER:
The forward converter is a DC/DC converter that uses transformer windings to
buck or boost the voltage. Forward converter is a switched mode power supply (SMPS) circuit
that is used for producing isolated and controlled dc voltage from the unregulated dc input
supply. A forward converter uses a controllable switch, MOSFET and the switching frequency
is in the range of 100kHz.

Figure 2.1 shows the basic circuit diagram of forward converter

2.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF FORWARD

CONVERTER
The circuit of Fig.2.1 is basically a dc-to-dc buck converter with the addition of
a transformer for output voltage isolation and scaling. When switch S is turned on, input dc
gets applied to the primary winding and simultaneously a scaled voltage appears across the
transformer secondary. Dotted sides of both the windings are now having positive polarity.
Diode D , connected is series with the secondary winding gets forward biased and the scaled
1

input voltage is applied to the low pass filter circuit preceding the load.
The primary winding current enters through its dotted end while the secondary
current comes out of the dotted side and their magnitudes are inversely proportional to their
turns-ratio. Thus, as per the assumption of an ideal transformer, the net magnetizing ampereturns of the transformer is zero and there is no energy stored in the transformer core.
When switch S is turned off, the primary as well as the secondary winding
currents are suddenly brought down to zero. Current through the filter inductor and the load
continues without any abrupt change. Diode D provides the freewheeling path for this
2

current. The required emf to maintain continuity in filter-inductor current and to maintain the
forward bias voltage across D comes from the filter inductor L itself. During freewheeling
2

the filter inductor current will be decaying as it flows against the output voltage (V ), but the
op

presence of relatively large filter capacitor C still maintains the output voltage nearly
constant. The ripple in the output voltage must be within the acceptable limits.
The supply switching frequency is generally kept sufficiently high such that
the next turn-on of the switch takes place before the filter inductor current decays significantly.
Needless to say, that the magnitudes of filter inductor and capacitor are to be chosen
appropriately .For better understanding of the steady-state behavior of the converter, the circuits
operation is divided in two different modes, mode-1 and mode-2. Mode-1 corresponds to the on
duration of the switch and mode-2 corresponds to its off duration.

2.2 MODES OF CIRCUIT OPERATION

2.2.1 Mode 1 Circuit Operation:
Mode-1 of circuit starts after switch S (as shown in Fig.2.2(a)) is turned ON. This
connects the input voltage, E , to the primary winding. Both primary and secondary windings
dc

start conducting simultaneously with the turning on of the switch. The primary and secondary
winding currents and voltages are related to their turns-ratio (N / N ), as in an ideal
P

transformer.Fig.2.2 (a) shows, in bold lines, the current carrying path of the circuit and Fig.2.2(b)
shows the functional equivalent circuit of mode-1. As switch S closes, diode D in the secondary
1

circuit gets forward biased and the input voltage, scaled by the transformer turns ratio, gets applied
to the secondary circuit. Diode D does not conduct during mode-1, as it remains reverse biased.
2

Figure 2.2 shows the mode 1 circuit operation of forward converter

As can be seen, the output circuit consisting of L-C filter and the load gets a
voltage equal to

Ns
Edc during mode-1. This voltage is shown across points P and N in Fig.
Np

2.2(b) and it is the maximum achievable dc voltage across the load, corresponding to = 1. Mode-1
can be called as powering mode during which input power is transferred to the load. Mode-2, to be
called as freewheeling mode, starts with turning off of the switch S.
5

2.2.2 Mode 2 Circuit Operation:

As soon as switch S is turned off, the primary and the secondary winding
currents of the transformer fall to zero. However, the secondary side filter inductor maintains
a continuous current through the freewheeling diode D . Diode D remains off during this
2

mode and isolates the output section of the circuit from the transformer and the input.

Figure 2.3 shows the mode 2 circuit operation of forward converter

Fig. 2.2(a) shows the current carrying portion of the circuit in bold line and Fig.
2.2(b) shows the equivalent circuit active during mode-2. Points P and N of the equivalent
circuit are effectively shorted due to conduction of diode D . The inductor current continues
2

to flow through the parallel combination of the load and the output capacitor.
During mode-2, there is no power flow from source to load but still the load
voltage is maintained nearly constant by the large output capacitor C. The charged capacitor
and the inductor provide continuity in load voltage. However since there is no input power
during mode-2, the stored energy of the filter inductor and capacitor will be slowly dissipating
in the load and hence during this mode the magnitudes of inductor current and the capacitor
voltage will be falling slightly.

In order to keep the load voltage magnitude within required tolerance band, the
converter-switch S is turned on again to end the freewheeling mode and start the next
powering mode (mode-1).
Under steady state, loss in inductor current and capacitor voltage in mode-2 is
exactly made up in mode-1. It may not be difficult to see that to maintain load voltage within
the desired tolerance band the filter inductor and capacitor magnitudes should be sufficiently
large.
The switching frequency of a typical forward converter may thus be in the
range of 100 kHz or more. Control over switch duty ratio, which is the ratio of ON time to (ON
+ OFF) time, provides the control over the output voltage V .
O

CHAPTER 3
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FORWARD CONVERTER
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Figure 3.1 Block diagram of forward converter

3.1 START UP CIRCUIT

Fig 3.2 Start up circuit

The above circuit is the start-up circuit consisting of the resistors R1(10k) & R2(1k),
capacitor C1(10uF) & diode D1(IN4148).
The start-up circuit is used to power up the IC TL494 and also used to set the dead
time control voltage magnitude.The magnitude is in the ratio 1:10. Dead time control is used
to decide the minimum ON time. The time control magnitude is Vg*R2/R1+R2.

3.2 MAXIMUM PULSE WIDTH CIRCUIT

Fig 3.3 Maximum pulse-width circuit

The fig 3.2.1 represents the maximum pulse width circuit consisting of diodes
D2,D3,D4,D5(IN4148) , transistors Q1(2N2222) & Q2(2N2907),resistors R5(1.5k), R6(1k), &
R7(10k).
The Error Amplifier voltage which is subtracted ,if it exceeds 2.7V then the
transistor Q1(2N2222) will get shorted and the transistor Q2(2N2907) will get powered up. The
main operation of the maximum pulse width circuit is to limit the error amplifier output to
2.7V.
10

3.3 POWER CIRCUIT

Fig 3.4 Power Circuit

The power circuit operates in two modes

Mode 1 Operation of Power Circuit: Switch is ON

Fig 3.5 Mode 1 Operation

11

When the switch is ON voltage is developed at the secondary,inductor L gets energized ,

the current iL flows through capacitor and load resistors. Diode D7 is forward biased.

Mode 2 Operation of Power Circuit: Switch OFF

Fig 3.6 Mode 2 Operation

The diode D8 gets forward biased i.e., the inductor Lo gets de-energised through
capacitor and load resistor. Capacitor C is used to minimize ripples. The magnetizing current
which is already stored in transformer is now circulated and the energy is dissipated in the
form of heat, through zener diode.

12

3.4 FEEDBACK CIRCUIT:

Fig 3.7 Feedback Circuit

The fig 3.4.1 represents the feedback circuit consisting of resistor R3(5.6K), R4(1K),
R15(6.8K) & R16(15K), capacitors C7(47nF), C8(22nF), C9(1nF, 50V) & C12(47nF).
The output voltage is divided in the ratio R4:R3 and this voltage is fed to Pin
no.2(inverting pin) of the IC TL494. The feedback circuit consists of the compensator output
parameters, in order to get the stable system response.

13

3.5 CONTROL CIRCUIT

Fig 3.8 Control Circuit

14

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
STARTING POWER SUPPLY:
The starting power supply is obtained from D1(IN4148) and C1(10uF)
OSCILLATOR SECTION:
R8 and C2 determine the switching frequency. The switching frequency is given by
Fs = 1.11/RtCt = 100KHz

MINIMUM PULSE WIDTH

The minimum ON time is decided by the dead time control circuit R1and R2. On a ramp
voltage of 3V, and an internal additional bias voltage of 0.1V, this is selected to be 15%.

REFERENCE VOLTAGE
The internal reference is 5V. The circuit uses a reference voltage of 2.5V through the
potential divider R10 and R11.

BIASING-OUT THE UNUSED AMPLIFIER

The controller has two internal amplifiers a and b. The amplifier outputs are wired such
that the higher of the two outputs will prevail. The amplifier b is not used and hence it is biased
(non inverting pin to ground and inverting pin to 2.5V) such that its output is low.

MAXIMUM PULSE-WIDTH LIMIT

The amplifier output(compensation pin) is compared with the internal ramp to generate
the duty ratio. The amplifier output requires to be clamped below the peak of the ramp in order
that maximum duty ratio is well below 3V, which is the peak of the ramp. For this purpose , the
amplifier output is provided with clamp circuit consisting of Q1, R6, R7, and Q2.
The clamp level is obtained from a biased diode network consisting of D2 ,D3,D4 , D5 and
R6. The clamp level is 4 diode drops including the base emitter drop of Q1.

15

DUTY RATIO
The input voltage is in the range of 10 to 15. The output of the boost converter is designed
for 17V. The range of duty ratio is from 0.56 to 0.37.

MAIN INDUCTOR
The rated current is 0.5A. the ripple current is chosen as 0.05A. With maximum on time
of 0.33us, at input voltage of 15V, this gives an inductor value of 2000uH(approx) with the
turns ratio of 3, the primary is 15 turns and secondary is 45 turns.
The power MOSFET has to carry about 1A and block about 20V. the device chosen is IRFZ44.
The output capacitor C4(220uF) limits the voltage ripple to about 1% (0.17V).
The natural frequency of the converter is
Natural frequency =

1
LC

which is 1507.5 rad/sec. the higher frequency is at higher value.

16

3.6 CONNECTED DIAGRAM OF FORWARD CONVERTER

Fig 3.9 Connected Diagram of Forward Converter

17

3.7 PIN CONFIGURATION OF UC494C

Fig 3.10 Pin Configuration of UC494C

Pin no.1 and 16 are the non inverting input pins and pin no.2 and 15 are the inverting
input pins. The pins 15 and 16 are grounded.

Pin no.4 is the dead time control which is used to decide the minimum ON time.

Pin no.13 which is the output control, is grounded.

Pin no.5 and 6 i.e Rt ,Ct values decides the ramp frequency.

Pin no.3 is the compensation pin. The feedback of the op-amp is fed to the compensation
pin. From this pin, when the error amplified voltage is greater than 2.7V then it is fed to
maximum pulse width circuit.
18

CHAPTER 4
SIMULATION RESULTS
The simulation is done using the MATLAB software.

Introduction to MATLAB
MATLAB is a high level technical computing language and interactive
environment for algorithm development, data visualization, data analysis and numeric
operation using the MATLAB product, for can solve technical computing problems faster than
with programming language, such as C, C++ and FORTRAN.
We use MATLAB in a wide range of application, including signal and image
processing, communications, control design test and measurement, financial moderator and
analysis, and computational biology. Add on tool boxes extend the matlab environment to
solve particular classes of problems in these application area.

19

4.1 SIMULATION CIRCUIT

Fig 4.1 Simulation Circuit

20

Table 4.1 result table showing output voltages for different input values
INPUT VOLTAGE

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

10V

17.04

11V

17.18

12V

17.38

13V

17.64

14V

17.84

15V

17.90

21

INPUT VOLTAGE

Fig 4.2 Input Voltage

GATE VOLTAGE

Fig 4.3 Gate Voltage

22

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Fig 4.4 Output Voltage

OUTPUT CURRENT

Fig 4.5Output Current

23

CHAPTER 5
HARDWARE RESULTS
MOUNTED PCB BOARD

Fig 5.1 MOUNTED PCB BOARD

24

GATE VOLTAGE

Fig 5.2 Gate Voltage

25

SWITCH VOLTAGE:

Fig 5.3 Switch Voltage

26

RAMP VOLTAGE

Fig 5.4 Ramp Voltage

27

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Fig 5.5 Output Voltage

28

BARE PCB BOARD

Fig 5.6 BARE PCB BOARD

29

COMPONENTS USED FOR FORWARD CONVERTER

Fig 5.7 COMPONENTS USED FOR FORWARD CONVERTER

30

CHAPTER 6
6.1 APPLICATIONS OF FORWARD CONVERTER

Low power switch-mode power supplies (cell phone, stand by power supply in PCs).

Low cost multiple output power supplies( e.g. main PC supplies < 250W).

High voltage supply for the CRT in TVs and monitors (the flyback converter is often
combined with horizontal deflection drive).

High voltage generation (e.g. for xenon flash lamps, lasers, etc).

Isolated gate drives.

6.2 LIMITATIONS OF FORWARD CONVERTER

Duty cycle must be kept below maximum (0.5) to avoid the saturation of transformer.

Magnetic current must be reset to zero at the end of each cycle otherwise the transformer
can be driven into saturation which can cause damage to the switching device.

The forward converter output power should be below 200W.

6.3 ADVANTAGES OF FORWARD CONVERTER

Low weight and smaller size come about because operation is at a significantly higher
frequency range and the inductive elements are vastly smaller and much cheaper.

Higher efficiency occurs because the power transistor is swtched very rapidly between
saturation (FULL ON) and cut off (FULL OFF) and there is very little power dissipation
and it follows there are reduced heat sinking requirements.

Reduced costs occur owing to the absence of large bulky power transformers, a huge
reduction in volume and power dissipation, smaller material requirements and also smaller
semiconductordevices
31

CHAPTER 7
FUTURE SCOPE
The simulation is done in the MATLAB by using ideal components without using
the actual IC TL494. But the inbuilt behaviour is implemented to get the appropriate results.
Extensive study can be made by simulating actual IC TL494 to get accurate results.
Extensive study can be made on:

Frequency response of the forward converter can be analysed and design of compensator
can be made to get stable closed loop response.
Though some of the issues have not been solved but they have been highlighted as
potential areas in which more refinements are required.

32

APPENDIX (A)
DATA SHEET OF UC494C
FEATURES

Dual Uncommitted 40V, 200mA

Output Transistors
1% Accurate 5V Reference
Dual Error Amplifiers
Wide Range, Variable Deadtime
Single-ended or Push-pull
Operation
Under-voltage Lockout With
Hysteresis
Double Pulse Protection
Master or Slave Oscillator
Operation
UC495A: Internal 39V Zener Diode
UC495A: Buffered Steering Control

DESCRIPTION

This entire series of PWM modulators each provide a complete pulse width
modulation system in a single monolithic integrated circuit. These devices include
a 5V reference accurate to
both voltage and current sensing, an externally synchronizable oscillator
with its linear ramp generator, and two uncommitted transistor output
switches. These two outputs may be operated either in parallel for singleended
operation or alternating for push-pull applications with an externally
controlled dead-band. These units are internally protected against doublepulsing
of a single output or from extraneous output signals when the input
33

supply voltage is below minimum.

The UC495A contains an on-chip 39V zener diode for high-voltage applications
where VCC would be greater than 40V, and a buffered output steering
control that overrides the internal control of the pulse steering flip-flop.
The UC494A is packaged in a 16-pin DIP, while the UC495A is packaged in
an 18 pin DIP. The UC494A, UC495A are specified for operation over the full
military temperature range of -55C to +125C, while the UC494AC,
UC495AC are designed for industrial applications from 0C to +70C.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

34

ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS (Note 1, 2, 3)

Supply Voltage, VCC (Note 2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45V
Amplifier Input Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VCC + 0.3V
Collector Output Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41V
Collector Output Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250mA
Continuous Total Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000mW
@ (or below) 25C free air temperature range (Note 3)
Storage Temperature Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -65 to +150C
Lead Temperature 1/16" (1.6mm) from case for 60 seconds,
J Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300C
Lead Temperature 1/16" (1.6mm) from case for 10 seconds,
N Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260C
Note 1: Over operating free air temperature range unless
otherwise noted.
Note 2: All voltage values are with respect to network
ground terminal 3.
Note 3: Consult Packaging Section of Databook regarding
thermal specifications and limitations of packages.

RECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITIONS

Supply Voltage VCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7V to 40V
Error Amplifier Input Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.3V to VCC-2V
Collector Output Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40V
Collector Output Current (each transistor) . . . . . . . . . . . 200mA
Current into Feedback Terminal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3mA
Timing Capacitor, CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.47nF to 10,000nF
Timing Resistor, RT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8kto 500k
Oscillator Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1kHz to 300kHz
35

Operating Free Air Temperature

UC494A, UC495A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -55C to +125C
UC494AC, UC495AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0C to +70C

CONNECTION DIAGRAMS

36

37

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Unless otherwise stated, over recommended operating free-air temperature range,
VCC = 15V, f = 10kHz, TA = TJ.

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Unless otherwise stated, over recommended operating free-air temperature range,
VCC = 15V, f = 10kHz, TA = TJ
38

39

Note 1: Duration of the short circuit should not exceed one second.
Note 2: Frequency for other values of CT and RT is approximately f
1.1
RTCT
Note 3: Standard deviation is a measure of the statistical distribution about the mean
as derived from the formula:
n
Xn X2
n 1
n
.

40

41

42

IMPORTANT NOTICE
Texas Instruments and its subsidiaries (TI) reserve the right to make changes to their products
or to discontinue
any product or service without notice, and advise customers to obtain the latest version of
relevant information
to verify, before placing orders, that information being relied on is current and complete. All
products are sold
subject to the terms and conditions of sale supplied at the time of order acknowledgement,
including those
pertaining to warranty, patent infringement, and limitation of liability.
TI warrants performance of its semiconductor products to the specifications applicable at the
time of sale in
accordance with TIs standard warranty. Testing and other quality control techniques are
utilized to the extent
43

TI deems necessary to support this warranty. Specific testing of all parameters of each device is
not necessarily
performed, except those mandated by government requirements.
CERTAIN APPLICATIONS USING SEMICONDUCTOR PRODUCTS MAY INVOLVE
POTENTIAL RISKS OF
DEATH, PERSONAL INJURY, OR SEVERE PROPERTY OR ENVIRONMENTAL
DAMAGE (CRITICAL
APPLICATIONS). TI SEMICONDUCTOR PRODUCTS ARE NOT DESIGNED,
AUTHORIZED, OR
WARRANTED TO BE SUITABLE FOR USE IN LIFE-SUPPORT DEVICES OR SYSTEMS
OR OTHER
CRITICAL APPLICATIONS. INCLUSION OF TI PRODUCTS IN SUCH APPLICATIONS
IS UNDERSTOOD TO
BE FULLY AT THE CUSTOMERS RISK.
In order to minimize risks associated with the customers applications, adequate design and
operating
safeguards must be provided by the customer to minimize inherent or procedural hazards.
TI assumes no liability for applications assistance or customer product design. TI does not
warrant or represent
that any license, either express or implied, is granted under any patent right, copyright, mask
work right, or other
intellectual property right of TI covering or relating to any combination, machine, or process in
which such
semiconductor products or services might be or are used. TIs publication of information
regarding any third
partys products or services does not constitute TIs approval, warranty or endorsement thereof.

44

APPENDIX (B)
DATA SHEET OF IRFZ44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

56

54

REFERENCES
[1] Rashid, Power Electronics Handbook, 2001 Edition.
[2] Wikipedia : www.wikipedia.com
[3] www.onsemi.com
[4] www.datasheetarchive.com
[5] www.national.com/powerdesigner

55