API-653

BODY OF KNOWLEDGE FOR API-653

Aboveground Storage Tank Inspection Certification Examination
January replaces August 1998.
IReference:
API-575 Inspection of Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
API- 650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage
API-651 Cathodic Protection of Aboveground Petroleum Storage Tanks
API-653 Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction
API-2015 Cleaning Petroleum Storage Tanks
API-2207 Preparing Tank Bottoms for Hot Work.
ASME Publications:
ASME Section V Nondestructive Examination
ASME Section IX Welding and Brazing Qualifications
1.

CORROSION RATES AND INSPECTION INTERVALS (API-575, Paragraph 7.6)

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Metal Loss (including corrosion averaging-API-653, Section 2)

Corrosion Rates (see below)
Remaining Life (see below)
Remaining Corrosion Allowance (API-653, Section 4)
Inspection Interval (API-653, Section 4)

Remaining Life (years) = t actual - t minimum

Corrosion rate
[Inches (millimeters per year]
Where:
t actual = the thickness, in inches (millimeters) recorded at the time of inspection for a given location or
component.
t minimum = minimum allowable thickness, in inches (millimeters), for a given location or component.
t previous = the thickness, in inches (millimeters), recorded at the same location as t actual measured
during previous inspection.
Corrosion Rate =

t previous - t actual
Years between t actual - t previous

t previous = the thickness, in inches (millimeters) recorded a the same locations as t actual measured
during a previous inspection.
2- JOINT EFFICIENCIES
a)
b)
c)

Joint Type (API-653 Section 2, Table 2-1)

Type and Extent of radiography performed (API-653, Table 2-1), Section 10; API-650, Section
6.1, Figure 6-1)
Joint efficiency by reading API-653, Table 2-1

Determining joint efficiency may be part of a minimum thickness or maximum fill height problem since
joint efficiency, E, is used in the formula for determining required thickness (API-653, 2.3.3.1)
3MAXIMUM FILL HEIGHT (HYDROSTATIC TESTING)
a)

Calculate the minimum allowance thickness per Section 2 of API 653 or the maximum fill height per

H= S x E x t min
2.6 x D x G
4a)

WELD SIZES FOR SHELL & ROOF OPENINGS

API-650, Figures 3-4A, 3-4, 3-5, 3-9, 3-11, 3-13, 3-14, 3-16, 3-17

b)
c)

API-650, Tables 3-7, 3-9

API-653, Figures 7-2A, 7-3

5a)

HOT TAPPING
Hot tapping (API-653, Paragraph 7.14)
The requirements given herein cover the installation of radial hot tap connecting on existing inservice tanks constructed with shell material that does not required postweld heat treatment.
a) for tank shell plates of recognized toughness, shell plates of unknown toughness having a
maximum thickness less than or equal to inch, or shell plates of unknown toughness
having a minimum shell design metal temperature at or above the curve given in Fig. 3-2,
the connection size and shell thickness limitations are shown in Table 7-1
Table 7-1 Hot Tap Connection Sizes and
Shell Plate Thickness
Connection Sizes, NPS
Minimum Shell Plate Thickness
(inches)
(inches)
< 6
3/16
< 8

< 14
3/8
< 18

Recognized toughness is defined as meeting or exceeding the toughness requirements of API 650,
Sixth Edition, Appendix D or G, API 650, Seventh Edition, or later, or other industry accepted
toughness requirements.
b) For thank shell plates of unknown toughness with the thickness greater than inch and
having minimum design metal temperature below the curve given in Fig. 3-2 the following
limitations apply.
1) Nozzles shall be limited to a maximum diameter of 4 inches NPS.
2) The shell plate temperature shall be at or above the minimum shell design metal temperature
for the entire hot tapping operation.
3) All nozzles shall be reinforced. The reinforcement shall be calculated per API 650, 3.7.2.
The minimum Thickness of the reinforcement plate shall be equal to the shell plate
thickness, and the minimum reinforcement plate diameter shall not be less than the diameter
of the shell cutout plus 2 inches.
4) The maximum height of tank liquid above the hot tap location during the hot tapping
operation shall be such the hydrostatic tank shell stress is less than 7,000 pounds per square
inch at the elevation of the hot tap.

b)

Calculate minimum spacing between an existing nozzle and a new hot tap nozzle. (API-653,
Paragraph 7.14.3)
7.14.3 Preparatory Work
7.14.3.1 Minimum spacing in any direction (toe-to-toe of welds) between the hot tap and adjacent
nozzles shall be equivalent tot he square root of RT where R is the tank shell radius, in inches,
and T is the shell plate thickness, in inches
7.14.3.2 Shell plate thickness measurements shall be taken at a minimum of four places along the
circumference of the proposed nozzle location.

6a)

SETTLEMENT EVALUATION
Edge Settlement (API-653, Appendix B.2.3)
B.2.3.1 Edge settlement occurs when the tank shell settles sharply around the periphery, resulting
in deformation of the bottom plate near the shell-to-bottom corner junction. Fig. B-5 Illustrate
this settlement.
B.2.3.2 The formula given in B.3.3 can be used to evaluate this criteria. Alternatively, a rigorous
stress analysis can be carried out for the deformed profile. Measure the edge settlement carefully.

b)

Bottom Settlement Near the Tank Shell (API-653, Appendix B.2.4, Figures B-6, B-10, B-11,
B-12)
B.2.4.1 Fig. B-7 illustrate this type of settlement.
B.2.4.2. The formula given in B.3.3 can be used to evaluate this criteria. Alternatively, a rigorous
stress analysis can be carried out for the deformed profile.
Read all notes on the figures

c)

Localized Bottom Settlement Remote from the Thank Shell (API-653, B.2.5)
B.2.5.1 There are depressions (or bulges) that occur in a random manner, remote from the shell
(see fig. B-8)
B.2.5.2 Acceptability of these localized settlements is dependent upon localized stresses in the
bottom plate, design and quality of the lap welds (single pass or multipass), and voids below the
bottom plate. The formula given in B.3.3 can be used to evaluate this criteria. This limit are
applicable to bottoms which have single pass lap-welded joints.

7a)

NUMBER OF SETTLEMENT POINTS

To calculate the number of survey points for determining tank settlement (API-653 10.5.1.2,
Appendix B, Figure B-1, Figure B-2)
10.5.1.2 Tank settlement shall initially be surveyed with the tank empty using the number of
bottom plate projection elevation measurement points, N, uniformly distributed around the
circumference, as indicated by the following formula:
N = D/10
Where:
N = minimum required number of settlement measurement points, but no less that eight. All
fractional values shall be round to the next higher whole number. The maximum spacing between
settlement measurement point shall be 32 feet.
D = Tank diameter in feet.

8-

IMPACT TESTING

a)

Tank design metal temperature (API-650, 2.2.9.3 & Figure 2-2)\

2.2.9.3. Unless experience or special local conditions justify another assumption, the design
metal temperatures shall be assumed to be 8 C (15 F) above the lowest one-day means ambient
temperature of the locality where the tank is to be installed. Isothermal lines of lowest one-day
means temperatures are shown in Fig. 2.2. The temperature are not related to refrigerated-tank
temperatures (see 1.1.1).

b)

Material Group Number for a Plate (API-650, Table 2-3)

Study table

c)

If impact testing required (API-650, Figure 2-1)

Minimum Permissible Design Metal Temperature for materials Used in Tank Shells without
Impact Testing. Study table

d)

If impact test values are acceptable (API-650, Table 2-4)

Minimum Impact Test Requirements for Plates (see Note)

Study table
9a)

EXISTING TANK SHELL-MINIMUM THICKNESS

Calculate S allowable stress (API-6653, 2.3.3.1 & 2.3.4.1)
2.3.3.1 The minimum acceptable shell plate thickness for tanks with diameters equal or less than
200 feet shall be calculated as follow:
t min = 2.6 DHG + CA (verify the CA)
SE
Where t min = The minimum acceptable thickness, in inches for each course as calculated from
the above formula; however, t min shall not be less than 0.1 inch for any tank course.
D = Nominal diameter of tank, in feet.
H, Ht =Height, in feet from the bottom of the length L.
Study this chapter very careful

b)

Determine E joint efficiency (API-653-2.3.3.1 & 2.3.4.1. & Table 2-1, & 2-2)
2.3.3.1
E = original joint efficiency for the tank. Use table 2-1 if original E is unknown. E = 1.0 when
evaluating the retirement thickness in a corroded plate, when away from welds or joints by at
least the greater of one inch or twice the plate thickness.

c)

Calculate H liquid height (API-653, 2.3.3.1 & 2.3.4.1)

Ht = St E tmin
2.6 D
Where St = Maximum allowable hydrostatic test stress in pounds per square inch; use the smaller
of 0.88Y or 0.472T for bottom and second course; use the smaller of 0.9Y or 0.519T for all other
course.
Read foot notes on this page.

d)

Calculate t min minimum acceptance thickness (API-653, 2.3.3.1 & 2.3.4.1)

2.3.3.1
t min = 2.6 DHG + CA (verify the CA)
SE
2.3.4.1 The minimum acceptable thickness for riveted tank shells shall be calculated using the
formula of 2.3.3.1 except that the following allowable stress criteria and joint efficiencies shall be
used:
S = 21.000 pound per square inch.
E = 1.0 for shell plate 6 inches or more away from the rivets. See table 2.2 for joint efficiencies
locations within 6 inches or rivets.

e)

Calculate the thickness required for continue services (API-653, 2.3.3.1 & 2.3.4.1)
See information above.
Note: required thickness = t min + 2 (CR x Interval), CR = Corrosion rate
2.3.3.1 the criteria for continue operation is:
a) The value t1 (see 2.3.2.1.c) shall be greater than or equal to t min (see above). Subject to
verification of all other loading listed below; and
b) The value t2 (see 2.3.2.1.b) shall be greater than or equal to 60 percent of t min. Any corrosion
allowance for the services until the time of the next tank inspection shall be added to the two
required thicknesses (tmin and 0.60 tmin) in a. and b. above.

10-

RECONSTRUCTED TANK SHELL- MINIMUM THICKNESS

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Determine Sd, allowable stress for design condition (API-650, table 3-2, API-653, 6.4.2)
Determine St allowable stress for hydrostatic test condition (API-653, 2.3.2.1.b & Figure
2-1)
Determine t1, average thickness for a corroded area (API-653, 2.3.2.1.c, 2.3.2.1.d, Figure
2-1)
Determine t min for the corroded area H, height and E, joint efficiency will be based
on corroded area (API_653, 2.3.3.1)
Determine if t1 and t2 are acceptable (API-653, 2.3.3.1.a & .b)

Note: t1 > t min = 2) CR x Interval) CR = Corrosion Rate (see API-653, 2.3.3.1, last paragraph)
11-

TANK SHELL CORRODED AREA

a)

Select t2, minimum thickness exclusive of pits for a corroded area (API-653, 2.3.2.1.a &
Figure 2-1)
Calculate L , critical length for a corroded area (API-653, 2.3.2.1.b & Figure 2-1)
Determine t1, average thickness for a corroded area (API-653, 2.3.2.1.c, 2.3.2.1.d & figure
2-1)
Determine t min for the corroded area H, height and E, joint efficiency will be base
on corroded areas (API-653, 2.3.3.1)
Determine if t1 and t2 are acceptable (API-653, 2.3.3.1.a & b)

b)
c)
d)
e)

Note: t1 > t min + 2 (CR x Interval) CR = Corrosion Rate (See API-653, 2.3.3.1, last paragraph)
12-

TANK SHELL- PITTING

a)
b)

Calculate maximum acceptance pit depth (API-653, 2.3.2.2.a)

Determine the maximum length of pits in any 8 vertical length (API-653, 2.3.2.2.b &
Figure 2-2)

13-

BOTTOM PLATE MINIMUM THICKNESS

Be able to determine if the bottom thickness is acceptable for continued service.
Calculate MRT1 & MRT2, minimum remaining thickness at the next inspection (API653, 2.4.7.1)
Calculate O, maximum period of operation. (API-653, 2.4.7.1)
Formulas:

Or = (To Gca StPa - Upm MRT1) / (StPr + Upr + GCr)

Or = (To Gca StPm Upa MRT2) / (StPr + Upr +GCr)

14a)

REPLACEMENT PLATES
Determine the minimum dimensions for a replacement plate. (API-653, Figure 7-1)

15-

LAP WELDED PATCH PLATES

a)
b)
c)

Minimum thickness
The minimum weld size
The allowable size of the patch plate

B-

Calculations Not to be expected

II.

WELDING ON ATMOSPHERIC ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANKS

ASME Section IX- Welding and Brazing Qualifications

A) The inspector should have the knowledge and skill required to review a Procedure Qualification
Record and a Welding Procedure Specification or to answer requiring the same level of knowledge
and skill. Questions covering the specific rules of Section IX will be limited in complexity and scope
to the SMAW and SAW welding processes.
1)

Questinos will be based on:

a) No more that one process
b) Filler metals limited to one
c) Essential, no-essential, variables only will be covered
d) Number, Type, and Results of mechanical tests
e) Base metal limited to P1
f) Additional essential variables required by AIP-650 or API- 653

2)

The followings are specifically excluded:

B)

The inspector should know that the WPS must reference tha applicable PQR an that the
PQR must be signed and dated.

C)

API-650 and API-653: General welding requirements:

1) API-650 Welding Steel Tanks for Oil Storage:

Understand the rules for welding in API-650, Section 7 and other rules for welding in API-650 such
as those for:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

typical joint and definitions

weld sizes
restrictions on joints
maximum allowable reinforcement
inspection requirements
2) API-653 Tank Inspection, Repairs, Alteration, and Reconstruction: Understand the
general rules for welding in API-653, Section 9.

III.

NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

ASME Section V. Nondestructive Examination

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Article-1
Article-2
Article-5
Article-6
Article-7
API-653

General requirements
Radiography
UT
Liquid Penetrant
Magnetic Particle Testing
General nondestructive examination requirements:

1)

API-650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage

Understand the general rules for NDE I API-650, Section 6.

2)

API-653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction: Understand the genral
rules for NDE in API-653, Section 10

IV.

PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE- GENERAL

A)

The following topics may be covered:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
16)

Organization and Certification Requirements

Types and Definitions of Inspections
Types Corrosion and Determination
Materials and Fabrications Problems
Welding
Nondestructive Examination (NDE) Methods
Corrosion and Minimum Thickness Evaluation
Estimated Remaining Life
Inspection Interval Determination and Issues Affecting Intervals
Inspection Relief Devices
Inspection Safety Practices
Inspection Records and Reports
Repairs and Alterations
Disassembly and Reconstruction
Hydro Testing
Pneumatic Testing

B)

Code requirements not to be expected to know for this certifications

V.

PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE- SPECIFIC

A)

API-575, Inspection of Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

Its the best to or an inspector would normally, when information or statements from
RP-575 are covered. Give the Best answer.

A)

Information contained in RP-575 related to:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

types of tanks covered

procedures to perform external and internal inspection
the types of external and internal inspection
procedures to determine suitability for continued service
evaluation change-of-services on suitability for continued services
evaluation and general condition of:
a) distortion, flaws, windgirders, stiffeners, welds, and nozzles
b) tank bottoms
c) tank foundations
d) causes of corrosion, leaks, cracks, and mechanical deterioration
e) auxiliary equipment
f) anchor bolts, pipe connections, ground connections
g) insulation
h) shell and roofs

API-653, Tank Inspection, Repairs, Alteration, and Reconstruction and the related portions of API650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage
(all is API-653 is applicable to the examination unless specifically excluded)
A)

Tank Inspection, NDE, and Testing

1) Understand API-653 general practices:

a) Types of tanks covered
b) Applicable inspection tasks for internal and external inspection (e.g. API- Standard
653, Appendix C, checklist for Tank Inspection)
c) Safe working practices
d) Thickness and dimensional measurements and tolerances
e) Requirements of the three types of external inspections and an internal inspection
f) Frequencies and intervals for external and internal inspection
g) Alternative to the required internal inspection intervals
h) NDE procedure and NDE personnel qualification requirements
i) Types of roots and seals and types of deterioration
j) Reason for inspection and causes of deterioration of storage tanks
k) Procedures to check or test storage tanks for leaks
l) Tools and equipment for tank inspection
m) Failure assessment and deterioration of auxiliary equipment
n) Suitability for continued services
o) Change-of-service effects on suitable for continued service
p) Evaluation of tank bottom condition
q) Evaluation tank foundation condition
r) Risk failure due to brittle fracture
s) Evaluate the cause of corrosion, leaks, cracks, and mechanical deterioration
t) Evaluate the condition of anchor bolts, pipe connections, ground connections, and
insulation

2) CALCULATIONS FOR EVALUATING THICKNESS MEASUREMENT AND TANK

INTEGRITY.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)

actual and minimum required thickness for shell plates

maximum allowable fill height
required thickness for hydrotesting and for evaluated temperatures
evaluation of corroded areas and pits on shell plates
t min, corrosion rate, inspection interval and remaining corrosion allowance
distortion, flaws, windgirders, stiffeners, welds, and nozzles
minimum thickness for tank bottom and annual plate ring and shell rings
evaluate the effects of tank bottom settlement and acceptable limits
evaluate the condition of tank shells and roofs
weld size at roof-to-shell and bottom-to-shell junction per design requirements

3) REQUIREMENTS FOR PERFORMING REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS SUCH AS:

a) definition of repairs and alterations
b) repairs of foundations, shell plates, welds, tank bottoms, nozzles & penetrations, roofs,
seal,
c) knowledge of the repairs/alteration material and toughness requirements
d) use of unidentified materials for repairs/alterations
e) hot tap requirements and procedures
f) inspection and NDE requirements for repairs and alterations
g) hydrostatic and leak testing requirements
h) lap welded patch plates (API-653, 7-3)
i) new bottom supported by grillage API-650, Appendix 1, Excluding calculation)

4) UNDERSTANDING OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR RECORDING THE

INSPECTION DATA AND RECORDS RELATED TO INSPECTION, REPAIRS, AND
ALTERATIONS SUCH AS:
a) name plate requirements
b) record-keeping requirements
c) reports for inspection, repairs, and alterations

API- 651
Cathodic Protection of Aboveground Petroleum Storage Tanks
Note: only sections 1,2,3,4,5,6,8 and 11 will be covered on the examination
Special note:
Foreword:
Scope:
The purpose of this recommended practice is to present procedures and practices for achieving
effective corrosion control on aboveground storage tank bottom through the use of cathodic
protection.
API-650
DEFINITIONS
3.1 Aboveground storage tank: A stationary container, of grater than 500 barrel capacity usually
cylindrical in shape, consisting of a metallic roof, shell, bottom, and support structure where
more than 90% of the tank volume is above surface grade.
3.2 Anode: The electrode of an electrochemical cell at which oxidation (corrosion) occurs,
Antonym: cathode.
3.3 Backfill: Material placed in a hole to fill the space around anodes, vent pipes, and buried
components of a cathodic protection system. Anodes can be prepackaged with backfill material
for ease of installation.
3.4 Breakout Piping: All piping associated with the transfer of product in and out of storage
tanks.
3.5 Cathode: The electrode of an electrochemical cell at which a reduction reaction occurs.
Antonym: anode.
3.6 Cathodic Protection: A technique to reduce corrosion of a metal surface by making the
entire surface the cathode of an electrochemical cell.
3.7 Coke Breeze: A carbonaceous backfill material.
3.8 Continuity Bond: A metallic connection that provides electrical continuity.
3.9 Corrosion: The deterioration of a material, usually a metal that results from a reaction with
its environment.
3.10 Current Density: The current per unit area flowing to or from a metallic surface.
3.11 Current requirement test: Creates direct current flow from a temporary ground to the
structure to be protected to determine the amount of current necessary to protect the structure.
3.12 Deep Grounded: One or more anodes installed vertically at a nominal depth of 15 m (50 ft)
or more below the earths surface in a single drilled hole for the purpose of supplying cathodic
protection.
3.13 Differential Aeration Cell: An electrochemical cell the electromotive force of which is due
to a different in air (oxygen) concentration at one electrode as compared with that at another
electrode if the same material.
3.14 Electrical Isolation: The condition of being electrically separated from other metallic
structures or the environment.

3.15 Electrical Isolation Cell: An electrical circuit where electrical current flows from certain
areas of a metal to other areas through a solution capable of conducting electricity (electrolyte)
3.16 Electrochemical Cell: An electrochemical system consisting of an anode and a cathode
immersed in an electrolyte so as to create an electrical circuit. The anode and cathode may be
separate metals of dissimilar areas on the same metal. The cell includes the external circuit,
which permits the flow of electrons from the anode toward the cathode.
3.17 Electro Potential: The potential of an electrode as measured against a reference electrode.
(The electrode potential does not include any resistance losses in potential in either the electrolyte
or the external circuit. It represents the reversible work required to move a unit charge from the
electrode surface through the electrolyte to the reference electrode).
3.18 Electrolyte: A chemical substance containing ions that migrate in an electric field. For the
purpose of this recommended practice, electrolyte refers to the soil or liquid adjacent to and in
contact with the bottom of an aboveground petroleum storage tank, including the moisture and
other chemicals contained therein.
3.19 Environmental Cracking: The brittle fracture of a normally ductile material in which the
corrosive effects of the environment is a causative factor.
3.20 External Circuit: consist of the wires, connectors, measuring devices, current sources, etc.,
that are use to bring about or measure the desired electrical condition within an electrochemical
cell. It is this portion of the cell through which electrons travel.
3.21 Foreign Structure: Any metallic structure that is not intended as a part of a system under
cathodic protection.
3.22 Galvanic Anode: A metal that, because of it relative position in the galvanic series, provides
sacrificial protection to another metal that is more noble, when electrically coupled in an
electrolyte. These anodes are the source of current in one type of cathodic protection.
3.23 Galvanic Series: A list of metals and alloys arranged according to their relative potentials
in a given environment.
3.24 Ground-bed: Consist in one or more anodes installed below the earths surface for the
purpose of supplying cathodic protection.
3.25 Holiday: A discontinuity in a protecting coating that exposes unprotected surface to the
environment.
3.26 Impresses Current: An electric current supplied by a device employing a power source that
is external to the electrode system. (An example is direct current for cathodic protection).
3.27 Insulating Coating System: All components of the protective coating, the sum of which
provides effective electrical insulation of the coated structure.
3.28 Interference Bond: a metallic connection designed to control electrical current interchange
between metallic systems.
3.29 IR Drop: The voltage generated across a resistance by an electrical current in accordance
with Ohms Law: E = 1 x R. For the purpose of this recommended practice, the most significant
IR drop is the portion of a structure-to-soil potential caused by a high resistance electrolyte
between the structure and the reference electrode or by current flow from the anodes to the tank
bottom.
3.30 Isolation: Electrical isolation
3.31 Liner: A system or device, such as a membrane, installed beneath a storage tank, in or on
the tank dike, to contain and/or separate two different environments.
3.32 Membrane: A thin, continuous sheet of nonconductive synthetic material used to contain
and /or separate two different environments.
3.33 Oxidation: The loss of electrons by a constituent of a chemical reaction.
3.34 Polarization: the change from the open-circuit potential of an electrode resulting from the
passage of current. (In this recommended practice, it is considered to be the change of potential
of a metal surface resulting from the passage of current directly to or from an electrode).
3.35 Rectifier: A device for converting alternating current to direct current. Usually include a
step-down AC transformer, a silicon or selenium stack (rectifying element), meter, and other
accessories when used for cathodic protection purposes.
3.36 Reduction: The gain of electrons by a constituent of a chemical reaction.
3.37 Reference Electrode: An electrode whose open-circuit potential is constant under similar
conditions of measurement.
3.38 Resistor: A device within an electrical circuit to control current flow.

10

3.39 Sacrificial Anode: Another anode name commonly used for a galvanic anode.
3.40 Sacrificial Protection: The reduction or prevention of corrosion of a metal, in an electrolyte
by galvanically coupling it to a more anodic metal.
3.41 Secondary Containment: A device or system used to control the accidental escape of a
stored product so it may be properly recovered or removed from the environment. For the purpose
of this recommended practice, secondary containment refers to an impermeable membrane.
3.42 Shallow Anode Groundbed: A group of cathodic protection anodes installed individually,
spaced uniformly and typically buried less that 20 feet below grades.
3.43 Shunt: A conductor of a known electrical resistance through which current flow may be
determined by measurement of the voltage across the conductor.
3.44 Stationary: Something that is permanently installed on the ground or on a foundation.
3.45 Stray Current: Current flowing through paths other than the intended circuit.
3.46 Stray Current Corrosion: Corrosion resulting from direct current flow through paths other
than the intended circuit.
3.47 Stress Corrosion Cracking: The fracture of a metal by the combined action of corrosion
and tensile stress. The fracture occurs under a tensile stress that may be well below the tensile
strength or even the yield strength of the material.
3.48 Structure-to-Electrolyte Voltage: (also structure-to-soil potential or pipe-to-soil potential):
the difference between a metallic structure and the electrolyte which is measured with a reference
electrode in contact with the electrolyte.
3.49 Structure-to-Structure Voltage: (also structure-to-structure potential): The difference in
voltage between metallic structures in a common electrolyte.
3.50 Tank Cushion: The material immediately adjacent to the exterior steel bottom of a
aboveground storage tank.
3.51 Tank Pad: Another name for a tank cushion.
3.52 Test Lead: An electrically conductive cable attached to a structure and leading to a
convenient location. It is used for the measurement of structure-to-electrolyte potential and other
measurements.
3.53 Test Station: A small enclosed box-like housing and usual termination point of one or more
test leads.
3.54 Voltage: An electromotive force, or a difference in electrode potentials expressed in volts.
Also known as a potential.
3.55 Water Bottom: A water layer on the bottom of a tank caused by separation of water and
product due to differences in solubility and specific gravity.
A)

PRACTICAL UNDERSTANDING AND FAMILIAR WITH THE INFORMATION

CONTAINED IN RP-651 RELATED TO:
4. Corrosion of Aboveground Steel Storage Tanks
4.1.1. Corrosion may be defined as the deterioration of a metal that results from a reaction
with its environment. Corrosion of steel structures is an electrochemical process. For the
corrosion process to occur, areas with different electrical potentials must exist on the
metal surface. These areas must be electrically connected and in contact with an
electrolyte.
These are four components in each corrosion cell: an anode, a cathode, a metallic path
connecting the anode and the cathode, and an electrolyte (see fig. 1) the role of each
component in the corrosion process is as follow:
At the anode, the base metal goes into solution (corrodes) by releasing electrons and
a)
forming positive metal ions. For steel the anodic reaction is FeFe2 + 2e-.
At the cathode, chemical reactions take place using electrons released at the anode. No
b)
corrosion takes place at the cathode. One common cathodic reaction is O + 2H20 +
4e4OHThe metallic path provides a way for electrons released at the anode to flow to the
c)
cathode.
The electrolyte contains ions and conducts positive current from the anode to the
d)
cathode by ionic movement. The electrolyte contains both negatively charged ions called
anions and positively charged ions called cautions that are attracted to the anode and
cathode, respectively. Moist soil is the most common electrolyte for external surfaces of

11

4.1.2

the tank bottom, while water and sludge generally are the electrolytes for the internal
surfaces.
There are many forms of corrosion. The two most common types relative to tank bottoms
are general and pitting corrosion. In general corrosion, thousand of microscopic
corrosion cells occur on an area of the metal surface resulting in relatively uniforms
metal loss. In pitting corrosion, the individual corrosion cells are larger and distinct
anode and cathode areas can be identified. Metal loss in this case may be concentrated
within relatively small areas with substantial areas of the surface unaffected by
corrosion.

Determination of need for Cathodic Protections

V.1

Introduction
The need for cathodic protection must be determined for all storage facilities.
This section discusses parameter that must be considered when determining whether a
steel aboveground storage tank bottom required cathodic protection. If it is determined
that corrosion will occur, adequate corrosion control procedure should be adopted to
ensure metal integrity for safe and economical operation over the services life of the
tank. The location of a facility or the presence of a leak detection system alone should
not be used to determine the need for the cathodic protection. The decision governing
the need for cathodic protection should be based on data from corrosion surveys;
operating records; prior test results with similar tank systems in similar
environments; national, state, and local code requirements, and the
recommendation made within this document.

5.1.1

New Aboveground Storage Tanks.

Corrosion control by cathodic protection for new aboveground storage tank should be
provided in the initial design and should be maintained during the service life of the
system, unless detailed investigation indicate that cathodic protection is not required.

5.1.2

Existing Aboveground Storage Tanks.

Studies should be made within a suitable time frame in accordance with API
Standard 653 concerning the possible need for cathodic protection. When these
studies indicate that the corrosion will affect the safe or economic operation of the
system, adequate control measures should be used.

5.1.3

Internal Cathodic Protection

Pure hydrocarbon fluids are usually not corrosive and do not require corrosion control
for internal surfaces. However, based upon experience, internal corrosion may occur in
aboveground storage tanks that have internal surfaces exposed to water, sediments, or
other contaminants. Generally, coatings are used to reduce or eliminate corrosion on
internal surfaces. For tanks in petroleum service, internal cathodic protection in
conjunction with coating has not gained widespread use, but under certain conditions it
can be effective in protecting against corrosion at holidays in the coating. For more
detailed information on internal cathodic protection, see NACE RP0575 and RP0388.

5.1.4

Limitations of External Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection is an effective means of corrosion control only if it is possible to
pass electrical current between the anode and cathode (tank bottom). Many factors
can either reduce or eliminate the flow of electrical current and, therefore, may limit the
effectiveness of cathodic protection in some cases or preclude its use in other. Such
factors include:
a) Foundations such as concrete, asphalt, or oiled sand.
b) An impervious lining between the tank bottom and anodes such as in secondary
containment systems.
c) High resistance soils or rock foundations.
d) Old storage tank bottoms left in place when bottom is installed.

12

These and other related factors are discussed in more details in 5.3 and 5.4. It should be
recognized that external cathodic protection has no effect on internal corrosion.
5.2

Tank History

5.2.1

Prior to determining the need for cathodic protection a full evaluation of tank
history is advised. The following items should be investigated and determined

5.2.1.1. Tank Design/Construction History

The following items should be investigated and determined in the evaluation of tank
design/construction history:
a) Foundation design.
b) Site plan, including tank farm layout.
c) Construction dates.
d) Soil properties and resistivity.
e) Water table.
f) Presence and type(s) of coating or lining.
g) Previous repairs.
h) Change in soil condition.
i) Secondary containment membrane or impervious lining.
j) Secondary bottom
k) Existing cathodic protection on nearby structure.
l) Maintenance history.
m) Expected life.
n) Rectifier location.
5.2.1.2. Type of Services
The following items should be investigated and determined in the evaluation of types of
services.
a) Type of product stored.
b) Product temperature.
c) Presence and depth of water bottoms.
d) Frequency of fill and discharge.
5.2.1.3 Inspection/Corrosion History
The following items should be investigated and determined in the evaluation of
inspection/corrosion history.
a) Tank inspection per API Standard 653.
b) Corrosion rate records
c) Corrosion problems on nearby tanks.
d) Corrosion problems on tanks of similar constructions.
e) Stray current problems.
f) Design and performance of previous corrosion protection systems, if used.
g) Structure-to-soil potential surveys.
5.2.1.4 Other Factors
The following items should be investigated and determined in the evaluation of other
factors:
a) Neighboring buried metallic structures.
b) Neighboring cathodic protection systems.
5.2.2

If this evaluation indicates that external corrosion is a known or potential concern,

then cathodic protection or other corrosion control measures should be used. If
internal corrosion is known to be the problem, use of a lining should be considered
(refer to API Recommended Practice 652); In certain cases, internal cathodic protection
in conjunction with a lining may be applicable.

13

5.3

Foundation and Soil Conditions

5.3.1

Introduction
Due to a wide variety of surfaces, sub-surface, and climatic conditions, different types of
foundations are constructed for aboveground storage tank. The cushion material under
the tank has a significant effect on external corrosion of the tank bottom and can
influence the effectiveness and applicability of external cathodic protection.
It is very important to ensure that there is not debris such as stick, used welding
rods, rocks, or clay in the cushion material. The cushion material particles should
be fine and uniform. Thanks should be built on an elevated berm to allow adequate
drainage away from the tank bottom, The use of fine particles will provide a more
dense cushion to help reduce the influx and outflow of oxygen from the perimeter of
the tank as it is emptied and filled. If large particle sizes are used, differential
aeration corrosion may result at points where the large particles or debris contact
the steel tank bottom. In this case, cathodic protection will not be effective in
eliminating the pitting. There are a wide variety of cushion materials available, some of
which actually prevent beneficial effects of cathodic protection. Conversely, there are
situations where some of these materials, when properly selected and installed, can be
beneficial in reducing corrosion to the extent that cathodic protection may not be
needed.

5.3.1.2 Soil resistivity provides valuable information about the Corrosivity of the material
used under and around a tank. A general resistivity classification is given in table-1.
There are several techniques for measuring soil resistivity. A common method is
described in ASTM G 57.

Table 1 General Classification of Resistivity

_______________________________________________________________________
Resistivity Range
OHM-CM
Potential Corrosion Activity
_______________________________________________________________________
500
Very Corrosive
___________________________________________________________
500-1,000
Corrosive
1,000-2,000
Moderate Corrosive
2,000-10,000
Mildly Corrosive
>10,000
Progressively Less Corrosive
5.3.1.3

The resistivity of the foundation material may be higher than the existing surrounding
soil. However, corrosive soil beneath the high resistivity foundation material may
contaminate the foundation fill by capillary action. Thus, resistivity of surrounding soil
may be used to determine the probability of corrosion on the tank bottom. The results of
soil resistivity surveys can be used to determine the nee for cathodic protection.
However, other properties of the soil (see 5.3.4) should also be considered.

14

5.3.2
Continuos Concrete Cushion
5.3.2.1 A properly designed concrete tank cushion constructed on a stable, properly
prepared subsoil may be effective in eliminating intrusion of groundwater, soil-side
corrosion, and the need for cathodic protection. Preparation of a stable soil to support
the concrete slab is very important to ensure the continued integrity of the pad. Unstable
soil may induce crack in the slab through which water and contaminants can permeate
to the steel tank bottom and provide a corrosive environment. The portion of the tank
bottom in contact with a concrete ring-wall will probably bot be cathodically protected.
Corrosion protection for this portion of the tank bottom can be enhanced by eliminating
the ingress of water and other corrosive contaminants from the tank periphery.
5.3.2.2 Although corrosion from the soil may be prevented by a concrete pad, there may still be
a collection of moisture between the tank bottom and the pad due to a condensation,
blowing rain or snow, or flooding due to inadequate drainage. Corrosion may occur
due to the moisture accumulation. Cathodic protection is generally not considered
an effective way to combat this corrosion. A free-draining concrete pad or ring-wall
and seal around the periphery of the tank may be effective and eliminating the
accumulation of moisture between the pad and the tank bottom where flooding in the
dike area above the tank bottom not occurs. No-continuos concrete tank foundation
designs (for example, slotted pads) do not restrict the entry of oxygen. In situations
where water may condense on the tank bottom or water is retained above the
concrete pad, accelerated atmospheric corrosion may occur.
5.3.2.3 Due to numerous complex factor that can be affect the corrosion of a tank bottom
underside in the present of concrete, prediction of the propensity in this case is
extremely difficult. Thus, care should be observed with tanks on concrete pads since
cathodic protection most likely will not help reduce any corrosion that might be
occur.
5.3.3

Continuos Asphalt Cushion

5.3.3.1 A cushion of the new asphalt may provide many of the same advantages and
disadvantages as a concrete cushion for reducing corrosion and eliminating the need
for cathodic protection. The importance of proper support to prevent cracks and to
prevent accumulation of water between the cushion and the tank bottom is possibly even
more important for asphalt than for concrete because asphalt is not inherently alkaline
and; therefore, does not have the potential of preventing corrosion in the event of
cracks.
5.3.3.2 Asphalt degrades with the time and can provide a path for water and dissolved chemical
to come into contact with the steel tank bottom, allowing corrosion to occur. Cathodic
protection, if applied, may or may not aid in stopping corrosion when the asphalt
become deteriorated. In fact, deteriorated asphalt may shield cathodic protection
current in a manner similar to a disbonded coating on a pipeline. The condition of the
external of the surface of the tank bottom as well as the asphalt can be determined if
coupons are cut from the tank bottom.
5.3.4

Native Soil Cushion

5.3.4.1. Soil analysis is often a useful test for helping to determine whether the potential
corrosion activity will be high enough to make cathodic protection necessary and
whether cathodic protection will be a practical application to prevent corrosion.
Determination of aggressive ions such as chlorine and sulfates along with measurements
of pH and resistivity are helpful for further corrosion analysis. Table 2 provides a

15

guideline for reviewing soil analysis data. The variety of particle sizes and chemical
differences as discussed in 5.3.1. Should also be considered.
5.3.4.2 Cathodic protection or other corrosion control measures should be considered when soil
analysis data indicates that soil is corrosive.
5.3.5

Clean or Oiled-Sand Cushion

Clean sand is the most common material used as a cushion beneath storage tank
bottoms. The use of clean sand alone normally does not eliminate the need for cathodic
protection since corrosion may occur due to intrusion of water from rain, snow, or
shallow water table. Guidelines for the material analysis of the sand for corrosive
contaminants are discussed in 5.3.4.1. In some cases oil has been added to the sand for
various reasons, including compaction and corrosion control

Constituent
pH
Chlorides
Sulfates

Table 2-------Guidelines for

Reviewing Soil Analysis Data
Corrosive
5.0-6.5
300-1000 PPM
1000- 5000 PPM

Very Corrosive
< 5.0
> 1000 PPM
> 5000 PPM

Experience in the industry is varied as to the effectiveness of oiled sand for corrosion
control. The present of oiled sand beneath tank bottoms ha not been proven as an
effective corrosion control measure and thus does not eliminated the need for
cathodic protection to be less effective because of the higher resistivity of the oiled
sand.
5.3.6

Contaminated Soil Cushion

5.3.6.1. In coastal areas, salt spray on tank surfaces will be washed down the side of the tank
by rain and will flow beneath the tank to contaminate the tank cushion. This also can
occur in areas where fertilizers or chemicals may be in the atmosphere either from
spraying or industrial operations. The tank cushion also can become contaminated by
wicking action that can draw contaminates such as chlorides up from the water
table. Cathodic protection is usually necessary for corrosion prevention in these
situations.
5.3.6.2 If a leak occurs in a tank bottom, the leaking material also can influence corrosion on
the external side. I water leaks from the tank, the environment under the tank may
become corrosive. If product leaks form the tank, it could create corrosion cells that
did not previously exist or adversely affect the effectiveness of the cathodic
protection. A leak may wash part of the foundation material and eliminate the
contact of the tank bottom with the ground in some areas. Cathodic protection will
not be effective in such areas. Additionally, the drainage properties of the foundation
materials may be deteriorated by a leak and allow water and contaminates to remain in
contact with the tank bottom.
5.3.7

Crushed-Limestone or Clam-Shell Cushion

In some parts of the Unites States, the tank cushion consists of a layer of crushed
limestone or clamshells. Such tank cushions without the use of cathodic protection have
produced mixes results. The tank cushion should be fine and uniform, since differential
aeration corrosion cells will cause pitting at contact areas between the large particles and
the metal. The intrusion of water from rain or groundwater makes the environment
under the tank alkaline, which may reduce corrosion> if contaminants are present in the
cushion, or with time infiltrate the cushion, corrosion may accelerate. Thus the use of

16

crushed limestone or clamshells does not clearly eliminate the need for cathodic
protection.
5.4

Other Factor Affecting Cathodic Protection

5.4.1

The contents Tanks the contents of a storage tank can influence corrosion on tank
bottoms. Accelerated corrosion can occur on the external surface of the bottom of
heated tanks due to the elevated temperatures if the area is wet. Storage tanks
containing a hot product may require an increase in current density to achieve
adequate protection on the external surface of the bottom. Conversely, sufficient
heat could dry out a well-drained tank pad, thus increasing its resistivity and
reducing the need for cathodic protection.
However, tank operators should be aware that if water penetrates the previously
dried out tanks pad (such as could be caused by above-average rainfall), the
resistivity of the tank pad can decrease, developing a more corrosive condition. For
this situation, the installation of a cathodic protection system should be considered.

5.4.2

Bottom Replacement
Replacement of tank bottoms is an accepted practice.
Cathodic protection systems can be used to ensure long-term integrity of existing and
replacement bottoms. The methods of installing replacement bottoms, secondary
containment systems, and internal lining must be considered when determining the need
for and the method of installations of a cathodic protection system. These factors related
to both existing and new cathodic protection systems and have a significant impact on
the feasibility and effectiveness of cathodic protection.
The effect of replacement bottoms and secondary contaminant on cathodic protection
system design is discussed in 7.2

5.4.3

Secondary Containment

5.4.3.1 There are a variety of methods available for secondary containment. These include, but
are not limited to:
a) Use of impervious clay in tank dike.
b) Dual bottom tank design.
c) Impervious nonmetallic membrane.
5.4.3.2 The use of secondary containment will reduce the environmental risk in the event of
leak. However, the use of certain secondary containment techniques may preclude the
use of cathodic protection and in some cases may cause accelerated corrosion on the
tank bottom. An example of a double bottom secondary containment system is the
installation of a new steel bottom over an existing steel bottom, which has been repaired.
If water or other electrolyte intrudes into the annulus, a galvanic cell may be formed
which will cause the new steel tank bottom t corrode at an accelerated rate. In order to
apply cathodic protection to a new tank bottom if sand or other substances that are
conductive or that may become wet are used as fill material.
5.4.3.3 If a secondary containment system utilizing an impervious membrane lining is in
place or is installed in a diked area prior to new tank construction, the option of
cathodic protection becomes severely limited. Most cathodic protection systems are
rendered ineffective because the liner acts as a barrier to the flow of electrical current
necessary for protection. Another consequence of secondary containment involves the
use of an impervious liner, which may trap corrosive liquid, resulting in more severe
corrosion of the tank bottom. There are advantages and disadvantages to using
secondary containment on cathodic protection design. Refer to 7.2
5.4.4

Thick-Film Internal Linings

17

Thick-film, laminated, and corrosion- and chemical-resistant linings are installed in

tanks primarily to prevent internal corrosion and are frequently used as an alternative to
replacing the steel bottom.
As long as a corrosive condition exists under the tank, the lining, which is not designed
for structural strength, could fail due to inadequate structural support. The use of a
thick-film laminate or other type of internal lining should not be considered as
sufficient justification to eliminate the nee for external cathodic protection of tank
bottom.
Study the whole chapter for the exam purpose.
6

Method of Cathodic Protection for Corrosion Control

6.1

Cathodic protection is a widely accepted method of corrosion control. Corrosion of

aboveground steel storage tank bottoms may be reduced or eliminated with proper
application of cathodic protection. Cathodic protection is a technique for preventing
corrosion by making the entire surface of the metal to be protected act as the cathode of
an electrochemical cell. There are two systems of cathodic protection:
a) galvanic
b) Impressed Current

6.2

Galvanic System
Galvanic Systems use a metal more active than structure to de protected to supply
the current required to stop corrosion (see table-3 for a partial galvanic series) The
more active metal is called an anode, commonly referred to as a galvanic anode or a
sacrificial anode. The anode is electrically connected to the structure to be protected
and buried in the soil. A galvanic corrosion cell develops and the active metal anode
corrodes (is sacrificed) while the metal structure (cathode) is protected. As the protective
current enters the structure, it prevents the flow of corrosion current from the metal
surface. Current them returns to the galvanic anode through a metallic conductor (see
fig. 5) Metals commonly used as galvanic anodes in soil are Magnesium and Zinc in
either cast or ribbon form. The anodes are usually distributed around the perimeter of
the tank or buried beneath the tank bottom. Galvanic Systems are normally applied
only to small-diameter tank.
Advantages of Galvanic Systems
There are several advantages of galvanic systems
a) No external power supply is required.
b) Installation is relatively easy.
c) Capital investment I low for small-diameter tank.
d) Maintenance coast is minimal.
e) Interference problems (stray currents) are rare.
f) Less frequent monitoring is required.

6.2.2

6.2.3

Disadvantages of Galvanic Systems

There are several disadvantages of galvanic systems
a) Driving potential is limited
b) Current outputs is low
c) Method is limited to use in low-resistivity soil.
d) Method is not practical for protection of large bare structure.

6.3

Impressed Current Systems

6.3.1

General
The second method of applying cathodic protection to an aboveground storage tank
bottoms is to used impressed current from an external source. Impressed current
systems use direct current usually provided by a rectifier attached to an AC power
source. Direct current from the rectifier flows to the buried impressed current

18

anode, 2 from the anode through the soil electrolyte, 3 and onto the tank bottom as
show in fig. 6.
6.3.2

Advantages of Impressed Current Systems

The advantages of impressed current systems includes:
a) Availability of large driving potential
b) High current output capable of protecting large structures
c) Capability of variables current output.
d) Applicability to almost any soil resistivity.

6.3.3

Disadvantages of Impressed Current Systems

The disadvantages of impressed current systems include:
a) Possible interference problems (stray currents) on foreign structures.
b) Loss of AC power causes loss protection
c) Higher maintenance and operating cost
d) Higher capital cost for small installation
e) Safety aspects of negative lead connection
f) More frequent monitoring.

6.3.4

Cathodic Protection Rectifiers

A typically cathodic protection rectifiers has two major components:
a) a step down transformer to reduce the AC supply voltage, and
b) Rectifying elements to convert AC input to DC output.
Units may be obtained with either selenium or silicon rectifier elements. Silicon
rectifiers are generally more efficient; however, they are more susceptible to
damage from power surges.
Therefore, protective devices should considered for these units to prevent lighting
damage. Because of decreased life at higher temperatures are expected to exceed 130F
(55C).

6.3.5

Impressed Current Anodes

Impressed current anodes used in soil are made of materials such as graphite, steel,
high silicon cast iron, or mixed metal oxides on titanium. Anodes are usually buried
in a coke breeze backfill to extend their life and reduce circuit resistance. They may
be located in remote groundbeds, distributed around the tank, installed underneath the
tank, or installed in deep groundbeds.

11

Operation and Maintenance of Cathodic Protection Systems

11.1.1

The purpose of this section is to recommend procedures and practices for energizing and
maintaining continuous effective and efficient operation of cathodic protection systems.

11.1.2

Electrical measurements and inspections are necessary to determine that protection

has been established according to applicable criteria and that each part of the
cathodic protection system is operating properly. Conditions that affect protection are
subject to change with time. Corresponding changes may be required in the cathodic
protection systems. Conditions may exist where operating experience indicates that
testing and inspection should be made more frequently than recommended herein.

11.1.3

Care should be exercised in selecting the location, number, and type of electrical
measurements used to determine the adequacy of cathodic protection. If tanks are empty
there may be large areas if the bottoms, which are not in contact with the underlying,
soil. Potential survey, in this case, may give misleading information.
Bottom-to-electrolyte potential readings may indicate adequate cathodic protection
for the portion of the tank bottom in contact with the soil but when the tank is full

19

and all of the tank bottom is in contact with the soil, protection may be insufficient.
Therefore, potential survey should be conducted with an adequate level in the tank to
maximize contact of the tank bottom with the cushion material.
11.1.4

The cathodic protection devices are shut off while working on storage tanks, the system
should be re-energized as soon as possible to avoid corrosion damage during extensive
maintenance period.

11.2

Safety

11.2.1

All impressed current systems must be designed with safety in mind. Care must be
taken o assure that all cables are protected form physical damage and the
possibility of arcing.

11.2.2

Rectifiers and junction boxes must meet regulatory requirements for the specific
locations and environment in which they are installed. Such locations shall be
determined by reviewing local, state, federal, and prevailing industrial codes.
Consideration should be given to location isolating devices, junction boxes, and
rectifiers outside of hazardous areas in case sparks of arcs occur during testing.

11.2.3. In order to prevent arcing, care must be exercised when working on breakout
piping attached to tanks with cathodic protection applied. When cathodic
protection systems are turned off, sufficient time must be allowed for depolarization
before opening connections. Bonding cables must be used when parting breakoutpiping joints.
11.2.3.1 Additional guidance regarding arcing due to static electricity, stray current or lightening
can be obtained from API RP 2003 Protection against Ignition Arising Out of Static,
Lightning, and Stray Current.
11.3

Cathodic Protection Surveys

11.3.1

Prior to energizing a new cathodic protection system, measurements of the native

structure-to-soil potential should be made. Immediately after any cathodic
protection system is energized or repaired, a survey should be conducted to
determine that it operates properly. An initial survey to verify that it satisfies
applicable criteria should be conducted after adequate polarization has occurred.
Polarization to a steady state may take several months after the system is energized. This
survey should include one or more of the following types of measurement:
a) Structure-to-soil potential
b) Anode Current
c) Native structure-to-soil potential
d) Structure-to-structure potential
e) Piping-to-tank isolation if protected separately
f) Structure-to-soil potential on adjacent structures.
g) Continuity of structure if protected as a single structure.
h) Rectifier DC volts, DC amps, efficiency, and tap settings.

11.3.2

Annual cathodic protection surveys are recommended to ensure the effectiveness of

cathodic protection. The electrical measurements used in the survey may include one or
more of the measurements listed above.

11.3.3

Inspection and test of cathodic protection facilities should be made to ensure their proper
operation and maintenance.

20

11.3.3.1 All sources of impressed current should be checked at intervals not exceeding two
months. Evidence of proper function may be current output, normal power consumption,
a signal indicating normal operation, or satisfactory electrical state of the protected
structure. A satisfactory comparison between the rectifier operation on a bimonthly basic
and the rectifier operation during the annual survey implies the protected status of
affected structures is similar.
This does not take into account possible effects of foreign current sources.
11.3.3.2 All impressed current protective facilities should be inspected annually as part of a
preventing maintenance program to minimize in-service failure. Inspections should
include a check for electrical shorts, ground connections, meter accuracy, efficiency, and
circuit resistance.
11.3.3.3 The effectiveness of isolation devices, continuity bonds and insulator should be
evaluated during the periodic survey. This can be accomplished by on-site inspection or
by evaluating corrosion test data.
11.3.3.4 The tank bottom should be examined for evidence of corrosion whatever access to
the bottom is possible. This may be during repairs or modifications or in conjunction
with the inspections required by API Standard 653. Examination for bottom-side
corrosion may be done by coupon cutouts or by nondestructive methods such as
ultrasonic inspection or electromagnetic flux leakage.
11.3.3.5 Remedial measurements should be taken where periodic test and inspection indicate that
protection is no longer adequate according to applicable criteria. These measures may
include the following:
a) Repair, replacement, or adjustment of cathodic protection system components.
b) Provide supplementary facilities where additional protection is necessary.
c) Repair, replacement, or adjustment of continuity and interference bonds.
d) Elimination of accidental metallic contacts.
e) Repair of defective insulating devices.
f) Resolution of interference current.
11.4

Cathodic Protection Record.

11.4.1

The purpose of this section is to describe corrosion control records that will
document in a clear, concise, workable manner the data pertinent to the design,
installation, operation, maintenance, and effectiveness of corrosion control
measures.
In Determining of the need for cathodic protection, items listed in 5.2 should be recorder
(go to page 6)

11.4.2
11.4.3

In designing cathodic protection systems, the following should be recorded:

a) Design the location of insulation devices, test leads and other test facilities, and
details of other special corrosion control measures taken.
b) Results of current requirement test, where made, and procedures used.
c) Native structure-to soils potentials before current is applied.
d) Results of soil resistivity test at the site, where they were made, and procedures
used.
e) Name of the person conducting surveys.

11.4.4

In installing corrosion control facilities, the following should be recorded.

a) Impressed Current System.
1- Location and date placed in service.
2- Number, type, size, depth, backfill, and spacing of anodes.
3- Specification of rectifiers or other energy sources.
4- Interference tests and the parties participating in resolution of any interference
problems.

21

b) Galvanic Anode Systems.

1- Location and date placed in service.
2- Number, Type, Size, depth, backfill, and spacing of the anodes unless part of
factory-installed system.

B)

11.4.5

A record of surveys, inspection, and tests described in 11.2 and 11.3 should be
maintained to demonstrate that applicable criteria for cathodic protection have been
satisfied.

11.4.6

In maintaining corrosion control facilities, the following information should be

recorded:
a) Repair of rectifier and other DC power sources.
b) Repair or replacement of anodes, connections, and cables.
c) Maintenance, repair, and replacement of coating, isolation devices, test leads, and
other test facilities.

11.4.7

Records sufficient to demonstrate the need for corrosion control measures should be
retained as long as the effectiveness of cathodic protection should be retained for a
period of 5 years unless a short period is specifically allowed by regulation.

information contained in RP-651 which the inspector will not be examined on:

API-652
LINING OF ABOVEGROUND PETROLEUM STORAGE TANK BOTTOM
API Recommended Practice Second Edition, DECEMBER 1997

22

A)

Practical understanding and be familiar with the information contained in RP-652 related
to:
Scope: This recommended practice present procedures and practices for achieving active
corrosion control in aboveground storage tanks by application of tank bottom lining.
It contains provision for the application of tank bottom linings to both existing and new tanks. In
many cases, tank bottom lining have proven to be an effective method of preventing internal
corrosion of steel tank bottom.
The intent of this recommendation practice is to provide information and guidance specific to
aboveground steel storage tanks in hydrocarbon services. Certain practice recommended herein
may also be applicable to tanks in other services. This recommended practice is intended to serve
only as a guide. Detailed tank bottom specifications are not included.
This recommended practice does not designated specific tank bottom lining for every situation
because of the wide variety of services environments.
3.

DEFINITIONS

3.1 Aboveground Storage tank: A stationary container, usually cylindrical in shape, consisting of
a metallic roof, shell, bottom and support structure where more than 90 percent of the tank
volume is above surface grade.
3.2 Adduct : A curing agent, generally an amine that has been combined with a portion of resin,
usually an epoxy.
3.3 Amine: An organic, compound having amino functional groups which provide chemical
reactivity and utility as a curative for epoxy and other resins.
3.4 Anchor Pattern: Surface profile or roughness.
3.5 Anode
3.6 Aromatics: strong hydrocarbon solvents whose chemical structure has an unsaturated ring
with de-localized pi-electrons. Benzene, toluene, and xylene are common examples of
aromatic solvents.
3.7 Bisphenol-A Polyester: A polyester whose chemical structure incorporates Bisphenol-A into
the resin molecule in place of some or all of the glycol. The solid resin is generally provided
as a solution in Styrene, which acts as a solvent and as a cross-linking agent for the resin.
3.10 Coal Tar: A black hydrocarbon residual remaining after coal is distilled.
3.11 Coal Tar Epoxy: A coating in which the binder is a combination of coal tar and epoxy resin.
3.12 Copolymer: A large molecule whose chemical structure consists of at least two different
monomers.
3.14 Curing: The setting up of hardening, generally due to a polymerization reaction between two
o more chemicals (resin and curative)
3.15 Due Point: The temperature at which moisture condenses from the atmosphere.
3.18 Electrolyte: A chemical substance coating ions that migrate in an electric field.
3.19 Epoxy: Resin containing epoxide (oxirane) functional groups that allow for curing by
polymerization with a variety of curatives. Epoxy resins are usually made from Bisphenol-A
and epichlorohydrin.
3.20 Force-Curing: Acceleration of curing by increasing the temperature above ambient,
accompanied by force air circulation.
3.23 Lining: A coating bonded to the internal surfaces of a tank to serve as a barrier to corrosion
by the contained fluids.
3.24 Mil: One one-thousandth of a n inch (0.001).
3.25 Mil Scale: An oxide layer formed on steel during hot-forming operations.
3.36 Phenolic: A resin of the phenol formaldehyde type.
3.27 Polyamide: A resin whose chemical structure contains adjacent carbonyl and amino
functional groups that is often used as a curative for epoxy resin. Commercially available
polyamides are reaction products of dimerized and trimerized fatty acids and polyamines.
3.28 Polyamidoamine: A resin whose chemical structure contains adjacent carbonyl and amino
functional groups that is often used as a curative for epoxy resins. Commercially available
polyamidoamines are reaction products of monofunctional fatty acids and amines.
3.39 Resin: A natural or synthetic substance that may be used as a binder in coating.

23

3.30 Vinyl ester: A polyester that usually contains Bisphenol-A in the resin backbone and two
vinyl groups for reactivity. The solid resin in generally provided as a solution in styrene,
which acts as a solvent and as a cross-linking agent for the resin.
3.31 Vinyl group: A functional group on a resin molecule that consists of a carbon-to-carbon
double bond at the end of the molecule.
1) types of tank bottom lining and advantages and disadvantages of each
6
6.1

Tank Bottom Lining Selection

General
Tank bottom linings can generally by divide into two classes: thin films (20 mils or less)
and thick films (greater than 20 mils). Lining may be applied to the bottoms of storage
tanks when they are first constructed or they may be installed after some period of
service. Generally, thin-film linings may be applied to the new tanks and bottoms of
storage than have experienced minimal corrosion. The advantages and disadvantages of
thin and thick-film tank bottom lining systems are discussed in this section.

6.2

Thin-film tank bottom lining systems are frequently based on epoxy or epoxy-copolymer
resin, Table 1 list several generic types of thin-films and linings and their suitability for
various store hydrocarbon and petrochemical products. All linings that are employed to
protect tank bottoms also must be resistant to water, since water must be present at the
tank bottom for electrochemical corrosion to occur.

Table 1 Thin Film Tank Bottom Lining Systems

______________________________________________________________________________
Lining System (resin/curative) Typical Services
Max. Temp.
Range F
______________________________________________________________________________
Coal tar epoxy/amine
Foul water services and crude oil
120-170
Light products, distillates, aromatic, high purity
Epoxy phenolic/amine
Water, sour product, crude, and gasoline
180-220
Epoxy/Amine
Epoxy/Polyamide
Epoxy/Polyamidoamine

Water, Light product, distillates, aromatics, crude

And gasoline
Water, distillates, crude, and gasoline
Water, distillates, crude and gasoline

160-220
160-180
160-180

Note:
Generally applied over a white or near-white abrasive blast cleaning in 2-3 coats. No primer is
required. Information related to the performance limitations if specific products with regards to
chemical immersion and elevated temperatures may be obtained from the lining manufacturer.
For tanks containing a water layer on the bottom, the maximum temperature will be at the lower
end of this range for this water immersion service.
Table 2 Thick-Film Tank Bottom Lining Systems
Glass-Reinforced Lining Systems
Typical Services
Max. Temp
Range F
______________________________________________________________________________
Isophthalic Polyester
Water, crude oil, distillates,
And Gasoline
140-160
Bisphenol-A Polyester
Water, Crude oil, distillates,
And gasoline
160-180
Vinyl Ester
Water, crude oil, aromatics,
Solvents, alcohol, gasohol,
Oil, and chemical
180-220
Epoxy
Water, crude oil, aromatics,
Distillates, and gasoline
180

24

Notes:
Glass reinforcements include flakes, chopped strand, mat and roving. All applied over a white
(NACE NO. 1/sspc-sp-5) or near-white (NACE No. 2/SSPC-SP 10) brasive blast cleaning in 1-4
coats. Primer frequently required. Dependent upon thickness, one or two body coats specified.
Rein-rich topcoat or flood coat needed. Polyester required wax addition to topcoats to ensure
timely cure. Information related to the performance limitation of specific products with regards to
chemical immersion and elevated temperatures may be obtained from lining manufacture.
For tanks containing a water layer on the bottom, the maximum temperature will be at the lower
end of this range for this water immersion service.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

considerations for recommending tank bottom linings

causes of tank bottom lining failures
types of tank bottom lining materials
surface preparation requirements for the installation of tank bottom lining
issues affecting the application of a tank bottom lining

API-2015, CLEANING PETROLEUM STORAGE TANKS

A)

practical understanding and be familiar with the information contained in API2015 related
to:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

administrative safely programs and responsibilities

step by step procedural requirements for assuring safe entry
entry classification
type of test and equipment used to verify safety
hazard inherent in inspection of tanks
verifying the tank is safe to return service
role and responsibilities

API-2207
25

PREPARING TANK BOTTOMS FOR HOT WORK

Fifth edition, September 1998
Special Notes: Reviewed and revised every 5 years, and some times an extension of 2 more
years is added to the review cycle.
Foreword:
A)

Practical understanding and be familiar with the information contained in API-2207 related to:
1.
1.1

General
This publication outlines safety precaution for preventing accidental fires and
explosion when work is performed on tank bottoms. The term hot work, as used in
this publication, is defined as an operation that can produce a spark or flame hot
enough to ignite flammable vapors.
Tanks that have contained flammable or combustible liquids, regardless of their age
and type of construction, must be considered unsafe for hot work until approved by
safety inspection. These inspections gas testing to determine if the oxygen content of
each tank is between 19.5 and 22.5 percent. Special techniques are required in the
performance of the hot work on tank bottoms to prevent the ignition of flammable
vapors that may be trapped under the tank. Although each repair tank bottom must
receive careful consideration, the safety procedures describe in this publication
provide various methods for preparing tank bottoms for hot work. The procedures
will apply in most situations.
This publication may not contain all safety precautions

3.

Precautions

3.1
3.1.1

General Precautions
The tank must be isolated, cleaned, ventilated, and tested for toxic and flammables
vapor and oxygen deficiency.
All tests should be performed in compliance with applicable national, states, and local
regulatory requirements and recognized industry practices including but not limited to:
confined spaces procedures, lockout/tagout procedures, and requirements for personal
protective equipment (see OSHA Regulations 29 CFR Part 1910 and API Publication
2015 and 2217).

3.1.2

A visual inspection of the hot work area is necessary. A competently trained or

experienced person should be responsible for authorizing the hot work and should
designate the necessary safety precautions.
Adequate first aid and fire-fighting equipment, such as fire extinguishers and water
house lines, should be available and ready to instant use. Workers should be instructed in
the proper use of this equipment.

3.1.3

3.2

Specific Precautions

3.2.1

The work permit for the job, tank entry, and hot work must be properly signed and
issued prior to starting the work.
An air mover rated for the appropriate electrical classification should be in operation at
all times during and hot work. The capacity of the air-mover must be large enough to
provide enough fresh air for the workers inside the tank.
Lines to and from the tank shall be disconnected, blanked off, or otherwise isolated and
should not be disturbed during entry and hot work.
Tank surfaces that have been in contact with leaded gasoline should be scraped down to
bare metal. On each side of a line that might be heated excessively by welding or other
operations, an area of a least 30 centimeters (12 inches) should be scraped down to bare
metal.

3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4

26

As an alternative to scraping down to bare metal, welders should use air-supplied

respirators equipment. If the area described above is not scraped down to bare metal and
as long as frequent air-quality tests during the hot work indicate a safe atmosphere, it
may be unnecessary for other personnel in the tank to wear air-supplied respiratory
equipment (see API- Publication 2015).
3.2.5

3.2.6

Grounding leads from the welding machine should be attached directly to a bare surface
on the tank shell on which hot work is to be performed. Welding leads should be
carefully inspected for insulation abrasion, cuts, scuffs, or breaks; any of these can cause
shorting.
Compressed-gas cylinders used for cutting operations should be securely fastened in an
upright position and kept outside the tank at a safe distance from the open manholes.
When not in use, cutting torches and hoses must be shut odd at the cylinder valves and
kept outside the tank. Compressed-gas supply hoses and hose connection should be
inspected for leaks prior to being taken inside tank.
To prevent a possible flammable mixture with air from forming in the tank, compressedgas supply hoses must be protected from damage outside the tank and from burns, cuts,
breaks, or other damage inside the tank.

3.2.7

While work is in progress, all work areas must be monitored for oxygen deficiency and
combustible and toxic atmospheres.

4.

Inspection Procedures

4.1

General Procedures
The tank bottom must be inspected, when repairs are planned, regardless of its suspected
condition.

4.2

Appropriately sized small opening are sometimes made in the tank bottom by cold
cutting or by drilling holes in each area where hot work is to be performed. These
openings facilitate visual inspection and freeing the interior from gas. When such
openings are made, care must be taken to avoid a source of ignition that could result in a
fire explosion arising from flammable vapors or liquid that might be released from
under the tank bottom. A coolant should be applied to the cutting edge or tool to reduce
friction heat. The used of open-type electric drill machines is not recommended.
If tank-bottom-to-shell repair are to be made, care must be taken to remove any exterior
insulation on the bottom of the tank shell that could be oil soaked; hot work conducted
internally could cause oil-soaked insulation to ignite. Before the insulation is removed,
its type should be determined so that it can be removed properly.

5
5.1

Safety practices and procedures and possible hazards

General
The work procedures adopted will depend on the condition of the tank bottom, the type
and extent of the hot work repairs to be performed, and the results of the inspection. The
safe work procedures described in 5.2 through 5.6 apply only to those situations in
which flammable liquids or vapors are known or suspected to be present. These
procedures are not intended to cover all the different types of tank-bottom or hot work
repairs that may be encountered; they do, however, describe a variety of situations in
which these safety principles can be applied. Safe work procedures should be written
and approved by a competent, trained or experienced person.

5.2

Minor Repairs

27

Minor repairs usually involve welding corrosion pits and patches or other localized jobs,
such as welding support or braces. If the bottom is not in good condition, the following
procedure may be used:
a) Drill and tap hole for a 13mm (1/2inch) pipe adjacent co the repair area.
b) Connect a supply if carbon dioxide or other inert gas to the 13mm (1/2inch) tap,
using metal tubing. A pressure control valve with a flow indicator should be used to
prevent over-pressuring of the tank bottom.
c) Prior to beginning the hot work, establish a flow of inert gas under the tank bottom
in the vicinity of any proposed welding to ensure that nay flammable vapor been
swept away or diluted so that they cannot support combustion.
d) When using inert gas, continuously monitor the area to assure that the oxygen
content remains between 19.5 and 22.5 percent.
e) When the welding has been finished in a localized area, stop the floe of inner gas,
remove the tubing, plug the hole with a tapered pin or other device, and back weld
promptly before moving to another area
5.3

When repairs involve most of the tank bottom, it may be desirable to displace the
flammable liquids beneath the tank by water flooding. This may be done as follows:
a) Around the tanks outer shell, construct an earthen dike higher that the highest
floor plate in the tank (see fig. 1).
b) At the highest points in the tank bottom, drill a tap holes for 13mm (1/2inch) pipe.
These holes should be located to ensure that all-flammable liquids or vapors under
that tank will be displaced with water.
Errata (add the following at the end of the text in the fifth edition of Publication
2207
c) Install pipe nipples to be used as vents and checkpoints. The higher of the nipples
should exceed that of the temporary earthen dike.
d) Fill the space under the tank with water until seepage occurs at each nipple.
Continue the flow of water to maintain a constant level within the dike to ensure
that no voids develop under the tank.
e) Watch for leaks inside the tank and plug them as necessary to keep the tank bottom
dry.
f) When repairs are completed, empty the water from the dike to just below the
nipples, remove the nipples, plug the holes with a tapered pin or other devices, and
back weld.

5.4

Perimeter Repairs
Repairs around the perimeter of a tank bottom may be made safely after the
following preparations:
a) Excavate under the edge of a tank for a minimum of 30cm (12inches) beyond
the point of any hot work area. The excavation should be large enough for a
person to work in safely and comfort while excavating and applying a liquid or
vapor barrier. The area should be continuously monitored to assure the oxygen
content is between 19.5 and 22.5 percent.
b) Seal off all opening between the floor plates and the tank foundation by
packing them with mud or some other suitable, non-corrosive material. The
packing should be checked periodically, and walking on the tank bottom should
be restricted to ensure that the seal remains intact (see fig.1).
c) Use a vapor indicator to check the excavation and the seal between the floor
plates and the foundation.
d) Before starting hot work and while work is in progress, monitor the
surrounding area, including the excavation and the tank interior, for the
presence of airborne concentrations of chemical contaminants.

28

e)

Ventilate the excavation, if necessary, with a portable air blower rated for the
appropriate electric classification.
Note: when the repairs are completed, excavations should be promptly and carefully refilled to
prevent the possible failure of the tank foundations.
5.5

Double-Bottom Insulation
When a tank double bottom is constructed, the following procedures may be used:
a) Place approximately 10cm (4 inches) of sand or other sealing material over the
existing floor.
b) Install a new bottom by welding.

Note: If vapors in the flammable range are not present under the original tank bottom, hot
work can be performed safely on the new tank bottom, even though the original tank bottom is
resting on a foundation saturated wit oil. In addition, hot work may be performed if there is not
possibility of oil penetrating the sand barrier and coming in contact with the new bottom being
welded.
5.6

Sectional Repairs
When sectional repairs are made on tank bottoms, the following methods may be used:
a) When sectional a hand or air-operated tool, cold cut the tank bottom to be replaced
and remove it. A coolant should be applied continuously to the cutting edge of the
tool to reduce the heat of friction.
b) Remove the earth from under the section to be replaced. Fill it with tamped sand,
and seal the perimeter of the patch area with mud or some other suitable, noncorrosive material.
c) Continuously monitor the area for oxygen deficiency and combustible or toxic
atmospheres.
d) When large section of the bottom must be replaced and it is questionable whether
the seal will remain effective, maintain an inert area under the patch area while hot
work is being performed. While work is being performed in and around an area
with an inert atmosphere, the area should be continuously monitored with an
oxygen analyzer.
1) Precaution required to assure safety and avoid explosion and failure.
2) Hazard related to hot work on tanks
3) Entry classifications

29