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Production Note
THE
BOTANY OF CROP PLANTS
ROBBINS
THE
BY
WILFRED W. ROBBINS,
Ph. D.
ILLUSTRATED
PHILADELPHIA
WALNUT STREET
'
&
Co.
PREFACE
This book has grown out of a course of instruction extending over a number of successive years.
material presented here, except Part
I,
Most
of the
Part II
is sufficient
mind non-agricultural
is
it
a growing tendency,
the laboratory.
PREFACE
VI
The
titles
of the
Most
is
under obHga-'
The
It is believed that
Professor D.
Agronomy
W.
Frear,
now
of the
W. W. Robbins.
CoLOBADO AcRICtTLTUKAL COLLEGE.
CONTENTS
PART
CHAPTER
4-9
Protoplasm
of
of
Incomplete Flowers
CHAPTER VII.
of
Inflorescence
48-56
Seed
S7-S9
CONTENTS
via
Groups
of Plants
Scientific
Common Name-
versus
60-67
General References
PART
II
of Plants
of
of
to
of
of
^Leaf
of
let
Artificial
of
of
of
of
of
fication of
Classi-
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
let
Fertiliza-
of
of
of
of
of
of
122-134
References
CHAPTER XII.HoRDEUM
(Barley).
References
.'133-152
CONTENTS
IX
CHAPTER
Pistillate
of
in
of Self-fertiliza-
of
of
of
let
of
of
of
ties
202-209
References
of Millet
and
210-211
Pennisetum glaucum (Pearl Millet) Stem ^Leaf Inflorescence Spikelet and Flower Pollination Mature Grain
211-^13
Origin
Panicum miliaceum (Proso, Hog or Broom-corn Millet)
Stem
Inflorescence Spikelet and Flower Pollination Mature GrainVarieties Origin
213-216
(Foxtail Millets) Steam
Cbaetochloa
Inflorescence Spikelets and Flower Pollination Mature Grain
Types and Varieties of Foxtail Millet Key to Principal Types of
Foxtail Millets (Chietochloa
Origin Foxtail Millet. 216-219
Varieties
^Leaf
^Leaf
italica
italica)
of
CONTENTS
of
cies
of
225-228
Sugar
CHAPTER XX.Liliace^
Habit, Roots
(Lily Family).
Seeds
Polli-
^Leaf
of
of
to
Genus Allium
231-237
237
238
238
238-239
239-240
Types Onions
Composition Onions
Onions
Uses
240-244
Asparagus Generic Description Economic Importance of
244-246
Genus
Asparagus
(Asparagus) Roots Stems Leaf
FlowerPollination Fruit Geographical Types and Va246-251
References
CHAPTER XXLMorace^ (Mulberry Family).
Description Key to Principal Genera
252-253
Moras (Mulberry) Habit, Stems^Leaves Inflorescences
Principal
Frait Other "Mulberries" Geographical Key
Species
Genus Moras
253-255
Morus alba (White Mulberry) Description Geographical
Types and VarietiesEconomic Importance Early At255-257
tempts in the United States to Grow SilkUses
Moras nigra (Black Mulberry) Description Geographical
257-258
VarietiesUses
Moras rubra (Red Mulberry) Description Geographical
Foreign
of
of
of
oflScinalis
rieties
to
of
Varieties
and Uses
CONTENTS
XI
Fertili-
of
The
for
Market Uses
Hemp
Hemp
ties
Preparation
References
CHAPTER XXII.PoLYGONACE^
(Buckwheat Family).
Flowers Fruit Key to Principal
76-283
Stems Inflorescences
Genera
284-286
Rheum rhaponticum (Rhubarb, Pie Plant) Roots, Stems,
Leaves,
Flowers
Fruit
Geographical, and Varieties
286-289
Uses
Fagopyrum vulgare (Common Buckwheat) Roots Stems
Leaves Inflorescence Flowers Dimorphism and Pollination Fruit Seed
Geographical Other Species Varieties
Key to Varieties of Common Buckwheat Environmental
Relations Uses References
289-295
CHAPTER XXIII. Chenopodiace.*; (Goosefoot Family).
Habit, Stems, Leaves Inflorescence and Flowers Fruit
Key to Principal Genera
296-298
Spinacia oleracea
(Spinach)
Description Other Plants
Named "Spinach" Groups of True Spinach Key to Groups
of Spinach
298-300
Beta vulgaris (Beet) Botanical Groups The Wild Beet
300-301
Sugar Beet Habit Root Stems Shape and Structure of
Beet (Tap Root and Hypocotyl) ^Leaves Inflorescence
Flowers Pollination and Fertilization Fruit and Seed
Seed Production Germination, and the Seedling Types of
Sugar Beets Composition of Sugar Beets Manufacture of
Sugar By-products of Manufacture
301-309
Common Garden Beet Types Uses
310-312
Chard
312-313
Mangel-wurzels
or
Mangels Types Composition
and
Uses References
313-31S
CONTENTS
Xll
CHAPTER XXIV.
316-319
320-321
321-322
SpeciesUses
Gooseberries SpeciesUses
Currants
(Mustard Family).
Inflorescence
to
of
etc.)
of
of
viridis
Cabbage)
333
334-335
Description Geographical^Types
335-337
Brassica campestris (Rutabaga
Swede Turnip) DescriptionUses
337-338
Brassica napus (Rape) Description Varieties and Uses.
338-339
Brassica nigra (Black or Brown Mustard) Description
Brassica rapa (Turnip)
of Turnips
or
339-34
340-341
Geographical References
CHAPTER XXVI.Rosacea (Rose Family).
LeavesInflorescence Flowers Fruit Key
345-347
to
Genera of Rosaceae
Rubus
(Raspberry,
Propagation
Important,
348-350
Blackberry,
Dewberry)
Stems
CONTENTS
Geographical
Fruit
Classification
XUl
Rubus
350-354
Blackberries
Key
to Species of Blackberries
Rubus
nigro-
Rubus argutus
354~355
Dewberries Key
Principal Species of Dewberries Rubus
Rubus invisusRubus
Rubus
-355-357
Raspberries Key to Principal Species
Raspberries ^Rubus
occidentalis Rubus idaeus Rubus strigosus Rubus
gosus X R. occidentalis The Loganberry Mayberry
355-3S8
Fragaria (Strawberry) Roots and Stems ^Leaves Infloresthe
cence and Flowers Fertilization, and Development
Fruit The Mature Fruit Geographical Principal Fruitbearing Species Key to Principal Species of Fragaria
Fragaria virginiana Fragaria vesca Fragaria chiloensis
Varieties Origin
New VarietiesUses References
358-365
CHAPTER XXVII. Pom ACE2E (Apple Family).
Habit, Leaves Inflorescence Flowers Fruit Geographical
Key to Important Genera Pomacea;
366-367
Malus (Apples) StemsLeaves Inflorescence Flowers and
Their Development Pollination and Fertilization
and
Effects of Strange Pollen ParthenocarpyThe Fruit and
Development Key to Principal
Species
Malus Malus floribunda Malus baccata Malus
angustifolia Malus coronaria Malus
Malus soul Malus sylvestrisThe Classification Apples Composition Cider and Vinegar Dried Apples Production of
baccus Rubus nigrobaccus
Rubus cuneif olius
R. villosus
to
villosus.
vitifolius
trivialis
of
stri-
of
of
of
Self-
sterility
Self-fertility
Its
of
ioensis
ardii
of
Pyrus (Pear)
Pyrus communis
367-384
(Common
Pear)^Stem
Leaves
384
and
Dwarf Pears
385-387
Stem^Leaves Flowers Fruit Varieties Uses Refer-sterility in
Pears
ences
387-390
(Plum Family).
CONTENTS
XIV
Oil
References
410-412
CHAPTER XXIX.Leguminos^
(Pea Family).
of
of
Key
Geographical,
and Species
421-424
Lima Beans)
Classification
of
of
of
of
cal
of
to
^Less
426-429
Species
Vicia faba (Broad Bean, Windsor Bean)
Vicia sativa
(Common Vetch
or Tares)
429
429-430
Uses
Generic
.430-432
432
Geographical
Key to Principal Species of Trifolium
432-433
Trifolium repens (White or Dutch Clover) Description
Trifolium
(Clover)
Description
Environmental Relations
433-'434
434-435
Description
Trifolium incarnatum (Crimson, Scarlet, or Italian Clover)Description Geographical, and Uses Environmental Rela-
435-436
tions
Trifolium
pratense
(Common Red
or
Purple
Leaves Inflorescence
Clover)
and Flowers
CONTENTS
XV
Trifolium
or
medium
Meadow
Medicago
Key
(Zigzag,
Medium Red,
Relations
436-440
Mammoth
White,
Clover)
(Medics)
Generic
to Principal Species of
Description
441
Geographical
Medicago
441-442
RootsStems "Cuttings"
Alfalfa ^Leaves Inflorescence Flowers Pollination Factors Afiecting Seed Production Fruit Germination and Seedling GeographicalTypes
Alfalfa Environmental Relations Uses and Production
442-449
Medicago sativa
(Alfalfa,
Lucerne)
of
of
Generic
Description
Trefoil) .449
Species
Melilotus
Melilotus alba (White Sweet Clover)
Melilotus officinalis (Yellow Sweet
Uses
Environmental Relations
Soja (Soy Bean)
Soja
of
Description
Clover) Description
Sweet Clovers)
Generic Description
Description
449-451
452
of
452-454
454
4S4-4SS
4SS~4S6
Uses
456-458
Vigna (Cowpea and Related Species) Description Species. .458-460
Vigna sinensis (Cowpea) Description Environmental Relations
Uses
460-462
Arachis hypogoea (Peanut, Goober) Habit, Stem Leaves
Flowers Development of Fruit Fruit Types Environmental Relations
462-465
Less Important Legumes
465-467
References
467-468
CHAPTER XXX.Linages
(Flax Family)
Inflorescence and Flowers
FruitThe
Geographical, and Environmental Relations
469-470
Linum usitatissimum (Common Flax) Habit, Root Stem
Flax Fibers
Inflorescence and Flowers Pollination
Mature Fruit Seeds GeographicalTjrpes and Varieties
UsesPreparation Flax Fiber-^Production Flax 470-474
CHAPTER XXXLRuTACE^ (Rue Family).
Description Key to Important Genera
Rutaceae
475-476
Citrus (Citron, Lemon, Orange,
Habit, Roots^Leaves
Flowers Pollination and
FruitSeeds
Habit, Stem, Leaf
^Leaves,
of
of
of
etc.)
Fertilization
Geographical
476-480
CONTENTS
XVI
Description Geographical"
ron"
480-481
Citrus limonia (Lemon) Description Geographical Color
Lemon FruitUses
481-483
Citrus
aurantifolia
(Lime) Description Geographical
medica
Citrus
(Citron)
Cit-
of
"Limequat"
Citrus sinensis
(Common
or Sweet Orange)
TypesUses
483
Description
Geographical
Description
484-485
Varieties
Description
485
(Trifoliate
References
489-490
CHAPTER XXXII.ViTACEiE
(Grape Family).
GeographicalKey to Important
491-492
(Grape) Stems LeavesInflorescence and FlowersOpening of Flower and Pollination
Grape
Pollen "Coulure"
Muscat Grape Flowers of Wild Grape
Key to Most Important Species VitisVitis vinifera
rotundifoliaVitis rupestris Vitis riparia
labruscaVarieties Table GrapesWine and
Raisin Grapes Uses References
492-504
CHAPTER XXXIII.Malvace^ (Mallow Family).
Habit^Leaves Flowers Fruit and Seeds Geographical
Economic Importance Key to Important Genera
Malvaceae
505-508
Gossypium (Cotton) Habit of Plants, and Roots Stems
Leaves Flowers Pollination,
and Development
of the Fruit Fruit Seeds Cotton Fibers Distinguished from
Other Common Textile Fibers SpeciesWild Cottons
American CottonsTypes and VarietiesEnvironmental
Relations Picking and Ginning
Cotton Bleaching of
Cotton Uses
CottonImportance and Production
Cotton
508-527
Hibiscus esculentus
(Okra,
Gumbo) Description GeographicalTypes Uses
527-528
Family
Genera
Description
Vitis
Self-sterility
of
of
Vitis
valis
^Vitis aesti-
Vitis
of
of
Fertilization,
of
of
of
References
52^-529
CONTENTS
XVII
CHAPTER XXXIV.Umbelufer^
(Carrot Family).
and Flowers Fruit
Geographical Key to Genera of Economic Importance .... 530-533
Daucus carota (Carrot) Habit, Root and Stems ^Leaves
Inflorescence and Flowers
Geographical
Fruit and Seed
Stems
and
Leaves
Inflorescence
Varieties Uses
S33-S36
Pastinaca sativa (Parsnip) Habit, Roots, and Stems Leaves
Inflorescence and FlowersFruit and Seed Geographical
Varieties
S36-538
Apium (Celery and Parsley) Generic Description Geographical Key to Principal Species
Apium
53^-539
Apium petroselinum (Parsley) Description
S39~S4o
Apium graveolens (Celery and
Description GeographicalTypes and VarietiesUses
540-542
of
Varieties
Celeriac)
References
542
CHAPTER XXXV.Vacciniace*
(Huckleberry Family).
Gaylussacia
(Huckleberry,
S43~S4S
to Chief
545-547
Dangleberry)
Tangleberry,
Description
of Gaylussacia
548-550
.'
.
550
References
550
(Olive Family).
Geographical,
and
Economic Impor-
tance
Olea
europoea
(Olive)
Description Seed
551
Germination
Propagation Uses
SSi-553
XVIU
CONTENTS
tuberosum
(Potato) Habit Roots Stems
FlowerOpening Flower and Pollination Fruit
Seed Germination Development the SeedlingTubers
from SeedlingsTuberization Fungus Theory
TuberizationHistoryVarietiesTuber Morphology Periderm or
SkinVascular Ring arenchym a CortexMedulla
Shape Color Eyes Germination or Sprouting
Tuber
Physical Composition Potatoes Chemical Composition
Potatoes Starch and Sugar "Mealiness" Quality
Potatoes Degree
Maturity and Quality Degeneracy
the Potato Environmental Relations Uses
Potatoes
Production
Potatoes
561-585
Solanum melongena (Eggplant, Guinea Squash) Description
Types and
585-587
Lycopersicon (Tomato) Habit
Growth, and Stems Roots
LeavesInflorescence and Flowers
and Development
the Fruit Parthenocarpy Abnormal Tomatoes^The Mature Fruit GeographicalImportant Species and Varieties Key
Cultivated
Types
Tomatoes Closely Related Forms History Uses
587-592
Capsicum annuum (Peppers) Description Geographical
Other Species^Types Key
Botanical Varieties
Capsicum annuum CompositionUses
592-596
Nicotiana
(Tobacco) ^HabitLeaves
and
Flowers Fruit Geographical Distribution and Economic
Importance
S96-597
Nicotiana tabacum (Tobacco) Habit, Roots, Stems Leaves
Inflorescence and FlowersPollination and
Fruit Geograptdcal Closely Related Species Types and
Varieties Composition Curing Tobacco^The Tobacco In-
Solanum
Leaves
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
Varieties
of
Pollination, Fertiliza-
of
tion,
to
of
to
of
^Inflorescence
Fertilization
dustry
References
S97-605
(Gourd Family).
Cucurbit Seeds
of
cipal Species
615-617
CONTENTS
XIX
tion
(Watermelon,
Citrullus
Citron,
Geographical
Citrullus vulgaris (Watermelon,
graphical
Description
622-623
Citron) Description GeoColocynth)
622-624
References
624
(Thistle Familv).
Inflorescence Flowers Key to Important
Habit Leaves
625-628
Genera
Lactuca sativa (Garden Lettuce) Description Origin, and
Geographical Types of Lettuce Key to Types of Lettuce
629-633
Tragopogon porrifolius (Salsify or "Oyster Plant ") Description
Geographical, and Closely Related Species Uses
633-635
Cichorium (Chicory or Succory, and Endive) Description
Geographical
635
639
Glossary
639
641-651
Index
653
CHAPTER
group,
the Thallophytes
(thallus plants),
including algae
many
etc.),
among
the liver-
worts (Hepaticae).
Principal Parts of
plant body
may
be
classified
The
parts of the
into
two groups:
and
(i)
maintaining the
life
In seed
is,
carrying
which produce
seeds,
carry on, for the most part, the reproductive activities, and
many
may
The above
We may
classification
on a structural
body
into
two systems
basis, as follows
1.
seed.
the leaves
parts)
may
The
or scale leaves.
2.
be ordinary foliage
may
be in the
soil,
Size and
Fonn
of the
There
is
a re-
of ponds.
They
more rootlets,
and extremely small flowers which usually consist of a single
stamen or a single pistil. At the other extreme are the Giant
Sequoias of California; one individual, the General Sherman
"big tree," measures 279.9 f^^t in height and 102.8 feet about
or with only very simple ones, they bear one or
the base.
The
tree has
its
it
in size.
We
tree with its oval shape with the cone shape of the pine or
Again,
we
most
on the ground.
CHAPTER
II
and
all
so on.
common
The
roots are
Now,
if
we study
they are'seen to be
cells.
Each
common
distinct
group of
cells
of
and a common role to perform, is designated a tissue. For example, the pistil (a reproductive organ
of a flower) is composed of several different tissues such as
parenchyma tissue, conductive tissue, and epidermal tissue.
Still deeper analysis of tissues shows all to be made up of
a
origin
the
Discovery of
The Plant
the plant cell
Cell.
is
manufacturer.
cells.
the Cell.
The discovery
of
much aUke
It
happens
cell " to
name,
tissue resemble
Hooke gave
name
the
Although an inappropriate
plant cells have no resemblance
tell
cell,
activities.
else.
made up
plant is
and nothing
of cells
mean
and
cell
prod-
all
parts
that
The
we
cells, for it is
protoplasm.
that individual,
is
is,
Some
one-celled.
simply one
cell.
capable of carrying on
all
of"
the sim-
In such a
That one
cell,
the processes
upon which
its life
and the
composed
of a
life, we
number
find
some
each
cell is
which
in the
of the race to
Somewhat higher
life
is
multicellular,
and
yet, in
its activities
it is
united, as
cells
to live
is
its
neighbors.
In
many
its
The
its
neighbors.
and shape.
plant
cells is
cells
much
the same.
The plant
cell consists
of
Uving
away from
mem-
membrane
Hence we
is
made up
it,
The
nucleoli.
which are
of three
main
and nucleus.
The
filled
with
cell
sap.
called vacuoles.
OI'
PLANT BODY
rather inappropriate
suggest.
cells,
but as
Fig.
I.
cytoplasm;
A, young
a,
In some
one large central vacuole, while the cytoplasm and nucleus are squeezed out close to the cell wall.
instances, there
is
by
a protoplasmic
membrane,
simi-
or protein.
cell
insoluble crystals of
calcium oxalate.
salts, chiefly
membrane
Protoplasmic
Plant
Nucleus
cell
Protoplast.
The
plast.
The
Cell Wall.
When young
grows older,
its
plastids (living)
_
Cytoplasm.
cell
(living)
(living), containing
cell
it
wall
is
<
crystals (non-livmg)
vacuoles, containing
wall
is
almost pure
may
cell sap.
cellulose.
As the
and have added to it certain substances such as lignin, suberin, cutin and pectin which give it different physical
and chemical qualities.
Plastids.
These are speciahzed masses of protoplasm
suspended within the cytoplasm. They vary in size and
form. There are three sorts of plastids based upon their
and
Nucleus.
is
wrong
cell, for
^All
typical cells
(2)
chloroplastids,
green;
orange or red.
have a
definite nucleus.
It
cell
it is
is
needed,
it
cell
^its
division to form
two
involves
cells
g
to
nuclear matter.
The
is
indeed
Protoplasm.
is
cell division.
to
was
positive
its life,
(protoplasm) in plant
cells,
and
we examine a small bit of protoplasm under the microwe see that it is a semi-transparent, jelly-like, rather
scope
much
the white of an
It feels slimy.
Protoplasm is a very complex chemical substance. Although no element has ever been found in protoplasm that
is not also found in the common substances in the world
about
of these
is
a proteid,
substances.
CHAPTER
III
ROOTS
Development of Root Systems.
The
root system
of a
is
or beet seeds,
we observe
shown
root
we
seed.
Fig.
in
2.
that there
is
the
is
first
to appear.
It breaks
roots.
was planted
grain
another
built
is
up a
is generally about i
no matter at what depth the
One whorl of roots after
3).
soil surface,
(Fig.
network of
first
roots,
one,
and as a
result there is
is
A root
system.
KOOTS
II
Hence the
adventitious roots.
and
of
roots
that
develop
and
adventitiously.
/jt
Fig.
systems
may
2.
composed
Adventitious
root
foliage
When
If
young one-
soil
many other
or sand, adventi-
12
and by develop-
Some
ground linj
In spite of the fact that the grain of wheat was planted at too great a
Fig. 3.
depth, the permanent roots were formed at about I inch below the soil surface.
wounded
leaf veins.
This
is
cut or
ROOTS
gloxinias,
and bryophyllum.
13
and
weight,
GROUND
l-l
NE
T"
V ^^
Fig.
4.
Tap-root system
of
young sugar
beet.
(Moxjon.)
roots
may
Straw-
Adventitious
system develops
in
such plants
14
In the germi-
nation of the beet seed, for example, the primary root pushes
out, takes a straight
downward
and gives
course,
off
a few
fine laterals.
and to give
"beet" itself
for
7 feet.
may
The upper
reach a depth of 4
other plants
The Work
is
are
vertical
by
carrot,
many
of Roots.
^A
The
gets older,
more
tip are
turnip, parsnip,
and
spreading almost
soil,
horizontally 2 to 3 feet.
feet,
root.
The
The
lateral roots
wheat,
does in wheat,
off
is
arise, as in
die, as it
while the older ones become thick and woody and serve mainly
as anchorage organs.
Hon.
own
man.
stored
up by such plants
for their
will
in the book.
Effect of Environment
It is noted,
when
under favorable
roots
soil conditions,
that there
is
a very extensive
ROOTS
system of rootlets developed.
part of
soil is
its lateral
Corn
is
The
poor.
IS
changed by transplanting.
As a
is
developed a compact
Swamp
plants,
root system.
of watering affect
Fruit trees,
root system.
for
be
root system.
trees,
the
may
even
when
example,
send
|^^
perifc/em
endoderrais
/dematoqen
their
if
water level
soil
tem
the ground
if
close to the
is
be more super-
will
ficial.
The
character of
an index of
soil
is
often
conditions.
General Characteristics
of Roots.
It will be re-
Roots have
marked contrast
Fig. s.
the apex
of
-a,
root of barley.
of
{After
Slrasburger.)
characteristics
either
is
scales)
further on.
Growth.
The medium
Water
roots occur
in
speciosa).
Water
They possess no root
{Eichhornia
branches.
through any
cells
roots
produce
but a few
on the surface.
many
well
shown in
(soil) roots,
corn.
species of Ficus.
(air) roots,
These
downward. As aerial
roots, they are unbranched, but they branch profusely when
they strike the soil. They have the r61e of absorption, then,
above the
as well as anchorage.
air
roots are often very large, and arise from branches far above
the ground.
the
all
medium
We
but that
air
shall see then that the root has a cap of loose cells at the
ROOTS
17
tip.
This protective structure is called the
back of the root cap is the region of greatest
cap
tip of the
cell
multiplica-
composed
The very
new cells
Just
root cap.
continually sloughing
is
off,
while
it
we
the
to
an
dermatogen,
namely,
root,
outer
(i)
layer
or
and (3)
periblem, between the dermatogen
and plerome.
The dermatogen
becomes the epidermis, the plerome
the stele or central cylinder, and
layers; (2) plerome (axis);
the periblem
the cortex.
It
is
The
cortex (Fig. 6) is
composed
which
do not
leave
closely together,
fit
spaces) between.
FlG.
(inter-cellular
The innermost
pith;
dermis.
The
may become
to
form
is
the endo-
called
outer
cortex
cells
root hairs.
The
by a
Cross-section
der
is
A,
of a
Phaseolus mulpr, cortex; m,
all
xylem bundles;
phloem bundles.
section of older
root; lettered as
secondary
central
of
X, stele
cycle,
cortex layer
6.
young root
tiilorus.
spaces
air
but
primary
6,
B, crossportion of
in
phloem.
A;
b',
(After
Vines.)
bounded
to the endodermis.
i8i8
The
cells,
is composed
making up the
central
of large,
pith or
medulla.
way through
(Fig.
branches
and epidermis
cortex
the
7).
characteristic
is
of
roots.
In
are
said
have
to
an endogenous
origin,
have an exogenous
origin.
efficient
mon plants is
the
soil
to take in as
tain a balance
water outgo.
We
is
true,
water and
all
but
soil
it
In a sense
Practically
all
ROOTS
19
the plant through root hairs, which are found near the tips of
the smallest rootlets.
In
When we
up any common
a large number of
pull
rule,
These
fine
hand
may
Root-hair Zone.
This
is
clearly
grown on moist
seen
filter
young
in
paper.
seedlings,
The
root-
The
root cap
is
The
The
root-
with which
it
soil particles
and
each
solutes that
soil
form a thin
Fig. 8. Wheat
seedling showing
soil particles cling-
film
around
Furthermore,
the
root
hairs
along with their partial surrounding of particles, explains the presence of the mass of
soil particles
Root
this,
20
New hairs are constantly formed anew at the anend of the root-hair zone, while those at the posterior
end are dying. Root hairs do not become roots.
Structure of a Root Hair.^The root hair is a single cell.
weeks.
terior
It has the
about
Root
soil particles.
hairs
its
The
frac-
^^^^^S^^^^S^^S^'f
Fig.
and
9.
Root
(AfterGager.)
hairs.
ma-y line the walls, and the nucleus usually occupies a position near the apex.
The central vacuole is large, and is filled
with
cell sap.
The
cell
Hairs.
Most
hairs.
ment is
soil roots,
The absence
but none at
wet
all
in water.
and in water, is
poor oxygen supply. In a
probably to be attributed to
soil.
air,
soil,
ROOTS
water-soaked
soil,
21
filled
One
with water.
soil in
Our
order to de-
Orchard trees
have been known to die as a result of the "puddling" of the
soil.
Trees are also sometimes killed by cattle tramping and
packing the ground about them, such that the air supply to
Root-hair development is often
the roots is largely cut off.
stirring the soil is to
inhibited
admit
air to
by a concentrated
the roots.
soil solution.
High tempera-
Root
is
developed the
first
season
a large fleshy tap root, and a short crown from which the
leaves arise.
entire
wheat
plant dies.
is
a biennial.
CHAPTER
IV
STEMS
Development
of
The
plant through
in
its life,
we observe
an inflorescence (flower
cluster).
if
we
between
wheat
follow the
Now,
in addition to the
stem in the seed, branches arise from the lower nodes. These
branches arise in the axils of the lowermost leaves, in most
In cereals, this branching is known as "stooling"
cereals.
or "tillering."
Common
num-
under favorable
a single seed.
buds.
may
Tillering results
22
STEMS
branches of the primary stem, there
tem, with
Buds.^
shoot.
its
23
is
up a shoot
built
sys-
A bud
is
an undeveloped stem;
it is
simply a young
example,
considerably elongated.
inches in length.
bud
is
may
In
be several
be classified as to
development into: (a) leaf, (b) flower, and (c) mixed buds.
If we open up a leaf bud, we find a very much shortened axis
or stem bearing a
is
a young shoot,
That
new
is, it
number
it
may
the leaf
we
bud
flower bud,
As
of small leaves.
find one or
arise.
more young
it
The
came, ends in a
If
we open up
flowers.
In plums,
24
In
all
lateral,
out at an angle of about 30, while leaf buds are more appressed to the stem.
Buds may be
(a)
terminal,
numerary,
(b)
lateral or axillary,
(d) adventitious,
and
(e)
(c)
on
accessory or super-
dormant.
into a shoot
buds.
rise to side
branches or to flowers.
They
ary buds are extra ones coming out in the leaf axils.
are best
shown
in the
give
Accessory or supernumer-
elder.
They
Adventitious
leaf
STEMS
Buds may be
25
classified
as to their arrangement on
the
stem into:
(b)
opposite
and
It is well to
that
the
(a) alternate,
(c)
whorled.
flower-buds
keep in mind
^^1
bud arrangement is
same as leaf arrange-
\sfipule-scar
leaf-scars-'--
\lenticels
Further-
axil.
method
of
lateral leaf-buds
arrangement.
When
latent
bud Jul
be
to
alternate
When
(Fig.
10).
terminal hud-scar
When more
103).
Bud
Variation.
more
or less
currence in
varieties.
This
common
trees
of
is
The buds on an
example,
from
important
differ
each other in
respects.
flower-hud-scars
all
...
oc-
That
this dififer-
or\e
year^
old branch
Fig. 10.
Cottonwood
old.
(After Longyear.)
26
may
we
of growth,
manner
of
Nearly
all
by seed
now
(sexual parts)
and many of
bud
varieties or "sports."
to differ
branch
is
At
If it is
the tip
is
several
is
a large
The
woody stem
inflorescence scar.
distinguished
leaf scar
is
of scars.
off
by a ring
Inflorescence
by the falhng
of
When
each year
is
clearly
bud scales of a terminal bud fall off in the spring they leave
a number of scars so close together as to make a ring. Hence
STEMS
27
bud
scale
In this
marked by
way we may
number
of
and
r' ^-'
--'
cs-
c.
i3
Fig. II.
Section
(After Strasburger.)
From A
Copyright, by the
shoot.
twig.
The growing
28
number and
ternodes by increase in
com-
As a
number
on a twig is
Seldom do new leaves originate
during the growing season. This point is worthy of special
rule,
the
When
mention:
a twig has
made
its
years.
tion
of other
old internodes
is
well proven
is
The
fixed length of
its
A common
It will
impression prevails
This notion
the tree.
is
erroneous.
is
Classification of
Growth.
may
stems
arise
from the
soil as in
nearly
all
of our ordinary
may have
best
epiphyte
among
"Spanish moss."
seed
Many
plants.
It
is
the
so-called
epiphytic.
The
This
is
some plants
Many
is
underground.
STEMS
underground and
aerial
29
Water
is
also a
medium
of
growth
of stems, as
the case
is
"Modified" Stems.
drical twig such as
common
is
Undoubtedly,
sort of stem.
etc.
ordinary cyUn-
the
is
the most
we think
of a
by
and
structure.
Among
such
12).
These
are
under-
Thfe rootstocks or
They
wood
twig^
typical stem.
is
They grow
in length
unprotected by tough
scales.
Rootstocks are
efficient
method
of
aerial
reproduction
other
from a
Adven-
than by seeds.
Here
is
Usually,
duced; they
may
die
by means
of
fall.
The
the rootstocks.
We may prevent
of this,
of separate pieces
may
each piece
by
develop adven-
Fig. 12.
Portion
may
The period
of time
depends upon
in the structure.
This
STEMS
food of the plant
is
manufactured
in the chlorophyll-bear-
2.
These
best example
is
The
common
Irish potato.
through
its
--barK
.wood
large,
and a potato
is
is
formed;
.pith
seen to be a
presence
of a terminal
bud
Fig.
13.
Section
showing a shedding
bark,
wood and
in cross
tions.
of
stem
leaf; also
pith as seen
and longitudinal
sec-
{After Longyear.)
potato.
The three
wood and pith.
13).
In the potato, these three distinct zones are visible, as indicated in Fig. 236. Hence, we see that the potato is in reality
a modified stem.
32
3.
Bulbs.
onion
is
A bulb
The common
an underground stem.
is
a typical example.
upon which
numerous,
are
over-
is
buds occasionally
Be lbs
axils.
in the leaf
vertical
are
Corms.
coim
is
ground stem.
exemplified
Corms
It
in
typically
is
gladiolus.
cluster
of
thick fibrous
and a
on the upper
Corms
are
storage
organs.
-3fem
Fig. 14.
of
common
(stolons).
Runners
5.
These resemble rhizomes in
that their direction of growth
onion bulb.
is
horizontal.
In the straw-
berry plant, the branches that arise from the axils of the
closely set leaves are called "runners."
.stems,
are slender
internodes,
nodeS^.
They
STEMS
They
strawberry plant.
Lianas.
33
A liana
is
Common
which
may
its
support.
Of
tendrils.
In
surface
STRUCTURE OF STEMS
(Fig. 15).
cut the growing point (bud) of the stem, and the older parts
back
of the
growing point.
The
cells
meristem
tissue
(undifferentiated
tissue).
Although they
34
it is
Just back of
Fig. is.
main
we note that
and
STEMS
procambium
35
in
of
(Fig.
has
strands.
cross-section
15),
(Fig.
further differentiation
The vascular
is
gions: phloem,
constitute
the
pith or medulla.
Dicot
tailed
Vascular
Bundle.
De-
and
longitu-
parts
to
be
made up
of
In
phloem are
sieve tubes, companion cells, and
phloem parenchyma.
Each sieve
Phloem.
tube
is
the
a single
cell,
much
elon-
The end
Fig. 16.
(>
Vascular elements.
forated
36
vertically elongated,
able size.
1.
Tubes.
Conduction
Although
soluble
of
carbohydrates,
Companion
2.
sieve
Cells.
tubes
lose
their
nuclei before the end of the first year, they do not die; hence,
it is
cells
them
to carry
on the
life
processes
for
material or conduct
it
They
rich in protoplasm,
and growth.
the
stem.
In
and capable
The cambium
grafting,
is
are thin-walled
scion,
way
is
inserted
as to bring the
Xylem (Wood).
The
chief structural
elements of the
largement of rows of
have
cells,
the
common end
The walls of the tracheal tubes become thickand the thickening material {lignin) is laid down on
able length.
ened,
walls of which
STEMS
Kinds of Tracheal Tubes
37
(Fig.
i6).
There
are
the
fol-
in the tube
Reticulated
Tracheal
strengthening material
is
in
these,
laid
Is
down
in such a
lignin has
In
these,
appearance.
Tracheids (Fig. 17) are single
and modified.
They have
In shape tracheids
fit
elongated
pits.
Wood parenchyma
cells,
closely together
tissue.
xf^heids,
with bor^^^
pits.
^'
'
Wood fibers are long, taper-pointed at the ends and thickThe pits are unbordered.
Functions of Wood Elements. The functions of the different wood (xylem) elements are as follows:
walled.
Tracheal Tubes.
soil to
(a)
stem.
2.
Tracheids.
(a)
(6)
give
also
Wood Parenchyma.
(o) Store
(6)
and
38
cambium,
cambium,
is
Growth in thickness of the stem consists then in the producand growth of new cells fromr (i) cambium of vascular
ring, and (2) cork cambium.
The cambium cells of the
tion
vascular ring
may
remain cambium.
which
If
phloem, or
Each cambium
cell
divides
by a wall
is
hand,
if
On
the other
cambium
Hence, by a
new xylem
down on the outside of the old xylem, and new phloem
laid down on the inside of the old phloem.
Not only
division of
cells of
is laid
is
wall that
is
STEMS
1.
Wood, on
2.
Phloem, on inside
3.
4.
39
phloem.
structure:
1.
primary
cortex,
primary
Cambium
of vascular
bundle.
3.
Wood, consisting
of
Pith.
5.
ray
of
rows
several
thin-walled
ceils
of
running
Stems.^The
Monocot
corn stalk
is
an excellent
Fig. 18.
Cross-section of cornstalk
a, epidermis; b, cortex and peri-
stem;
cycle;
c,
ground
tissue.
{After Stevens.)
this,
as
shown
in cross-section of the
stem
in Fig. 18,
ground
tissue.
as in dicot stems.
40
from
cells
(2)
Annual
is
An annual
ring, as generally
width, depending
in the
The
life
understood,
ring varies in
of the plant
more,
it is
known
wide annual
to
grow
There
is
was
rings,
slowly,
it
Further-
while
i.e.,
usually a
it is
marked
difference in the
rings.
wood formed
in
summer and
rapidly,
and
is diffuse
porous, that
is,
"Hard wood"
is
is
usually a
summer
are
is
the
cambium
zone.
STEMS
41
soil,
when
and of food
first
above the
soil or
water surface.
(2)
became elevated
The stem
The
The
kingdom
materials.
it
also
is
brings into
woody
an abundance
in the
of food material
medullary ray
cells, also,
is
in
in
may
cactus,
Some
stock,
and other
The stems
cacti,
store
stems, such as the potato tuber, bulb, corm and rootare heavily loaded with stored food material.
Young stems
(4)
do green
leaves.
CHAPTER V
LEAVES
Development
of Leaves.
Leaves
point of a stem, as lateral protuberances (Fig. 15) consisting at first of a shapeless mass of cells. We call this group of
cells
the primordial
By
leaf.
and
dif-
adult leaves.
Parts of Leaf.
blade
and
Most
leaves have
Some
two
distinct parts:
These are
The
petiole is
Kinds
of Leaves.
different
ways.
It
is
Common
food-making organs of
there are
many
all
we
They
ordinary plants.
many
are
all
are the
However,
LEAVES
As examples
scale leaves
43
and the
petals,
pels of flowers.
We
leaves as the
We
would regard
bracts,
bud
scale
-itendnis
leaves,
and flower
scales,
may
food-making
Leaves
function
organs
as
(i)
(foliage
jleajleh
leaves),
protective structures
(2)
(scales),
reproductive organs
(3)
(floral organs),
and
(4)
as storage
organs.
The
make up
fleshy
good examples
leaves that
of leaves
used for
storage.
Foliage
allel-veined
leaves
or netted-veined.
In
many
are
size,
veins,
running
by inconspicuous
type of venation
of
about equal in
parallel,
and joined
veinlets.
is
This
^sUpules
characteristic
rushes,
Fig. 19.
leaf of
single
compound
sweet pea.
44
arise
numerous minor
veins,
leaf is
is
an undivided blade.
is
compound
(Fig. 19).
or parsnip leaf
into a
number
of segments, or leaflets.
We may
Leaf arrangement
stem.
bud
for ordinarily a
is
the
same
arrangement on the
bud arrangement,
as
each
They
leaf.
may
Some
The structure
of a leaf is best
The upper
shown
epidermis, usually
consists of a single
layer,
of
palisade cells
ness,
fit
is
and composed
of rather irregularly
shaped
cells
that
spaces)
The
of cells thick.
lower epidermis
is
and
pervious to water,
is
LEAVES
45
is ample water
A thick
good drought-resistant character.
The epidermal cells do not form a continuous layer over
the two leaf surfaces.
There are numerous pores or open-
cuticle is a
stoma
is
^al^asd
Fig. 20.
Diagram
of a representative leaf.
(After Stevens.)
cells.
There
is
That
46
described above
thin
is
thickness
situations
The
commonly due
is
rows of palisade
and lower
Palisade
may
may
of a
The Work
increased
number
of
growing in
very thick
cuticle.
of Foliage Leaves.
We
also
arid conditions
The
to an increase in the
surfaces.
epidermis to
velopment
cells.
is
usually thick.
are
leaves are
Palisade tissue
tissue.
Water
tions with
are
all
we may judge
by
its leaf
by those
cells of
The
those
cells of
is
made
The manufacture
carbohydrate
of carbohydrate
by green
all
tissue is called
When we
the other
realize
more com-
LEAVES
we
proteins,
see
47
development.
carried
on
and proteins
We may
is
truly say,
Practically
of the
all
stomata.
When
in a healthy
is
The
leaves of
Russian
many
thistle, salt
is
made up
also
store
of a very short
The
leaves of the
sundew
(Drosera),
CHAPTER
VI
FLOWERS
Parts of Representative Flower.
A representative flower
the
following
parts
made up
Calyx,
1.
sepals,
and
of
enclose
the
other
2.
petals,
made up
of
Stamens, each
3.
up
made
of a stalk or filament
at the
tip
of
which
is
=5^
'^^V^ I J' /
;f~"Vv^
(w^\
^^'^^D
111
\^^J/u
IK
r
^'M
'-^^^
Fig. 21.
Flax.
A, floral diagram
c, calyx; co, corolla; s, stamens; f, pistil.
B, median lengthwise section of flower.
C, calyx and corolla removed. D, fruit,
external view. E, cross-section of fruit.
grains.
4. Pistil,
which has a
(i)
style, slen-
a stigma, which
is
re-
Within
the ovary are the young
ceptive to pollen.
FLOWERS
49
The
receptacle or torus.
We
many
They
differ
widely in
size,
Development
of the Flower.
The
primordia of flower
As a
rule,
the
sepals,
Fic. 22.
Cross-section of a mature lily anther.
The pairs of pollen chambers unite to form two pollen sacs, filled with pollen grains; 5, modified epidermal cells at line of splitting. (From a Text-book of Botany by Coulter,
Barnes, and Cowles. Copyright by the American Book Company, Publishers.)
This order of
floral succession is
Stamens.
Ordinarily,
the anther
is
When
or stalk.
to
OF
liOTANY
50
be
the filament
sessile.
t'KOP ]'LANXS
mother
cells;
is
said
an immature anther is
locules, each with a number
of
is
cross-section
As
normally
cell
each anther.
is
mature,
essential parts of
which are a
At the time
nucleus.
tube nucleus
and a
generative
The
The
stigma.
pistil
of a simple ovary
shows
it
to
have
cross-section
one locule or
chamber
The
tissue to
tissue (placenta)
We may also speak of the pistil as simple or compound. A simple pistil has one carpel, which is in reality a
modified leaf bearing one or more seeds. A compound pistil
in each.
apocarpous;
when
(Fig.
united,
When
151)
as
is
asparagus
said to be
(Fig.
99),
syncarpous.
Fig.
Ovule.
central
FLOWERS
SI
in
Fig. 23.
Pollination.
is
This
is
Pollen
may
same
be
flower.
poUen iuhe
eqg nucleus
pericarp
oilier
y-
inltji/mnf
mnermhi
nvciUvt
fmUrnvclti
^niipoic-lt
Fig. 23.-
This
is
-Diagram
termed autogamy or
close pollination.
showing a
Or, pollen
may
Again, pollen
of a flower
52
xenogamy, or cross-pollination.
Insects,
Fig. 23 is a
ment
of the ovule
thick wall.
Three nuclei
by sending
known as the pollen tube. The
tube grows downward through the stigma,
sometimes in a tubular passage, or when
the stigmatic surface, and grows
out a tube,
necessary,
secreting
nuclei
tube nucleus
Fig.
24.
minating
grain.
its
ment from
As the
Ger-
pollen
(After
well.)
ing.
The tube
finally
takes a course through the micropyle and comes into contact with the nucellus.
and
is
penetrated,
tube nucleus
is
reabsorbed.
The
unites with
The union
of the
FLOWERS
sexual process.
It
5,3
is
The
embryo nucleus now develops into a young plant
(embryo). The synergids and antipodals are usually disorganized.
In grasses and lilies and some other plants, socalled double fertilization has been observed.
One sperm
nucleus has been accounted for, as uniting with the embryo
nucleus.
The other unites with the two polar nuclei of the
embryo sac. The body resulting from this triple fusion also
carries both maternal and paternal characters.
It grows
pollination
which
is
fertilized
which
is
Immediately
of the seed.
results in a seed,
well.
about
may
Many
fertilization.
pollen
even hundreds,
tubes,
function normally.
Those which do
not, wither
and
may
die.
We may
is
the tissue in
In
is
said to be parietal.
is
axis.
third kind
lilies
is,
of placentation
is
Symmetry
by
which
is
not connected to
radial partitions.
of Flower.
sym-
54
is
or regular.
as the
In the gooseberry
and
calyx,
is
and
is
is
or
below
said to be inferior.
When the
and stamens
are inserted on the receptacle below the ovary, the ovary is
superior, and the flower hypogynous (below the gynoecium)
The flowers of mustards are hypogynous. There is a third
gynoecium or carpels).
calyx, corolla,
by the cherry
in which the
and
apple
(Fig.
etc.,
163),
157
157),
petals and stamens are inserted on a calyx rim and arise at
or
half-superior ,
is
Union
of
Flower Parts.
more or
less
complete union of
may
take place.
For
form a calyx tube, in the potato flower the petals are united
to form a corolla tube, in the cotton flower the stamen filaments are joined, and in many instances onion, apple,
orange, and others the carpels are united. The adjectives
to
FLOWERS
55
United
St-paratc
Sepals
aposepalous
synsepalous
Petals
apopetalous
sympetalous
,11,1
,,
Stamens
polydelphous
diadelphous
<
apocarpous
Carpels
Incomplete Flowers.-
(2
f
monodelphous
,
groups)
group)
(i
syncarpous
in a preceding
present.
and
Flowers lacking
Some
Such a flower
(inflorescence)
staminate.
On
composed
of
pistil,
pistil.
such flowers,
is
said
to
said to be pistillate.
If
staminate and
and
be
cious."
or a flower cluster
In some dioecious
species
is
pistillate inflores-
said to be "dioe-
is
(hops),
the staminate
Inflorescence.
An
inflorescence
is
a flower cluster.
it differ
Its
with the
classes of inflores-
56
(2)
(3)
determinate or cymose.
The
simple type
is
well represented
by the
calla lily or
In
florescence.
this,
above them.
may
may
Racemose types
of
and
met with
head.
flower cluster
side,
These
will
be described
is
in-
The
inflorescence of chickweeds
is
a cyme.
CHAPTER
FRUITS, SEED,
Development
VII
AND SEEDLINGS
of the Seed.
We
The
fertilized
egg
may
formed.
It
is
lacking,
and the
The
by the developing
represented by a very
is
is
Seed
1.
Seed coats.
2.
Nucellus.
3.
Endosperm.
4.
Embryo
[
{
Growing point
of shoot,
Cotyledon or cotyledons.
Hypocotyl, terminating in the young root or radicle
57
58
its
walls
The ovary
in order
As the
may
Named
changes
differ.
portion of the
fruit,
fruit,
juicy to
character.
wheat
commonly called
But,
if
Kinds
to give a
and
115).
of Fruits.
No attempt
will
complete classification of
We
fruits.
will describe
in the discussions
in a definite
way
Deopen at maturity
do not
split
Inde-
open at maturity
FRUITS, SEED,
in
any
definite
way.
AND SEEDLINGS
59
Germination of Seed.
The
and peas.
its initial
growth.
and the young shoot and primary root make their appearance.
The cotyledons are brought above ground in some plants
(beans, squashes, etc.) and constitute the temporary or seed
leaves.
They may develop chlorophyll and make food for
a while.
The
dwindle away.
In
many
plants,
e.g.,
all grasses,
In these the
soil.
first
the coty-
foliage leaves.
As soon
making
it
possible
its
by
CHAPTER
VIII
From
man
has
is
It
is
agreed
affinities
if it
and the
One
of
first
tive structures,
i.e.,
having
little
natural relationship,
may
tative structures
may
that,
although vege-
same
influences
do
Hence, on account of
in classification.
GROUPS OF PLANTS
and
in
method
of living.
it
to be
composed
of
size, in structure, in
62
organisms.
sions, the
scums
AlgcB
is
Fungi.
3,11(1
The
so frequently observed
subdivi-
upon the
surface of pools,
They
commonly found
such places
may
in tanks
are
in
when decay
weeds"
are
sets in.
Algae.
also
common
They
mosses.
are
by the
scouring
rushes,
Like
the
preceding
much
The
by spores.
most complex group
simpler fashion,
highest and
(Spermatophytes).
spruces,
firs,
It includes
is
the
All the
flowering plants).
common
crop plants, of
field,
In the
Gymnospermae the
Angio-
seeds
are,
exposed,
while
in
Angio-
fall
into
"
"
vascular bundles
scattered
are
6,^
lilies);
(2)
Dicotyle-
dones, in
Each
some
plete classification of
plant,
e.g.,
common
com-
alfalfa, will
Spermatophyta,
Angiospermse,
Dicotyledones,
Order Rosales,
Family Leguminosae,
Genus Medicago,
Species Medicago
The
order ending
into families.
"cB."
species.
is
sativa.
usually "ales."
is
commonly "acea"
or
The number
of families, genera,
and
be large or small.
"splitting
Cyanophyceaeblue-green
Schizomycetes
Schizophytes
plants.
algae.
bacteria.
brown
Rhodophyceaered
Chlorophyceae
Phaeophyceae
green
algae.
algae.
algae.
etc.
fungi.
species
may
" "
64
molds,
Fungi
lichens, etc.
Hepaticae liverworts
Muscimosses.
Filicales
ferns.
"
lower seed
Angiospermsehigher seed
Gymnospermae
plants.
Monocotyledones.
Dicotyledones.
PLANT NOMENCLATURE
Scientific
all
Name.
biologists
The system
today
is
of
nomenclature in use by
The
is
the
name
specific
of the
name
first
may
This description
named and
described
65
by Linnaeus.
It
is
(L.)
Beauv.
This illustrates
genus to another.
grass
Fanicum
common barnyard
ferred the
still
when
common barnyard
crus-galli L.
to
a species
is
Nomenclature
transferred in this
manner
(in
this case,
fol-
binomial.
for
vulgaris
vulgaris
var.
nated by
example,
the
is
nanus.
Agricultural
common names,
"varieties"
are
desig-
names
etc.
are in Latin.
This
is
villosus (northern
dewberry).
66
are
cumbent Trifolium
(clover)
trailing or pro-
repens
Trifolium
is
narrow
folium,
{repens,
Melilotus
is
is
Mains
leaf).
is
descrip-
The common black-cap raspberry is Rubus occidentalis; here the specific name means
"western." Again, in Vaccinium canadense, the Canada
blueberry, the specific name indicates geographical distribution.
The systematist frequently uses the name of an inditive of this species' habitat.
This
may
be done as a token
finder of the
after
ending
is
new form.
well-known botanist,
the
Charles
besseyi, is
Bessey.
The
Scientific
Name
versus
Common Name.There
are dis-
names.
The use
may
as to
go by the
name
will
do
what plant
is
of one scientific
Paris, 1894.
The Macmillan
67
Scribners,
New
York, 1913.
&
Co., 1892.
naturlichen PflanzenfamiUen.
HtFNT, T. F.: Forage and Fiber Crops in America. Orange Judd Co., 1908.
Kntjth, Paul.: Handbook of Flower Pollination. Translation by J. R.
Ainsworth Davis.
Montgomery, E.
G.: Productive
Farm
Crops.
Shepperd,
J.
N. D. Agr. Exp.
Sta. Bull.
Strasburger, E., Noll, F., Schenck, H., and Schimper, A. F. W.: A Textbook of Botany. Macmillan Co., 1912.
Ten Eyck, A. M.: The Roots of Plants. Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 127:
199-252, 1904.
1911.
PART
11
CHAPTER IX
GRAMINEiE
No
family of plants
(POACE-ffi),
is
GRASS FAMILY
It has several
thousand
species,
among
and
The
grasses
Others, like
70
Many
all
of our
common
pasture and
life
meadow
grasses,
and
Such
A number of grasses,
manner.
three or
Roots.
more
No
of
with a course of
life
extending over
seasons.
The
composed
i.e.,
and
numerous slender
roots of
is fibrous,
that
is,
and
others.
In
The primary
this there is a
arise directly from the seed, are temporary, dying after the
permanent roots are able to support the plant. The permanent roots arise from that portion of the stem which extends from the germinating seed to the surface of the ground.
These roots are always produced at about the same distance
below the surface, regardless of the depth at which the seed
is
planted (Fig. 3)
Grasses are classed as shallow-rooted plants.
However,
some extending
to depths
which cannot be
Roots
(Buchloe)
sometimes go to a depth of 7 feet. Rye roots have been
found penetrating to a depth of 3 feet, corn S/4 feet (Fig.
56), emmer and spelt 3^^ feet, and wheat more than 4 feet.
Roots may break through the sheaths (that part of the
considered as shallow.
of buffalo grass
Fig. 2S.
of grasses.
71
72
leaf
which
is
They may
from
also
joints
or
"prop"
Stems.
General
Characteristics.
They
The
stems of grasses
and
divided
into
sections
Stem-
(internodes)
jheatb
(Fig.
25)
which
times
drowinO
filled
zones
&
When
corn.
ternodes
internode^
with pith, as in
are solid,
but,
as
node
ruptured and a
portion
is
hollow
formed.
is
The nodes
each
node
(Fig.
26)
and
stem
Barley.
Fig. 26.
A, portion of
leaf at juncture of leaf and blade;
B, stem cut in median lengthwise
section.
itself.
In most grasses,
culm within
the sheath remains soft and
continues to grow or retain
the part of the
2}i.
the power of growth after the portion not in the sheath has
The youngest
surrounded by the basal
Each internode has its
is
at its base,
own growing
Lodging.
zone.
It
is
customary
to
GRAMINE^
73
when
its stems are bent over and caused to lie on the ground
by the mechanical action of a high wind, or driving rain.
Some grasses lodge more easily than others. This may be
due either to
shown that an
soil
excessive
favors lodging.
As
amount
it
Moreover,
it
has been
the
amount
of silicon taken in
by the wheat
soil
may
re-
them.
The stems
The reverse is
of
the case, as
response to gravitation.
Tillering.
It
is
This property
common
is
called geotropism.
and shrubs, for example, for the reason that the culms
most grasses produce branches from the lower nodes only.
trees
of
is
known as
"stooling," "tillering,"
74
(Fig. 27),
and the
Common
cereals,
entire
mass
of-
branches
the "stool."
is
As the
internodes are
so that
tillers,
much
may
result
'-tertiary
-scale
stem
kaf
'secondary siem
'primary Stem
=crown roots
^rain remains
.J^sprmarv
roots
leaf.
Tillering results
Tillers
are
75
soil.
factor
Tillering of Oats
Pecks of seed sown per
^
gjjg
o^.
,
^
stems per loo plants
466
1,419,000
279
1,732,000
16
140
2,283,000
The production
it is
is
altogether
an important
Bulbous Grasses.
In
some
like
tall
is
capable of budding a
76
of their rootstocks.
The
rootstock
by means
a storehouse of food
is
be allowed.
Rhizomes
brown or
of grasses bear
colorless sheathing
buds which
may
Under favorable
When
meadow
is
known
as a tufted
Outside of
very typical.
propagation.
more open,
loose tuft.
is
77
Leaves.
General
on to discuss other
the fact
and to emphasize
that leaves are developed on a stem in a definite
leaf arrangements,
order.
The
common
is
In
and an
Parallel
venation
is
ledonous plants.
Growth
leaves
of leaves.
In
of Leaves.
grow
faster
Some
is
and most
the early
than internodes.
all
life
other monocoty-
The tip of
The growing point is
marked by a whitish
rule, is
78
may
removed
shown
the leaves of lawn grass after mowing,
of the leaf
therefore be
and
This
is
well
scales
(Fig.
Scales
on synthesis of carbohydrates.
have the same one-half
spiral arrangement as the foliage leaves and although they
may be very close together on the axis, careful observation
shows them to have this typical arrangement of all grass
are incapable of carrying
The
and bracts
scales
leaves.
Ligule.
in grasses
membranous
26).
hairiness
in
is
different
and varies id
species
of
grasses.
size,
shape,
The
and
ligule
is
sometimes absent.
Auricle (Fig. 26).
This
is
tion of sheath
may
and
be more or
varies
from the
blade.
less
greatly in size
and shape.
some
species.
Inflorescence.
grass
stem but
away from
it.
It
inflorescence
(flower cluster)
consists of a
called
^The
They are
leaf
79
inflorescence.
directly or indirectly to a
The
three
common
When
and raceme.
spike, j>anicle,
either
28).
the rachis
is
unbranched,
The
spike.
barley,
spikes.
is
inflorescences of wheat,
single spike.
let is
as
rachis,
sheep's fescue
in
(Fesluca
ovina).
'-^lemmas
more times
may
(Fig. 44).
These branches
='glvmej
in oats
and brome
grass, or short
and
timothy,
and
meadow
foxtail (Alopecurus)
rachij
Koeleria.
.1
be met with
We
families.
some
J-
ii_
J-
11
will
of the following
Fig.
let
of
common
wheat
(Xriticumaestivum). X2.
three types are not confined to the grass family, but are in
fact exceedingly
Spikelet.
grasses.
or
wheat
common among
The
spikelet
is
seed plants of
all
kinds.
some
is,
axis,
Fig.
authors).
do not bear
29 shows a dissected wheat
8o
removed
in order.
we
Each
spikelet
is
bracts as "glumes."
The lower
M^ume
^Bd
Id flower
P"^^'-
ljtlume
-rachis
Fig. 29.
Spikelet
of
common wheat
removed
bracteole,
turned toward
the
of
some authors)
its
Its
back
is
While the
At
The palet
glumes and lemmas
infolded edges.
rachilla.
in order.
is
inserted on a very
1,
axil of
each
lemma
is
two
pistil.
(stalk) is
large
anther.
and a
single
The filament
anther
Fig. 30.
styles
The ovary
is
it
appears
two
There are many deviations from the typical form of spikelet. In Coleanempty glumes are absent; in Nardus., solitary; in Homalocenchrus,
mere rudiments. In some Agrosiis species, the palet is rudimentary. It is
not always two-keeled, but generally two-nerved. There is a third (posterior)
lodicule in some grasses.
Although the stamens are as a rule three, there are
six in most bam boos and
rice (Oryza).
In Streptochala and Oryza {occasionally), there are three styles, and only one in Nardus.
Ihus, the
82
The awns
lemmas or
commonly termi-
They
are
nal, as in
in oats.
They noted
that bearded
They
also
Up
may
cleistogamous spikelets
According
to
(Hordeum
distichon
Koernicke,
two-rowed
erectum)
bears
barley
erect-eared
only
cleistogamous
flowers.
Pollination.
Wind
of grass pollen.
In
is
all
is light
in this process.
Most
grass flowers
open
is
show
chasmogamy.
come exposed.
pistils to
be-
cleistogamy.
Fruit
In
all grasses,
the fruit
is
is
The
83
The
isms
is
the
of
What
phylogeny.
is
the origin
grasses?
and other
common monocotyledonous
plants; or
are
By
who hold
the
latter
view,
those
which
is
more widely accepted, grasses are considered to have come from lily-like
plants by a reduction and modification
of a number of parts of the flower.
Examination of the floral diagram of a
typical lily flower is shown in Fig. 31.
It has two sets of floral segments (which
together constitute the perianth) which
Pic. 31.
lily
grass
Diagram
flower,
and
of
showing
flower
homologous
alternate,
in
three
chambers,
hence
tri-carpellary.
alternate with
the perianth.
The
three
carpels
is
shown the
floral
In
diagram of
structures.
ax, axis;
/, bract;
op, outer perianth; ip,
A,
inner perianth;
s, statricarpellary
ovary. B, shaded structures are aborted; le,
lemma (bract) ax, axis;
p and p', palet (outer
perianth);
I
and I',
lodicules (inner peri-
mens;
c,
anth);
and
s',
two
whorls of stamens; c,
tricarpellary ovary. (B
after Schuster.)
lilies,
'
84
the
pistil
loss of
branches
style
and
the
Two
third
(dorsal)
extends
to
the
branch,
In
when
present.
Streptochata
Furthermore,
it
and
Bamhusa,
there
are
three styles.
common
view, as presented
The
that lodi-
He finds that, although two lodicules is the common number, a third (anterior) one occasionally occurs (in
of Rowlee.
From
pendent.
these studies,
it
The
palet
cases in
is
which there
is
is
There are
In
the majority of grasses, the two parts of the palet arise from
85
connection
In this
it
The
sterile.
flower
is
(inner) of
by the
by the
The
lodicules;
is
rep-
is
one whorl
aborted; the
pistil
normal monocot
flower.
Grass-like Plants.
sedges
The
three-carpelled.
of a
resented
is
of distichous bracts.
Grasses
{Cyperacece).
are
closely related
solid
to the
stems,
wall
an achene.
is
adjoins on
its
inner surface.
fruits that
do not
split
page
77,
the
leaves
are
is
closely
two-ranked or distichous.
In
texture,
due
to the deposition of
leaves.
by the presence
segments.
86
References
Baillon,
H.: L'evolution
de
dans
I'mflorescence
les
Bu!
Graminees.
136, 1908.
f.
GoEBEL,
Mann.
Jahresber.
Ein
K.:
Morphologie
zur
Beitrag
Erganzungsband.
GiTERiN, P.: Recherches sur
der
Graser.
Flora,
1895,
361, i88r.
The
true grasses.
German by
Transl. from
Henry Holt
Southworth.
&
Co.,
New
Grasem.
F. L. Scribner
and E. A.
York, 1890.
Osterr. Bot. Ztschr., S5' 81-88,
JiTMELLE, Henri.
Rend. Acad.
Kennedy,
P. B.:
to Their
Note sur
la constitution
du
fruit des
Graminees.
Compt.
The Structure
Morphology and
Classification.
U.
S.
with Reference
of Grasses.
1912.
Piper, C.
n.
s.,
The Terminology
Science,
266, 1910.
Walker,
E. R.:
On
Some
Grasses.
Thesis,
Ward, H. Marshall:
Laboratory.
of
the Caryopsis.
87
CEREALS
.
Cereals are those grasses which are grown for their grain.
Buckwheat
is
fruit (achene) is
ground into
but
flour,
it is
its
not so considered
here.
Buckwheat,
followed here.
of Important Cereals'
there will be a
number
of
it
used?
A "key"
"keys."
sidered.
unknown
plant.
that
is,
Most
of the
"keys"
by
i.e.
an
twos.
The
on the page. In the key to the genera of cereals, they are first divided into
two large groups, the first including Zea, Oryza, Andropogon and Millets;
and the second, Avena, Secale, Triticum and Hordeum. It is seen that those
genera of the first group have "spikelets falling from the inflorescence entire
..." while those of the second group have "spikelets falling from the in"
Each of the two large groups
florescence without the glumes.
For example, the genera Avena,
is again separated into two subdivisions.
Secale, Triticum and Hordeum, are subdivided on the basis of their infloresAvena has a panicle inflorescence, while Secale, Triticum, and Horcences.
deum have a spike inflorescence.
Let us suppose that we have a cereal in hand, the genus of which we wish
to determine.
First of all, it would be necessary to decide whether the
;'' or
"spikelets fall
"spikelets fall from the inflorescences entire
;" if it has the characters
from the inflorescence without the glumes
of the second alternative, we know it is either oats, rye, wheat or barley.
Should the specimen in hand have a spike inflorescence, oats is eliminated
from consideration, and the plant must be either rye, wheat or barley. If,
.
88
by examination
of this
unknown
plant,
it
(barley).
of
One can
see
Consider
"spikelets
fall
from the inflorescence without the glumes, which remain attached to the
rachilla; spikelets one-many-flowered; rachilla often produced beyond the
upper glume; grain with a longitudinal furrow; tuft of hairs at tip of ovary."
Furthermore, that the "inflorescence is a spike"; that there is "one spikelet
at each joint of the rachis," and the "glumes are not bristle-like, but broad."
Spikelets falling
flowered, or
if
tuft
same
plant,
same
i.e.,
Spikelets
much compressed
Spikelets cylindrical or
corn, etc.)
Lemma and
One
Key
to Small-grain Seedlings'
and blade.
The
GRAMINE^
89
Claws hairy.
Sheaths and blades
cum
more or
and velvety,
less.
Emmer
(TrUi-
dicoccum).
and claws
and claws
Collar
Collar
Wheat
slender,
{Triticum astivum).
deum
Nerves
sativum).
of blades
Rye
(Secale cereale).
Durum wheat
{Triticum durum).
References
AarOnsohn,
in Palastina
Verhandl.
Zool.
Bot.
Gesell.
Wien.,
129-143, 1907.
arten.
Getreides.
Jahrb. Deut.
Landw.
Gesell.,
die
Archivs
Berlin, 1885.
Entstehung
fiir
und
das
Biontologie, 1908.
Verhalten
neuer
Getreidevarietaten.
90
Landw.
KuDELKA,
HiTiER, H.
Landw. Jahrb.,
Seigle,
461-478, 1875.
Mais, Sarasin, Millet, Rhiz.
4:
Paris, 1910.
Landw.
Jahrb.
Deut.
Gesell., 1903.
Bot.
Landw.
Ein Beitrag
Halle, 1913.
Entwickelung.
Berlin, 1911.
CHAPTER X
TRITICUM
Habit of Plant.
Wheat
is
(Wheat)
an annual.
Under our
cultural
Roots.
summer
In the germina-
tion of the grain, the primary root (Fig. 2) takes the lead;
may
be added to these.
fully
Permanent
grown.
the
soil
surface,
is
generally about
The
inch below
vertical course.
face
first
However,
favorable
soil
conditions.
Nobbe observed
many
of
more under
The lowest
92
mains
short,
joint also
Leaf.
sometimes
less
than
The wheat
leaf is of the
is
the longest.
split;
The
the ligule
is
Wheat
and the
"head"
spikelets into a
less frequently,
The
Spikelet.
number
is sterile (as
of flowers
in a
in einkorn).
wheat
spikelet
varies from
two
to five.
It has
It
is
life
of the plant at
production of flowers.
This
is
maximum
critical
period
is
The wheat
The fourth
flower
is
TRITICUM
sterile.
As a
In Fig.
28, the
lemmas
93
four.
tip.
It has been
is
Flower
keel,
that, in
There are three stamens with threadand rather large anthers. The single ovary
(Fig. 30).
like filaments
shown
color,
lodicules.
As was
AM.
Fic. 32.
Opening
of
wheat
flower.
(Afler Hays.)
(in
about an hour
(Fig. 32).
warm
From
this latter
hour
until 9:00
94
is
followed
by a period from
turn
followed
is
by an
an increase
of
of
less
-.^o
blooming
and
to 2
up
amount
up
is less
marked on
types of wheat.
fluctuations.
It
is
membranous
there
is
lemma and
palet
which
small extent.
short,
of the glumes.
The anthers
is
fully open,
The head^completes
its
TRITICUM
gamy)
is
95
wheats.
all
Durum
wheat, how-
and
it
has
its
greater dis-
country.
One
Artificial Cross-pollination.
wheat improvement
operation of
is
hybridization.
artificial
of the chief
means
of
cross-pollination.
In this process,
On
is
same day, or on the following morning, pollen is taken from the mature anthers of the
plant .to serve as the male parent, and placed between -the
glumes of the flower from which the stamens have been removed. The chances are that the pollen will reach the
stigma branches of the emasculated flower, germinate, and
the anthers are mature.
the
effect cross-fertilization.
Fertilization
and Maturing
Brenchley
of Grain.
states
two days
after pollination.
time necessary for the pollen grain to germinate, and for the
pollen tube to
Cool weather
will retard
fruit walls
96
Embryo.
In
the very
young
directed
downward
does not
fill
Soon
is parallel
At
(Fig. 33).
first,
its
micropyle
is
by
further
growth.
about
four
About
weeks
week
later,
above the
Brenchley describes
appear
rootlet,
after
pollination.
two other
first
rootlets
pair,
fifth
and
lateral
quite late.
Endosperm.
days after
wote-
In
micropijle'
is
Bessey.)
cells
making
after
pollination.
It
is
held
Grain Coats.
follows
Before
TRITICUM
one row of
many rows of
sometimes
Chlorophyll layer one row of cubical
two, and several in the groove region.
Inner epidermisone row of small
Outer integument two
Inner integument two
Nucellus several layers of thin- walled parenchyma
1.
Outer epidermis
2.
Parenchyma
3.
4.
5.
6.
97
cells.
colorless cells.
layer
cells,
cells.
layers.
layers.
cells
all
The
bounded by a
first
wall (pericarp).
The nucellar tissue, except its epiderby the enlarging embryo. The outer integument (5) and the inner 'epidermis (4) soon disappear. At
At
first,
starch is deposited in the entire ovary wall.
within
it
ceases,
and
its
Two
epidermis.
sist in
ess
of
The
and thicken
their walls.
maturation,
In the proc-
pericarp becomes
The
Ripening Stages.
It
is
customary to speak
of four stages
yellow-ripe,
and
stage,
7
(4)
gold-ripe,
or
dead-ripe stage,
"dough"
j
98
The
is
already
when
the grain
is
squeezed a white,
The full-ripe
torted.
Nowacki
wheat at
Dry substance
in 100 grains,
grams
Milk-ripe
(6)
9
July 13
Yellow-ripe
Full-ripe
The maturity
TEITICUM
99
The dead-ripe
was determined by
the length to which the plumule would grow. For example,
in the above experiment wheat collected in the dough stage
per acre, and in the dead-ripe, 28 bushels.
stage produced the most vigorous seed, as
11
inches long.
Similar
fail
to
germinate.
may
is
be obtained.
Although the
plump
the second
is
wheats
all
Durum
by means
of 100 kernels of
It
is
first
fifth, if
in
a spikelet usually
many
There
is
(stigmatic)
lOO
embryo.
Along the
groove or furrow.
ment
of seed to ovary.
The
position of the
FiG. 34.
grain,
Fig. 34
embryo may be
shows a cross-
embryo
section of grain
pericarp
Pig. 35.
Microscopic section
of
wheat
grain.
The
following layers
may
TRITICUM
1.
2.
Testa,
two layers
cell layers.
of inner integument.
3.
Nucellus.
4.
5.
Starchy endosperm.
composed
01
The
the mature
pericarp of
compressed
grain
is
cells,
The walls
guished.
The
chlorophyll-bearing layer,
layers.
The
verse pits.
now
colorless, is
view,
below these
and lignified.
chlorophyll-bearing
while
thick.
In tan-
appear
strongly
is
cells
trans-
is thin,
cells as
The grains of spelt, emmer, and einkorn have the palet and
lemma attached, and in these the pericarp is more weakly
developed than in the types of wheat with naked grains.
all
much
the
In
wheats, the layers of the grain, both fruit and seed, are
thinner at the embryo end than in the other parts of
fruit.
It is
known
Testa (episperm).
It has
ment
is
testa consists of
composed
of
two rows
The
It
in the develop-
two integuments of
of the testa.
of absorp-
embryo end.
integument.
The
is
amount
is
of
102
yellow.
The proportions
the wheat
whether
is
Brown found
membrane of
Nucellus
It
is
(perisperm).
The
epidermis
It
is
of
nucellus
the
the only
remaining
The mature
nucellus consists of
cells
cavities.
It
possible that in
is
Endosperm.
The
endosperm
consists
of
two portions,
The
cereals are
in the
volume.
found
The endo-
In
endosperm.
all of
The
is
The
first
few days of its growth, or until its roots are taking substances
from the soil, and the young leaves are manufacturing food,
or, in other words, until the young plant has established its
independence.
Aleurone Layer.
This
is
cells
im-
The cells are rather imiformly square or rectangular when viewed in transverse or
longitudinal section, but irregular in shape when viewed perpendicular to the surface. They are stored largely with
mediately within the nucellus.
aleurone grains.
gluten layer.
This layer
is
is
TRITICUM
103
and
This
elongated, thin-walled
is
cells.
the
may
be seen
ing.
Most,
among
if
not
grains.
all,
of the
Protein granules
by appropriate
stain-
all of
the
groove
jlarchy
endosperm-
oiimdnc
ebithelmm
aleurone-
^vascular
bundle of
jcutellum
xuiellumcoleopUle
-^rowin^
epiolajr
W stem
rool
coleorhiza
Fig. 36.
Part
of a
of a grain of wheat;
(After Strasburger.)
much
The percentage
cells
I04
growing point.
is
We
bean or squash.
two cotyledons (seed leaves) which
are brought above ground and function for a while as
green leaves. Plants with two cotyledons are said to be
In
are
these,
all
there are
dicotyledonous.
cotyledon,
The scutellum
morphologically.
of grasses
Plants
like
is
regarded as a
grasses,
sedges,
all
organisms.
in
endosperm
of
the scutellum,
where
columnar epithelium.
It
is
it
The outermost
probably
this layer
layer
is
which secretes
TRITICUM
105
and which
cell to
The embryo
tein,
from
cell to
rich in fat or
oil,
embryo
is
fat
and one-third
Bran Layer.
its
of soluble carbo-
About one-
little starch.
protein, the
two
weight.
and
The
nucellus.
bran
is
and
lignified material.
due to aleurone
cells
all
Wheat bran
to
it.
According
to analyses of
American
five
wheat
and
proteins:
globulin,
albumin, proteose,
gliadin,
Io6
glutenin.
is
The
latter
gluten.
Gliadin
Bran
2.
Aleurone
3.
4.
Embryo
or germ,
homy
is
The "soft" wheats have been regarded with favor for the
making of bread and pastry flours. However, the flour from
soft wheats is said to be "weak," that is incapable of making
a large heavy loaf. At first there was much opposition to
hard wheats, because of
difliculties in milling
and baking.
overcome.
TRITICUM
and Bluestem.
107
wheat.
is
character,
durum
as the climate,
is
wheat.
The wheat
Milling of Wheat.
It
known
as tempering.
thoroughly cleaned
dust particles, and
is first
from grinding up
Then comes
fine.
This
"
I08
according to
size,
next set of
rolls.
comand
The
finely
bolted.
The
starchy endosperm
cells.
dosperm are
and
through
sifted
The
known as
The middlings
larger
and
middlings.
i.e.,
purified,
are
subjected.
sets of
Mills
differ
much
in the grades of
Kinds of Flour.There
"Graham flour"
is
Graham
(i 794-1851),
Its
name
is
flour.
by grinding the
bran.
There are several grades of patent flour, but the most common one on the market is the "straight" or "standard
patent." It is usually a combination of the so-called "first
patent," "second patent," and "first clear" flours. About
72 to 75 per cent, of the total wheat is recovered as "straight"
or "standard patent" flour. It is composed of floury endosperm alone. The ordinary bread flours belong to this
grade.
Other products of the milling process are known as
"second clear" flour, used for low-grade bread, "red dog"
also used for low-grade bread or for cattle feed,
About
and "shorts,
TRITICUM
is
109
The composition
of these varies
milling process.
Germination of Wheat. The time required for germination depends upon external conditions.
The optimum temperature for the germination of wheat is close to 84F., the
niinimum 40 to 43F., and the maximum io8F. Germination will take place under field conditions usually within
from four to ten days.
Nobbe finds that wheat will
begin to germinate in one and three-fourth days at
65F., two days at 6oF., three days at SoF., and six days
at 4oF.
the
is
first
to appear.
2.
It ruptures the
it
lateral roots
The
The
coleoptile of
cereals.
depth
of
seeding.
broken by the
is left
The
wheat
common
of
the coleoptile
The cotyledon
is
(scutellum)
Repeated Germination.
of a
young
number
The grains
of wheat,
repeated germination.
grain
may
no
Kind
of seed
TRITICUM
Spikelets
III
terminal spikelet
fertile;
as long as lenmia.
brittle, articulated,
lemma.
T.
spelta (spelt).
on stem;
flattened
usually
Empty glumes
to the base;
lemma
bearded.
Spike with sides parallel or nearly so; glumes with a bloom, usually
glabrous; grain very hard, horny,
long.
T.
durum (durum
wheat).
and
softer
T. turgidum
(Poulard wheat).
Empty glumes
lemma sometimes
bearded.
The types
of
wheat
fall
into
T.
parallel or nearly
to the
lemma and
palet,
is fragile
{T.
mono-
112
fertile,
however.
Aaron-
It
is
is
some extent
in Spain,
Germany,
Fig. 38.
Spikes of the types of wheat, i, Polish wheat (Triticum polonicum) 2, club wheat (T. compactum) 3, common bread wheat (T. aestivum)
4', Poulard wheat (T. turgidum); s. durum wheat (T. durum); 6, spelt (T.
spelta); 7, emmer (T. dicoccum); 8, einkorn (T. monococcum).
;
and Switzerland. Grains in the ear have been found in the remains near the
homes of Swiss lake-dwellers of the Stone Age. It is a native of Asia Minor.
Triticum csgilopoides is considered to be the wild form of our cultivated einkorn. This wild species is divided into the two subspecies: T. thaoudar and
T. boeoticum.
In the
first,
is fertile,
is fertile
and awn-bearing.
There
is
in color.
a difference
of opinion as to
"3
TEITICUM
T. polonicum (Polish wheat)
and Abyssinia
T. spella (spelt)
Roman
It
in Africa.
Empire.
is
It
is
is
of slight
T. dicoccum (emmer)
is
of
in this
country,
Western States.
T. durum (durum) varieties are also known as "goose," "wild goose,"
and "macaroni" wheats. They are hard wheats, particularly adapted
to the arid regions, where they are better yielders than aslivum wheats.
especially in the
cum);
natural
size.
Durum wheat
wheats.
The
resembles barley.
Its
is
The
There is a tendency
to form branching spikes, as in Alaskan and Seven-headed or Egjrptian
varieties.
Such varieties also go under such common names as Stoner,
Miracle, Eldorado, Jerusalem, Many-headed, Many-spiked, Wild Goose, etc.
spikes are quadrangular or rectangular in cross-section.
114
Pacific
stand outright.
T. cesiivum
(common wheat)
varieties of astivum.
Origin of Wheat.
of
Lake
hermonis Cook)
(T.
Later, in an expedition in
40).
Upper
(Fig.
He
indigenous to Syria.
a form with a
coides,
of wheat.
fragile
type
size to those of
is
wheats, whatever
rachis
is
it is, is
one with a
fragile rachis.
The rigid
known
It is
such as emmer.
Furthermore,
all
and
have a fragile rachis. The only cultivated
wheats of today with brittle rachises are einkorn, emmer,
and spelt.
It is observed that cross-pollination is more prevalent in
Aaronsohn's primitive wheat than in cultivated forms. This
may be due to the fact that it grows in a warm, dry climate,
while most cultivated wheats belong to northern climates,
genera and
Agropyron,
etc.,
TRITICUM
IIS
ii6
In
wheat
is
in northern climates.
by
the spikelet.
It
first
spikelets to
de-
first
Primi-
ones.
wheat
also
The
The smaller
size.
by the lower
grain
is
borne
awn
too.
all,
of the primi-
Fig. 41.
let of
cum
dicoccoides)
prototype.
2. Emmer series, of which T. dicoccoides is the stem
have come dicoccum, durum, turgidum, and polonicum.
From this have come
3. Spell series, of which the stem form is unknown.
spella, compactum, asliimm, and capUatumi
form.
From
this
Enviromnental Relations.
Wheat
is
Some
TRITICUM
117
Rocky Moun-
and up
tains.
year
is
summer
season
is
Winter wheats are able to resist low temlonger periods than spring wheats.
dry matter.
the
number
of units of
Some
re-
defined as
The
Plant
genus
Proso
293
Millet
310
Sorghum
322
Com
368
Wheat
S13
Barley
534
578
Buckwheat
Oats
597
*
Rye
68s
Beet, sugar
397
636
Potato
Pea,
Canada
788
field
831
Alfalfa
If
of
is
regarded as
1912,
sorghum
i.io; corn,
1.26;
wheat
is
i,
as follows:
1.76; barley
Il8
in a fertile
soil.
The
amount
the total
application of fertilizers
of water taken in
by the
may
increase
plant,
due
to
dry matter
The
is
lowered.
effect of climate
and
soil
on the composition
of the
Uses
of
Wheat.
By
As already
varieties, are
products.
first
Fig. 42.
of the world's
It is freed then of
bran.
kneeding.
The dough
stiff
is
which it
dough are then carefully dried in a manner to prevent them
from becoming too brittle or sour. Vermicelli and spaghetti
..
TRITICTTM
119
Wheat Production
Acres
State
North Dakota..
Kansas
Minnesota
Nebraska
South Dakota..
4,310,000
Illinois
2,800,000
Washington..
Indiana
Ohio
All other States
United States.
8,350,000
8,525,000
3,947,000
3,725,000
2,000,000
2,750,000
1,980,000
21,511,000
Bushels
1
TRITICUM
12
in Palestine:
U.
S.
Dept.
DoNDLiNGER, P. T.
Eriksson,
J.:
The Book
of
Wheat.
Landw.
Presse,
MoBius, F.
gare.
Untersuchungen
Osborne, T.
B.:
The
Protein of
Wheat
Druck von
Kernel.
Triticum vul-
F. StoUberg, Merseburg.
EcKERSoN, Sophia H.. Microchemical Studies in the Progressive Development of the Wheat Plant. Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 139; 1-20, 1917.
122
L.).
Mitt. Naturf.
dicoccoides.
ScoFiELD, Carl
Ten Eyck,
S.:
descriptions.
U.
S.
The Roots
A. M.:
classified list,
with
7: 1-48, 1902.
199-252, 1904.
CHAPTER XI
AVENA
(Oats)
Habit of Plant.
varieties are
about the
first
foot of
somewhat deeper
is
soil,
in oats.
To quote
roots of oats extend to a depth of 4 or 5 feet.
from Ten Eyck, "Extending down from the center of the
root crown of each plant in this example was observed a short
rudimentary root stem which ended abruptly with a sUght
The
fine, wire-like
enlarged
is
were most
young
soil
The
was
conditions
root crown formed considerably above the seed, the lower root
larger in diameter
and
softer.
The number
of joints in the
123
124
tinguishes
it
which also
dis-
cereals.
Inflorescence.
panicle.
The
Fio. 44.
of a higher order
is
cymose
(Fig.
44).
(After Broili.)
The number
of
AVENA
125
Fig. 45.
orientalis),
the panicle
to top.
is
one-
sativa),
45)
Four main
Experiment Station, as
(2)
stiff
and upright,
126
spreading,
(4)
with
panicle
undulating.
pedicel,
'
r/j/
Fig. 46.
Spikelet
of panicle oats
(Avena
glume
sativa).
X aM-
imperfect.
there
is
If a large
usually
from that
panicle.
The two empty glumes are unequal, and longer than the
lemma. The lemma is rounded on the back, acute, and
usually bears an awn which is dorsally attached. As a rule,
AVENA
the lower flower
is
is
127
The
palet
It fits closely
about the grain. Stamens three. Style branches two, plumose. Lodicules two, very evident at flowering time.
Opening
of
opens at the
tip first.
The
inflorescence
is
completed
The
in six to
opens
first,
seven days.
In the
chief
4 :oo p.m.
parenchyma
layer begins.
seems to be a less
than in wheat.
the
and palet form the "hull" (Fig. 47). The quaUty of oats
judged largely on the basis of per cent, hull and kernel.
Hull usually forms from 25 to 33 per cent, of grain weight,
but may be as low as 20 per cent, or as high as 45 per cent.
is
128
The percentage
less
of hull in the
upper grains
It
is
of a spikelet
is
The
ripening ones.
em ma
-rachilla
s^rchv
endosperm
ones.
Furthermore, there
is
an oat variety
of hull
is
is
if it is
poorly adapted.
AVENA
129
of a spikelet.
commonly
carries
no
rachilla, or
is
only a
fine, thread-like
one
The base
short
at the
and hairiness
is
pointed.
is
two layers
(7)
two rows
one
starchy endosperm.
of
bread.
cell
of cells;
times one)
In this respect
it
oats,
it
resembles barley.
from the
and the embryo are
wheat
grain.
The other
grain coats
very similar.
Germination of Oats. The cardinal temperatures (maximum, optimum and maximum) for oats are about the same
as they are for wheat.
The
The primary
root,
coleoptile is closed.
however, rup-
The
first foliage
130
Classification of Oats.
United
States
orientalis,
three
and A. nuda.
The
given as varieties of
Avena
into
fall
sativa
Avena sativa, A.
two are sometimes
species:
latter
sativa.
(panicle
oats).
The
common
oats belong
varieties.
oat
The grains
It
may
of this
be either a
In addition
to the three
common
Avena
Avena fatua
("wild oats").
The
so-called "wild
oat"
is
AVENA
latter
lemma and on
131
hairs at the base of the
the rachilla.
It differs
Origin of Oats.
It
is
A.
fatua.
orientalis,
Under
slrigosa
by Haussknecht, Thellung,
A.
held
all
and A.
hairs and, in
brevis
some
come from A.
sterilis,
A. byzantina has
region.
sterilis
is
the
common
and
there.
cultivated variety
ized
rachilla,
which
persists
flower.
from the
In those
carrying
away
the rachilla at
sterilis,
its
base.
1,^2
and
United States.
is
altitudes.
oats
latter
in the
Northern States
is
spring-sown.
of oats
is
corn, the United States also leads all other countries in the
production
Illinois
of
oats.
Russia
is
second.
close
Iowa,
in 1915.
United States
Russia, European ....
Germany
Canada
France
Austria-Hungary
United Kingdom
Sweden
Argentina
*
No
official statistics
Acres
40,780,000
Bushels
AVENA
The Production of Oats
States
in
133
Bushels
Acres
dollars
Iowa
4,950,000
190,000,000
Illinois
4,343,000
i9S.43S,ooo
68,402,000
Minnesota
Wisconsin
North DakotaSouth Dakota
Nebraska
Ohio
Indiana
Michigan
3,125,000
134,375,000
43,000,000
2,150,000
99,975,000
35,991,000
2,450,000
98,000,000
26,460,000
1,725,000
72,450,000
20,286,000
2,200,000
70,400,000
21,824,000
1,683,000
69,003,000
24,841,000
1,638,000
65,520,000
22,277,000
1,530,000
64,260,000
22,490,000
14,986,000
472,944,000
206,638,000
1,540,362,000
555,569,000
United States.
40,780,000
63,360,000
References
Atteeberg, a.
nordischen Haferformen.
Hafer im Bilde.
Fiihling's
Landw.
1910.
Hafer im Bilde.
P. Parey.
Cannon, W.
A.:
Proc. Cal.
Acad.
Sci. Ser.
Embryo
3, I,
of the
No. 10:
329-364, 1900.
CriddLE, N.
The
So-called
Ottawa
Wild Oats and False Wild Oats; Their Nature and Distinctive Characters.
Canada Dept. Agr. Bull. 7: i-ii, 1912.
Denaiite and Sieodot: L'avoine, etc. Paris, 1902, 210 figures, pp. 848.
Fruwith, C: Die Haferrispe bei der Beurteilung der Sorten und in der
Zuchtung. Fiihling's Landw. Ztg., S. 289, 1907.
Haselhoff, E.: Vergleichende Untersuchungen deutscher und amerikanischer Haferkorner. Landw. Vers. Stat., 65: 339-349, 1907.
134
RlMPAU, W.
Saatgerste.
1,
des Saathafers.
N.
1914.
Bliite
Thellung,
a.:
Uber
die
die
Trabut, L. Origin
:
of Cultivated Oats.
74-85,
1915-
Compt. Rend.,
ViERHAppEE,
F.:
K. K.
CHAPTER
HOKDEUM
XII
(Barley)
summer
or winter annual.
new
July sent up
Barley
is grown as
observed
been
It has
has a distinct tendency
like rye.
mowed down
in
culti-
The
from
five to
from
not
which increases
below upward.
tiller
Barley does
as abundantly as oats
and
winter wheat.
those of
ever,
are
usually
nounced, and
may
very
much
pro^
Fig. 48.
Rachises of
common cereals.
three
A, barley; B, wheat; C,
rye.
S-
The
136
types.
The rachis is strongly compressed. Opposite each
point on the rachis where the spikelets stand, there is a
sharply defined horizontal cushion (Fig. 48). This dis-
wheat and
rye.
lemma
At each
on a short branch or rachilla, which is produced beyond the flower and appears as a bristle (Fig. 51)
lying within the groove of the grain. As in wheat, there is
Each
spikelet
is
HORDEUM
137
and Flower.
Each spikelet
is
one-flowered
The
in-
FiG. 50.
I, triplet of spikelets of six-rowed barley (Hordeum vulgare
hexastichon) 2, of hooded barley (H. vulgare trifurcatum) 3, of medium
barley (H. vulgare intermedium); 4, of two-rowed barley (H. distichon). Nat.
;
138
is
exposed, for
by
molds
is
furnished.
The
two
palet
ridges.
is
The
different types.
Opening
of
Pollination.
of
Flower and
blooming
The
spike
begins
slightly
come
maturity
earlier
laterals.
The duration
than
to
the
of
blooming varies.
Three to
four days is a good average
for a single spike, and seven
to nine days for all spikes of
a plant. The glumes of a
flower remain open from
twenty to thirty minutes.
This period
lemma
starchij
enSospermi
Pic. si.
depends upon
weather conditions.
In
two-rowed
barley,
the
bloom
with
lateral
nodding
flowers
open glumes,
while the middle ones seldom
open.
Four-rowed barley
almost always blooms with open flowers, both middle and
side.
In two-rowed erect barley, six-rowed barley and
peacock barley, the flowers bloom with closed glumes.
It
is
HORDEUM
139
weak
in
bility
of
while
cross-pollination,
in
peacock,
six-rowed,
is little
will
strains.
Blooming
in barley begins
increasing in intensity
up
to 8:00 a.m.
There
is
a slight
amount
may bloom
with
much
has
the
Kudelka
of
two rows
of cells, however.
is
an
and
of pericarp
and nucellar
cells.
The barley
full-ripe,
grain passes
and dead-ripe
I40
"naked"
in
common
wheat.
both
In the
come loose
The kernel of naked
The
It
is,
kernels
however, pointed at
broadest at the
are
twisted and those from the middle rows are broadest near
the
tip.
The character
of this bristle
is
of
some
syste-
matic importance.
The
hull
grain
shape,
and perhaps
season,
Furthermore,
Lemma and
2.
palet, five to
seven rows of
cells.
parenchyma
cells
Aleurone
Starchy endosperm.
As
in rye and wheat, the fruit and seed coats are more
weakly developed at the embryo end than in other parts of
the grain.
IIORDEUM
141
The embryo
It occupies
The
Hordeum.
'
The endosperm
Mealiness
translucent.
is
epiblast
is
varies from
mealy
to glassy or
The
protein.
amounts
relative
and protein
of starch
The two-rowed
in the
exclusively in brewing.
There
is
light
He
barley grains.
in barley:
its alkaline
is
says:
black.
The
sperm.
cated.
compound
in
of all
compound
like
and occasionally
pigment; a heavy
The
acid condition of
blue-gray.
White
is
cyanin
is
ing that these tissues are in an acid condition, and always blue
in the aleurone layer,
The
142
minimum
energy"
maximum
37.4 to 39.2F.,
much emphasis
brewing,
is
By
of the grain.
optimum
68F.
In
82.4 to 86F.
this is
meant
germi-
its ability to
when kept
is
at 64.4 to
68F.
Much
importance
meant
is
endosperm
of
in the
germinating of barley
is
preferred
by
this
enzyme
dissolving
diastase.
matic secretions.
The enzymes
cytase,
it is
It has
quite
is
the
Mann and
cells,
the principal
diastase.
in
is
to sugar.
to soluble
and
plant.
Cytase
a cellulose-dissolving enzyme.
young
Protease
HORDEUM
grows under the lemma and palet
grain and there becomes free.
143
to the anterior
The
end of the
Jemma
'
Jndicule
'j^
^stamen
Fig. 52.
Diagrams showing the relative position of spikelets in barleys.
A, six-rowed (Hordeum vulgare hexastichon) B, four-rowed barley (H. vulgare pallidum); C, two-rowed barley (H. distichon); D, medium barley (H.
vulgare intermedium).
(After Broili.)
;
and the
first
barley, the
In the germination of
twisted.
This
is
character-
144
istic
The term
of barley.
"acrospire"
sometimes applied
is
to these leaves.
The crown
If
the grain
roots are
is
is
soil level.
formed, such
Barleys-^There
Classification of
much
is
difference of
There are at
cluding
least
two distinct
six-rowed
the
species:
barleys,
Hordeum
vulgare, in-
and Hordeum
distichon,
Hordeum
It
will
is fertile.
The
distinct rows
lemmas
The
rachis inter-
The
kernels from the outer rows are twisted, those from the
thick.
is
The
sorts.
Hordeum
vulgare
(common
six-rowed
the lemmas of
the "hull"
It differs
is thick;
all spikelets
and there
is
This
is
spikelet
is
barley).
Every
not equal distances from each other about the axis (Fig.
52).
The
lateral grains of
one
triplet
Hence, there
will
the central grains of each triplet forming two rows and the
HORDEUM
145
Furthermore,
to 3.5 millimeters)
results in a
A
is
more
the
It is also often
"hooded barley."
Jerusalem barley.
mally formed, the four lateral ones being beardless and smaller.
It is quite probable that the intermedium forms are segregates
Hordeum
distichon
(two-rowed
barley).
In
As
this,
the
in six-rowed
on opposite
sides of the rachis, but in the case of two-rowed barley, the
lateral spikelets of each triplet do not mature, only the middle
one of each maturing its grain (Figs. 49 and 52). However,
anthers of side
developed.
rical
The
spikelets
in the middle.
of.
The
and broadest
a low percentage
may
The
hull
is
symmet-
thin.
There
is
common
146
I.
(Fig. 53).
The
and
short,
about 6
Pig. 53.
Spikes of barleys,
i, two-rowed nodding barley (Hordeum distichon nutans); .i, medium barley (H. vulgare intermedium); 3, four-rowed
barley (H. vulgare pallidum); 4, hooded barley (H. vulgare trif urcatum) 5,
six-rowed barley (H. vulgare hexastichon)
;
HORDEUM
3.
this the
is
54).
Fig. 54.
4.
In
In
rounded
hump shows
2.1
to 2.7 millimeters
(Fig.
long.
Bases
(Hordeum
tum).
On
The
147
(After
Newman.)
Hordeum
this the
nodding barley)
On
a slight horseshoe-shaped
depression.
slopes off
is
ripe.
148
The
long.
rachilla is
The noted
to this type.
There
deum spontaneum
to
forms.
form
of
by
latter
be the prototype of
is
all
our cultural
and its
The variety nutans first arose
from the wild form. From this came erectum, by a shortening of the rachis joints.
From erectum, came zeocriton by
stronger awns, larger side spikelets, perennial habit,
stronger tendency to
still
of the fruit
the
tiller.
four-rowed
fertile.
and an enlargement
From nutans
barleys.
Through a process
tar}',
in
which
Rimpau
all
side spikelets
become rudimen-
spring-sown.
graphical range.
As a spring-sown crop
It is grown as far as
it
all
barley
65 N. latitude in
southern California.
HORDEUM
Barley
between
stands
oats
149
and wheat
in
its
water
requirement.
Uses
of Barley.
greatest use
is
of uses.
Its
The two-rowed
It
is
are
grown
as hay.
Barley
is
nurse crop
is
A pasture crop is
inhibit
and then
The
BreAving Process.
Brewing
and
to this are
Malting.
In
The barley grains are steeped for about fortyand then spread out on the malting
The temperature of the air in the malting room is
purposes.
Germination
is
ISO
where
it is
sufficient to
there
is
thoroughly dry
it
During germination,
out.
also secreted
is
by the germinating
barley; this
Pep-
enzyme
Mashing.
in
is cleaned, and
mixed with water, and
as above,
It is then
cereals.
The mash
is
then held
and pepwhich chemically invert the starch into maltose, maltodextrin and dextrin, and change the insoluble albuminoids
at the proper temperature for the action of diastase
tase,
to a soluble form.
called
"wort."
introduction of yeast
is
called "pitching."
Through the
changed to alcohol
The wort has been changed to beer.
is
Production of Barley.
The
United
Germany, and Austria-Hungary, producing respectively 475,109,000; 277,009,000; 150,000,000; and 136,186,000
States,
bushels.
HORDEUM
151
Acres
North Dakota..
Minnesota
California
South Dakota.
Wisconsin
Iowa
Kansas
All other States.
152
its
V.:
Morphology
Enzyme-secreting Areas.
U.
of the Barley
S.
Grain with
1-32, 1915.
QuANTE, Hugo: Die Gerste, ihre botanischen und brautechnischen Eigenschaftcn und ihre Anbau. Berlin, 1913.
RiMPAU, W. Die genetische Entwicklung der verschiedenen Formen unserer
Saatgerste. Landw. Jahrb., 21: 699-702, 1892.
:
1912.
Mott. Naturf.
S. 194, 1906.
Jour. Landw.,
ZoBL, A., and Mikosch, C: Die Funktion der Grannen der Gerstenahre,
Zitzber. Akad. Wiss. (Vienna) Math. Naturw. Kl., loi: Abt. i, 10331060, 1892.
CHAPTER
XTII
SECALE CEREALE
Habit
of Plant, Roots.
Rye
an annual.
is
(Rye)
may
field
It is reported,
may
cause
it
no doubt a reversion
to the perennial habit displayed by the species from which
our cultivated rye came.
Rye throws out a whorl of four primary roots, thus differThis
is
The
and extends
5 feet.
Stems, Leaves.
depth of 4 or
The
commonly
The
There
This
is
a spike.
rowed.
It
is
is
The
usually
somewhat
Th ere
is
153
154
stigmas.
Opening
Rye is
the only
common
cross-fertilized.
and
Fertilization.
is
regularly
self-fertilized
Apparently,
on the
and C,
XS-
no
ill
effects result
from
self-fertilization of barley,
wheat and
oats.
is
im-
minutes after
it
ceive pollen.
SECALE CEREALE
The
in the evening.
155
first
flowers to open
It has been ob-
is
similar to that of
wheat, as are also the changes which take place in the grain
during
its
ripening.
The mature
palet.
It
long, narrow,
is
The
is free
wheat.
cross-section of the
grain.
Gluten
made
be
is
may
common
small cereals, wheat and rye possess gluand barley do not. The flour from rye is
more s.tarchv than that from wheat.
Germination of Rye.^ Under favorable conditions, germi-
that of the
The
maximum
87F.,
By
is
77F.,
33.8F., to 35.6F.
may
As a
The
tillers
at the
rye
all
cereale.
This
origi-
montanum.
fragile
rachis,
differs
from 5.
cereale in the
rootstock.
Environmental Relations.
Rye
is
156
In some sections
it is
grown
is
fed to stock.
as green manure.
The straw
and
finds consider-
manufacture
straw
and
it is
articles.
Production of Rye.
of rye in 1915;
Germany ranked
The
and Nebraska.
References
RiMPAU, W.: Die Selbst Sterilitat des Roggens. Landw. Jahrb., 6, 1877.
ScHULz, August.: Die Geschichte des Roggens. Jahresbericht des Westfalischen Provinzial-Vereins fUr Wissenschaft und Kunst (zu Munster)
fur 1910-1911, 39:153-163, 1911.
und
ihrer Geschichte,
I.
Das
des
Blilhen
Roggens (Secale
cereale).
Ostrk.
Landw.
Wchnbl.,
1906, p. 163.
Die BlUh- und Fruchtbarkeitverhaltnisse bei Roggen und Gerste und das
Auftreten von Mutterhorn. Fuhlings Landw. Ztg., 55:194-199, 1906.
Ulrich, C. Die Bestaubung und Befruchtung des Roggens. Inaug. Diss.,
:
Jena, 1902.
WiTTMACK, L.
cereale.
tJber
die
CHAPTER XIV
ZEA (Com, Maize)
Habit of Plant, Roots.
Corn
is
distinctly
summer
annual.
The
root system
is
fibrous.
The contrary
the case.
is
At maturity the roots come to fill the upper 3 feet of soil and,
under some conditions, may reach to a depth of 4 or 5 feet
(Fig. 56).
The depth of planting appears to bear no relation to the depth of rooting, for the first whorl of roots usually
forms about
soil surface,
no matter how
is
planted.
It will be
crown.
Two
{a) main
and {b) main lateral roots. Vertical roots
curve out slightly from the crown and go directly downward.
The laterals curve downward, as they leave the crown, then
vertical roots
of planted grain,
soil
Midway
iS8
hill,
The
ground
may
soils
line
A root system of corn (Zea mays) the squares are one foot on a
B, prop or aerial roots of corn. (A, redrawn from U. S. Dept. Agri.; B,
somewhat modified after Bailey.)
Fig. 56.
side;
ficial
The
or
roots of
wet
soil
soil.
ZEA
This
is
159
moisture supply.
The amount
of
oxygen in the
we
decreases
air
cell
soils.
nection,
immediately surrounding
diffuse to
down through
it
is
numerous
In this con-
soil.
soil so
that oxygen
maturity there
All
may more
main
easily
in the soil.
number
soil.
main
may
face.
This statement
is
of observers (Sturtevant,
Eyck, Hays).
below the
The depth
soil surface,
}4,
they
If it is so
first
based on records of
cultivation.
is
is
When
root system
is
soil
depth of
decreased.
l6o
Stem. Corn is the largest of the common cereals. Howno other cereal varies so in size. There are dwarf forms
scarcely 3 feet high, while some are 15 or more feet high.
The stem is jointed as in all grasses. The internodes, however, are not hollow, but are filled with a soft pith through
which run numerous vascular bundles, the libers. The
ever,
nodes are
solid
as in other grasses.
leaf blade.
The corn
leaf blade,
number
of
In
Hence the
leaf
is
much
In addi-
cuticle of the
l6l
ZEA
FiG. 57.
Pistillate
is
and statninate
tural
both
sides.
Ordinarily,
Inflorescence.
corn
is
monoecious, that
is.
l62
same plant
The staminate
(Fig. 57).
stalk;
in a spike
leaf lower
inflorescence
The
"tassel."
known
is
which
is
down on
the
as
borne
When
the stem.
is
mature,
The
and
spike-like.
central
and
the
In
of spikelets, in pairs.
One
of spikelets, in pairs.
pair
or in
spikelet of each
is
groups of spikelets
may
Staminate Spikelet.
sessile^
The
overlap.
nate spikelet bears two flowers, each producing three perfect stamens and a rudimentary
pistil (Fig. 60).
The glumes
are seven- to
lemma
is
size.
The
two-nerved.
The two lodicules are fleshy
and truncate. The anthers are long. The
upper flower of a spikelet matures; .first; its
Fig. 58. A palet is larger than the lemma, while in the
single
branch
of
florescence
of
is
Pistillate
Characteristics
lemma
palet.
.-
-The
ear
Inflorescence
(Fig.
61)
is
("ear^')
General
borne on a short
ZEA
branch, the so-called "shank."
number
163
The blades
each node.
have been
lemmas
pediceljak
jeaile
spihelet
Fig. 59.
A'pair
pistillate
axis, the
The
collection
of leaf sheaths
The
mays)
"cob."
164
What
Is,
the
theories as to the
of
Hackel and
of
Harshberger
a
fusion
is
of
is
number
pistillate spikes.
the result of
two-rowed
of
is
paired rows.
summarized as
1.
few
He
belief
may
be
follows:
pistillate flowers
central spike
fair-
P, rudimentary
joint of rachilla.
pistil; J,
(After
Weatkerwax.)
He
surrounding a central
twelve-rowed
3.
The
well-developed
ear.
late flowers
much more
one
number
of
rows of
The
central
spikelets.
ZEA
165
(a)
difference
(b)
Fig. 61.
Corn (Zeamays).
Young
pistillate inflorescence
("ear"), showing
Lemma
and palet
of
becomes pistillate.
become pistillate.
Sessile flower
Both
flowers
66
Montgomery.
is
Montgomery
had a common
grass,
ancestor, which
/l^ glume
Jet
of
lower
-kmma
'
Zud
Fig. 62.
much
if
flower
^lume
enlarged.
(After Nees.)
He
bearing
hermaphrodite
flowers."
while,
pollen.
by
Each normal
two
ZEA
flowers, the lower
The
palet
one of which
and lemma
is
167
and 63).
and form
subtended
abortive^ (Figs. 62
The
spikelet
is
by two glumes that are shorter than the ovary, very broad
and fleshy at the base, thin membranous above and fringed
in the Country Gentleman variety of corn, that some
two well-developed flowers inside each pair of glumes. He
further points out that the irregularity in the arrangement of grains on the
ear may be due to the development of the second flower in some of the spikeThe same has been
lets, which tends to throw some of the grains out of line.
noted by Sturtevant and Kempton.
'
spikelets bear
1 68
on the edges.
corn
is
compound stigma
silk
possibly
all.
hot, dry
The
silk
its length,
silks,
thus
Fertilization of the
not mature.
is
considered by
by a
the stylar
canal,
canal.
flower;
fertile
the
lodicules
are
absent.
The small
pistil
about
Hermaphroditic Flowers.
Ordinarily
Perfect
Hermathan on
is
ditic flowers
in fertile
pistillate
flowers.
types of ears.
had three
fully
The
plants
ZEA
169
5 feet high,
with short
Opening
of the Flowers,
and
Pollination.
consequently cross-fertilization,
tion,
the
chief
factors
pollen
in
is
Cross-pollina-
the rule in
Wind and
dissemination,
com but
gravity are
although bees
the
flowers
wind.
flowers
first
open are those near the upper part of the central spike;
blooming spreads both upward and downward, more rapidly
downward. The same order of blooming occurs on the
to
branches of the
The time
tassel.
of pollen shedding
ditions.
shedding of pollen.
On
Hence
silks.
much
it
may happen
of the pollen
is
filling of
is
results.
some instances,
of the pollen
the ear
shed during
weather.
investigating a
number
ance of
first silks,
Both
may
occur.
170
viduals,
protandry
(stigmas mature
(anthers
first)
may
mature
occur.
first)
Out
protogyny
or
of 2,794 individuals
examined, he found 243 individuals homogamous, 92 protogynous, and 2,459 protandrous. It appears,
then, that protandry is the rule in corn.
In protandrous
in 59 varieties
from one to
is
two days.
dent, soft,
flint,
and sweet.
Collins records
introduced
dichogamy
is
clude self-pollination.
made
observations as to the
He
finds,
the
number
of
nine days after the tassel, and that in more than half of
the individuals the
first
is
estimated
but
its
germinating power
is
not
ZEA
destroyed by
much
171
this.
all
or
"filling
The
out" of
silks
fertihzation
cut
wet weather
ears.
by
may
cold,
its
silk receives
down
is
when
not
the
Silk exposed
when
prevented
tips
of
Again,
silks
are
off.
Fertilization,
and Development
silk,
of the Grain.
is
Just prior
Th^
The
ovary
is
on a stalk
ovule almost
fills
(rachilla)
about
It
is
is
attached to the
its
circumference.
This opening
is
just
is
before fertilization,
row
of epidermal cells.
1.
Single
2.
size.
3.
of a pit
cells.
"a
172
This
is
probably
by Poindexter.
maturing grain:
1
Outer integument disappears.
2. Cells of inner integument become flattened, due to
pressure from within.
3
cells of
Hardening of the
cell
ZEA
the grain that
the
is
formed by
phenomena
this
Thus double
endosperm.
yellow
173
explains
fertilization
of xenia.
if
in the
first is
been found
men-
the female
red.
plants
may
ears on
The
both in the
tassel
with a few or
different plants,
and from
to these
many
In corn
possible
it is
own
tassel.
Hence,
we
kernels,
it
many
usually
different
This
is
well
shown
in variegated ears.
example,
if
may be
some
For
of the ovules
174
If xenia
the yield
is
If
our ordinary
However, as a
considerably reduced.
this inbreeding,
we may be
sure that
all
result of
qualities.
strain that
which
is
is
not so complex in
its
Furthermore,
artificial
results in a
characters, that
is,
a race
of Corn.
The
ZEA
it is
175
The broader
cob.
surface
is
may
embrvn
At
of the flower.
often
style.
the broad surface will show, with magnification, the following parts.
1.
2.
3.
Nucellar tissue.
4.
row
two
layers.
5.
Starchy endosperm.
6.
Horny endosperm.
7.
Embryo.
8.
Tip
The
cap.
It is possible to
The
following
is
by Hopkins, Smith,
and East:
Per cent.
Embryo
Tip cap
"HuU"
Aleurone layer
Horny endosperm
Starchy endosperm
1 1
i.S
6.0
8.0 to 14.0
43.0
25.0
176
Of
course, there
of these parts,
and
is
20 to 25 per cent.
contains about
Variation in the shape of corn grains. Which is the best propor(After Mich. Agr. Exp. Sla. Bull. 34.)
tioned kernel? Why?
Fig. 65.
cent.).
The germ
is
rich in
oil,
and 19
oil
As
In high-protein corn kernels, the horny endosperm excomes into contact with the embryo,
tends up to and
by
between
it
The embryo
it
is
much
larger in
ZEA
Embryo.
In the normal
177
flower, the
embryo
of corn
is
on
Inverted
is
This inversion
due to
late spikelet.
On
of wheat.
made
out.
account of
its
The
pri-
mary
as
starches.
All or
most
from aggregates.
Germination of Com.
clefts,
The germination
Maize.
of corn
may
be
178
maximum
is,
as in other cereals, a
more or
less
the grain.
phologists.
named
the mesocotyl
may
up
to 36 centimeters in length.
Classification.
corn are
all
The many
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
most important
of
*The
specific
following.
name "mays"
is
omitted,
for
corn.
convenience,
from the
ZEA
79
and
subspecies
ramosa.
for
China.
This has erect leaf blades, some upper leaves arranged in a monostichous manner, silks developing inside the
leaf sheath,
Fig. 66.
The six principal types of corn. From left to right,
corn, flint corn, dent corn, soft corn, and sweet corn.
{After
pop
producing
branches.
many
is
Zea
pod corn,
Montgom-
a branching plant
It has been
produced
artificially
by
crossing a
teosinte.
It is said to grow wild in
Mexico at the present time. Zea mays jap onica is an ornamental sort with small, flinty grains. Zea mays hirta is a
hairy. South American corn.
Zea mays curagua is a form
l8o
to "Species Groups" of
in
Corn
is
also
is
when heat
and tough; excessive proportion of horny
(corneous) endosperm; kernels and ears small, Zea everta (pop corn).
applied; pericarp
is
thick
No
no indentation; the
mummy
flint
corn;
less
homy and
trans-
lucent in appearance.
corn).
drawing in
(Fig. 64),
of pericarp
Zea indurata
(flint corn).
ZEA
l8l
small, angular,
Fig. 67.
Teosinte
in
power to
mature starch normally.
Origin of Maize. Although maize or Indian corn has been
as dent,
flint,
lost the
82
unknown
in the
is dis-
wild state.
is
Harshberger
is
result of a cross
com
is
the
of the
to
be much
pod corn {Zea tunicata). Montgomery suggests that teosinte and corn had a common ancestor, which was a "large, much-branched grass, each branch
being terminated by a tassel-like structure, bearing herma-
phrodite flowers."
America.
is
number
East
a native of semi-trop-
of
been extended
of varieties will
mature
to
raised in
still
mature the
is
too short
grain.
now grown
quite abundantly throughout northern Wisconsin; they are better adapted to cool
climates than dent corn.
In general, corn is not a big crop
Flint varieties are
is
The
principal corn
is
cool nights.
ZEA
183
between that
There
of
Corn
is
There
is
The
critical
month
is
July.
Smith says that the most critical ten-day period for corn, in
Ohio, is from August i to 10, the period following blossoming,
when the weather must be wet and moderately cool.
In the corn districts west of the 95 th meridian, hot winds
sometimes prove fatal to corn. These winds are particularly
harmful during the critical periods of "tasseling" and
"silking."
is
will
in a well-drained,
grow on
medium loam
soil,
such
It
Uses
of
Com.
uses as
is
corn.
No other
cereal
is
Some economical
put
to such a variety of
ment with
which
is
used
l84
Corn
oil
is
When
freshly
employed in the
manufacture of soap, and paints, and when mixed with linCorn oil is also
seed oil, it has some value as a grinding oil.
prepared,
it is
It
is
Corn Starch.
annually in the United States in the manufacture of commercial starches, and products derived from them.
manufacture
four days in
warm
Steeping
sulphurous acid.
In the
is
is
instituted in large
When
wooden vats
The embryos
The
are separated
and removed
to
another
ments
sieves.
by the
sieve.
such as frag-
The
liquor
is
moved from
Glucose.
The
of
is re-
The commercial
"glucose"
is
a thick syrup
starch
corn
starch
has
been
made
described.
is
ZEA
185
and
bag
filters,
bone-char
first
The
and then
neutral liquor
and coagulates
is
then
filters,
evaporated to increase
its
filtered,
From
in bone-char filters.
the
This
is
filter
again.
The
down
liquor that
in vacuum
from this second filtering is
pans, whence it comes as the finished glucose.
Pure glucose syrup has httle flavor, and but half the sweetness of cane syrup.
Maize syrup is mixed with varying
boiled
results
It is the basis of
many manufactured
industries.
Artificial
Gums.
the starch
may
is
itself
con-
1 86
and
and ears
leaves,
Fodder
it
is
may be fed in
an important
makes a highly
winter.
Silage
is
silage crop.
In the form of
silage,
called a
pieces
The material
silo.
cording to
common
to be ensilaged
silo.
is
grown
either in the
Some
plants,
such as sorghums, are grown for their grain and also for
their herbage, that is, they are both a cereal and a forage
Com
is
also
The
is
made
are
still
in
demand
for pipes.
fine
grade of charcoal
is
may
be utilized as a food for stock. Gluten meal, a byproduct from starch factories, is also not infrequently fed to
Corn is the most economical source of starch for
stock.
alcohol manufacture in the United States.
One ton
of corn
the world.
ZEA
second in
its
The
bushels.
187
duction of corn in 191 5 were Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Texas, Kansas, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Ken-
The
tucky.
that year
total
total
December
i,
was $1,755,859,000.
Fig. 68.
Percentage
of the world's
countries in 1914.
References
Ber. Deut.
Bowman, M.
L.,
Feeding, Marketing.
BuRTT, Davy
Agr. Jour.,
J.:
7:
Botanical Characters of
the
Maize Plant.
Transvaal
34&-39S, i909-
1909.
Longmans, Green
&
Co., 1914.
Collins, G. N.:
China.
U.
S.
Dept. Agr.
ZEA
Apogamy
in the
Maize
U.
Plant.
S.
189
Hopi Maize.
U.
S.
Dept.
CoRRENS, C: Untersuchungen
fiber die
Ber. Deut.
of Color in the
Amer.
A
Pop. Sci. Mo., 82:225-236, I9r3.
East, E. M., and Hayes, H. K.: Inheritance in Maize. Conn. Agr. Exp.
Sta. Bull. 167: 1-142, 1911.
Work
in
Corn Pollination,
I.
1908.
Report of Work in Corn Pollination, II. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1910.
Report of Work in Corn Pollination, III. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., T911.
Gager, C. S.: An Occurrence of Glands in the Embryo of Zea Mays.
Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 34: 125-137, 1907.
Gernert, W.
B.:
Methods
in
Am.
A New
Am. Nat.,
La double f^condation dans
GuiGNARD,
L.:
mais.
Harshbehger,
J.
W.
Maize:
Contrib.
and Maize.
1896.
Study of the
Fertile
2,
1901.
Hopkins, C. G., Smith, L. H., and East, E. M. The Structure of the Corn
Kernel and the Composition of its Different Parts. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta.
:
of Fasciation in
Zea Mays.
Kellexman, W. a., and Swingle, W. T. Preliminary Study of the Receptivity of Corn Silk.
2d Ann. Rept. Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta., 353-355,
:
1890.
Sta.,
346-3S3. 1890.
2d Ann. Rept.
igo
Experiments
Exp.
in
Cross-fertilization of Corn.
2(1
Pop.
Sci.
1913.
Jour. Bot. (London),
1-
The Study
of Corn.
694, 1915.
Sturtevant, E.
L.:
Varieties of Corn.
1899.
Dept. Agr. Div. Veg. Path, and Veg. Phys., 22: 1-44, 1900.
Bull.
U.
S.
CHAPTER XV
ANDROPOGON SORGHUM
All
The
root system
is
Roots.^
well developed.
(Sorghums^)
The
finer
surface' feeder than corn, its roots being chiefly in the first
The
inches.
roots of all
The
Inflorescence.
tions
This
broom
(e.g.,
These heads
"head."
shape and
angular.
color.
The
is
corn),
The
is
rather compact.
may
It
is
called the
is
in
rather
(Fig.
may
occur in threes.
'
includes
all
the groups
broom
191
corn,
known
and
in the
kafir.
United States
192
Spikelets
The
sessile
one
is
fertile;
Whenever
the pedicelled
in a group, one
may
be perfect.
awn
homy endo^rm
^^^qrcfni
\^
endosperm-^
Pig. 70.
The
5.
sessile spikelet
has thick,
of this sessile spikelet, are two flowers; the lower sterile, the
upper with both stamens and pistil. The so-called "third
glume" of some descriptions is the lemma of the lower, sterile
flower.
Moreover, it is the only remnant of this flower. It
ANDROPOGON SORGHUM
The lemma
flower
is
193
of the
the spikelet.
by
a bristle.
aniher-
".,1V
-ovar\j
lemma of
Fig. 71.
Spikelet
of
ent, it is small
thickly
and
thin.
Three
dissected.
Lodicule
5.
flower^^^^,
much
fertile
truncate,
which are
and usually
lodicules,
fleshy,
The
tip,
sessile,
such as
is
found in wheat, oats, rye, and barley. The two styles are
thread-Uke and bare for the lower two-thirds of their length,
194
Then comes
the
lemma
lemma
The
it
may be
absent.
is
blooming.
the
first to
In nearly
open.
all cases,
The
stalked spikelets
Most of
is
morning; there
the day.
(Fig
7 2)
to fifteen minutes.
emergence
of anthers
The spreading
and
styles
of the glumes,
may
tend their
full
length, as a rule,
and the
be so rapid in some
The stamens
in-
ex-
When
the
tip only.
pollen-
ANDROPOGON SORGHUM
shedding anthers
may
must take
Fig. 72.
is
place.
Four stages
is
some
self-pollination
sorghum).
plant
19s
very common.
The upper
same
sorghum (Andropogon
S,
opening.
And,
head 'is
196
moved enough
very common.
Cross-pollination
is
also
open longer than the evening of the day they open. The
brown and withered stamens and stigmas commonly protrude
from between the closed glumes.
The different types of sorghum cross readily.
Fruit.
The mature grain may be entirely or in part enclosed by .the glumes "
It is ova 1 a little longer than broad
smooth, and tipped with the remains of two style branches.
The position of the embryo is seen at the base of the grain on
one of the fiat surfaces. The point of attachment an oval,
brown area is found at the base of the grain on the other
'
'
flat surface.
The seed
is
some
of the
and
charine sorghums.
have an abundance
of sweet juice,
(2)
non-sac-
obovate seeds
erect,
(kafirs,
long
cylindrical
white milo,
etc.);
(2)
heads
full
of
durra group,
ANDROPOGON SORGHUM
Key
97
Pith juicy.
Internodes elongated; sheaths scarcely overlapping; leaves 12 to 15 (except in Aniber varieties); spikelets elliptic-oval to obovate, 2.5 to 3.5
millimeters wide; seeds reddish brown, Sorgo.
Juice scanty, slightly sweet to subacid.
lemmas
awnless, Kafir.
Internodes medium; sheaths scarcely overlapping; leaves 8 to 11; peduncles mostly inclined, often recurved; panicles ovate; spikelets broadly obovate, 4.5 to 6 millimeters wide;
Pith dry.
Panicle lax, 2.5 to 7 decimeters long; peduncles erect; spikelets elliptic-
Broom Corn.
lemmas
awned, Kowliang.
Spikelets broadly obovate, 4.3 to 6 millimeters wide.
Glumes gray or greenish, not wrinkled; densely pubescent; lemmas
(Johnson grass)
This species
Taken from
Ball.
is
Old World.
The view
is
now
quite
198
ANDROPOGON SORGHUM
199
can be divided
into
of
which had an
when moisture
sorghums
differ
is
available.
from corn,
for corn is
In this
unable
remain in a dormant state for a very long time. The sorghums are not as easily affected by hot winds as corn.
to
This
is
semi-arid regions.
Sorghums will grow on a variety of soils. They are somewhat more resistant to alkali salts than the other grain crops.
Uses of Sorghums. The saccharine or sweet sorghums
The juice is extracted
are grown for syrup and for forage.
The
200
wind breaks, and window shades, and even the roots and
The broom-corn groups of sorghums are grown for their grain, and certain varieties
with long rachi are made into brooms. For this purpose
the heads are used. Brooms are made from two different
groups of broom corn: tall-growing or Standard, and dwarf.
Fully two-thirds of the total broom-corn crop of the
United States is dwarf broom corn. It produces a fiber
that
is
finer
the head
is
harvested by pulling.
"brush"
(inflorescence)
be
to
They
broom
The "straws"
factory.
sorghum
of a
broom
Oklahoma,
inflorescence.
in the order
References
of
Sorghum.
U.
S.
U.
S.
1-36, 191 1.
U.
S.
Dept.
that
U.
S.
Piper, C. V.:
Agron.,
7:
The Prototype
109-117, 1915-
of the Cultivated
Sorghums.
Jour.
Am.
Soc.
ANDROPOGON SORGHUM
Hartley, Charles
P.:
Broom Corn.
U.
S.
20I
RoTHCEB, B.
E.:
U.
S.
Warburton,
C.
U.
S.
Dept. Agr.
CHAPTER XVI
ORYZA SATIVA
Roots,
Habit,
rice is
Stems,
(Rice)
Leaves.
Common
cultivated
swampy
There are upland varieties produced with irrigation, but the lowland type is the sort
almost entirely grown in the United States. The seedling
has one seed root. The root system is fibrous; the first,
second, and third nodes give rise to adventitious roots.
or very moist conditions.
The
first
ground than
in
dry
soil.
It
is
is
close to }i inch
more shallow
The plant
in
tillers freely,
The
above
very moist
sending up
2
to 6 feet.
to 12
and
to i inch wide.
The ligule is long, acute
and easily splits into two parts. It is much shorter
and more rounded on the upper leaves than on the lower.
The auricle is white or green, cartilaginous or membranous,
and hairy.
Inflorescence and Spikelet. The inflorescence i s a paninches long
or obtuse,
icle
The
(Fig. 74).
Its
is compressed laterally.
It is onescale-like
or
There
small
bristle-like
flowered.
are two
glumes, underneath each of which is a very minute, rudimentary glume. The lemma is compressed, parchment-like
and five-nerved. The palet is similar to the lemma in size
and texture, but is only three-nerved. Both may be awned
The broadly oval lodicules are sinall, thick, and
or awnless.
ORYZA SATIVA
fleshy.
203
differs
ovary
is
Fig. 74.
Panicle
of rice
(Oryza sativa).
styles,
Pollination
and
Fertilization.
Rice
is
These
normally self-poUi-
204
The
nated.
to open.
~--'Jhiemma
cross-fertilization
is
cluded.
'glumej
Grain.
The
the "hull."
known
Fig. 75.
Spikelet
of rice
is
the hull
rice."
The
(Oryza sativa).
as
rice
grain
(Fig.
76)
is
elliptical in cross-section.
flat surfaces.
The grain
of
common
is
within.
are not
uncommon.
An
interesting
rice
appear
scribed
dull.
as paraffin-like
in
appearance.
is
Fig.
is
de-
embryo.
e,
5-
The
They
76.
Kernel of rice
(Oryza sativa).
common
ORYZA SATIVA
When
205
separate.
cooked, there
There are
is
rices
In cross-section of the
There
to those in wheat.
is
very similar
ally of
one row of
cells.
The embryo
"paddy
rice."
The
grains
are
enclosed
by
the glumes,
lemma, and
palet,
The
hulls are
The
2o6
Beriberi.
This
is
Asiatic laborers
polished rice.
the rice
if
there
when
is
is
rice is
which lack
phosphates
of the
is
of
a deficiency
Of
course, those
from a
ill
effects.
Varieties.
rangement
1
2.
3.
Carleton
of wild
and cultivated
rices:
(b)
utilissima.
1.
communis
2.
minuta (small-kerneled
(large-kerneled rice).
rice).
Lowland
Japan
to the
minuta group.
Distribution
is
Species.
There
is/
is
the
warm
Culti-
rice
ORYZA SATIVA
and wild
aquatica),
rice
207
{Zizania miliacea).
Both
are tall
rice.
Both
having monoecious
spikelets.
fe
States
rice,
is
steadily increasing.
while
all
try has
hulls
and
is
manufacture
is
also
board, etc.
beer,
in the
Rice straw
208
Environmental Relations. Rice has a climatic range simiseldom raised north of that region
in which the average summer (June, July, August) tempera-
h
Mill
^^
ti
p.
i
o
,-^
to
^
=>
-
fe
to
;3 " -S
I.
is
moist regions.
00
h",
?\
CL|
ture
"
"
ft,
pi
o o
development in
2O9
ORYZA SATIVA
is
on low delta or
raised
inundation.
is
permit of
field
3 to 6 inches of
field
and kept
The Production
of Rice.
British India produced 62,pounds
of
rice
in
During the same period,
638,912,000
1914.
Japan raised 17,826,240,000 pounds, Java and Madura
(1913) 7,951,049,000 pounds, Korea 3,678,878,000 pounds,
(i)
district,
California district.
Louisiana
The Carolina district, (2) the TexasThe Arkansas district, and (4) the
The heaviest producer is the Texas-
(3)
district.
of rice in 191 5, or
United States.
entire
of O. sativa.
Nogyo-Sekai, 1910-11.
Graham, R. J. D. Preliminary Note on the Classification
tral Provinces.
Mem. Dept. Agr. in India, Bot. ser.
:
Agric. Gaz.
of
6,
No.
7:
209-230,
Hector,
i:
i-io, 1913.
KiKKAWA,
S.:
On the
14
No.
2,
11-108, 191 2.
CHAPTER XVII
MILLET
The term
group
(species, genus, or
tribe)
of
plants.
Originally
it
Chatochloa
still
(Setaria),
are
Agriculturally speaking,
number
the
of
They
root system.
are raised in
Most of
human
food as well.
Ragi or
Chlorideae.
cereal
Key
It
is
grown
an extent as a
the United States.
in India to quite
Inflorescence paniculate;
millet).
Inflorescence a drooping
panicle;
210
MILLET
Inflorescence spicate; involucre of
Ijristles
211
below each
spikelet.
loose,
centimeter thick or
spikelets about
i
less; bristles
commonly
green;
millets).
Grain globose, forcing open the hull as it matures, and falling free when
threshed; spike dense, Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet).
PENNISETUM GLAUCUM
Stem.
The
The culms
(Pearl MiUet)
tall.
The
ligule is
Inflorescence.
This
6 to 14 inches long
stiff
and
is
and ^^
thick-hairy.
The
(commonly two)
lodicules absent.
The staminate
perfect flowers.
The lemma
212
is
oval,
rounded
is
The
Pearl
millet
is
regularly
cross-pollinated.
first
i,
s,
The stigmas of perfect flowers first appear between the closed glumes, then the stamens, which are in turn
followed by the appearance of staminate flowers.
to open.
Mature Grain.
The kernel
is
somewhat
flattened on
MILLET
the sides, and smooth.
The
kernel
is
One
213
is
present.
palet.
Varieties.
There
is
No
grain.
of
varietal classification
been
made.
Pearl millet
sometimes sold under the name
of
"
or
has
Pencilaria "
Mand's
Wonder
is
(Penicillaria)
Forage
Plant.
tail
Egyptian
millet,
and Japan
Origin.
pearl
millet.
millet has
come
is
unknown.
It
is
its
native home.
PANICUM MILIACEUM
(Proso,
Hog
is
or
Broom-corn Millet)
Stem.
erect,
some-
Branches frequently
may
arise
33-2 feet.
Fig. 80.
Lea o proso
millet
(Patiicum miliaceutn).
X 2.
bear inflorescences.
The culms
Leaf
(Fig. 80).
The
leaf
They
are
214
blade
is
linear lanceolate,
surface.
Inflorescence.
This
is
FlG. 8i.
Inflorescence
of proso millet
(Panicum miliaceum).
what angled and rough with short hairs that point forwards.
In some varieties, the branches of the panicle spread to all
sides, in others they are more or less compressed and onesided, while in a few varieties, the panicle is
thick,
and
erect.
much compressed,
MILLET
Spikelet
4M
to 5
iive- to
bears 13 nerves.
lemma
glume
is
is
Above
215
it,
lemma
than
slightly shorter
is
the
is
palet.
The lemma
of this
it
encloses the
This millet
Mature Grain. The kernel
Pollination.
quite
is
shining
is
is
lemma and
regularly
cross-polli-
not excluded.
firmly surrounded
palet.
by the
The whole
grain
cells
Varieties.
The
does wheat.
a shallow broad
position of the
The
the
kernel.
row
of small, flat
Koernicke
recognizes
three
main types
of
broad,
the
branches spreading
Panicutn miliaceum contractum. Panicle
spreading than preceding, one-sided.
Panicum miliaceum compactum. Panicle compact,
and
Panicum miliaceum
Origin. The native home
not
to all sides.
less
2.
3.
thick,
erect.
of
is
2l6
known.
cultivated
Europe and
in
Stem. The
plants
are
and from 2 to 5 feet
tall.
The culms are cylin-
erect
drical
they
Leaf.
The
sheaths
leaf
and
smooth or
The ligule is short,
thick, and fimbriated; auricles are absent.
The leaf
are
open,
hairy.
Inflorescence.
spikes (Fig.
~\A lemma
"
^sterile
of
'
jlower
The
are 4 to 9
2 inches
79)
The
inflorescence
bristles
subtending
These
Fig. 82.
Spikelet
(Chaetochloa
On
U! glume
of foxtail millet
italica).
15.
the
bristles
hairs
that
There
is
branches,
spikelets.
bear
point
short
forward.
are abortive
branches.
It
apparently without
bristles.
bristles, occasionally
MILLET
Spikelets
usually
Each
ile,
and Flower.
shorter
than
The
the
217
bristles,
and
The
pistil.
lower-
most glume
is oval, pointed, three-nerved, and about onethird the length of the spikelet.
The second glume is
five-nerved, and shghtly shorter than the spikelet; it sur-
The lemma
of
is
is
glume
Fig. 83.
sterile flower
Dissected spikelet
of
its
lemma.
jertile
'flower
common
of
Ind lume
lo
stamens.
Cross-pollination
Grain
84) The
Pollination.
is
of a third.
occasionally occurs.
Mature
(Fig.
The
grain
is
lemma and
palet enclose
The
position of the
embryo
is
indicated
by a mark
2l8
which
carp
is
is
thin.
The
peri-
cells in
the
aleurone layer.
Types and Varieties of Foxtail Millet.- Koernicke recmain groups of cultivated millets belonging to
ognizes two
Fig. 84.
A, grain of foxtail millet (Chaetochloa italica) with lemma and
palet attached; B, grain o same, embryo side with "hull" removed; C, grain
of same, side opposite the embryo; D and E, grains o pearl millet (Pennisetum
spicatum).
I.
and
10.
ChcBtochloa
drooping.
varieties
italica
This
with short
maximum.
group
has
bristles,
and
Heads
two
(2)
long,
open,
subdivisions:
varieties
bristles.
millet,
let,
millet.
(i)
with long
German
mil-
MILLET
Chalochloa
2.
erect, or
219
moharium.
italica
Heads
thick,
short,
Here
Key
Heads
small,
large
Seeds yellow.
Profusely bearded;
Heads
Heads
medium
large heads.
groups more
distinct,
German
Common
Millet.
Millet.
is
The
stem form
of the foxtail
in
that
its
fruit falls
It differs
from the
inflorescence
of the
to Quebec.
ECHINOCHLOA CRUS-GALLI
Habit, Stems, Leaves.
tall;
(Barnyard
This grass
an annual,
The
2 to
4 feet
leaves are }4 to
cence
is
a panicle
made up
of
from
and Fruit.
inflores-
The
may be
spreading
220
The
or reflexed.
and
Each
upper perfect.
The kernel
is
firmly
now widely
Barnyard grass
distributed as a
is
weed
a native of Europe.
in cultivated soil
and
It
in
waste places.
ECHINOCHLOA FRUMENTACEA
In
general
characters,
it
color.
It is
except that in
known
as
Sanwa
is
brown
millet in India,
It
or purplish in
and "biUion-
probably originated
is less
drought-resistant crops,
commonly
fed to poultry.
Millet
is
a quick-growing crop,
MILLET
and
is
The
ing.
proso group.
The
latter is
221
six to ten
grain.
References
Ball, Carleton R.: Pearl millet (Pennisetum spicatura).
Farmers' Bull. i68: 1-16, 1903.
U.
S.
Dept. Agr.
CHAPTER XVIII
PHLEUM PRATENSE
Description.^
iH
Common
timothy
Corms
to 5 feet high.
(Timothy)
is
we
seeds.
stem,
by
in earUness, duration
and
yield of
hay and
seed.
The
and three
to
eight per stem; the upper sheaths are long, usually exceeding
The
inflorescence
is
cylindrical
it is
and
is
rounded.
spicate; although it
is
The
subtended by
Each spikelet is
two membranous, compressed glumes which are ciliate on the
margins (Fig. 85), truncate at the tipand awned; the lemma
is much shorter and broader than the glumes, thin, truncate,
and finely toothed at the apex; the paletis narrow and thin.
Stamens are three in number. There are two distinct styles
with plumose stigmas. The whole process of blooming and
dehiscence of anthers takes place in about one and one-half
spikelets are one-flowered.
hours.
The upper
ing
is
third of the
head blooms
first.
The time
of
to ten.
bloom-
PHLEUM PRATENSE
by the lemma and
palet.
223
may
is
Fig. 85.
to the roots
Timothy (Phleum
pratense).
A, single spikelet; B, spikelet with
glumes removed; C, pistil.
It
is
when
lime
is
present.
is
common
The
and
inflores-
2 24
cences are
much
common
timothy, the
leaf
awn
sheath
is
is
about one-
inflated.
References
Clark, Charles
F.
Cornell Agr.
1911.
Webber, H.
U.
S.
J.:
The Production
of
Varieties of
Timothy.
CHAPTER XIX
SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM
Habit, Roots.
Sugar
cane
is
tall,
(Sugar Cane)
perennial plant, re-
The
system
Stems.
root
fibrous
is
divided
number
The
culm is
There are
sometimes as many as 60 to 80 nodes. The jointed stem is
prolonged into the ground, and the roots arise from the lowermost nodes. This stem arises from the rootstock of the previous year, or, under artificial conditions, from the planted
into
of joints.
8 to 15 feet high,
and
They
solid
inches in diameter.
when
planted, or
to
The buds
portion of a cane.
axils.
cylindrical,
arise
in
soil.
"rattoons."
Leaves.
There
is
node.
The
foot or
more
The inflorescence
in length,
branches.
15
a loose
on slender
which is pedicellate,
There are two glumes at the base of the
They occur
is
in pairs, one of
22s
226
Each
spikelet.
sterile
and
spikelet
is
is
lemma and
palet,
The
grain
is
small, silky,
and
of
low vitality.
Mature grains
Saccharum officinarum
Geographical.
tropics.
States
It
and
is
in
is
is
are seldom
often infertile.
a native of the
SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM
north of the latitude of ^5.
much
a temperature
The
lower than
227
5F.
The crushed
removed.
is
sprayed with
known
canes,
as
"bagasse,"
The
milk of
The
Hme
is
added.
it
from the
contains.
The limed
due to
and then
rollers is turbid,
It
is
strained,
scum on
The
clear juice
is
run into
vacuum
then
pumped
into tanks,
evaporators, where
The concentrated
where crystaUization
is
it is
juice
brought
about.
The grain
who has the
crystals
is
of the sugar
crystallizing
termed "massecuite."
centrifugal action.
packed
The
They
are separated
by
for shipment.
manufacture
28
employed
in
rum and
alcohol manufacture,
and
in stock
feeding.
Mention has been made of the fact that the stalks from
which the juice has been removed are used as a fuel to run
The refuse that accumulates in the purification
the mill.
process is used as a fertilizer. It is rich in phosphorus and
potash.
The
world's production of
Short
tons
Cuba
2,909,000
British India
2,566,000
Java
Hawaii
1,541,000
612,000
Philippine Islands
408,000
407,000
Porto Rico
364,000
Argentina
304,000
United States'
Mauritius
301,000
275,000
CHAPTER XX
LILIACE^
Representatives of the
lily
is
(LUy Family)
family are found
all
over the
Yucca,
among
those
lily
(Lilium),
cultivated
as
ornamentals.
Habit, Roots.
Most
In herbace-
ous forms, the roots are mostly fibrous and shallow, sometimes
fleshy
Stems.
The character
bulbs.
29).
ical
(Fig. 14).
many
tance.
fleshy,
overlapping leaves
In Yucca
the
of in vegetative propagation.
of
"229
230
There
number of
The flowers
are
or racemose, as in
lilies;
The
many
is,
the order
The
of inflorescences.
'htemens
^ ovary
31
penant/i
'
se^menli
and 87)
Flower
and color
(Figs.
The
Fig. 87.
perianth con-
sists of six
of onion
(Allium cepa).
The
spicuous.
three-celled,
superior
and conovary
is
has
three-lobed stigma.
The
is
carpels.
When
they do in
It
is
The
lilies,
the dehiscence
down
is
said
loculicidal.
in
imbedded
The
in the fleshy
closes the
embryo.
the^endosperm.
many
more
or
Considerable quantities of
oil
occur in
LILIACE^
231
ALLIUM
To
this
Welsh onion.
Fig. 88.
Thev
are
all
sulphide.
prasumi)
alliaceous
and
odor,
which
is
due
to
232
Roots.
88).
The
roots
arise
fibrous tuft.
Fig. 89.
mature bulb
the
much
of the
common
onion shows
to be
made up
of
stem
(Fig. 14).
it
solid, leafless
stem
(Fig.
is
best seen in a
up a long hollow or
90) (scape) bearing an inflorescence
case is an umbel. Lateral buds are
This
From a
is
sent
LILIACEjE
233
also
The
cotyledon.
lapping.
first
foliage leaf
emerges from a
There
is
no
petiole.
slit
in the
and overand
The oldest leaves are on the
fleshy,
Fig. 90.
A, base of stem of common onion (Allium cepa) showing hollow
leaves cut across; B, cross-section of hollow stem of same: C, base of stem of
leek (Allium porrum) showing flattened solid leaves; D, cross-section of solid
stem
of same.
inside.
common
onion,
and
of
some other
234
In some species, as
The
leaves
may
be either
sometimes hollow.
to
and are
bear buds
Inflorescence (Fig.
91).
The
Fig. 91.
spathe, consisting of
Umbel
and
The
The
pedicels
slender.
The flowers
and perfect.,
The perianth consists of six distinct segments which are very
The six stamens are
similar as to size, shape and color.
inserted on the bases of the perianth segments. Alternate
Flower.
LILIACEjE
23s
filaments are usually dilated at the base, and the anthers are
ovary
is
imperfectly
three-loculed
The
single,
and bears a
which
may
be more or
less indistinctly
Pollination.
The
al-
236
The inner
case.
circle
of
Fruit.
with
This
is
loculicidal
a three-celled,
dehiscence.
Two
membranaceous capsule
black in
seeds,
color,
The
seeds
other,
convex on one
side
leaf
emerges.
through
The cotyledon
this,
later
the
first
disappears
entirely.
Geographical.
of the
genus
Key
Leaves
flat
if
the weather
is drier.
and
"
LILIACE^
237
size.
cum
(shallot).
Bulbs not
ALLIUM SATIVUM
Garlic
is
a perennial herb.
(Fig. 88).
(Garlic)
The bulbs
are
composed
of
of
whitish skin
are often as
(Fig.
many
in a single bulb.
from
to
feet
and possesses
soUd,
linear,
stemmed
as ten bulbils
The
among
lets
Fig. 93.
Bulb
of garlic CAllium
sativum).
X M-
is
broad-
leaves.
bear
The
many
flowers.
Seeds
head.
scape
high, round,
alternate,
flat
umbels
spherical
bulblets
There
93).
the
and
same
in the flower
than seeds.
meats.
is
238
ALLIUM PORRUM
Leek
is
The
small.
(Leek)
scape
tall
is
solid
The bulbs
are
keeled
solid,
Leek
The
is
leaves.
gus or
and
as asparato season
and stews.
soups, salads
Important varieties are Large American Flag, Musselburgh, Large Rouen and Monstrous Caratan.
ALLIUM SCHCENOPRASUM
Chives (Fig.
are
88)
(Chives or Gives)
The scape
coats.
The
umbels.
bulbs.
New Brunswick to
New York, Michigan,
and
stews.
The
garden borders.
ALLIUM ASCALONICUM
This
about
is
(Shallot)
The
LILIACE^
239
not sur-
garlic, are
drical
lilac
or reddish
flowers.
Fig. 94.
Shallot
(Allium ascolonicum)
ALLIUM FISTULOSUM
The
and
It seeds well.
is
not known
how
the plant
240
The
and
salads.
ALLIUM CEPA
Description.
(Onion)
is
The scape
is 2
to 3 feet tall,
The
leaves
Fig. 95.
History.
Top onions.
wild state.
in the history of
Egyptians as a
sacrificial offering.
Europe.
By
The
earliest
was
colonists
241
LILIACEiE
Types
of Onions.
The varieties
of
common
onions differ
quite widely as to
color
and
size of
var. multlplicans)
Multipliers,
i!.
var. bulbellifeta)
Top
onions.
Tree onions.
Egyptian onions.
Fig. 96.
3.
A, globe
ment.)
Skin of mature bulb silvery white.
1. Globe onions (Southport White Globe) (Fig. 96).
2.
White Portugal).
(6)
16
242
2.
Ked
Globe, Giant
(o)
Bulbs deep and distinctly red (Red Wethersfield, Red Globe, Red
Bermuda).
(b)
Bulbs indifferent in
(Yellow Danvers,
Prizetaker, Strasburg).
(Fig. 97),
When
of bulbs,
Fig. 97.
onion
is
Cross-section
six to
twelve stalks.
{After Bailey.)
multiplier.
in the
number
The potato
The
production of
'
'
bunchers
'
'
is
There
In "lop," "tree," and "Egyptian" onions, clusters of bulbproduced at the top of the scape. Some primordia
develop into flowers and others into bulblets. In some cases,
lets are
all
the primordia
may
most
all
duce
fertile
clusters
may
seed.
Bulblets
may
may
al-
pro-
be produced in separate
stalk.
They may
LILIACE/E
germinate while
clearly
still
known what
the inflorescence.
243
the
It
is
not
North
to
type.
on
size
and
color.
There
is
a rather sharp
244
organic
compound
The com-
of
broken down by
heat; consequently the onion is. milder when cooked than
when raw. As a rule, white varieties are milder than yellow
pound
is
and
is
tree onion)
of bunchers.
It is
production
for the
amount
constipation.
who
made
of
a part of
ASPARAGUS
Generic Description.-
Members
of the
genus Asparagus
rootstocks.
From
and short
officinalis),
common
edible
or perennial as in A. laricinus,
The stems
are erect or
of 25 feet or more.
The small
mon
They may be
slender, as in
They
(Fig.
98) are
They subtend
scales
or
the branches.
com-
are arranged
The
true
The
flowers are
solitary, in
LILIACEyE
or fascicles of cladophylls.
the base.
They
slightly united at
Stamens are
Fig.
245
officinalis).
A,
pistillate flower;
six in
number and
filiform,
and the
and three
is sessile,
The
The
246
is
contains about
There are
numerous ornamental species, the most common being
Asparagus medeoloides (smilax), A. plumosus (the plumy
asparagus), a cUmbing plant used for decorative purposes
and often called "asparagus fern," and A. sprengeri, another
"asparagus fern," much used
for planting in
The only
edible species of
any consequence
officinalis,
the
common garden
hanging baskets.
is
Asparagus
asparagus.
ASPARAGUS OFFICINALIS
is
(Asparagus)
a much-branched peren-
nial
Stems.
much
^Asparagus
stems.
are rootstocks.
They
are
as broad.
of
to 3 inches.
These at
The
first
The
rootstocks send
are thick
and
up
fleshy ("spears")
LILIACEjE
The
The
branched.
At
filiform
scales
247
cladophylls (Fig.
From
is
rootstock
is
become much
98) are
mostly
They perform
Fig. 99.
functions.
Flower.
and usually
solitary,
248
nodes.
Each
flower
pedicel
(Fig.
ico).
is
borne on a short,
The perianth
is
slender
jointed
campanula te
(bell-
LILIACE^
249
staminate and
following results:
37
Fifty pistillate
plants, ounces
250
Fruit.
cells,
is
This
is
The perianth
somewhat triangular
The
dark,
They preserve
their germi-
vitaUty
when soaked
in
water for a
is
is
not
It is held
that the best seed comes from the lower branches of the plant.
Types and
market,
the
Varieties.
blanched
Two
sorts of
asparagus
and
Green asparagus has a more delicate flavor and is quite genermore desirable. Blanched asparagus has
a much thicker stalk than the green sort.
It must be underally considered the
same
variety.
To produce
may
be produced from
soil are, of
form
in the
absence of
light.
Mammoth,
Mammoth White:
LILIACEiE
The Palmetto
grown most
is
on account of
its
251
in the south,
resistance
and
is
well-known
to asparagus rust
{Puccinia
asparagi)
Uses.
As a
tities
The
common
asparagus
is
used as a vegetable.
are also
York.
and canned
the fiber
in the
form
of a
thick paste.
is
dried.
In
In
References
GoFF, E.
Mich
S.
94-98, 1887.
Onion. 6th .\nn. Rept. N. Y. State Agr. Exp, Sta., 190-214,
1887.
Green, W.
J.
Asparagus.
Gross,
.\.
American Onions.
Proc. See.
Prom. Agr.
Sci.,
115-132, 1901.
CHAPTER XXI
HORACES (Midbmy
Funiljr)
spheres.
number
of plants of
coa^temble
our cultivated
fig.
is
Ficus
elastica.
of
green-
Artocarpus communis
is
the well-known bread-fruit of the tropics.
Toxylon
pomiferum is the osage orange, a tree whose wood is valuable
for wheels, posts and other small articles; it is also planted
for ornament.
The paper mulberry {Papyrus papyrifera)
is a native of Asia.
Its bark is of value in paper-making.
Other genera of importance are Morus (mulberry) Humulus
(hop), and Cannabis (hemp).
,
Description.
Members
The
The
or scaly.
and borne
flowers are in
An ament
of leaves.
of
may
is
which
is
the calyx
absent,
is
of the calyx.
The
In the
pistillate flower,
252
MORACEiE
of
253
ovary
The
The
single superior
is
jruit
is
in figs.
to Principal Genera
Trees or shrubs.
Flowers not in a receptacle; buds scaly, Morus (mulberry).
Flowers inside of a hollow receptacle; buds naked, Ficus (fig).
Herbs.
MORUS
Habit, Stems.
(Mulberry)
Mulberries are
The
trees or shrubs
alternate,
three-nerved,
serrate,
The
deciduous.
plicaU
convolute
may
of vernation.
Inflorescences.
The flowers
same
and
The
conduplicate
may
Fig. ioi.
another
with milky
may be on
tree (monoecious) or
on
2 54
The
pistil.
and uncoil
The
two-celled
moment
bud
of anther dehiscence.
shed their
The
flowers in these
dense catkins.
calyx, the
The
two outer
become
fleshy,
country,
the
its
an
HORACES
'J'he
fruits
is
25s
a collection of one-seeded
inflorescence, while
the
matured ovaries
number
of a
flower.
Key to
Morus
Morus
nigra
(black mulberry).
MORUS ALBA
Description.
This
reaching a diameter of
at
Morus rubra
is
(White Mulberry)
low-branched
The
2 feet.
becoming
(red mulberry).
slender,
light grayish
sometimes
round twigs are
tree,
brown.
The
leaves
lobed or divided.
The staminate
inflorescences are
Geographical.
It
centimeter long.
to 2 centimeters long,
is
The
pistillate
to 2
ones
in quality.
has spread throughout Europe and has also become naturalized in eastern
United States.
256
is
ies
from white to red and almost black. It is an important wind-break and shelter-belt tree in the Great Plains.
Teas' weeping mulberry is an ornamental variety of the
Russian. Morus alba var. venosa {M. nervosa) is an ornamental curiosity bearing jagged leaves with white, prominent
in color
veins.
for a while,
was
intro-
gave a great
It is a small
The
New
mulberry are
The
Downing
New
American.
Company with
attempts to grow
Carolina, Georgia
silk
New
and Connecticut.
World.
in Virginia
a view
Early
but
in
and
since it
Chinese
died
was thought
silk,
down
in
little effort to
renowned
The "craze"
scale.
HORACES.
2S7
for food.
MORUS NIGRA
Description.
(Black Mulberry)
of
The
fruit is black,
to 2 centimeters long.
The
pis-
The
juice.
to 2 centimeters long
Varieties.
cipal fruit-bearing
but
America,
in
is
less
Uses.
is
common and
are dried.
The
all
The wood
is
mulberries
practice in
is
relished
some
by hogs and
localities
to plant
poultry,
mulberry
The
and
friiit
it is
of
the
trees along
258
MORUS RUBRA
Description.
This
is
(Red Mulberry)
The
5 to 7 feet.
lower surface.
cylindric.
and about
centimeter long.
Varieties
and Uses.
and
shoe
all of
of varieties of
The
and Stubbs.
The wood
is
of
making
of
HDMTJLUS
(Hop)
as
HORACES
259
Hop
adventitious
plants send
ground
line,
extend
several
roots.
near
out,
"runners"
feet.
the
which
These are
The
known
aerial
stems,
commonly
The lower
ground in the fall.
each stalk ("bine"),
portion of
and vary
green
root-
but
die,
the
to
in color
purplish
red
green
They have
FlG. 102.
Dextrorse
of
twining
hop stem.
manner
and rate of growth. The most rapid and uniform growth is
made, and the longest internodes produced, when the supThe "bines" are assisted in their climbports are vertical.
supports
to
by the presence of hooked, reing and clinging
termines, to a degree, the
26o
petioles
in abundance.
Leaves.
veined,
The
and
from the
The
leaf base.
Inflorescences.
monoecious.
Some have
Hops
are
commonly
Hermaphroditism
is
in
dioecious,
rarely
number
of experiments in
removed.
All of
(hermaphroditism)
them
.
failed to
Hop
ently of injury.
like in appearance.
They
are the
"hops"
of
A) are spike-
commerce and
The
pistillate inflorescence
branch, or axis,
is
These are
in
HORACES
261
262
reality
stipules
not develop.
tillate
(small bract).
or branch shows
it
to
two bract-like
iUgmas
-brnct-Jille
J)nic\eok
perianih
Fig. 104.
Hop
pistillate flowers
teole
and
first
and second
flower; (4)
Each
no
corolla,
pistillate
and
five
There
is
it
at maturity.
It has a single
HORACES
Pollination,
Fertilization,
The
Hops."
to wind
long,
263
and
Development
of
the
When
pollination.
the
pistillate
inflorescences
fertilization
off
to
in size.
The necessity for fertilization to secure the best development of the "hop" has been determined by a number of
observers.
The hops will only develop properly when
a certain number of bracteoles bear seeds. If the young
pistillate inflorescences
to prevent fertilization,
poorly developed.
to
no seeds
result,
but the
much
larger
and
than those
ficially
fertilized.
fertilized,
pollinated at
He shows
all
that
stimulates
growth,
hastens
per acre.
It
is
Extra space
is
also
is
needed
a possi-
is
achene
the
the
perianth,
bract-Uke
the
stipules
are
"hop-meal"
"lupuHn" (Fig. 105).
Each yellow grain is a cup-
or
an outgrowth
of an
and consists of a
short stalk and a cup of one
tion.
It is
epidermal
in section.
(B-E
layer of
cell
cells.
tion
of
the
up
cells
cell
has a
The
secre-
collects just
after Percival.)
beneath the
latter
Each
cup-shaped depression
is
filled
itself.
entirely
HORACES
265
in the "lupulin,"
as follows:
Hop
Essential
2.
3.
Resins.
4.
Tannin.
oil
is
volatile
oil.
its
characteristic
aroma.
to 0.8
1.
266
hop
is
Of the resins
The hard
and a
soft resin.
little
or no antiseptic
much more
resins are
in the
identified, a
hard
power
bitter,
The
and
soft
Uses
In some
young hop
sprouts are used as an early spring vegetable. The most
tender sprouts are those which have been covered with soil
of
Hops.
European
localities,
In this process,
is
among
other effects,
The
bitter taste,
HORACES
267
its
mineral composition.
FICUS
parasitic
(Fig)
Stems. Members
Habit, Roots,
woody
shrubs or
climbers (lianas).
on other
and
trees.
of this
genus are
trees,
parasite
is
an organism which
life
own food as do
The Golden Fig
its
in the crevices of other trees; the aerial roots that are first
come
trunk-like.
Aerial
roots
may
be sent
by means
of
268
Some
with
tropical
This
branches.
woody
figs
are
cauliflorus,
its
is
is
that
is,
the receptacle
common
plants,
young
twigs only.
is
no indication
of
an ovary.
have a two- to six-parted perianth (sometimes none), a single one-celled ovary and single style. The
Pistillate flowers
forming a
fruit
known
as a synconium ("fig").
There are about 600 species of the genus Ficus very widely
American tropics, southern Asia
of the Pacific.
Two
species, F. aurea
and F.
HORACES
and a number
269
economic importance.
common
carica, the
fig of
species
is
Ficus
commerce.
Fig)
The common
a shrub or
fig is
of the tree
short.
is
It
branches rather
The general
centimeters long.
oval,
sometimes about
circular.
or slightly heart-shaped.
The
There are
leaf
five to
base
blunt at the
tip.
The
usually
truncate
is
is
each lobe
and
hairy on the upper side, paler and hairy on the under side;
leaf venation
is
prominent.
Inflorescence,
and Flowers.
Among
figs,
receptacle.
and mule.
rarely
occur in
They occur
Each staminate
(Caprifig).
These
just
in
the
Missing Page
Missing Page
72
In the wild
first.
fig (Caprifig)
there
no
pistillate flowers.
When
the
figs
gall flowers.
come from
their eggs.
of figs
is
pollen,
By
The
fruits of this
crop possess
first
orifice
down along
rubbed
The
is
secured.
is
As a result,
off
In August or September the eggs, deposited in the gall flowers of the second
crop, hatch out.
The mature female wasps emerge from the
receptacle, in search of other figs in which to lay their
eggs.
By
this
is
about one-
fourth grown.
Third Crop
staminate and
are
(Mamme).
gall,
The
figs
of
When
they
September,
MOKACE^
273
of the
fect insects
CaprificatLon.
mon
edible
Such
is
fig
It
be
will
matures
that
recalled
fruit 'without;
its
^^
Smyrna
The
figs.
latter
have only
flowers and,
pistillate
order to grow
The
is
Hence,
maturity.
full
com-
the
fertilization.
Smyrna
artificial
termed
number
it
figs,
has been
found
come
to
necessary, in
caprification.
In
this
horticultural
process,
Smyrna
fig,
The
length that the wasps are unable to lay their eggs in the
proper
fruit
Consequently,
place.
and
wasps
the
the
in
cells.
and hatch.
In California,
June or July.
the
perish
by the growing
first crop,
caprification of
Smyrna
of
figs
done
is
San Pedro
figs
figs,
in
and
require
caprification.
Effects of Fertilization {caprification).
In caprifigs, as has
2 74
fertilization
(profichi
may
mammoni.
the same
fertilized;
Caprificated figs
size.
The superiority of
Smyrna figs is due to the aromatic flavor of the seeds.
The Mature Fruit. The "fruit" of fig (Fig. io6) is termed
the proper ripening of the receptacle.
a synconium.
This
is
when
Geographical.
Ficus
of southern Arabia.
carica
Some one
is
or
considered to be a native
more
United States
is
moracejE
275
is
covering
attained
it
soil
in a
In Florida,
there are two native figs {F. aurea and F. brevifolia) which
common
figs
by
their
entire,
and a few
Mule
are smaller
Brebas.
and the
figs
bear mule
First-crop
flowers only.
4. Adriatic Figs.
This
is
a type of
figs
in
which the
crop
is
inedible,
gall
flowers,
while the second crop has both pistillate and gall flowers.
BOTANY OF CROP
276
Cordelia Figs.
6.
fig
These are
]>LANTS
also rare.
They
are an edible
7.
of fig
This
from which
all
is
in
western
Asia.
and
gall flowers
occur in the
figs of this
crop.
The
fruit
Uses
is
of Figs.
sometimes eaten
Brebas
transportation.
but
fresh,
are
is
are
figs
than
for
Summer figs,
Summer figs
richer in sugar,
This
juicier
and
for this
Here, the
is
figs.
How-
growing in California.
product of the
fruit.
The
fig tree is
soft, light,
Description.
is
5 to
15 feet high.
HORACES
with
digitate,
serrate
Hemp
leaflets.
florescences
277
(Fig.
108,
is
dioecious.
The
pointed and
slaminate in-
A)
The
axillary.
slaminate
subtended
pedicel
bracteole;
it
and
tinct sepals
stamens.
by a
Each
five short
pistillate
is
sub-
and possesses a
single,
The
like
feathery
Hemp
is
stigmas.
wind-pollinated.
in a fleshy endo-
The fruits of
hemp are much larger
and heavier when grown
sperm.
in
when grown
in a
dry
one.
Geographical.
common hemp
is
central
and western
It
278
Varieties.
Chinese
Nearly
origin.
all
hemp grown
similar, to Chinese
hemp.
European
in this country
is
identical, or
is
of
very
varieties (Piedmont,
The
in denser clusters
of
hemp
fiber
Ky
Cutting
best quality
hemp, Kentucky.
do the work of
retting,
breaking, and preparing the fiber for the market; to the lack
of
hemp-
HORACE jE
279
Kentucky began
hemp
leads in
to raise
hemp
production.
all of
the
hemp from
The
chief
this
State
is
mostly of Chinese
hemp-growing States are Kentucky, California, Nebraska, Indiana, New York, and Wisconsin.
Preparation of Hemp for Market. Harvesting Hemp.
In some places, hemp is still harvested by hand with a reaping
knife or hemp hook. However, in most hemp-growing disorigin.
tricts,
The hemp
bound
into
They
There
is
This separation
is
thin
due
to
ism has been isolated and grown in pure cultures. There are
two commercial methods of retting: dew-retting and waterretting.
The former
The hemp
is
the
common method
in this country.
rows on the
2So
Water-retting
The
countries.
is
stalks are
practised in
immersed
in
Breaking.
wood
is
broken
which permits
in pieces,
it to
hemp fibers.
woody tissue is known
as scutching.
of
In
use.
be removed,
The removal
Hackling.
hemp,
The
straight
long,
is
coarse hackles;
is
the product
may
is
This
hackles,
hemp."
Double-dressed
Hemp
market.
known
tow
is
hemp
known
The
"single-dressed
Hemp
it
over finer
as "double-dressed
Uses of Hemp.
as
hemp."
stalks,
and
is
hemp.
in length.
if
Hemp
fiber is
manufacture of
put
sail
to a variety of uses.
cloth,
It is used in the
yacht cordage, binder twine,
HORACES
28
oil,
which
volatile oil
is
oil.
resin (cannabin).
These
leaves.
hemp "hurds."
The chief fiber competing with hemp
produced
in India
is jute.
Jute is
from two species of plants, Corchorus
capsularis
Hemp.
fibers is
is
from Yucatan.
It
is
of binder
from which
of Yucatan.
this
United States.
twine
is
Practically
all of
the
the fiber
Agave plant
282
References
Bailey, L. H.: Mulberries. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 41: 223-243, 1892.
Sketch of the Evolution of Our Native Fruits. The Macmillan Co., 1898,
Briant, Lawrence, and Meacham, C. S. Hops. The Influence of Climate,
Ripeness, Soil, Drying, and General Manipulation on the Value of Hops.
:
Chapman,
A.
9: 177,
C: The
1893;
Jour.
Proc.
Chem.
Chem.
Soc. (London),
Jour.
and Caprification.
897-1003, 1896.
The
Wye,
Sci., 1
Howard, L.
Jour. Agr.
49-58, 1905O.:
of the Caprifig
Experiments in California.
S.
Matthews,
Jour.
Rabak,
F.
Chem.
:
Aroma
of
Hops
Study
115-159, 1914.
U.
S.
HORACES
283
1914.
The
WiNGE, O.
L.
The
Humulus Lupulus
Comp. Rend. Lab. Carlsberg,
and H. Japonicus
Sieb.
et
Zucc.
CHAPTER XXH
POLYGONACEiE
(Buckwheat Family)
Herbaceous representatives of
in
temperate
found
regions,
like species
tree-
American
while shrubby ones
tropics,
in
number
while a
Rumex
num
of species of
(knotweed, bind-weed,
bad weeds.
Stems. The stems
etc.) are
conspicuously
are
jointed and
The leaves
are alternate
counastrum) or whorled
(mountain sorrel, Oxyria
,
digyna).
They
are
mostly
10.
Leaf
of
(Fagopyrum
common buckwheat
vulgare).
i.
no).
(plu. ocreae)
POLYGONACE.i;
Inflorescences.
The
28 3
vary a
inflorescences
great
deal
Polygonum
Eriogonum
in
in
spp., cymes,
umbels or heads.
The cyme
is
is
by the dandelion
The
eight-toothed involucre.
in
one or two
by a
five- to
from
it;
the
imbricated (over-
series, often
There are no
petals).
petals.
may
be crowded
is
The
pistil
is
solitary.
The
su-
four-angled,
three in
of
the ovary;
tufted,
is
and sometimes
two-cleft.
a single ovule.
Fruit.
The
fruit is a three-angled
is
(rarely four-angled)
286
pericarp
is
hard or leathery.
The
embryo
is
straight or curved.
Rey
to Principal Genera
calyx.
Polygonum
(bistort, persicaria,
RHEUM RHAPONTICUM
from
large, quite
Fig. III.
knot weed,
etc.).
is
a perennial
a fibrous and
Rhubarb
section,
The rhizome
is
used in the
later in
POLYGONACE^
287
seed
is
.zj,, :%
Fig. 112.
outline,
The
fruit.
which should go
208
The
ous ocreae.
occur in
fascicles,
inflorescence
is
each of which
paniculate.
The
and
is
six-parted, persistent,
is
in the fruit
(Fig.
113);
is
,win^
'''
peaistenv'
cd/yx lobe
Fig. 113.
Fruit
of
A, external view; B.
S.
by
the matu-
Stigmas of flowers
by wind,
Fruit.
insects,
and gravity.
Rhubarb
an achene surrounded
it is
it
has
by a longitudinal
tipped by a small per-
POLYGONACE^
The
sistent style.
shape to the
289
and
and
abundant and
is
rounds the
large, straight
embryo.
show
seedlings of rhubarb
tries of the
will
It has
planted early.
The
interesting variation.
if it is
sur-
The
common rhubarb is a
into many coun-
become introduced
temperate chmates.
It
is
It is
hybrids between R.
now grown
and
grown are Linnaeus,
Victoria and Monarch.
There are a number or ornamental
species of Rheum, most of which are distinguished from common rhubarb by their more or less lobed leaves, the margins
of which may be coarsely or finely toothed.
Uses. Rhubarb or pie plant is a vegetable used for its
large, acid leaf stalks, which are of the best quahty early in
are
The
R. palmatum.
rha'ponticum, R. undulatum
principal varieties
the season.
sauce,
The
made
Common buckwheat
is
root which
may
reach
down
into pies or
juice.
Buckwheat)
roots are given off along the primary, but they do not extend
far into the soil.
Buckwheat
differs
cereals, in
much
less
Stems.
may
branch
rise to
but
no
290
"suckers"
or
"tillers"
are
produced.
The amount
of
to red,
with age.
':^^^"^
Pig. 114.
POLYGONACEjE
291
-nectar ^land
receptacle
Fig. 115.
floral
Common
diagram
C, cross-section of fruit
D, flower.
{B
A, achene; B,
after Wossidlo;
after
Stevens.)
Flowers. The
D)
292
fruit.
The
when
quite
fruit.
until frost.
dimorphous
forms has short styles and long stamens, and the other, long
styles
The
styly.
This condition
is
known
as hetero-
Usually,
all
the flowers on
Occasionally, how-
oti er.
may
bear a
very few flowers with styles and stamens of the same length.
Buckwheat
Heterostyly
is
is
regularly
visited
by numerous
insects.
nation.
Fruit.
times
The mature
two- or four-angled)
A)
is
crustaceous
a triangular (some-
achene,
brown,
"grain"
is
The
is
is
Seed.
There
which
Buckwheat endosperm
is
POLYGONACEjE
293
more starchy than that of wheat, oats, barley, rye and corn,
and the fat content is lower. Consequently, buckwheat
flour is low in percentage of protein and fat.
The embryo
("germ"), however, has an abundance of fat and protein, and
which contain the embryo, are a
valued stock
115, C), the
from one
food.
of the letter S,
and reaches
-nucellus
-aleurone
j/arc/iy
endosperm
Fig.
116.-
vulgare).
(After Stevens.)
Section of mature
Common
in
China
It
one of which,
-F.
294
needed.
emarginatum),
(F.
is dis-
smooth
rounded wings.
Three varieties of common buckwheat are
grown in the United States: Japanese, silver hull, and comhull prolonged into wide,
Varieties.
mon
They may be
gray.
distinguished
by the
following
key:
Key to Varieties
or
Common Buckwheat
Faces of grain slightly concave; angles extended into very short wings^
Common
gray.
Faces of grain
Buckwheat
Enviromnental Relations.
is
temperate-
the
summers
are
cool
work
of Briggs
fruit.
Dry, hot
Accord-
amount being
well on poor
to
make
Uses.
it
soils,
is
known
to do
such as
is
various forms.
try,
Buckwheat
578.
hogs and
The whole
cattle.
of
As
buckwheat
is in
grain
is
the
it is
sometimes fed
manuused in
to poul-
moved from the grain, and the seeds ground, before feeding
to hogs.
The middlings (hulls mixed with bran) are prized
as a stock feed. Buckwheat straw is used both as a feed
and a bedding for stock. Honey from buckwheat flowers
has always possessed a high reputation for flavor.
Buck-
POLYGONACE^
wheat
will
true cereals.
Therefore,
it
may
soil
295
that will not support
be used as a green-manure
crop.
References
Morse,
J. F.:
Culture.
of the
Bot. Gaz.,
Bot.
2.
Mag. (Tokyo),
in the Species of
Rheum,
29: 292-295,
CHAPTER XXIII
CHENOPODIACE^
This family
is
(Goosefoot Fanuly)
They
in deserts
From an economic
able importance.
The
is
of consider-
large
number
and Russian
thistle.
Members
The
The
stipules, simple,
and
entire,
toothed or lobed.
The
flowers
may
occur in
Russian
296
thistle)
The
flowers
CHENOPODIACE^
297
They
tillate
cobalus)
They
There are no
lar.
The
petals.
calyx
Sar-
three- to five-lobed
is
is
entirely want-
The
many
calyx
is
^^.
(Chenopodium spp.); the filaments are commonly slender and bear longitudinally dehistwo-celled
cent,
superior, free
The
anthers.
ovary
is
.^h^^n^-
^rT^^^?^""
The mature
/rwi/
is
a utricle (one-
may
sperm
the
Fig.
mem-
117. ^i,
sanTobatus^^" b
annular embryo
The
{Beta,
embryo
Eur alia,
is
etc.), or
spirally coiled
endosperm
little
or none.
Embryo not
spirally
thistle).
coiled,
partly
or
endosperm abundant.
Flowers perfect (polygamous in Kochia).
Calyx with five lobes, about the base of which is developed a wing, Kochia.
Calyx wingless, persistent.
Lobes of calyx becoming fleshy and bright
blite).
red,
Blitum (strawberry
298
Lobes of the calyx not becoming fleshy, and never red in color.
Developing large fleshy tap roots, Beta (beet).
Tap roots not fleshy, Chenopodium (goosefoot, lamb's quarters,
pig- weed).
Pistillate flowers
SPmACIA OLERACEA
Description.
Spinach
it
is
an
(Spinach)
erect,
smooth, annual
herb.
stalk
Fig. 118.
Spinach (Spinacea oleracea). A, pistillate flower of pricklyseeded spinach; B, staminate flower of same; C, fruit of smooth-seeded
spinach; D, fruit of prickly-seeded spinach.
large,
alternate,
petioled,
shaped in outline.
They
are
dioecious.
have a fourinserted
at
to five-parted calyx
the
and four
to five
stamens
Pistillate flowers
CHENOPODIACE^
(Fig. 118,
299
united at the
utricle consisting of a
to five stigmas,
ii8, C,
D)
is
and by a membranous
The
pericarp.
smooth or spiny,
seed
is
compressed,
is
It
It has
become
is
It runs to seed in
warm
weather.
New Zealand
ice plant, is
summer
"greens."
The plant
member
New
Zealand.
is
low,
of the family
It
is
grown
but profusely
The
alternate
nut-like,
300
Groups
of
True Spinach.
varieties of
may
Key
to Groups of Spinach
"Seeds" smooth.
Ends and lobes
of leaves
group.
Ends and
Plants not
so
spreading,
erect,
on account
of
thick-leaved group.
Spinach
is
BETA VULGARIS
Botanical
Groups.The above
(Beet)
is
Sugar beet.
2.
Mangel-wurzels or mangels.
3.
Common
garden beet.
chenopodiacejE
301
Leaf beets.
4.
(a)
(b)
The Wild
Beet.
Along
It
is
SUGAR BEET
Habit.
first
is
year in the crown (fleshy stem) and tap root from which
Root.
The "beet"
The "crown"
The root part
tap root.
the beet
of
is
developed from
of 4 feet
and often 6 or
rootlets are
root,
very abundant.
feet.
The
The
first
lateral roots
and
6 to 8 inches of the
The upper
branch roots and extend farth-
The
tip
stem with the leaves crowded at the apex. The second year,
it sends up, from terminal and axillary buds, stout, angular,
branching stems to a height of 3 or 4 feet; these stems give rise
to flowering branches (Fig. 119).
302
Beet
Pig. 119.
size.
of httle significance.
is
in full fruit.
CHENOPODIACEjE
shape and
size is useless.
303
undesirable.
number
of
The researches
European investigators have shown that the
correlated with
is
sugar content.
for the
most
part, of a
ground
tissue penetrated
vessels.
vascular
nng
-smaW-ceWed
parencnxjwa
larde-cejied
parencmma
ring of growth
Fig. 120.
Diagrammatic
enchyma
At
tissue.
separates vessels
cells:
small
cells
is
composed
of
two kinds
farther removed.
The
smaller
parenchyma
sugar, while the largM- ones are principally water storage cells,
poor in sugar.
celled
Hence, beets with a predominance of smallare richer in sugar than those in which
parenchyma
It
must not be
as-
304
sumed from
this that it
dififerences in the
2
appearance
is
would be possible
is
or
Fig.
Fig. 121.
Diagram showing distribution of sugar in an
to iind conspicuous
(After
Fig. 122.
Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris).
A, flowers grouped in the axil of a bract;
B, cluster of flowers which fuse to form a
multiple germ beet "seed."
CHENOPODIACE^
the center;
the
new
there
is
new
leaves
rings of
305
come from
these, while
Hence,
Rings of Growth. The rings of growth vary in number, depending upon the length of the growing season. Ordinarily,
six to ten rings
The cambium
rings
Leaves.
crown
is
Beet
Fig. 123.
The
oldest leaves
Each
blade
is
large
in
terminal.
The
The
bract.
and
Fig. 122,
which
is
subtended by a small
Flowers.
perfect.
The perianth
consists
3o6
and
124).
and Fertilization.^ The beet flower is protanShaw has shown that "self-fertilization " (autogamy)
Pollination
drous.
(geitonogamy)
fertilization"
He
ally ineffective.
is
usu-
Bees are of
mm
Fig. 124.
Diagram of
beet flower, showing onehalf of flower cut length-
process.
Fruit
little
Wind
consequence in this
is
wise.
and
Seed.
The
ripened
the
receptacle
"seed ball."
If the flower
is
stands by
produced-
itself
The
on the stem, a
According to
will
CHENOPODIACE^
307
Of
is
in the elimina-
Townsend and
Rittue say that there is some indication that plants grown
from single-germ seeds produce a greater number of single
flowers than plants from multiple-germ seeds.
It must be
borne in mind that the so-called "beet seed" is in reality a
a large
extent,
"thinning."
tion,
to
fruit,
seeded
of
fruits,
of one one-seeded
fruit.
The
true seed
turnip seed.
is
The
is
thin,
basal.
size of
The
floury endo-
first
is
a biennial,
year,
and
set
mother plants
improvement
for seed
of beets.
appear.
way above
is
the
groimd.
The
two rather
3o8
Types
of
common
Sugar
There
Beets.^
much
is
of
beets.
The percentages
The tonnage
and
spiral in
Kleinwanzlebener
of sugar in the
the same.
origin,
The secondary
French
of the Vilmorin
is
smaller.
of sugar beets
were
made by Headden.'
German
beet,
grams
813.000
78.000
22.000
673.000
479.300
74.603
25-370
18.300
0.820
18. 240
o 800
15-300
o 701
706
0.769
OS43
0.436
74.550
Dry substance
25 450
16.600
Protein
j
Montana
beet,
Sugar
Total ash
Colorado
grams
Water
Michigan
beet,
beet,
grams
o.
grams
75.800
24. 200
2.680
Except in extreme cases, there seems to be little support for the statement
that the greater the weight the less the sugar content of the beet. The composition of the beet is affected by age, disease, fertilizers, insuificient food
supply, light, time of topping, rainfall, etc.
Maniifacture of Sugar.
beet sugar,
'
of
more
is
in
very rapid
yields are
CHENOPODIACE^
machinery into narrow
30g
These
("cossettes")-
strips
strips
The
diffusion.
of lime
is
juice
added
to
is
it.
The liming
bonate and
carries
first "
is
is
down most
by the
followed
The
intro
precipitate
When
the
is
followed
by a
This
third carbonatation.
The
purified
may
be
juice is
vacuum evaporators.
vacuum evaporators is
The material
in
a mixture of crystals
is
and molasses.
sugar retained.
The sugar
is
and the
where the crystals are separated from each other during the
The molasses from the first boihng is again
drying process.
is
employed as a fertilizer.
possible to manufacture
It
The
refuse
sometimes
fusel
is
oil,
alcohol,
There are
it is
many
other ways of
310
Types.
As
Detroit,
Fig. 125.
Dark Red);
of
garden
Percentage
types as to shape
1.
Root oblate
or
top-shaped
(Early
Blood
Turnip,
common garden
312
CHARD
The
beet,
sea-kale beet,
Beta cycla.
The
flowers
Fig. 127.
common
beet.
Swiss chard,
and
Chard or
silver
fruit
leaf beet
names: Spinach
chard, and
beet,
are hke
those of the
(Beta vulgaris).
its
habit of growth,
CHENOPODIACE^
The
plant
thickened,
is
3^3
but not
fleshy,
root system.
The
leaves are
large,
are often as
much
as
2 feet
long and
The
leaf stalks
to 3 inches thick.
The
in
Swiss chard
is
There
Chard
is
grown
and
petioles.
The
leaves are boiled like spinach, and the pej^ioles are served like
asparagus.
MANGEL-WURZELS OR MANGELS
To
this
garis.
group belong the stock-feeding varieties of Beta vulbotanical characters are very similar to those
The
Fig. 128.
Types
of mangels.
globe.
As
mangels
Globe. In
Types.
of
(After Percival.)
(Fig. 128):
1.
more than
Tankard.
Varieties
of this type
314
The
Oval or ^^Intermediate."
3.
The
Long
are
one
include
as
food.
of
all
The
They
root
are
crops
rootstocks
or
roots,
are
utilized.
Examples
and artichokes.
also for forage.
is
remainder
the
season.
Refeiences
GoFF, E.
Sta.,
S.: Vegetables:
Garden Beet.
120-132, 1887.
Kinney, L.
F.: Spinach.
R.
I.
CHENOPODIACEJE
Pritchard,
F.
Some Recent
J.:
Bot. Gaz., 62
Investigations in
315
Sugar-beet Breeding.
425-465, 1916.
U.
Mitt.
S.
Kaiser
Dept. Agr.
TowNSEND,
C. O.,
U.
of Single-germ
Beet
S.
CHAPTER XXIV
GROSSULARIACE^
There
is
(Gooseberry Family)
Ribes
in this family.
It includes
Stems.
Gooseberries
The stems
bent shrubs.
of gooseberries
are
armed with
cultivated
varieties
of
gooseberries
is
are
almost thornless.
on spurs that
arise
old.
When
canes,
fruit spurs,
may
well.
be
Propagation of both
made by stem
cuttings;
is
GROSSULAKIACEiE
Leaves.
317
resinous-glandular or viscid.
ent.
In
all
Inflorescence
and Flowers.
Currants
and gooseberries
Each
pedicel
is
subtended by a
The
receptacle (torus)
(Fig.
130).
The
often colored.
is
and
The
calyx
is
five
very small
petals,
3i8
number
The
inferior ovary
with
one-celled
pollination.
The Matiure
Fruit.
The
is,
and goose-
a true fruit
vascular bundle
Of receptacle
vascular bundle
<^ carpel
ovu/e cavity
^placenta.
Diagrammatic cross-section of Ribes flower prior to fertilizaNote that carpel tissue is surrounded by receptacle tissue, as is evidenced by the two distinct sets of vascular bundles. The fleshy part of the
Ribes fruit is thus seen to be composed of receptacle tissue for the most part
hence the fruit is not a berry, morphologically, but rather pome-like. (Diagram from microscopic section and data furnished by E. J. Kraus.)
Fig. 130.
tion.
possessing
Kraus
imbedded
in a fleshy
unpublished
work of
pome-
or less
Recent,
GROSSITLARIACE^
319
the
flesh of the
Thus
it is
Ribes fruit
is
and not
toral
carpellary.
Seeds.
side.
small,
and
slightly flattened
is
on one
comparatively thick
There are about 100 species of the genus Ribes. These are,
most part, natives of temperate Europe, Asia, North America and the
Andes of South America.
Geographical.
for the
Key to Important
Species of
Genus Ribes
Stems with one to three thorns below the clusters of leaves, often with numerous scattered prickles on the branches, sometimes upon the fruit
Leaves plaited in the bud (Fig. loi) (Gooseberries).
unarmed and smooth; spines on the branches generally solitary
(sometimes triple) and slender. R. oxyacanihoides (common gooseberry)
Fruit armed with prickles, or rough and glandular-hairy; spines on the
also.
Fruit
branches
usually
three
together,
stout.
R.
grossularia
(European
gooseberry).
Thornless and prickleless; leaves plaited in bud (Fig. loi); racemes few- to
many-flowered (Currants).
Torus dilated immediately above the ovary.
Leaves without resinous-dots beneath; fruit red or
light.
R. rubrum
(garden currant).
Leaves with resinous dots beneath; fruit black. jR. nigrum (European black currant).
Torus prolonged above the ovary into a campanulate, cylindrical
tube.
R. americanum (American black currant).
Thornless and prickleless; leaves convolute in the bud (Fig. lor); racemes
R. aureum
several flowered; torus above much elongated, bright yellow.
(Missouri, flowering, golden, or Buffalo currant).
320
CURRANTS
The
drooping racemes.
varies in color;
fruit
New
England
to
may
it
This species
is
be
found
Red Dutch,
Cherry,
Versaillaise,
Fay,
Prince
White Grape.
Ribes
nigrum, the European black currant, is but Httle
(2)
cultivated in America.
It differs from the preceding in
Albert, and
and the
fruit is black.
The
greenish-
This currant
America,
is
spreading habit.
As
in the
it differs
is
Ribes aureum
is
It is cultivated principally as
GROSSULARIACE.E
for
fruit.
its
The wedge-shaped
The most
very leafy.
its
^21
leaves
The
three-lobed,
are
short inflorescence
is
toral
tube,
and small
brown
or black.
Valley,
and westward
species
to the
is
and
dark
fruit is
Rocky Mountains.
Uses.
The
reddi.sh petals.
The
Important
Jelly.
and
wine.
GOOSEBERRIES
Species.
The
cultivated
as
belong
gooseberries
to
two
America.
European gooseberries,
productive, less
common
Ribes grossularia.
thorns,
The
or
ish,
This
usually in
pubescent.
fruit.
the
less resistant to
The
is
The
threes.
leaves
are
shining
large berry
yellowish in
is
and
and
color.
The
species
is
a native
of
robust
threes,
some
as
sometimes
varieties
The
the preceding.
single,
may
be entirely wanting.
The
The
leaves are
New
Jersey
32 2
and westward to the Rocky Mountains. Important varieties are Downing, Pale Red, Red Jacket, Champion and
Pearl.
There are hybrids between the American and
European species.
Uses.
are
made
They
CHAPTER XXV
CRUCIFER^
This family
is
(Mustard Family)
There are in
of world-wide distribution.
number
of genera
and
species
is
The
largest
They are
and Asia Minor.
found from low to high latitudes
and from low to high altitudes.
Many
of the
white
mustard,
cress
and horse
number
radish,
water
radish, while a
as penny
mustard or charlock,
shepherds purse, false flax, and
tansy mustard.
Stems, Leaves.
Most
mus-
The
Inflorescence
inflorescence is
solitary at the
and Flowers.
Fig. 131.
Cruciferae.
Floral
The
predominant type of
end
of a scape.
323
The mustard
flower
is
char-
324
acteristic
(Fig.
131).
It is perfect
The
right-
tinct,
CRUCIFERjE
are in two distinct whorls.
that
when one
The
325
appearance of a Greek
(Latin, crux, cross,
cross,
+ fera,
hence the
to bear).
The
it
name
has the
Cruciferae
petals, as a rule,
is,
base of petals.
The
six
(rarely
The
themselves.
Fruit.
which
is
termed a
silique
silicle
sides
(Brassica)
Fig. 133.
Fruit
false
partition.
fruit is
indehiscent.
Seeds.
The
endosperm
is
326
The
are short-lived, as
of the
mallow family,
seeds is due to
Longevity of
is impermeability of the
more
sensitive to moisture
by the seed
is
vitaUty
its
rate of respiration
This
reduced.
shortening the
life
may
increased,
and hence
its
be an important factor in
of the seed.
Members
of the
mustard family
may
be mis-
taken for those of the poppy family {Papaveracem) or caper family {Capparidacea), both of which are closely related.
The poppies have perfect flowers
usually with two early deciduous sepals, while capers are distinguished from
mustards by the
six
capsule.
Key
to Principal Genera
as wide.
Brassica
cress
and horse
radish).
Pod
rarely
Camelina
(false
flax).
Silique flattened.
Lepidium (penny
cress).
CRUCIFER^,
327
BRASSICA
The
large, yellow
sepals, petals,
The
broadly lobed.
silique (Fig.
sided,
entire, dentate, or
133)
is
The
membranous
is
is
a short or
The
Pollination.
row
each
in
Representatives
It
cell.
of the
self-
and
cross-
At germination of the
In
all
GeographicaL
America.
None
Key
now
Asia, Africa,
cultivated, however,
America or Australia.
328
Swede turnip).
Young leaves grass-green; no distinct short stem on upper part
root, B.
campestris (rutabaga or
of root, B.
rapa (turnip).
Roots not
fleshy.
Young
Young
few
hairs, B.
napus
BRASSICA OLERACEA
Wild Cabbage.'
This
(Cabbages,
etc.)
of cultivated cabbage.
Fig. 134.
is
(rape).
etc.).
Wild cabbage.
(After Bailey.)
England and Wales, Channel Island, and western and southIt is a stout perennial or biennial from a tough
and woody root. The stem is branching and attains a
ern Europe.
height of
are stalked,
are sessile
and
large,
The
are
flowers
in
elongated
about
% to
inch in diameter,
The
fruit is
a smooth silique
CRUCIFERiE
The
329
Key
(Fig, 135),
(Fig. 136),
Fig.
135.
Kale
viridis).
Stem
(Brassica oleracea
(After Vilmorin.)
Fig. 136.
Brussels sprouts (Brassica
oleracea gemmifera).
First-year
(Fig.
(common cabbage).
First-year stem not forming a "head."
137),
B. oleracea
var. capitala
330
(Fig.
138), B.
Stem not
first
leafy
turnip-like,
The members
form
of cabbage.
during the
Forms
first
(Fig. 135)
cabbage, or collard.
known
as kale, borecole,
marrow
ticularly.
collard.
and strong stems often 3 or 4 feet tall; the dwarf kales are
lower and close to the ground. Dwarf Green Scotch Kale
is the most common sort grown in the Norfolk truck-gardenThousand-headed kale is a very large, highly
ing area.
branching form.
The
marrow
The
UnUke
head cabbage,
kohlrabi and cauhflower, kale and collard will endure the
heat and drought of summer, and kale, at least, will stand
their close relatives, Brussels sprouts,
considerable freezing.
CRUCIFER^
below upwards, almost
331
Brussels
Types.
to 2 inches in diameter.
There
Uses.
mon head
cabbage.
desirable.
They
Fig. 137.
The
are cooked in a
manner
similar to cabbage.
Three com-
332
smooth
leaves, the
longitu-
in
Types.
may
be distinguished as follows:
Key to Types
of
(Fig.
and
Wakefield cabbages.
Heads
Heads
Head
cabbages.
cabbages.
The
The Wakefields
in trucking districts.
when
it is
in a brine
due
made
of its
own
The sour
taste
is
CRUCIFERiE
on the sugar
Ordinarily there
juice.
is
Among
sauerkraut.
333
maximum
of
in the
about
cabbage
per cent, of
Cabbages
is
universally
The stem
is
short,
of the ground.
The
cotyledons,
the
The
root.
much
fleshy part
hence
spherical
large,
is
not
swelling begins at
is
formed
body upon
As
color
to
Those
types:
principal
with
Vienna Erfurt)
Kohlrabi
is
sively in the
is
used
United States.
particularly
by
It
our
and eaten
bagas.
It
also
a valuable
Fig. 138.
Kohlrabi (Brassica
oleracea caulo-rapa).
334
very
is
much
The
A, entire plant; B,
portion of "head."
number
of cabbage-like leaves;
CRUCIFER^.
table, these basal leaves are tied
335
up about
head to prevent
its
BRASSICA RAPA
Description.
first
The
common
(Turnip)
turnip
the "turnip"
is
is
is
a biennial.
formed.
The
However,
The
The
in the
form of a
rosette.
They
first
season are
The
sec-
ond season, a stem i to 3 feet tall is sent up from the terminal bud in the center of the rosette of leaves, which bears
alternate, clasping, lanceolate or oblong, entire or dentate,
smooth
cence
leaves.
is
The flower stem is branching. The infloresThe flowers are bright yellow, about 3^
a raceme.
The fruit
is
ij^ to
brown
short beak.
The
and number
15 to 25 in each silique.
Geographical.
Asia.
By
cultivation,
it
to
grown as cool-season
Types of Turnips.
by
in color, spherical,
crops.
varieties of turnips,
33^
The
grown
principal varieties
in the
United States
may
two
Root
entirely white.
Flat (Early
Spherical (Snowball,
Top
Spherical (Purple
Root
Top White
Globe).
Kashmyr).
Flesh yellow.
is
tap root.
In cross-section,
2.
Cambiiim.
3.
Main
flesh of turnip
(wood and
pith).
it
shows the
CRUCIFER^
337
make up
soft,
the
wood
and hence
cells
which
.the tissue is
unlike ordinary
very indistinct.
such are
--cortex
camhimm
pith
and
wood
Fig. 141.
Root
Top
is
grown
by man.
as a green forage
BRASSICA CAMPESTRIS
Description.
This
Diagrammatic.
(Fig.
142)
orange in
color.
The
first
The
flesh is solid
and yellow or
and all
The yellow
flowers are
338
develop the sweetness and flavors for which they are so well
known only in
BRASSICA NAPUS
Description.
height of
Rape
The stem
Fig. 142.
There
lyrate, the
stem.
The
The
2 to 3 feet.
cool summers.
extent.
is
is
(Rape)
is
branched to a considerable
no swollen
root.
The lower
leaves are
is
purple.
The
seedlings
B. campestris (rutabaga).
Varieties
United States
CRUCIFERiE
variety used for
annual.
its
339
is
used as a
and as a
"Rape
fall
cake,"
is
treated as an
made from
the seeds
Description.
7 feet
tall,
The
and
Brown Mustard)
or
black mustard
freely branching.
is
The
an annual herb
2 to
The pods
The
by
seeds.
to seed.
Every
Much
effort is
made
to prevent
34
fields.
base
may not be
growing
rapid.
is
Related Species.
from Asia in
de-
is
The
(Brassica japonica)
is
Uses.
The
plant
is
Occasionally
it is
meat
in
Table mustard
is
the
is
It
is
and
its lighter
by
colored and
larger seeds.
The plant
It
is
is
is
cruciferjE
341
RAPHANUS SATIVUS
Habit.
nial herb.
It
may produce
fruit the
The
and
(stem).
The
when planted
produces a
it
is
mainly a tap
the top
is
root,
or
crown
varying
a short hypocotyl
late,
At
color.
laterals
year,
when
radish vegetable
in size, shape,
an annual or bien-
is
same
planted
if
Root.
(Garden Radish)
in
number
branching stem,
pubescent with
to 23^ feet
stiff
hairs,
tall.
This stem
especially
may be sparsely
brous throughout.
Leaves.
natifid,
leaves are
deeply lyrate-pin-
and oblong.
gated raceme
(Fig. 132).
tard type; the sepals are erect and sac-like at the base; the
petals rose-lilac or white.
i to ij^ inches long, two- to threecorky with a spongy tissue separating the
seeds; the pods are not longitudinally grooved or prominently constricted; they are capped by a long conic beak
which may equal or exceed the pod itself.
Fruit.
seeded, fleshy, or
342
Endosperm
micropyle.
is
may
absent.
becomes
The cotyledon
of considerable size
Each cotyledon
the root.
Geographical
radish
is
leaf is
leaves
flat
and
against
tip.
Distribution
and
Origin.
The
common
It
settlers
is
not
ment
may be
Raphanus raphanistrum,
common
radish, especially
CRUCIFER^
when the
latter
343
Raphanus
common
radish.
Types
As
of Radishes.
to seasonal
1.
The
tomatoes,
A forcing crop
its
is
one grown
natural environment.
Hot
cucumbers,
cauliflowers
and beans.
Early or
Long
Common
As
to shape, radishes
1.
Round
Gem).
2.
Deep Scarlet).
White "Icicle").
3.
4.
Long (Vienna,
Chartier,
Long
Scarlet,
344
Radishes vary in color: some varieties are white, others pink, red, purple,
mottled, or black, or red, tipped with white,
etc.
Members
of this
Fig.
leaves.
Flowers are
143.
six
have spreading
stamens.
sepals, yellow or
short or
cell,
cell.
in
two rows
in
CRUCIFER^
The genus
in the
is
345
it is
most abundant
There
is
a rather large
amphibious,
others
nasturlium-aquaticum (water
cress).
and Radicula
The former is
terrestrial,
RADICULA ARMORACIA
(Horse-radish) (Fig. 144)
Horse-radish
Description.
is
may
end.
The
feet.
fibrous roots
The plants
are
penetrate to a depth of 6 or
main root
to 3 feet
tall,
oblong, or lanceolate.
axillary,
is
In cultiva-
propagated by
root cuttings.
Geographical.
Horse-radish
is
a native of Europe.
It is a
common home
garden plant in the United States, and in some instances has escaped from
cultivation and become a troublesome weed.
Uses.
The
root
is
RADICULA NASTURTIUM-AQUATICUM
(Water Cress)
Description.
This
is
346
nodes.
145)
Fig. 144.
Horse-radish (Radicula
cauline leaves
is
armoracia).
and
A, basal
The white
leaf;
B, fruit; C,
inflorescence.
of a
dark green
The
CRUCIFER^
slightly curved,
347
on pedicels
of equal length,
and bear
Water
cress
is
become naturalized
ica.
It is widespread
in
North
America.
References
Carriere, E.
a..
Une
nouvelle
ique.
11
845-847,
1869.
GoFF, E.
S.:
Vegetables: Turnip-
Exp.
Sta.,
Henslow, G.
the
168-190, 1887.
The History
Cabbage Tribe.
of
Jour.
S.
Fig. 145.
'
CHAPTER XXVI
ROSACEA
The Rosaceae
(Rose Family)
North Temperate
Leaves.
The
It
corymb
a terminal
is
raceme)
Opulaster,
in
(flat-topped
racemose,
either
racemose
FiG.
146. Floral
diagram
of
Rubus.
(After Wossidlo.)
is
It is interest-
number
of different
contrast
the raceme
and corymbose or
in the strawberry.
it
is,
all
mem-
Flowers.
perfect.
The flowers
and usually
ROSACEA
are borne.
five-lobed,
(epicalyx, as in
many
349
strawberry).
The
petals
to the ovary,
set of bracts
are distinct,
as
of
\\eshj
'recefiacle
-drupelet
calw lobe
stigma
A median lengthwise
immature pistil, X 5.
,
This disk is an outgrowth of the recepand forms a flat rim about the calyx base. In cultivated
roses there are numerous petals which have developed from
primordia that normally become stamens. This bears out the
the disk (Fig. 147).
tacle
35
stamens are leaves, morphologically. The production of supernumerary petals is known as "doubling."
The stamens are numerous, distinct, and attached to the
belief that
margin of the toral disk (Fig. 147). The anthers are small
and two-celled. The carpels are usually numerous and distinct, or rarely attached to the calyx.
The ovary is one-celled
(rarely imperfectly two-celled) with a terminal or lateral style,
The
to
many
ovules.
an aggregate of
The
a pod-like
side only
fruit,
or
an
follicle
seeds.
The
true pod,
capsule has
drupe
sides.
several
a one-seeded
fruit
It will be
carpels.
remembered that
drupelet
is
a small
endocarp.
Key
i.e.,
the fruit.
Carpels becoming
follicles,
Spima.
Style short.
Receptacle fleshy in
fruit,
Fragaria (strawberry).
Rosa
RUBUS
Stems.
i.e.,
(rose).
The
liOSACE^
mountain
bramble).
They
are
usually
designated
as
The stems are, as a rule, prickly, erect, decumThe stems ("canes") commonly die after
one or two years, new ones being sent up from the roots. The
main growth of the stem is made during the first year, in
"brambles."
bent, or creeping.
Fig. 148.
Fruiting
most Rubi;
and
flowers
branch
of
strigosus).
The
have borne
fruit.
Red
Propagation.berries (rarely)
raspberries,
"sucker"
readily.
blackberries
and
dew-
352
All
fruit-raiser.
bends over by
When
its
These are
compound
stipules.
three-
shoot
tips
may
tip.
be cut loose
used as "sets."
to
In Rubus
shoot
well, the
trivialis,
and
bear
persistent
are evergreen.
Inflorescence.
The flowers
The
Rubus
flowers
and
fruit in all
which
For example, in
leaf
There are
and deciduous.
The
five-parted calyx
is
persistent
rosacEjE
Pollination.
As
fleshy ring
stamens.
There
simultaneously.
353
is
on the margin
some dewberries,
Fruit.
The fruit (Fig. 147) of
The numerous pistils ripen into
the genus
is
an aggregate.
blackberries, the drupelets are firmly attached to the receptacle while in raspberries the drupelets readily separate
the receptacle
when the
fruit is
form of a cup.
in the
of
from
The exposed
surface
berry,
glabrous throughout.
Geographical.
number
Classification.
North Temperate
regions.
may
Key to Groups
the genus
fall
be distinguished as follows
of Gknus Riibus
Drupelets firmly attached to receptacle, not separating from the latter when
fruit is being picked.
Stems
Blackberries.
trailing; plant
propagating by
open
first,
Dew-
berries.
23
form
of cup. Raspberries.
fruit
is
being picked
354
BLACKBERRIES
Only those species are considered in the following keys
which have yielded us our important fruit-bearing varieties.
The key considers the groups of blackberries as given by
L. H. Bailey in "The Evolution of Our Native Fruits."
Key
to Species or Blackberries
Ruhus nigrobaccus
berry-dewberry)
Inflorescences
on long pedi-
main
axis.
Inflorescences leafy,
i.e.,
pedicels subtended
by
leaves,
Ruhus
argutus
(leafy-cluster blackberries).
Clusters long.
R. nigrobacciis
Berries black,
(common
long-cluster
or high-bush
blackberry)
Berries cream-colored or pink,
(white
blackberry).
Clusters short.
Lower
to 3 feet tall,
very
Lower
tall,
Rubus
prickles.
nigrobaccus.
The
The
tall
and
The
The
showy
flowers on
and aromatic.
plant
Canada.
are
to 8 feet
sweet,
is
The
Rubus nigrobaccus
R. villosus.
^The
fruits,
The
and
ROSACEiE
The
355
clusters.
Rubus
3 feet
cuneifolius.
tall.
The
The
sand blackberry
is
stiff,
of
medium
size,
sweet,
the species.
Fig. 149.
villosus).
DEWBERRIES
These differ from blackberries in their trailing habit,
cymose inflorescences, and propagation by tips. They
have received the name "trailing blackberry." There are
356
key
Key to Principal
Leaves evergreen, R.
Leaves deciduous.
trivialis
Species of Dewberries
(southern dewberry).
Buds tipped by the united ends of the sepals, forming a spine; flower clusters forking into two or three parts, R. invisus (northern dewberry).
Buds not tipped by the united ends of the sepals to form a spine.
Both hermaphrodite and pistillate plants; leaflets coarsely toothed, R.
miifalius (western dewberry).
Plants
all
Rubus
trivialis.
These are trailing shrubs, with stout, hooked prickles and
on the stems, and with upright branches 3 to 9 inches tall. The leaves
are trifoliate, petioled, and with oval, leathery, serrate, evergreen leaflets.
bristles
The
The
and have petals that are much longer than the sepals. The fruit is black,
and up to i inch long. The species occurs from Virginia to Florida and westward to Texas and Missouri. The best-known horticultural variety is
Manatee.
Rubus invisus. The stems are moderately prickly. The leaflets are large
and coarsely and simply dentate. The erect peduncles are elongated. The
large flowers are on long pedicels; flower buds are tipped by the united ends
of the sepals.
The species is reported by Bailey as growing wild from New
York to Alabama and east to Kansas and Missouri. The chief varieties are
Bartel and Mammoth.
Rubus
vitifolius.
and Idaho.
This
Skagit Chief
Rubus viUosus.^The
Washington
plants
The
and cymose.
drupelets.
The
This
is
fruit is globular,
the
dewberry
jagged
and
large
The
Lucretia
(variety roribaccus) is a
leaflets,
common dewberry
ROSACEA
357
RASPBERRIES
There are four well-known groups of cultivated raspAmerican red, and European
Key to
Fruit purple-black,
rarely yellow;
tips,
R.
occidenlalis
(black-cap).
by
tips
or suckers.
Stems
stiff
and
erect; fruit
produced more or
less
continuously throughout
fruit
produced
less
continuously through-
Stems
Stems
bristly,
strigosus
(American red).
dark red; inflorescence racemose-
cymose, R. strigosus
Rubus occidentalis.
R- occidenlalis (purple-cane).
The
hooked
prickles,
The
on the under
The
side.
inflor-
pedicels; the
important in
this country.
species
is
Rubus
idaeus.
stiff
and
erect,
prickles;
glandular bristles are never present except in some cultivated forms which
may be
occurs on peduncles, pedicels, petioles are nearly always flattened and slightly
thick leaves are white-downy beneath.
The fruit is purple or
produced throughout the season. The European raspberry is
not cultivated to any extent in this country at the present time. It is a native
curved.
The
yellow and
of
is
Europe and
Rubus
Asia.
strigosus.
The leaves
on peduncles,
stiff,
hooked
and calyx.
straight or
pedicels, petioles,
358
The
inflorescences
FRAGARIA
Roots and Stems.
(Strawberry)
with very short, thick stems set close to the surface of the
ground.
Runners
"runners."
They
may
new
is
mature.
ROSACEA.
359
is matured.
Runners may branch. New branches
from the main perennial stem appear, of course, above the
old ones, hence there is a tendency for the short stem to
the fruit
Fig. 150.
all
Flowers
of
foot of
flowers;
Leaves.
first
below two
The leaves
pistillate flowers.
are alternate
much
soil.
and
which increase in
mem-
Inflorescence
small
and Flowers.
The
leafless
scapes
360
The
some
flowers are
varieties
(Bisel,
staminate
flowers.
flowers only,
it is
In
planting
varieties
with
pistillate
Some
pollen-bearing individuals.
perfect-flowered varieties
achene
-calm lobe
^^^ Ttm
of receptacle
yeskj
recepfacle
\
Fig. 151.
Strawberry (Fragaria
chiloensis).
flower.
(Glen
Mary and
(epicalyx)
Median lengthwise
section of
4.
The
calyx
below, that
The
is
receptacle
is
convex or con-
There
ROSACEA
361
the receptacle.
Pistils
The
true fruits
the rule in
most
plants.
When
This behavior
is
changes which
but which extend to the
ovary
wall,
itself,
The Mature
speaking)
is
Fruit.
The
an aggregate
of the "fruit"
is
of true fruits.
The
fleshy part
ripened
fruit,
them.
to
is
(Fig. 152,
A) of the
seen to be composed of a
fleshy pith
off
In a lengthwise section
the receptacle
of'
It
is
362
These con-
fruit.
The achenes
are attached to
side,
little
cortex
oi
\dle
medulla oi
receptacle
achene
Fig. 152.
Strawberry (Pragaria
wise section,
chiloensis).
X 2M;
j4
B, single achene,
in
median length-
20.
The achenes
are
com-
number
are found in
all
parts of
ROSACEA
Principal Fnxit-bearing Species.
363
The
evolution of
Most
Fragaria chiloensis.
This plant
is
to
of
the
our
the species
The
common
the
it.
fields.
varieties
Europe
or Perpetual strawberries.
America
of strawberries in
fall
into
Chilean group
2.
3.
iiova.
Fragaria chiloensis.
may be
distinguished
by the
following
key:
Key
fruit;
flesh.
Runners appearing
364
The
petioles are
from
2 to
6 inches
long, the leaflets oval or obovate, obtuse, dentate, the lateral not symmetrical
The scape
at the base.
is
ing them, hence the fruits are borne below the leaves.
The
erect at maturity.
The
in the
flesh.
to
This strawberry
Middle
States.
is
The
fruit is red,
flesh.
varieties.
is a low
form with thick leaves, shining above and bluish-white beneath; the runners
appear after the fruit is gone. The fruit is large, firm, dark, with a large
"hull," and with achenes sunken in the flesh.
It is a native of the western coasts of South America and North America.
Most
of the
common
Varieties.
They
are
maturing:
second,
The number
of varieties of strawberries
commonly divided
first,
early
is
great.
(Warfield,
Excelsior,
Bederwood);
to seed hence
;
it is
possible to secure
new
varieties
by
plant-
ROSACEA
ing seed.
and keep
When
it
365
"true" by means
of runners.
it
This method of
up
and
in
References
of
of
the
Unlike.
Essay
Eastern N. A.
Bull.
25,
Strawberries,
The
425-439, iQii-
BuNYARD, E.
A.:
S.
of the Strawberry.
Jour.
CHAPTER XXVII
POMACEiE
(Apple Family)
Members
Habit, Leaves.
trees or shrubs.
The
alternate simple or
compound
leaves
Inflorescence.
The
anchier, service-berry),
{Amel-
Flowers.
The flowers
and
which
is
rate petals,
numerous
The
distinct
five-
and the
carpels are wholly or partly united.
The carpels vary in
texture from parchment-like (Malus, etc.) to bony (CratcBgus and Cotoneaster). The number of styles varies in the
different genera: generally three in Sorbus, two to five in
Malus (usually five), mostly five in Fyrus (pear), two to five
in Amelanchier, one to five in CratcBgus (thorn apples), two
celled ovary.
ovary
is
ordinarily five-celled,
to five in Cotoneaster.
(Malus) in each
cell,
The
fruit
is
a pome.
Representatives
of
the
The pome
comes
fleshy, to
encloses five
366
POMACES
Geographical.
367
The family
K.EY TO Important
Genera of Pomaces
Ovules
many
in each carpel,
MALUS
Stems.
apple,
(Apples)
all
crab-apples).
Cydonia (quince).
trees or shrubs.
In the
Flower buds, which in the apple are "mixed" buds, are almost always borne on the ends of "spurs" or short twigs.
When a "spur"
down
in their
As a
rule,
a shoot that
so, making
Such a shoot is
of
wood each
year.
368
will
bear
fruit spur
fruit.
POMACES
may
in
many
369
may
Ben
chan,
axils of leaves.
Astra-
Spy
on one-year-old spurs.
same
it
than
has
is
In such a case,
the rule.
is
maturing.
fruit
pointed.
It has
fruit
may
buds are
differ-
be distinguished
Fig. 154.
h*ds.
{AfUr
Pad-
dock
and
Whipple.)
370
July,
outward.
Kraus.
by
it;
on
the sides of the axis, appear the primordia of flower buds and
leaves.
The
The primordia
by a
POJUACE.E
371
Follow-
ing the appearance of sepal primordia, appear petal primordia, then those of stamens,
The
and
from without
acropetal,
i.e.,
in order
to the inside.
The primordia
of
down
cycles, those of
The
carpel
petals, stamens,
shaped receptacle.
372
Pollination
subject
is
and. Fertilization.
extensive.
The
Cross-polUnation
on
this
rule
and
Ex-
literature
is
the
and pear.
periments have shown that the wind aids but little in crosspollination, and that insects, chiefly the honey bee, are
relatively more important.
The bee is attracted to the
flowers by the nectar which is produced rather abundantly.
self-polhnation the exception in the apple
Fig. 156.-
- Floral
mens
Self-sterility
are
sylvestris).
self-sterile,
and
that
will
not
sta-
{After Kraus.)
fertilize
their
and pears
own
pistils.
fertilization.
Self-sterility
and
self-fertility
probably
In Oregon, Lewis
POMACES
the other varieties the pollen of which
it.
It is
373
is
capable of fertilizing
failure of
many
varieties to
The secondary
effects of for-
It
is
claimed by
when placed on
nm
Fig. 157.
many
of receptacle
Apple
(Malus
Median
sylvestris).
longitudinal
section
of
flower.
impresses
its
characteristics
upon the
fruit.
It is difl&cult to
most
come into contact with the nuclei
part.
It is
age of
set,
and
strange pollen.
immediately affected by
374
Parthenocarpy.
^As
a general
number
ment of
is
fails
followed
by the shedding
of the
if a good
However, develop-
to develop completely
fails.
parthenocarpy.
Of
tion.
among
We
There are
is seedless.
cultivated plants
normally without
Seedless to-
The
and
Fruit
are two
common
Its
common.
Development.
Morphology.There
fruits:
1
Flesh
is
2.
Flesh
is
carpels.
The
recent
work
of
Kraus appears
at
bears on the rim and inside face, calyx lobes, petals, and
stamens.
fruit,
there
is
a con-
it
becomes a very
makes up
Ripening Process.
POMACES
in the ripening process.
375
The content
There
and
ture of glucose
slightly.
disappears,
after
up
The
first
when
to the date
which time
stages.
maximum
two
to a
a rapid decrease of
is
up
it
fluctuates
less.
in
Here there
is
at
first
a de-
involves
line.
the
This
loss
Soon
There
cell
cells,
an
intercellular spaces,
This
"Mealiness."
lamellae;
line.
376
POMACE jE
Cross-section of Fruit.
In
377
made
well
Each
The
out.
is
carpel
is
fleshy mesocarp,
ceptacle,
is
median
The
cross-section.
tissue outside of
tissues of
Many
Asa
network of very
parchment-like
tissue,
fine
is
tissue
all
from
when
ten,
six carpels
Longitudinal Section
of Fruit.
^In
longitudinal
The
core line
torus
follow
marks the
The primary
section
the core
line,
and
branches from them spread out into the cortex of the fruit.
Kraus has demonstrated that apple varieties show marked
variation in
is
theii'
distinctive for
internal structure,
any given
External Characteristics.
These
consequence.
and that
this structure
variety.
are
very important
Form
is
in
of considerable
is
held so as to
378
Form terminology
oblate, conical,
termed the
fruit.
cavity.
It
At
different varieties.
the basin.
The flower
The depression about the stem
varies in shape and depth in the
in character
fruits.
and
is
The
partly deciduous.
is
taxonomic
common
of the
apple.
deciduous, while in
of
The remains
is
dried stamens
common
and
apple
styles
may
basal, situated
The calyx tube itself varies in shape from conThe calyx segments, five in number,
vary in their arrangement in the mature fruit. They may
be divergent, that is, reflexed, erect convergent, when their
margins touch, flat convergent, when they are flat and close
the tube, and connivent, when they are overlapping. In a
outer edge.
ical to
funnel-shaped.
median transverse
in shape and
vary
They
may
When
the core line meets inside the calyx tube, the core
said to be meeting;
The
if
it
is
is
clasping.
POMACES
Key
379
to Principal Species of
fruit.
Malus floribunda
(Fig. loi)
Malus
about
(flowering crab).
about
Malus
to
baccata
(Siberian crab).
(American crab-
apple).
Leaves
toothed, but
angustifoUa (narrow-
leaved crab-apple).
Pedicels stout,
J^
to
inch long,
Malus
apple).
Malus
The
thorny.
It is highly
is
fruit red,
about the
size of a pea,
Japan.
M.
to 4 inches in
^^
This
large,
This crab
is
and on slender
It is a native of
that are convolute in the bud, abundant flowers, usually white and showy, and
fruit that is
The
}4 to
^ inch
in diameter,
many
species occurs in
forms.
The orchard
fruits
known
as "crab-
syheslris.
Himalaya
region.
M.
It is a
M.
coronaria,
American Crab-apple.
This
is
somewhat
and
fruit that is
to ij^ inches
and
38o
POMACE j5E
381
to
fruit
nois,
It is native of
Malus
M.
Minnesota, Wisconsin,
is
ioensis.
This
is
M.
grows wild
It
sylvestris,
is
common
M.
Illi-
larger
It
is
and
of better flavor
a small,
on short,
than that
of
Commoii Apple.
The
common
apple
is
twigs and under surface of leaves gray- woolly; the flowers are in close clusters,
and on short
propagation
is
is
in
all
Nova
it
The
varieties
grown commercially
the Southwest.
taste of fruit.
eastern Europe.
tivation.
and
is
from
given
in
the
1792, Diel-Cochnahl,
Germany
1855, Diel-Lucas,
Germany
382
and Flat
apples.
Rhode
Aport,
Wealthy, Duchess
of
Northern Spy,
Oldenburg,
According
to
determinations of Al-
the
juice
pomace
Summer
Autumn
Winter
many
varieties.
shown
of
is
Total
sugar
Invert
sugar
13.76
9-53
10.66
S.85
6-93
14-29
II 43
15.69
II 71
7-04
8.08
Specific
Total
gravity
solids
varieties
1.049
12-33
varieties
I. 054
varieties.
Crab-apples
1.056
1.062
The percentage
Cane
notion
is
Acids as
HsSOi
3-SO
0-33
0.36
3-53
4.16
0.41
0.50
3-45
common
sugar
is
_,
'
Tannm
0.040
0.069
0.050
0.122
desirable.
is
its quality,
is
POMACES
sarily contain
383
is
alcoholic
fermentation,
"begins to
tion process
is
The sugar
going on.
The
is
The escaping
produced by a micro-
When
the evolution of
mum,
being
in
is
the cider
spoken
is
vinegar-making
is
of as hard cider.
is
at its maxi-
The second
step
is
brought about by a
The
characteristic prop-
This change
Dried Apples.
When
in the
Many
United
housewives
machinery.
weak salt
The
solution,
fruit is
which tends
to prevent discoloration.
It is
It
is
fumes
method
is
may
be present.
kill
any
or-
lowed to sweat
for several
well-ventilated chambers.
They
al-
air or in
384
In
191 5 there
PYRUS
The
Malus.
and
(Pear)
The pears
MIoiw cilb
Fig. 160.
A group
flesh of
The
fruit is
cavity,
or Chinese pear.
In the common pear, the teeth on the leaves are obtuse, the
flowers appear with the leaves, and the calyx
is
persistent,
is
deciduous.
POMACES
385
Stem.habit.
at least, the
apple.
The
finely toothed.
The
and
to 3 inches long,
imbedded
in
is
with grit
(groups of stone
cells
parenchyma).
This is a strong-growing tree with broad-ovate, longpointed leaves that are very sharply toothed. The large
flowers appear before
russet-like,
The
tree
25
keeps
is
well,
the leaves.
The
a native of China.
fruit is
hard and
calyx.
Chinese Sand,
Madame von
386
common
ize^with our
It
pear,
is
also often
The work
Self-sterility in Pears.
of this is
due to
self-sterility,
cross.
has pointed
of Fletcher
Much
used to hybrid-
many
that
is,
pear orchards.
the inabiUty of
that variety.
when
was planted
noimced
self-steriUty.
Bartlett
and Kieffer
This
pears.
is
in
of-
many
thickly, there
particularly true,
it
seems, of
pollen)
Pollinations
Bartlett
Bartlett
Bartlett
Bartlett
Bartlett
The
X Bartlett
X Kieffei
X Anjou
X Lawrence
X Duchess
Av. number of
blossoms set
i
in 513
in
i
i
Av. weight of
mature fruit,
ounces
2
.00
10
3 00
in
in
3.75
3 5
in
10
3-5
Kieffer pears:
Pollinations
Kieffer
Kieffer
Kieffer
Kieffer
Kieffer
Kieffer
Kieffer
Kieffer
X Kieffer
X Bartlett
X Le Conte
X Lawrence
X Duchess
X Anjou
X Clairgeau
X Garber
Av. number of
blossoms set
i
in 253
in
in
in
in
in
i in
in
POMACE jE
From
these
experiments,
387
Fletcher
recommends (under
Furthermore,
soil conditions.
no immediate
must be held
mind
in
need be expected
that
in the
resulting fruit.
Dwarf Pears.
The pear
is
the
most common
is
to graft
tree
grown
them on quince
roots,
which are
very slow-growing.
In a graft, the two plants retain their individuality to a
common apple is grafted on the wild crab, the fruit of the scion
more sour than usual. Late varieties of apple may mature earlier
when grafted on early stock. The influence of the scion upon the stock is
well shown in the case of grafting the morning glory, an annual, upon the
'
If the
growth
is
sweet potato, a perennial. In this case, the tuberous roots develop much
than usual. A most interesting illustration is the development, in
Abutilon, of leaves with white spots (albescent leaves) on a green-leaved scion
earlier
when grown
as a graft
upon an albescent
stock.
388
CYDONIA
the
(Quince)
Pyrus, except that each of the five carpels has several seeds,
in small clusters or
being
Stem.
is
Quince)
but
it
may
axillary
is
The
annual growth.
in the
autumn
a flower
is
of that shoot.
Leaves.
The
and with
petioles
Flowers.
As
and
soft-hairy beneath,
are white or light pink; the stamens are numerous; there are
five carpels
Fruit.
woolly
is
mucilaginous coating.
Varieties.
Bailey
gives
five
varieties
of
the
species.
POMACES.
389
mar-
pyriformis
Uses. Quinces are not usually eaten raw but made into
marmalades, or canned. The juice is sometimes employed
manufactured
to flavor
fruit products.
References
Alwood, William
Conipositjon of
J.: The Chemical
Dept. Agr. Bur. Chem. Bull. 88: 7-18, 1904.
Beach, S. A., Booth, N. O., and Taylor, O. M.: The Apples of New York.
22d Ann. Rept. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., vol. i: 1-409; vol. 2: 1-360, 1903.
BiGELOw, W. D., Gore, H. C, and Howard, B. J.: Studies on Apples. U. S.
and Davidson, R.
B.,
U.
S.
Chittenden,
sterility in Apples.
III. Self-fruitfulness
fruitier
Self-
Nouvelles Ar-
Le jardin
and
cet
les especes et
etablissement.
Firmin
Didot Freres.
Drinxard, a. W.
Exp.
Sta.,
Ewert, K.
Die Parthenocarpie der Obstbaume. Ber. Bot. Ges., 26: 414-416, 1906.
Fletcher, S. W. Pollination of Bartlett and Kieffer Pears. Reprint from
Ann. Rept. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1909: 212-232.
Pollination of Bartlett and KiefiFer pears.
Ann. Rept. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.,
1909 and 1910: 213-224, 1911.
GoFF, E. S. The Origin and Early Development of the Flowers in the Cherry,
Plum, Apple and Pear. i6th Ann. Rept. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., 200-303,
:
1899.
390
285, 1900.
316, 1901.
Am.
346-347. 1901.
Gardner, V. R., Wagness,
J. R., and Yeager, A. F.: Pruning InvestigaOregon Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 139: 1-88, 1916.
GouKLEY, J. H. Studies in Fruit Bud Formation. N. H Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech.
tions.
Hardy,
J. A.,
and A.
F.
Traits de la
taille
Paris.
Hedrick, V.
Dwarf Apples.
P.:
N. Y. Agr. Exp.
1915-
Kraus, E.
J.
of the Apple.
Gross Morphology
I.
I, pt. I:
1-12, 1913.
1915-
Kraus, E.
J.,
and Ralston, G.
Gross Vascular
III.
S.:
Anatomy
The
Pollination of the
of the
Apple.
Pomaceous
Fruits.
138:4-12, 1916.
Lewis, C.
I.,
of the Apple.
The
S.
of the
Paddock, W.
Apple and
its
Function.
N.
of
Pickett, B.
Sandsten, E. p.
Fertility of Pollen.
1909.
Shaw,
J.
K.
of Apples.
Waite, W.
CHAPTER XXVIII
DRUPACE^
Habit, Stems.
Representatives
trees or shrubs.
bark,
(Plum Family)
bitter,
cases of poisoning
Many
acid.
peach and
it
is
bitter
known
also
almond, and
that stock
is
The glucoside,
amygdaUn, acted on by emulsin,
an enzyme, in the presence of
of wild cherries.
water
is
changed to prussic
acid,
is
deadly poisonous
The
alternate,
monly
teeth
leaves
are
and
com-
petioled
finely
and
toothed.
The
are
often
petiole
Flowers. The
lar
flowers
(Fig.
161.
(Amygdalus
perfect, regu-
162)
are
Leaf
persica).
of
peach
The base
392
its
Fig. 162.
Floral diagram
In a
of Prunus.
^nm
oj receptacle
st^le
Fig. 163.
Sour
Median lengthwise
section of
flower.
is
placed
down
within a cup
it is
commonly
DRUPACEiE
called the "calyx tube."
393
If it is a calyx tube,
then petals
epicarp
mesocarp
ndocarp
or
'
jfone'
testa
emhrijo
Fig. 164.
Fruit.
The
fruit is
of
young cherry
fruit (drupe).
carp,
394
PRUNUS
This genus includes the plum, cherry, almond, peach and
apricot.
may
be distinguished by the
following key:
of Genus Prunus
Stone smooth.
Flowers clustered; fruit glabrous.
Fruit large, usually grooved, covered with a bloom; stalk short; stone
usually compressed, longer than broad; leaves convolute in the
bud
Plums.
Fruit small, usually not grooved, not covered with a bloom; stalk long;
(Fig. loi).
bud
(Fig.
loi),
Cherries.
first,
Apricots.
Peaches.
Most
The evergreen
cherries include
PLUMS
Stems.
The
trees.
The
DRXJPACE^
395
Flower buds
are, as a rule,
may
However,
In
in
on
The spur
such cases,
if
branch bud,
bud
is
growth
of the
line
is
bud develops.
If
bud is a flower bud,
when
terminal
the
lateral
the twig
last
all
branch bud.
last
lateral.
great deal in
thickness,
size,
and margin.
In some species,
by glandular
The
the bud (Fig.
The
Inflorescence.
flower buds of
They may
fascicled umbels.
flowers in the
Flowers.
bud
Fig.
165.
Twig
Domestica
(Prunus
(After
of
plum
domestica)
Paddock
and
Whipple.)
common numbers.
(Fig. 163).
396
On
its
and
fifteen
Many
sterile.
fruit.
of
self-
less self-sterile
weak
as to fail even
if polli-
pistils.
the opposite
Rarely,
first.
is
Hence it is seen that cross-fertilization is very necessary in plum orchards, but not only cross-fertilization between different trees of the same variety but between different varieties.
It is reported by Hendrickson that French
and sugar prunes in CaUfornia set a very light crop unless a
large number of bees are present in the orchard at the time
of blooming.
They appear to be self-sterile to some extent.
the case.
It
is
is
distinctly self-sterile.
After
sepals, petals,
It
fruit.
most
All
is
cut off
by a
species
with
its
attached
circular abscission
The ovary
brought from
Prunus
part.
and stamens,
is
wall increases in
the
fruit.
The seed
The
is
style
Hence
DRXJPACE^
the stone ("pit") of the
397
species of
of
New
vol. 3,
Key to
1915.
I.,
more than
Iriflora),
'
Flowers mostly
single, P. cerasifcra.
Flowers in threes, P.
triflora.
entire, glabrous
on the outer,
when
Leaves
*
2 to
of
New York by
Hedrick.
398
DISCUSSION OF SPECIES
is
vigorous-growing
The
30 or 40 feet.
tree
leaves are
is
coarsely toothed,
The
flowers
The
is
yellowish,
This
is
the best
excellent
The
quahty.
stone
is
either
free
or
clinging.
removing the
make good
pit.
All
prunes.
plums with a
The
golden
Coast.
flesh,
and
and with a
free stone.
The industry
com-
there has
become a
large one.
Im-
portant varieties are Italian, German, Agen, Tragedy, Tennant, Sugar, Giant, Pacific, and Ungarish.
In the preparation
Preparation of Prunes.
of prunes, the
DRUPACEiE
399
This
Yellow Egg Plums. The
Peridrigon Plums.
a prune
is
in France.
4.
fruit of these
is
large, in fact
and yellow
skin,
flesh.
The
The
flesh,
black or
and a clinging or
free
stone.
and
thrifty.
little
variation.
Insititia
The
all
species
that time
400
much
2.
Bullaces.
but
Kttle
The
3.
Mirabelles.
with a
varieties differing
fruit shape.
free stone
to
quality.
4.
resembling the
This
St. Juliens.
is
country as stocks.
Prunus
These are
cerasifera.
They
are
hardy, thrifty varieties, free from disease, readily adaptable and most suitable
for hybridizing.
round, cherry-like
to
other plums.
Prunus
in
triflora.
many parts of
the world.
They
most part,
and
It is a highly adapt-
disease-free.
Varieties
cling stones.
Waugh
the americana.
observations, he
finds
for
pistils
or
From
his
cross-fertilization
when
planting americanas.
DRUPACE^
401
Prunus
angustifolia.
The
Chickasaw plum
The
fruit is small,
is
almost globular,
and
of
to Arkansas
CHERRIES
Description.
The cherplums in
The bark
resemble
ries
many
respects.
leai bud
rings.
usually
on
found
are
short
In some
cherries,
however,
axillary flower
buds occur
sour
on
long,
strong
/growth
kaj xar
shoots.
fruit
^an
oJ^J^I^'j.
scales
fe's
no
lateral
/ growth
is
1913,,
/tfrowtn
The flower buds bear only flowers and no leaves (except very
There
rudimentary ones which persist but for a short time)
.
26
402
are from
two
The
rule.
each bud.
1'he
The
self-sterile.
is
Groups
^According
of Cherries.
two
It is altogether
widely spread.
to Bailey the principal
species,
PRUNUS AVIUM
(Sweet Cheny)
Description.
is
tall tree,
strong-grow-
ing, long-lived,
or more.
The
leaves
meters long; the petals are white, and the stamens 35 or 36.
SeH-sterihty has been reported in the sweet cherry orchards
of the
Northwest.
The fruit
is
The species
GeographicaL
in this
country for
many
is
flesh.
a native of Europe.
years,
and
and
in
cultivation.
Groups
of
The
Sweet Cherries.
Mazzards.
color.
DRUPACE^
403
Black Eagle,
etc.,
3. Bigarreaus.
light or
Schmidt,
The
dark in
Common
color,
fruit is heart-shaped,
flesh.
common
light ones.
Yellow Spanish
and Napoleon.
Dukes resemble the Hearts in
4. Dukes.
shape and color, but have a juice somewhat
acid.
Dukes are often classed with the sour
cherries, but Bailey would class them with
cerasus.
sour.
PRUWUS CERASUS
Description.
than those
of
(Sour Cheny)
Sour cherry
sweet cherries.
brown and quite smooth; lenticels are conThe leaves are thick, ovate or
spicuous.
pj^ le^.-^xwig
sweet cherry
(Prunus avium).
Paddock
(After
"""^ Whipple.)
and with
BOTANY
404
CROP PLANTS
Ol'
about 30
in
The fruit
number.
is
soft flesh
The
Geographical.^
species
is
native of
cherries
Groups
of
Amarelles.
generally
ends.
Amarelles.
Morellos
2.
or
Griottes.
These
are
cherries with
juice,
heart-shape.
Ostheim,
Common
Olivet,
varieties
are
the Morello.
Twig
Fig. 168.
sour cherry
cerasus).
Other Species of Cherries. The species of chernative to America are of little horticultural
of
(Prunus
(After Pad-
ries
importance.
P. emarginata, P.
besseyi.
P. pennsyhanica
is
sometimes used as a
of
all
dwarfing stock.
Uses.
fruit,
and
in the
making
of pies.
The bulk
as a dessert
of the cherries
DRUPACE^
grown
duced
405
for
in
New
sorts,
some extent
most
of
is
number
products
can be utilized
in similar
ways.
is
quite
oil,
APRICOTS
species
Except
for a few
fruit
buds
bear only flowers. Normally, there is but one flower (sometimes two) in a bud; they appear before the leaves. The
flower buds, which are lateral, occur singly at nodes; often
three buds are developed in the axil of a leaf, the central
one being a branch bud, while the two laterals are flower
buds. However, not all branch buds on a twig are accompanied by flower buds. The vigor of the tree and twigs, and
pruning methods will determine the position of the latter, to
some
extent.
4o6
usually
axillary;
smooth
above,
slightly
petioles,
and convolute
in
vernation.
and
Inflorescence
Flowers.The
flowers are
sessile
or nearly so.
Morphologically, the
flowers are similar to those
Fig. 169.
Twigs
armeniaca).
(Prunus
(After Paddock and
of apricot
Whipple.)
like
The
is
the
velvety at
flesh
is flat,
is
first,
always
smooth, and
fruit,
the
DRUPACEjE
407
by a
off
native
The
species
is
southern Asia.
of
considered to be a
It is
now
cultivated in
practice
on
is
to graft apricots
peach.
Other Species.
^There
to the roots of
plum or
apricot,
Uses.
fruit,
^Apricots
both
dition.
in the fresh
They
apricot.
Almond
PEACHES
The common
varieties of peaches
come
Stems.
The
tree is low,
seldom over
The
Fig.
of
170.
peach
Twigs
(Prunus
4o8
In
this respect,
to the apricot.
Leaves.
These
elliptic to lanceolate or
and Flowers.^The
Inflorescence
flowers
are normally
is
The
or
(freestones)
stone
The seed
is
of
was
in-
The peach
is
It
The
tree
is
now
name,
persica,
Occasionally
it is
escaped
Types
of Peaches.
The
first
system of
classification of
He
Feen-to Race.
171, C, D),
skin
regions.
2.
is
is
free or cling.
It is
slightly flattened,
flesh
Waldo.
The stone
is
is
much
adapted to subtropical
and
DRUPACE^
the stem end; the flesh
stone
is free
tions.
3.
or chng.
is
It
409
Spanish Race.
the fruit
is
The
stone
is
large,
with red.
It is
4.
171,
G)
is
Chinese Clings").
("
globular, thick,
its
and
its flesh is
fine-grained
range of adaptability.
The stone
corrugations not at
and
is large,
juicy.
Varieties: Belle,
all
(Fig.
promi-
almost glob-
It has a
wide
4IO
Persian Race.
5-
The seed
is
(Fig. 171,
The common
E, F) the fruit
;
much
is
varieties of peaches
grown
Varieties: Crothers,
as a variety of peach.
that
are
the skin
is
freestone
toothed.
It
known
that
Such
fruits
"bud
variants."
The
fruit is
canned.
The
and plums, contain both fixed and volatile oils, which are of
commercial value.
There are peach interests of commercial importance in a
for the
in production,
The
Georgia,
Texas,
Missouri,
ALMONDS
DRXJPACE^
and
411
finely toothed.
The
Many
and showy.
The drupe
cross-fertilization.
flowers are
They
are
much
compressed.
The
is
almonds consist
shell.
The
of
as ornamentals.
Uses.^
Almonds
directly as a food.
of flavoring
acid.
Almond
Most
Oil.-
of the
so-called
oil
of
almonds
is
The
oils
from
almond
oil,
In the process
the seeds are ground, subjected to
with steam.
acid.
This
latter,
and copperas.
is
removed by
412
References
Bailey,
H.,
I.,.
Cherries.
Earle, F.
Japanese Plums. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 85: 423-448, 1897.
A Preliminary Report on the Pollination of the Sweet
S.:
Gardner,
V. R.
Goethe,
Cherry.
Uber
R.:
Gartenflora, 55:
169-182, 1907.
Gould, H.
P.;
Classification.
U. S. Dept.
Hedrick, V.
Exp.
P.:
The Plums
part
The
Sta., vol.
2:
of
2,
New
Cherries of
New
York.
York.
3,
1-616, 1911.
of
Hardy
N. Y. Agr. Exp.
Fruits.
367-391, 1915.
Calif.
as
an Agent
in
Prune
505-519, 1902.
of the
Commissioner
648-
of Peaches.
of Peaches.
Price, R. H.:
QuAiNTANCE, A. L.
803-848, 1896.
of the Peach.
The
Ga.
1-34, 1908-
U.
S.
Fla. Agr.
153. 1904.
Wight, W.
of
New
F.
Plum
Varieties.
The Varieties
of
U.
S.
CHAPTER XXIX
LEGUMmOS^
The pea family
is
(Pea FamUy)
warm
climates.
According
the
family.
American.
^^
Legume"
Leguminosae.
name
a popular
is
applied to
Probably no family
is
members
of the
of greater agricultural
importance than
makes them
in
nitrogenous sub-
Moreover,
when
humus
to the soil,
which
Root Tubercles.
growth
The
of a bacterium
{Pseudomonas
radicicola)
which forms
gall-like structures.
These organisms
from the
soil air is
413
That
is,
414
It
made
is
a part of
bacteria, while
Legumes
and
root crops.
excellent crops to
Habit.
they
soil feeders,
make
plow imder.
(Genista,
vetches)
Leaves.
mostly compound.
is,
leaf, as in
and Aragallus
is,
bristle, as in
peas)
in
or they
stipulate,
and
(loco)
Robinia
sometimes
terminated by a tendril or
may
Thermopsis (buckbean).
Inflorescence.
The flowers
These
Flowers.
butterfly-like shape,
is
The
cleft,
petals
LEGUMINOS^
415
two
less
and pistils.
and the wings
Stamens are mostly ten in number, and
by the standard.
is
enclosed
by
the wings,
{monadelphous) as in
Lupinus, or nine are united and one is free (Fig. 188) (diadelphous), as in clovers and alfalfa, or rarely all stamens are
separate
(polydelphous)
as
in
Flower of Leguminosae. A,
Fig. 172.
sweet pea flower, dissected, diagrammatic.
floral
(A
diagram
of Vicia faba; B,
after Eichler,
after
Bergen
and Caldwell.)
two-celled
lus spp.,
there
is
the ovary
by the intrusion
is
of the sutures, as in
or occasionally several-celled
one
style,
and one
There
to
is
a single
many
by
some Astraga-
cross-partitions;
ovules.
Fruit.
In nearly all members of the family, the fruit is a
legume or pod, that is, a fruit of one carpel which opens along
two, both the ventral and dorsal, sutures. The ventral
suture of the bean or pea pod, for example, is the one along
BOTANY
41
the fruit
is
Ol'
a loment, that
CROP PLANTS
is,
mon
full of
food.
"hard seeds" are very comSuch seeds are tardy in their ger-
So-called
some
may
be hard.
is
As a
hard, although in
It
is
claimed that a
of
is
that
"scarifying,"
passing
is,
surfaces.
abraser,
Key to
Calyx lobes leafy; stipules large, rounded (Fig. ig), Pisum (pea).
Calyx lobes not leafy; stipules mostly small, pointed.
Style slender, bearded at the tip (Fig; 173, A), Vicia (vetch).
,
Style flattened, bearded along the inner side (Fig. 173, B), Lathyrus
(vetchling).
LEGUMINOSiE
417
large.
PISUM
The
Description.
climbers
plants
(Pea)
herbaceous
are
The
leaves
trailers
are
or
pinnately
The
plish,
single
pistil
with
the
style
The pea
173, A).
self-fertilization
may sometimes
is
it
be cross-ferti-
The mature
lized.
capable of
although
fruit
is
smooth
or
wrinkled,
Fig. 173.
A, style and stigtna of
Vicia; B, same of Lathryus.
usually
hand, this region of the cotyledons has starch grains which are
usually compound, the component parts being about one-half
the size of the grains in smooth peas.
27
The
seed coat
is
4l8
endosperm
thin;
cotyledons.
is
is
is
different
This
all cereals.
is
called epigean.
of
distinguished as follows:
Flowers white; seeds globular, uniformly yellowish, white or bluish green;
leaf axils green, unpigmented; comparatively tender Pisum sativum
(garden pea).
Flowers colored, usually purplish, red or lavender; seeds angular, graybrown, gray-green, gray-yellow or gray speckled with fine spots of various
.
(field
pea).
Garden Peas.
The
common
peas.
split
open.
mem-
^Vilmorin
classifies
the varieties of
common
Each of these is divided into (i) tall climbing, (2) half-dwarf, and (3) dwarf varieties, and each of the
latter three groups into white-seeded and green-seeded sorts.
The sugar peas occur in both tall, half-dwarf, and dwarf
urinkled-seeded.
forms.
LEGUMINOS^
wrinkled seeds.
419
wrinkled-seed varieties.
This
however.
dwarf
Furthermore,
is
among late-maturing
420
They
a field crop.
Pea pods showing types and range of variation. D, French canFig. 175.
ning type smooth pea, French Canner; B, large podded wrinkled pea, Pride of
Market; F, fleshy or edible podded pea, Melting Sugar. {After Corbett.)
Excellent crops
Colorado.
They do
well on
most types
of soil.
LEGUMINOS^
Peas and Mendelism.
Gregor
421
now famed as
number of differentiating (paired) characters
and observed their behavior when crossed with each other. In the brief
summary, here of his work, a number of characters of the genus Pisum are
laws in the behavior of his hybrids, and these are
certain
He
Mendel's Laws.
selected a
brought out:
1.
seed.
Round
That
or roundish
is,
form
is
roundish.
2.
3.
4.
5.
.
6.
Yellow color
Tall stem
Uses.
is
Peas
They
vegetables.
common
Field
It
is
the practice in
many
PHASEOLUS
Description.
and sheep, on
Representatives
field peas.
(Bean)
of this
The
The
calyx
and
one).
176, A).
is characteristically spirally
The stamens
are diadelphous
(nine
422
The seeds
persistent style.
on the other,
micropyle,
The embryo
the raphe.
large
and
whole
of
the
seed,
i.e.,
wanting.
is
hypocotyl
plumule
is
the
occupies
endosperm
The
the
is
and
prominent
are
slightly
their
inner
concave
on
The
faces.
common
in
seedling, are
objects of study
general botanical
courses.
Geographical
Members
are
176.
Common kidney bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris). A, spiral keel; B,
entire flower.
X 2M.
Fig.
of the
tropical
plants.
Species.
and warm-country
close
to
i8o
species.
A number
fall
and
genus Phaseolus
of
"beans" do not
within the genus Phaseolus, for example, broad bean {Vicia faba), soy
bean {Soja max), velvet bean (Mucuna uHlis), asparagus or dolichos bean
{Vigna sesquipedalis), cowpea or bean {Vigna sinensis), Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis), locust bean (Ceraionia siligna) and hyacinth bean, bonavist
or lablab {Dolichos lablab).
423
LEGTJMINOS^
The adjuki bean {Phaseolus angtdaris) and mung bean
now grown to some extent in this country.
(Phaseolus aureus)
are
Key to
flat
(scarlet
runner bean).
flat
in
Lima
beans).
cross-section, P.
vulgaris
(kidney bean)
PHASEOLUS MULTIFLORUS
(Scarlet
vulgaris).
{After
Knutk.)
knife),
Pods are 3
to 6 inches long,
and
and vary
The
in color.
scarlet runner
or painted lady,
The Dutch
and
form
is
is
also
much
424
flowers
of the so-called
Phaseolus muUiflorus
is
Mexico.
PHASEOLUS LUNATUS
These vary
The
ing.
in
(Sieva and
Lima Beans)
tall
and climb-
and
in axillary racemes.
flat,
and have
The
to ovate.
The pods
varying
and
There
are two
have a
thicker leaflets
The
taller
Li both
Bush Lima).
Seeds very
leaflets
flat
flat,
Dwarf Lima).
LEGUMINOSiE
Fig. 179.
Types
C, large, flat
425
o Lima beans.
^4, Potato Lima, pole; B, Sieva type, pole;
Lima, dwarf; D, Sieva type, dwarf. (Modified after Corbelt.)
426
PHASEOLUS VULGAEIS
(Kidney Bean)
seeds.
This species
The
season
is
is
cultivated
varieties
warm.
(Vetch,
Broad Bean)
Generic Description.
herbaceous vines.
The
trailing
LEGUMINOSiE
and with
half-sagittate or entire
The
stipules.
The
in axillary racemes.
and
tube is obhque,
its
and
calyx
teeth or
The standard
tip,
notched at the
is
The stamens
and one),
monadelphous below, and
The
have filiform filaments.
are diadelphous (nine
or
sessile
or
has
ovary
stipitate
at
Geographical.
(Fig.
There
173,
A).
distribution.
Key to Important
Species or Vicia
Plants
weak,
usually
hairy,
tendril-
ner Pole;
Leaves rounded
in
long
at tip; flowers
many,
racemes
(Fig.
one-sided
Leaves truncate at
usually
two
saliva (vetch).
in
tip;
flowers few,
each leaf
axil,
V.
I,
s.
Grenells Stringless
13,
Red Mexican;
Kidney.
14,
{Modified after
U. S. Depl. Agri.)
French
Tracy,
428
Less
Common
cultivated to
is
Species.
some
Fig
Broad
or
is
grown somewhat
Windsor bean
in Georgia
(Vicia faba).
hay crop. Black bitter vetch {Vicia ervilia) is an Asiatic species, cultivated
somewhat as a winter green-manure crop in California. Purple vetch {Vicia
atropurpurea) resembles hairy vetch from which it differs, however, in being
smooth. It is cultivated on the Pacific Coast and in the South. Scarlet
as a
LEGUMINOS^
429
vekh (Vicia ftdgens), Narboniic velch {Vkia narbonnemis) and woolly podded
vetch iyicia dasycarpa) are rather rare species, cultivated to a slight degree
This
is
2 to
The
The home
human
food.
Canada.
is
Algeria.
It thrives best
This
The
is
twos
of leaflets,
or Tares)
and a terminal
freely.
pairs
The flowers are cross-ferThe hairy pods have four or five smooth, globular,
gray or marbled seeds. The Willamette Valley, Oregon,
produces a large proportion of the common vetch seed in the
purple (rarely white) in color.
tilized.
United States.
Vetch seed
The plant
is
very rapidly
a native of Europe.
430
It
many parts
of the
sown
it is
This
is
vetch
is
severe
United States,
Common
Northern States.
are mild,
It
soil.
soils of
it is
is
will
soil.
The poorer
support a
crop.
fair
grown
for this
purpose
it
should be cut
made
into a flour.
green manure.
VICIA VILLOSA
Hairy vetch
(Fig. 182) is
The
grow
plants
may
weak
stems.
There
is
an ex-
There are
Cross-fertilization
normal production of
seeds.
dissemination of pollen.
is
The pods
in the
LEGUMINOSiE
native of Europe and Asia.
It
is
431
vetch,
f w^a^,^^^.
432
of uses: hay,
pasturage,
cover
hay decreases
LATHYRUS
(Vetching,
WUd
The
Pea)
is
common
pea,
and Lathyrus
Lathyrus odoratus
latifolius,
is
inches long.
some extent
common sweet
and L. ochrus
TRIFOLIUM
The
now
following
planted to
(Tangier pea),
(ochrus).
(Clover)
The
inflorescence is
or stipitate,
and few-ovuled.
The pods
are small,
mem-
LEGUMINOS^
Geographical.
There arc
433
most
of
which
occur in the north temperate regions; a few, however, also occur in South
They
are distributed
from low
to high altitudes.
Besides those given in the following key, two others, T. suaveolens (Shaftal
or Persian clover) and T. alexandrinum (Berseem) are
in the
grown
to
some extent
T.
incarnatum
United States.
Kev to Principal
Flowers
spike-like
in
heads,
Species of Trifolium
much
Blade
sessile; stipules
of leaflet
T.
hybridum (Alsike
marked with
T. pratense
(mammoth
(red clover).
Blade of
leaflet
or zigzag clover).
TRIFOLIUM REPENS
Description.
This
is
The
The
root system
is
shallow.
The
membranous
stipules.
The
leaflets
inflorescence
is
and narrow,
a head and
The
are erect at
visitation
first,
of insects
is
is
axils.
They
The
434
White
clover has
become disNorth
common
in lawns, pas-
is
The only
grass mixtures.
It is
clover.
more
TRIFOLIUM HYBRIDirM
Description.
Alsike
is
and
(Alsike, Alsatian, or
an
erect,
It is
alsike clovers.
Swedish clover)
to 3 feet tall.
in full bloom.
which
arise
The
from
white or pinkish.
The
leaf axils.
The pods
and
The
Europe.
^Alsike
clover
is
a native of
being found in
fields
LEGUMINOSjE
for planting at high altitudes
and
435
It
latitudes,
is
prized as
a honey plant.
TRIFOLIUM mCARNATUM
Description.
This
36 inches high.
are broad
The
is
(Crimson,
an
erect,
Scarlet, or
Italian Clover)
soft-hairy annual,
to
leaflets are
sativa)
almost
is
sessile,
The
inflorescence
The flowers
pinkish in color.
The seed
is
shiny
when fresh^and
436
Europe.
of the
It has
become
Crimson
The plant
waste places.
clover
a native of
is
is
it
occurs quite
grown
in this
commonly
in
country mainly
some value
It also has
animal, especially
if
when
These
and sheep.
cut.
heavier type.
rising
character.
It
is
decumbent
a perennial plant,
root
more
or erect, 6 to 24 inches
This
or Purple Clover)
is
a varietal
It develops
feet.
layers.
of plant
In general there
above ground.
about
Leaves.
margined
stipules.
The
soil.
leaflets
The
soil
is
and
large
leaflets often
conspicuously purple-veined
LEGUMINOS^
per head than the
first
crop.
The flowers
437
are of the ordinary
their bases
]4,
and
inch
long.
Crimson
Fig. 184.'
The
Fruit.
common
red
seed.
a rule,
in
com-
438
mon
the
This
first crop.
is
An
is
why
for seed.
first is
if
the
crop
is
is
is insufficient
peld
it is
new
When
Frui of^^red
clover
is
the capsule
is
occu-
shoots rather
In general, a
by an irregular
The upper part of the cap-
(Trifo-
transvcrse line.
mucheniarged!
lid (Fig.
185),
color.
Pollination.
work
of
Red
The
bee (Bombus)
clover.
Honey
is
The bumble-
is
its
its
proboscis into
legxjminoSjE
439
is
up against the
bee's head.
the bee
when
The
side of
Nectar sought by
is
The species
a native of Eurasia.
is
commonly
It has
in the fields
Mammoth
Clover.
This
clover,
sometimes known
as
is
It
is
known
Common
Uses.
red
clover
forage and
acreage
the
is
humid
about
It
is
adapted to
bloom.
fibrous after
440
Fig. i86.
arise the
numerous
shoots.
LEGUMINOSjE
TRIFOLroM MEDIUM
This
is
Medimn Red,
Meadow Clover)
(Zigzag,
White,
Mammoth
or
described above.
tense),
441
The plant
is
larger,
however,
its
The
more pointed.
leaflets
are lanceolate or
The
flowers are
bright purple.
This species
It
is
has gained entrance into this country and occurs here and
common
pose as
red clover.
MEDICAGO
(Medics)
Generic Description.
The
medi-
common
woody
at
alfalfa,
the base, as in
The
(Fig.
183, E)
are pinnately
the
petiole,
monly
and the
dentate,
leaflets
pinnately
com-
Fic.
187.
of alfalfa
5-
veined,
teeth
are
short,
in length.
The
442
ovary
is sessile
ovuled;
it
The pods
or short-stipitate,
and
style.
and indehiscent.
Geographical. There are a number of species of Medicago, all of which are native to the eastern hemisphere.
They
naturally range from Eastern Asia to Southern Africa.
There are seven perennial species of Medicago, and about 37
spiny,
{Medicago lupu-
They
trefoil
will
commonly known
grow naturally
Key
as
The non-
"bur clovers."
as winter annuals.
MEDICAGO SATIVA
Roots.
Alfalfa
is
(Alfalfa,
a deep feeder.
Lucerne)
had extended
to a
depth of over 9
feet.
Stems.
life
period
^Alfalfa is
is
LEGUMINOSjE
the variety.
The average
life is
443
from
seven years.
five to
At
is
is
50)
Non-hardy
buds and shoots developed below the soil surface. The crown
of hardy types is more spreading and the numerous buds and
shoots come from below the
soil surface.
Hence
in the latter
many
CaUfornia,
This practice
The
bloom, and
it is
and
coming into
The
is
developing fruit
up numerous
when
the plant
is
in bloom.
plant, hence
methods
prevention of their
loss.
The
toward the
444
How-
more data
The
alternately arranged
The
jecting midrib.
Inflorescense.
in general outline
and sharply
terminated by a pro-
is
This
is
Flowers.
violet,
but
The calyx
The
in variegated types,
may
purple or
is
The
is
its pollen.
When
is
released,
and both
is
chile).
process
is
The
called
by visiting
bumblebees and leaf-cutting bees {MegaThe weight of an insect may be sufficient to cause
"tripping.'^
insects,
The
for
chiefly
is
It
This
is
may
be
termed
LEGUMINOS^
"automatic"
445
tripping.
Both
self-
effective in alfalfa.
untrippcd
lateral
jfaminal tubefree
jfamen
unfripp
Self-pollination
It
is
known
usually
results
where tripping
insects
are scarce.
446
of
if
set
As
An abundance
self-pollination.
of
tripping
insects
may
Seed production
country.
is
too
The
humid
sections of the
irrigation
water applied
usually light in
Moreover,
much
is
of
Isolated
plants
The
The pollen
nate.
When
amount
of
water to germi-
amount
by
This
is
soil,
or the atmospheric
many
years.
LEGUMINOS^
447
The
result
a well-developed "crown."
is
Common
alfalfa is a native of
Geographical.
original
It
is
Types
Medicago
ruderal.
of Alfalfa.
considered to
and becomes a
sativa is
{Medicago falcata)
Numerous forms
of alfalfa arise
where
grow
together.
are, of course,
unstable.
termed
have been
{Medicago media)
is
"variegated
considered
Sand lucerne
botanists to be a
it
to
M.
alfalfas."
by some
sativa
be a distinct species.
yellow-flowered alfalfa.
are: Turkestan,
a,lfalfa
The plant
is
common
sorts.
German
448
resembles Turkestan.
alfalfa
and
is
It
is
less
hardy, however,
The
is
the most
common
western
alfalfa.
Arabian
latter
are
alfalfas
warmer
Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and
States,
Peruvian
California.
to
growth under
alfalfa is a
Brand proposes
are mild.
common
its
It
taller,
cultivated alfalfas.
is
and the
floral
bract
is
Environmental Relations.
high temperatures
if
the air
accompanied by a humid
^Alfalfa
is
is
able to withstand
air are
decidedly injurious.
For
atures
is
varietal
characteristic,
and
also
somewhat
The
in
common
alfalfas.
P,_
^P
Requirement
Millets
310
Sorghums
Corns
Wheats
Oats
322
:
513
597
636
Potatoes
368
Alfalfa,
Peruvian
Alfalfa,
Grimm
S. P. I., (30,203)
S. P. I. (25,695)
651
963
LEGUMINOS^
In spite of
its relatively
449
A hard
system.
compact
soil
causes a
soil
more
or less branch-
is
typically developed.
Alfalfa
is
The
total
number
hay
of acres in
alfalfa in the
number,
The
named
alfalfa
and Idaho.
fornia
MEDICAGO LUPULINA
This plant
is
Trefoil)
The
leaves
crenulate leaflets.
The
The pods
of Eurasia.
It
is
now found
through-
out the greater part of the United States and other temperate
regions where
it
soil,
It
is
a green manure.
MEDICAGO AKABICA
This
The
is
leaflets
29
in the center.
The pods
45
LEGUMINOS^
(Fig.
4SI
spirals,
interlock.
meters long.
form..
Fu;. 190.
It is
being used
452
MEDICAGO HISPIDA
Toothed bur clover
(Fig. 190) is a
The flowers
ranean region.
California.
It
is
It finds
about 3 millimeters
reticulata
which disap-
Medicago hispida
surface,
are yellow.
and spiny.
long.
is
green-manure crop.
In addition to the two species of bur clover given above,
there are about 35 species that are not cultivated to any
They are all native to the Mediterranean region.
extent.
All are warm-climate crops.
MELILOTUS
(Sweet Clover)
petioled,
thread-like style.
indehiscent
or
The
finally
pods' are
2-valved,
LEGITMINOS^
germinate the
first
season.
453
and sweet
clover.
''^
454
of
Melilotus
M.
and M.
The
M.
altissima,
M.
gracilis,
speciosa.
characters of the
species are
M.
Commonly
Ma
M.
Commonly
biennial.
Flowers white.
Standard slightly longer than wings.
Pods ovoid, glabrous.
nial.
Flowers yellow.
MELILOTUS ALBA
Description.
This
is
officinalis
may
It
MELILOTUS OFFICINALIS
Description.^
This plant
tall,
is
much
however,
is
It
LEGUMINOSiE
yellow flowers.
It
is
biennial.
It
is
455
species,
and
Southern States.
Environmental Relations.
The
heavy and
They
drained.
duced where,
Uses
of
any
for
Sweet
all
types of
reason, alfalfa
Clovers.^
It
is
illy-
being intro-
failed.
its
roots.
In
fact,
it
is
renew the
It
soil.
red
As a
forage crop,
clover cannot be
it
it
has considerable
grown
successfully.
alfalfa
The plant
accustomed to them.
yellow,
cultivation.
SOJA
(Soy Bean)
The
Generic Description.-
The
purple or whitish.
valved.
The
The pods
and
pea-like.
and are
and two-
4S6
MAX
SOJA
Description.
This
an
is
erect,
and matures
its seed.
Unlike
reaches a cer-
is,
as
The
tap root
is
lives.
short
and
strong.
The
foHate.
leaves
are
tri-
but
in
for
The
mature.
borne
in
are
flowers
axillary
clusters;
Soy
(After Piper.)
as a rule,
are from
purple
in
color.
self-fertile.
when
or
to
field
The pods
In
fact,
in
is
the
temperate
LEGUMINOS^
climates.
The
45 7
do not retain
seeds
their
Soja
max
is
The
cultivated
United
However, there
are several very early maturing varieties which may be grown
in the northern tier of States.
The soy bean will grow in
varieties are
of the
The plant
The
is
fair
grown on a variety
crop on poor
of soil types,
soils of
and
a sandy nature.
Uses.
soy bean
Asiatic countries,
and
is
the
oil is
for linseed
oil.
After
Soy-bean
flour is
a carbohydrate content
cent.,^ as
S.
4S8
It
is
recommended
as a pasture for
and
Nitrogen-fixing bacterial nodules occur on
The plant
ensilage crop.
as a valuable soiling
recognized
is
VIGNA
The
leaves are
pinna tely
trifoliate.
The
The
and one).
is
ovary
sessile,
is
bearded
many-ovuled, and
The
side.
The
(Fig.
seeds are
much
like the
in shape
193).
warm and
Species.
There
"Vignas":
are
but
three
Vigna sesquipedalis
cultivated
species
(asparagus bean),
of
Vigna
and Vigna sinensis (cowpea). The asparagus bean has pendant pods i to 3 feet long, and kidney-
catjang (catjang),
LEGUMINOS^
5^
^^
459
^'
^''^
1*%
^^
fft
5 <BI
10
'15^
/J
^
/6
460
The cowpea
Fig. 194.
is
by
far the
fruit of
VIGNA SINENSIS
Description.
The cowpea
is
(Cowpea)
a strong tap root which sends out large side roots almost
horizontally for
root system
lies in
the
The
in habit
from prostrate
forms.
it
and half-bushy
is,
vegetative growth
is
As
in the
majority of plants
LEGUMINOS^
and seed production
heat,
The
tions.
to ninety
first
days
pods
is
461
may come
on the other
hand, some varieties do not even come into bloom under
conditions prevailing in the states along the Gulf of Mexico.
The flowers
pale
are white or
with
violet
three
The
pedicel.
flower
cowpea
capable of
is
fertilization,
and
self-
this
is
mon
occurrence although
They
bees.
chiefly
somewhat
usually
tween
seeds
extra-floral
nectaries.
(Fig.
are attracted
by the
curved,
constricted
the
are
and
be-
The
seeds.
numerous, usu-
Fig. 195.
Cowpea (Vigna
sinensis).
(After Piper.)
Great
and
seeds.
latter
462
com, and like corn, does not thrive where the nights are cool.
It will grow on
It is seldom grown north of the Ohio River.
many different soil types, and will withstand shading.
Uses.- The cowpea is of very great economic importance.
It is the chief forage plant in the South Central and South
The
Atlantic States.
Cowpea hay
year.
may
increasing each
The plant
when mature, or
The plant is being
is
many
introduced into
manure, and
The
is
is
localities as a
The
and
are also
recommended
as
coffee.
ASACmS HYPOGCEA
Habit, Stem.
The peanut
is
(Peanut, Goober)
leaflets,
and no
tendrils;
Flowers
(Fig.
197).
The
flowers
are
axillary,
sessile,
LEGUMINOS^
463
The standard
is free.
is
suborbicular,
incurved.
The
to
Fig. 196.
Peanut_(Arachis hypogEca).
Development of Fruit
(Fig. 196).
(After Jones.)
tilized, the
fall off;
elongates,
bends downward,
and
fer-
carries
the
developing
and
fails to
The
mature.
is
and
The "shell"
of
the testa.
The cotyledons
are
464
Types.
The American
varieties
is
may
and
"bush"
types.
Each
"bimch,"
country
are Virginia Bunch, Virginia
Runner, Carolina, Spanish,
and Tennessee Red.
The
and "running"
(2) small-podded.
Well-known
/Wind
standard
or
varieties in this
The nuts
skinned seeds.
the
Spanish
smaller
than
other types.
variety
those
in
are
the
of
Large-podded
plant.
Consequently,
raised
where
season
is
long,
the
it
is
growing
and warm.
36 latitude.
ovan
Fig. 197.
Flower of peanut (Arachis
hypogaea).
(After Tanbert.)
cially
when
clean appearance
Uses.
food
12
is
Peanuts
human
espe-
food.
article.
pounds
of butter.
Oil, salted
LEGUMINOS^
'465
and nuts.
Peanut
oil,
is
a nearly
colorless product,
is
left after
pressing the
this
country
is
made in Europe.
oil
oil
from the
seeds,
Nearly
all
during 1914.
The
following
members,
list
agriculturally, of the
Lupinus (Lupines).
and
soil,
but are
to
flowers.
annuals.
striata
little
showy
The
Pea Family.
(Japan Clover).
deep-rooted
perennial with
erect
stems, odd-pinnate leaves, six to twelve leaflets, and erect, dense racemes of
rose-colored flowers.
cent.
The seed
The
The plant was early introduced into America from Asia, but it is little
grown here. It is adapted to dry barren lands that are not suited to clovers
and alfalfas. It has been grown with success on calcareous soils.
Omithopus sativus (Seiradella). A low, branched annual, with pinnately
compound leaves, and rose-colored or purplish flowers in umbels. The pods
30
466
break into joints.
if
not dry.
liay
198.
An
annual plant
soils,
similar
to
red flowers occur in small clusters at the ends of the stems; pods are narrow
is
LEGUMINOS^
467
The plant is grown in Europe, Asia, and' Mexico for its seeds
which are used for both stock and human food. The herbage is unfit for
stock because of a poisonous principle. The seeds have been used as a coffee
the hilum.
substitute.
and
An
erect
It is
seeds,
The
References
Bartlett, G.. The Native and Cultivated Vicieae and Phaseoleae of Ohio.
Ohio Nat., 15: 393-404, 1914.
Beal, a. C: Evolution and Pollination of the Sweet Pea. Florist's Exch.,
32: 140-141, 1911.
Beattie, W. R.. Peanuts. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 356: 1-40, 1909.
The Peanut. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 431: 1-39, 191 1.
Blinn, Philo. Alfalfa
:
n.
s.,
2,
Gregory, R.
P.:
of
Pisum sativum.
226-228, 1903.
Handy, R. 5-: Peanuts: Culture and Uses.
New
Phytol., 2:
Headden, Wm.
p.: Alfalfa.
of the Species.
U.
S.
Dept. Agr.
Oakley, R.
Alfafa.
A.,
U.
falcata, a Yellow-flowered
468
I'AMMEL,
PammeLjX.
Acad.
H.,
Studies in Variation of
Red
Clover.
Sci.,
Proc. la.
of Clover.
35-45, 1911.
Sci., 18:
Pollination of Clover.
1909.
U.
S.
W.
J.
U.
S.
Biull.
Varieties,
and Field
or Hyacinth Bean.
1-15, 1915-
Cake and
Soja Max.
U.
S.
Jour.
Am.
Morgan
W.,
U.
S.
J.:
1-32, 1914.
McKee, Roland:
Vetches.
U.
S.
ScoFiELD, Carl
U.
S.
1-16, 1905.
of
Garden Beans.
S.
U.
S.
Westgate,
J. M., and
Farmers' Bull. 455:
Westgate, J. M., and
Farmers' Bull. 485:
Hillman,
Red
Clover.
U.
S.
Dept. Agr.
U.
S.
Dept. Agr.
F. H.:
1-48, 1911.
7-39, 1912.
Wight, W.
F.:
U.
S.
The History
Dept. Agr. Bull. 289: 1-31, igiSCowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and Its
of the
U.
S.
43-59, 1907-
WiNTON, Kate,
B.:
Bot.
CHAPTER XXX
LINACE^
Habit, Stem, Leaf.
The
(Flax Family)
The
The
sessile,
(L.
root bears a
and usually
catharticum)
alternate, although
They
are
linear,
sometimes opposite
linear-lanceolate,
or
few-flowered
styles
may
be
free,
way
The
flax fruit is
two by a
is
false partition
47
that
It is
we
get our
The
family
has about 135 species, which are widely distributed over the
world.
mum.
cultivated
All
species
varieties
flax
in
is
L. usitatissi-
country are
this
Flax
and
is
raised
soils.
crop
rainfall, the
is
of little
value for
fair
Common
flax
is
Flax)
to 4
feet
(Fig. 199).
branches in the
first
12 to 18 inches of
soil.
The tap
root
Long-stemmed
soil.
flax as
varie-
penetration.
Deep planting
is
of flax.
The
Stem.
stem
is
As
it
matures,
it
becomes
LINAGES
rigid, at the
471
elasticity
due
Flax Fibers.
Three
cells.
The
flax
These bast
straw
472
is
loosely cymose.
deep blue.
same
color.
Yellow-flowered varieties
The
species.
this
petals
are
not found
are
in
conspicuous, wedge-
large,
close-pollination.
two
loculi
divided
is
by means
more
The
of false septi.
When
Each
axis.
locule
or less incompletely
fully ripe,
they are
are joined.
Seeds.
The
They
wide.
in color
standard
epidermal
color.
becomes sticky
flax its
(viscid)
cells of
Light brown
is
the
the seed.
medicinal value.
hot water
It
is this
is
found
filling
the
The embryo
is
surrounded by a
Common
flax is
is
heavy producer
of seed,
a native
of
Europe.
It
is
now widely
dis-
LINACEiE
Types and
Varieties.
473
The
seeded varieties.
known
as Sicilian flax,
flaxes.
Uses.
Linseed
Oil.
The
manufacture of linseed
oil
is
milUons of dollars.
The
oil.
Linseed
oil.
oil is
From 30
to 39 per cent,
used in the manufacture of
Oil cloth
and other
sorts
seeds
is
known
as
oil
cake.
It
is
in
Belgium
in a region
The creamy Flemish flax from which the finest hnen fabrics
Flax fiber is also utilized
are made is grown in this section.
for making thread, carpet yams, fishing lines, seine twines,
etc.
It is also
for upholstering,
and
ice
LINACEiE
475
fine
linen rags.
The exposure
and wood.
This process
is
tion process.
known
as retting.
Retting
is
It is essentially a fermenta-
also carried
on in stagnant water
is
flax is
retted
The
in this
form
until
ready to be spun.
Production of Flax.
the European
countries.
The United
States
is
is
grown
in
one of the
largest
amount
of fiber.
United States 13,749,000 bushels. The large flax seed-producing States in 1914 were North Dakota, Minnesota,
Montana, South Dakota, and Kansas.
CHAPTER XXXI
RUTACE^
This family
Description.-
(Rue Family)
is
represented
by
trees, shrubs,
The sepals
The
perigynous.
separate
or
united
in
number; the
and
introrsely dehiscent.
carpels
may
The two
200. Floral
to five
(After Eichler.)
compound
to
pistil.
The
receptacle
The
germinate in the
is
frequently modified
The fruit
is
a capsule,
Geographical.
Fig.
diagram of Citrus.
The
seeds of lemon
may
fruit.
The
family
is
There are, according to Britton and Brown, about no genera and 880 species.
A few members of the Rue Family are native to the United States; chief of
these are the prickly ash (Xanthoxylum), hop-tree (Ptelea), and torch- wood
(Amyris).
None
476
America.
RUTACE^-
477
Poncirus
trifoliate,
of RutacejE'
(trifoliate orange).
unifoliate.
Ovary
two
Fortunella (kumquat).
Ovary
stigma
in each cell;
etc.).
r'p'jacks
i^C
kl
'
CITRUS
Habit, Roots.
(Citron,
Lemon, Orange,
etc.)
is
tree is
The
Absorption
Leaves.
Hume
The
is
carried on
by the fibrous
;;
478
late,
exception of Citrus
trifoliate)
and
usually articu-
is
The
life
of the leaf
may
for three or
years.
autumn.
citrus
plants
is
scattered over
Flowers.
its surface.
cymes or
is
solitary,
The
panicles.
and
Pollination
plants
require
others mature
varieties
Fertilization.
Some
in
fertilization
order
of oranges require
congenial varieties.
The time
weeks
set
while
Some
is
may
occur
without the
complete
for
in trifoliate oranges.
fruit,
fruits.
cross-fertilization,
Pollination
of insects.
subtended by
varieties of citrus
to
parthenocarpic ("seedless")
visitation
is
in
fertilization
Satsuma oranges
Parthenocarpic varieties
is
no
The
fruit
is
modified
berry
(hesperidium)
spherical or spheroidal
RUTACE^
Bonavia considers the rind
479
The number
of
carpels
("sections")
varies in
the
same
variety.
Seeds.
in
or
or
There
each
cell of
the fruit.
As many
fruits
characteristic.
is
He
cells,
from
as well as
may
be
fertilized ova.
Hence,
polyembryonic seed, there are two sorts of embryos:
those formed by the union of egg nucleus and sperm
in the
(i)
true
embryos
This
fruit.
may
be one
group.
Geographical.
of the
Malay Archipelago,
and adjacent Asiatic territory. Citrus fruits are grown only in those parts of
the United States where there is an almost continuous growing season, and
where freezes seldom occur.
(citron).
thick, C.
480
outside.
its
(lime).
Tree small, 12 to 20
removed, C. nobilis
(king orange).
Tree
large, 20 to
sinensis
40
(common sweet
orange).
when
pomelo,
shaddock).
Fruit medium-sized, orange-colored or reddish
when
ripe, C.
aurantium
CITRUS MEDICA
Description
This
is
(Citron)
its
the
pulp scarce and very acid, and the juice sacks small and
slender.
"Citron."
Citrus medica.
is
is
candied,
oil in
it is
the skin.
placed in
The
fruit
The
brittle.
RUTACEiE
481
is
small,
from 10 to 20
feet in
long-ovate,
wingless;
Fig. 203.
sharp-pointed,
serrate,
A citrus orchard in
and
its
petioles
usually sohtary,
31
fruit.
The fruit
is
about 3
482
when mature,
abundant and
and pointed.
The
acid,
skin
medium-
requires
fruit
its
and the
reach maturity.
Geographical.
The lemon
is
It
is
cultivated
and Florida.
Colpr of
Lemon FruitLemons
are picked
when they
degree of maturity.
Hence many
of
the lemons,
when
we buy
The
in the market.
fore shipment.
If
fruit is colored
is
hastened.
is
of
lemons
is
Lemon
Extract.
This
supply of lemon
duction of the
parts of
lemon
Sicily
now produces
the world's
oil.
oil.
Lemon
extract
is
made by
dissolving 5
is secreted by
About 95 per cent, of the lemon oil produced is obtained from
the lemons by the sponge method, the remainder by the
machine method. There are two sponge methods, known as
In the former
RUTACE^
method the lemons are cut by hand
483
into
two
pieces,
and the
This
is
(Lime)
rowly, but
distinctly, winged;
and
leaves are
its petioles
are nar-
from
iK
the
pulp abundant, greenish and very acid, and the juice sacks
small, oval,
and pointed.
Geographical.
The lime
is
Keys.
The
fruit is
some extent
in Florida
It
is
and the
is
a hybrid between a
484
or
Sweet Orange)
Description.^
round-topped,
is
25 to 40 feet high,
slender,
flexible,
blunt
the twig; the flowers occur singly or in small cluster; the petals
are white above
is
subglobular, light
The
citrus fruits; it is
sweet orange
is
There
Types.^
number
are a
of
have
oranges
all
large,
Med-
coarse-grained fruit.
Blood oranges
have red pulp or white pulp streaked with red; the fruit
is of good quahty.
Navel oranges are so named on account
of the umbiHcal mark at the apex of the fruit.
This mark is
due to the protrusion of additional carpels developed within
the fruit.
Uses.
Whereas
they are
now produced
in such quantities
and
sold at such
made by
Orange extract
Up
to the
came from
Europe.
oil
Italy
industry.
The
oil is
flavoring extracts,
and
RUTACE.E
Hood and
485
utilized.
Citrus
is
the mandarin
orange.
unshiu
is
spineless,
the
Bowen
is
grapefruit.
CITRUS GRAinsiS
This
Description.
It is a small,
species
is
a large
tree,
if
20 to 40 feet in
and
very
large,
when
smooth,
486
the pulp peculiarly acid or sub-acid, and the juice sacks large
and spindle-shaped.
Fig. 204.
Pomelo
summer.
(From
Calif.
It is
The species
now grown
Is
in the
RUTACEiE
487
between the
mercial importance.
most
horticulturists.
Grapefruit
locules,
is
is
and
now
is
of
no comby
recognized
a well-known breakfast
fruit.
CITRUS AURANTIUM
Description.
flexible,
and the
tip,
dotted petals are white above and below; there are from 20
to 24 stamens; the ovary has 6 to 14 locules; the fruit
is
and
is
is
other citrus
bud
fruits.
Other Species
of Citrus.
commercial importance
Other
FORTUNELLA
The
Description.^
in the
(Citrus)
(Kumquat or Kinkan)
kumquats
and
in the spring are usually without pistils; there are four times
as
many stamens
cells,
RKVAMV
4S
.111(1
each
'.1
CKOV PI.ANTB
cell
the flower
\>
is
is
small,
to
and aromatic,
there
may
and
its
fruit in
a growing
season
Species.art-
/''
mnrgdrila,
the
species
of
ForiundUi
/''.
EUTACE^
japonica, the
Round
489
Marumi kumquat.
or
The former
is'
kumquat, and F.
The
fruit.
hindsii,
latter is considered
F. crassifolia
the
is
Meiwa
the
by Swingle
to be the wild
stem form
Uses.
and
which
PONCIRUS,
Description.
The
is
as ornamentals,
(TiifoUate Orange)
trifoliate
orange
is
over 15 feet high; the older branches are thorny, the thorns
being i to ij^ inches long, and flattened at the base; the
characteristic
deciduous
trifoliate
leaves
are
composed of
is
axils;
and pointed at
it
is
of
no com-
at the other.
of
known
as citranges.
490
in Citrus
Citrus Fruits.
Hood,
a
S.
New Machine
U.
of
S.
1-19, 1916.
Hume, H. Harold: Pomelos. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 58: 385-421, 1901.
The Kumquats. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 65: 555-566, 1902.
The Mandarin Orange Group. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 66: 571-594,1903.
Citrus Fruits and Their Culture. Orange Judd Co., 1913.
Ikeda, Tomochika: On the Parthenocarpy of Citrus fruits.
Soc.
Tokyo,
63, 1904.
Osawa,
12:
647-670, 1878.
J.; Complications in Citrus Hybridization Caused
Webber, H.
embryony.
Science, n.
s.,
by Poly-
CHAPTER XXXII
VITACE^
(Grape Family)
Members
Family Description.
The
There
is
and
or
compound
{Parthenocissus)
206).
cence
is
perfect or polygamo-dioecious
(perfect flowers on one indi-
and
vidual
on
imperfect
The
another).
calyx
is
en-
The
and
after
Stamens are
development.
Fig. 206.
Compound digitate leaf
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus
quinquefolia).
of
four to five in
opposite
the
each
locule.
of
two to
The fruit
is
six cells
commonly a
two-celled berry.
Geographical.
many
number and
The
petals.
491
this family,
492
away without
separat-
American
ivy).
VITIS (Grape)
Stems.
Grapes
are
climbing or
The stem
is
woody
jointed.
the internodes;
by
Two
interrupted at the
nodes.
Hedrick.)
(After
is
all
the sap
modified stems.
This
is
VITACE^
shown by the
493
flowers.
or
Fig. 208.
is
(Vitis labrusca).
are
494
Fig. 209.
Fruit-bearing shoot
of
{After
VITACE^
while the third leaf
site each,
495
is
stem growth.
In the
spring, a bud sends out a growth flower clusters appear early
209).
grow
until the
end
of the season.
all
to a cane.
This shoot bears a number of buds, each of
which may, the following season, produce another shoot, in
turn bearing fruit clusters. If all these buds are allowed to
Hence
cuttings.
for over
5,000 years.
Leaves.
The
grape leaf
is
The leaves
number of
vary as to
compact
and small
panicle.
stipules.
size,
and
shape,
surface.
As has been
indicated, the
is
clusters are
all
other species
is
staminate flowers.
and those
in
496
case, the pistil
is
in those flowerS
less
impotent.
fully
more or
is
''^''-cap
of
Spefals'
->stamenj
-nectar
ffand
Pig. 210.
The
Grape
flower, opening.
20.
h)^ogynous and
regular.
pistils.
The
The
they form
When
the
VITACEiE
there
one
is
497
pistil
is
The
and two-ovuled.
two-celled
fruit
The
is
berry.
numerical variation.
Many
cultivated varieties of
Some
most
part, to
grapes are
impotent pollen.
partially
self-fertile,
As has been
and
indicated,
others
still
perfect
pollen.
As
self-sterile.
bearing reflexed
However,
in
some
a rule, the
self-fertile varieties,
entirely
flowers
when
Self-sterile varieties,
marketable clusters of
fruit
self-fertilized,
have long
when
self-fertilized,
usually
32
498
and
He
pistillate."
staminate"
and
"pseudo-pistillate"
between "pseudo-
forms
among
wild
species.
Grape Pollen.
In
is
In the
surrounded by a mucilaginous
is
Self-
it; it is
irregular in shape
fertile
variety.
The degree
of self-steriUty or self-fertiUty
seems
by
planting, in the
Muscat vineyard,
varieties that
produce
Muscat
These
flowers.
VITACEvE
499
Vms'
Species of
Skin of mature berry not separating freely from the pulp, Vilis vinijera
(Old World grape).
Leaves ovate
in outline;
medium
to narrow,
Vitis
Grape).
The
The
On
and broad
clusters.
this account,
they
make
better wine
and
raisins
than
American
varieties
are
is
of
New
York," by Hedricl*.
500
]'itis
vinijeni
is
Asia.
Vitis rotundifolia (Southern
This
Fox Grape).
smooth bark.
The
is
usually
wood and
loose
clusters.
It
The
known
One
grapes.
Vitis rupestris
^This
is
Muscadine
as
Scuppernong.
margins.
The
This species
as
its
southern in
is
northernmost limit.
riparia
Vitis
its distribution,
It is
(SiTer-bank Grape).
The
river-bank grape
and occur
vary
The
in size.
in rather
is
a rather
leaves have
The
berries
clusters.
This
It
is
is
in the
Mountains.
Vitis aestivalis
(Summer Grape).
This
is
dark green above and rusty pubescent beneath. The berries are astringent,
of average size, and usually in long clusters.
This species is native to southeastern United States. Its varieties are wine
grapes.
Vitis labrusca
This
is
a stocky
below.
to large.
The
clusters of
medium
VITACE^
By
ties
number
501
from
it
and other
species,
2.
3.
4.
Varieties
Color of Grapes.
of grapes
may
be grouped as
to color as follows
to
Black.
America, August
Hamburg, Canada, Champion,
Concord, Ives, Mills, Muscat, Hamburg, Norton.
2. Berries Purplish-red.
Agawam, Brighton, Catawba,
1.
Purplish-black
Berries
Bacchus,
Giant,
Black
Light
Berries
Colerain,
Green.-
Croton,
Diamond,
Wine and
As
Raisin Grapes.
European grape
is
Some
varieties
etc.,
varieties
raisin
is
Sultanina.
Uses.
"raisins," "Sultanas,"
currants."
raisins
made
502
made
weak
United States.
in
the
There
Wines.
process,
the
conver.sion
of sugar
to
is
drained
from the pomace (skins and other solid material of the grape)
and stored in various sorts of receptacles. A slow fermentation goes on in storage, and during this period, settlings
accumulate, which are finally removed, leaving the clear
wine product.
White wines are made from white grapes, or from those
VITACE^
503
removed by
skins are
The
coloring matter
is
pressing,
and the
juice, as
the
juice allowed to
ferment alone.
The two
and
angelicas.
The
fruit is
process of fermentation
is
stopped by the
is
addition
of
ing."
but
This adding of
alcohol.
far,
is
called "fortify-
sweetness
attained,
is
of fermentation
stopped by "fortifying."
Brandy. Brandies
of
are
from
Pure "cognac"
red wines.
is
The
inferior grades of
brandy come
Vinegar.
Grape vinegar
giving white
is
respectively.
red wines,
Many
grapes
wine.
The
S04
and grape oil. A brandy has been made by fermenting the sugary substance that sticks to the seeds, and
of tannin
this material
may
made
also be
into a syrup.
References
N. Y. State Agr.
Bull. 157: 397-441,
1898.
Fertilizing
Self-sterile
Grapes.
Sta. Bull.
169:
331-371, 1899.
Booth, N. O.:
Study of Grape
Pollen.
N. Y. Agr. Exp.
291-302, 1902.
DoRSEY, M.
J.:
sions in Vitis.
Am.
52, 1912-
Minn.
Hedeick, V. P.: The Grapes of New York. 15th Ann. Rept. N. Y. Agr.
Exp. Sta., vol. 3, part 2 1-564, 1908.
HusMANN, George C, and Deaeing, Charles: The Muscadine Grapes.
:
U.
S.
MuNSON, T.
v.: Investigation
and Improvement
of
U.
S.
Dept. Agr.,
CHAPTER XXXIII
MALVACEiE (MaUow FamUy)
Habit.
trees.
Members
of
The mallows
shrubs,
or
are usually
rich in mucilage.
bract
involucral
mUl
^pefal
^monadelphou<5
Fig. 211.
Diagram
Leaves.
The
showing arrangement
The
SOS
5o6
Flowers.
Some
single or in clusters,
are subtended
of
by an
strawberries.
and
involu-
This
may
be separate or united.
Fig. 212.
Upland
(Gossypium
cotton
hirsutum).
section of flower.
narrow
bractlets;
and
is
Median
lengthwise
of
numerous
2.
none; in Hibiscus,
it is
(Fig.
211).
The
flowers are
polygamous.
There are
five
MALVACE^
507
five
more
of stamens; this
but
five
There are
by the
This
sacs.
is
anther.
etc.,
The
at the
or anther-bearing below
many
ovary
is
styles as cells
Geographical.
and temperate
regions.
in tropical
species.
plant
is
okra
officinalis is
or
gumbo
{Hibiscus
esculentus)
Althaea
and
rosea),
Orna-
mallow
5o8
Key
Malvace*
to Important Genera or
Maha
(mallow)
the
summit
(Fig. 212).
GOSSYPIUM
(Cotton)
like species.
and herbaceous.
There is a long, branching, and deeply penetrating tap
This extends to a depth of 2 feet or more in sandy soil.
root.
There are four rows of lateral roots from four shallow grooves
that run lengthwise on the main root. The lateral roots are
only a few inches below the soil surface.
Stems. The main stems are erect and branching. The
usual height of Upland cotton plants is aj^ to 4 feet. The
branches may be slender or stocky and are usually spreading.
Kinds of Branches. There are two sorts of branches in
the cotton plant: (i) Vegetative branches or "limbs," and (2)
There are two buds at the base of each
fruiting branches.
leaf.
One
of these
extra-axillary.
is
Vegetative
branches
or
Hmbs may
arise
MALVACE^
from either
509
Normal
fruit-
It fre-
axillary
The accompanying
stem.
On
fail
extra-laterals
remain dormant.
to develop,
laterals
main stem.
5IO
more
horizontal.
arise,
leaf.
main
axis,
The
the others.
nounced
in
is
difference in length
in
much
shorter.
The
much more
Upland cotton.
pro-
The
may
Vegetative branches
vegetative
branches,
Form
of Plant.
An
excessive
makes a bushy
Branch Zones.
branch zones.
The
is
in
"
MALVACE^
511
which
lateral roots
come.
At
first,
are gall-Uke.
leaf
by frequent examples
.
two-fifths,
taxy
is
or
five-thirteenths
The
arrangement.
phyllo-
may show
a two-fifths
The
When
ribs,
Glands
may
present, they
about one-third of
512
Three
common
Flowers.
do not
from it.
There
Flower buds
arise
is
They
on fruiting branches.
in
There
arise
leaf,
is
The
flowers of Asiatic
4 inches across,
on the second day.
Each flower
is
They
One of the bracts is often somewhat smaller than the other two which are equal in size. In
some cases bractlets may occur inside the involucre. They
laciniate,
sometimes
entire.
When two
United States.
six bractlets,
a pair alternating
^At the
In the
protected
Calyx.
by a velvety covering
This
is
of hairs.
The rim
of
structure at
the cup
is
usually
MALVACE^
The calyx
scarcely lobed.
may
513
There
size.
in size.
They
cotton flower.
These
sometimes occur
in
the
This
is
hypogynous.
There are
stamen tube.
They
In
The
bud,
Stamens.
often as
many
as 80 or 90 stamens,
all
There are
inserted on a tubular
pistil.
The column is
There are five
rise to a number
being made up of
The
The anthers are opetwo halves, by a semicircular
and each
is
dehiscent into
opening.
As a
the stamens.
usually shorter
cells in
the ovary.
514
Pollination, Fertilization,
Both
cross-
and
and Development
self-fertilization
may occur in
of Fruit.
cotton.
Bees
may be
protrwie
its
tongue.
first
at
The
locuhcidally dehiscent
capsule
is
by three
called a "boll."
oval, or ovate-acuminate.
is
a leathery capsule
is
to five valves.
The mature
The number
of cells or
"locks"
or five in
Upland
sorts.
in
in
fiber
fiber.
cell
of hairs
coat.
(i)
is
rule,
lint
fibers.
MALVACEAE
seed.
In some
more
of the seed.
may form
515
^Lint
34 per cent, or
Egyptian
is
In
The
to-
the tip of
lint at
base.
Fiber Differences.
The
fibers of
to 2
The
following table
is
Average length of
Average diameter
staple in inches
of staple in inches
Sea Island
New Orleans
.61
0.000640
.02
0.000775
Texas
Upland
Egyptian
i.oo
o. 000763
0-93
0.000763
0.000655
1.41
Form and
Structure
of Fiber.
circular in cross-section.
walls
is
become
thiimer,
greater
when
As they
and the
bon-like appearance.
The
The
fiber takes
on a flattened
rib-
fiber.
The
out
length; there
twist
deposition
This twisting
of the fiber.
its
inner walls.
Young
is
irregular,
is
is
may be
point, it
may
solid.
up about two-thirds
of
The
hair
the entire
5l6
breadth.
Immature
may show no
"Kempy"
fibers or
Common
Textile Fibers.
There
Hemp
length.
resemble those of
fibers
The
flax,
silk fiber is
The
by
An
alkali solution of the fiber treated with lead acetate colors fiber
black. Wool.
green.
ammonia, dry
fiber
forms a gelatinous
ties of
Gossypium.
number
of
them
are
known only
Gossypium, as a genus,
Watt
"sections," as follows:
is
of the
world into
five
MALVACEAE
51
as
The
slocksii.
lint.
Section II.
two members
have been recorded as met with in a wild condition, the others are undoubted cultivated plants derived very possibly from
four specific types G. arboreum, G. nanking, G. obtusifolium, and G. herbaceum."
Most of these are Asiatic and African cottons. The bracteoles are
of this section
united below, the claws of the petals are purple, and the seeds are covered
Watt
lint.
is
was at an early date introduced into the United States, the form being
known as "Okra." Its cultivation was abandoned, however.
G. nanking is the "Chinese cotton" of commerce, also known as "Siam
cotton" or " Nankin cotton." It is "cultivated in China, Japan, the Malaya,
Siam, Burma, India, the northwest Himalaya, Persia, Central Asia, to the
Celebes; less abundantly in Madagascar, Arabia, and Africa."
G. obtusifolium is an oriental species that occurs both wild and cultivated
in India and Africa.
Var. wightiana is the most valuable Indian cotton.
ncglccta,
G. herbaccum
Watt
is
known
not
is
In 1621,
it
was brought
is
to the
can and,
in
schottii,
G. mustelinum
is
West
Indies,
Africa.
G. schottii
ton.
grows
vated.
is
G. microcarpum,
in
all
and northern
Watt
considers
In
known
as
is
known
is
Mexican
G. peruvianum
this
considered as offsprings of
cot-
G. punctatum
the Peruvian or
Andes cotton.
Watt
It
is culti-
regards
G.
many
mexicanum
Si8
probably originally came from Mexico. Watt says: "I am convinced that
the best Upland cottons would be more correctly described as cultivated states
of this plant (G. mexicanum), rather than as forms of G. hirsulum."
siders
Pig. 214.
of the other.
American upland
The long
con-
staple
Upland
He
mexicanum
Simms and
series, chief
(After Walt.)
always some fuzz on the seed at the apex, hence they are not absolutely
MALVACE^
"naked." To this section belong G.
badense, and brasiliensc.
G. tailense
purascens
is
is
known
Fic. 215.
Sea
nished a
number
Island
519
It is
G. pur-
not cultivated.
It
is
an im-
cotton
(Gossypium
barbadense).
(After
Watt.)
It
is
520
that "it
is
is
The Sea
a hybrid."
Island
cottons proper which have been grown with the greatest success on the islands
oflE
marilima.
G. brasiliense
extensively and
is
known
It is cultivated
is indigenous to South America.
as " Chain, Kidney, Stone, Brazilian, Guiana, Esse-
no longer
Section V.
Absent.
of great
This group
commercial importance.
Only one
is
not cultivated.
The
It is
lint is easily
seed.
Wild Cottons.
Wild cottons
As
is
all
have a
red-colored, hairy
may
be fuzz
type.
The
is
due to an aggregation
of
American Cottons.
tons of the United
American
long.
so fine.
of
MALVACE^
52
The
is
Types and Varieties. Upland is the chief American cotton. It has been
by Duggar into a number of "groups" as follows:
1. Big Boll Group.
Plants vigorous and stocky; limbs strong, usually two
in number; fruiting branches strong, varying from short to long; bolls large,
divided
Jones Improved.
2.
Plants slender; limbs two or three, sometimes abbranches also slender; bolls small to medium, long,
medium
to
sometimes partly naked, but usually densely covered with a brownishgray fuzz; lint 30 to 45 millimeters long, percentage low. Examples: Allen,
Griffin, and Cook.
Plants slender, often tall, limbs heavy, one to several;
3. Cluster Group.
fruiting branches very short-jointed, causing the bolls and leaves to be in
clusters, apparently two or three from each node; bolls small to medium,
four- to five-loculed; seeds small to medium, fuzzy, gray to brownish- or
greenish gray; lint short, soft, and of good strength.
Examples: Jackson,
large,
Dickson.
4.
Semi-cluster Group.
bolls are
It is
The
Hawkins.
Plants slender; limbs one to several;
5. Rio Grande or Peterkin Group.
fruiting branches slender, long- jointed bolls very small to medium, three-,
four-, or five-loculed; seeds very small to medium, nearly smooth, darkcolored, sometimes covered with a short fuzz; lint medium in length, percentage large. Examples: Peterkin, Texas Wood, Rio Grande.
Plants small and slender; limbs one to three or
6. King or Early Group.
seeds
Earliest
American cottons.
Long-limbed Group.
medium
Intermediate Group.
Hagaman.
Exam-
522
It
is
well
known
make
Enviromnental Relations.
The upper
is
it
Cotton
is
tropical
plant.
about coextensive with the summer (June, July and AuThe plant is extremely sensitive to low
development.
The
It seldom
matures
fall
stops its
in less
premature ripening.
its
vege-
Too much
is
tative
Upland cottons
medium
Cotton
is
This labor
The seed
soils
fertility.
is
performed
removed
and carried over
cotton
fan,
picked by
is
and is then fed evenly to the gin saws, where the lint
and seed are separated. The seeds are carried by a screw
conveyor to the seed house or seed bin. The lint cotton is led
from the gin saws through a flue to the condenser. Here it is
cleaned, smoothed out into sheets or bats, wrapped and tied
feeders,
into bales.
The usual
size of a
cotton bale
is
27
by 54 inches
MALVACEAE
in a type
known
523
is
injured
by the
When
and
trash.
This
is
usually removed
The
it
it
adhering to the
fiber.
Cotton
may
all
the impurities
The process
of bleaching is the
further in the
making
carried
and
is
in
water,
the
cloth
is
treated with a
be put.
524
known
which
as "linters,"
is
not removed
made
ift
ginning,
is
and batting.
trunks, etc.
and as a
Cottonseed Hulls.
paper and
fiber
The
and
fertilizer,
cattle food.
This
under pressure.
crude
oil.
is
one
of the
oil
are secured
by
and filtering.
Cottonseed oil is now produced in large quantities in this
country. The United States exported 35,304,000 gallons
different processes of refining
It
is
used
appearing
oils
as peanut
by many.
It is
It is also extensively
employed
in the
manufacture of "oleo-
"Cottolene"
and beef suet.
Cottonseed Meal.
Cottonseed meal is the ground cake
left after the oil is pressed from cotton seed.
It is now used
extensively as a feed, although formerly it was considered
of little value.
United States produces annually about
is
composed
use
The death
is
due
to
of animals
toxic
substance,
MALVACE-iE
kernels are
now
rendered
less toxic
52s
alkali,
2 ^
o
it
non-toxic.
.a
Cottonseed meal
is
Guncotton.
This
is
a powerful explosive
made by
treating
526
sulphuric acid.
Military guncotton
is
highly
cellulose
nitrates.
Less
and
ether,
nitrated
guncotton
is
guncotton
is
etc.
soluble in alcohol
highly
Celluloid
is
made by
nitrated
celluloid,
is
Fig. 217.
Cotton-producing regions of the United States.
(From
Essentials of Geography, Second Book.
Copyright, 1916, by Albert Perry
Brigham and Charles T. McFarlane. American Book Company, Publishers.)
is
cotton.
The
largest of
manufac-
Cotton
is
MALVACE^
States
led
in
527
16,134,930 bales.
by
The
States, 191 5.
State
Texas
3,175,000
Georgia
1,900,000
South Carolina
1,160,000
Alabama
1,050,000
Mississippi
940,000
Arkansas
785,000
North Carolina
708,000
Oklahoma
630,000
Louisiana
360,000
Tennessee
396,000
108,000
United States
11,161,000
$602,393,000
HIBISCUS ESCULENTUS
Description.
The stems
Okra
are
or
(Okra,
Gumbo)
gumbo
cylindrical
and with
The
calyx
is
five-cleft;
anther-bearing along
cells,
is
its entire
fruit is a
pod with
and kidney-shaped.
five style
regu-
The
528
Geographical.
many
into
cess in the
civilized countries,
warmer
Types.-
of
okra
is
Africa.
It is
now
introduced
ones.
Beattie
lighter in color
Tall
green okras are 4 to 8 feet high, dwarf green sorts about i}^
to s}/2 feet high,
Uses.
the
Okra
and lady-finger
is
young seeds
Not
are cooked.
When
infrequently
young
References
Balls,
W. L. The
:
Sexuality of Cotton.
Soc. Cairo,
1905.
U.
S.
Bowman,
Cotton Fiber.
S.
Dimorphic Leaves
U.
S.
Cook, O.
F.,
A Study of Diversity
Dept. Agr. Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. 156: 1-60,
in Eg3?ptian Cotton.
U.
S.
1909.
Fl.'Vtters, a.:
The Cotton
MALVACEiE
529
U.
S.
Dept.
Manchester and
Fiber, Its Structure, Etc.
London, 1890.
Oppel, a.: Die BaumwoUe. Leipsic; Duncker und Humblot, 1902.
Parlatore, Filippo: Le specie dei cotoni, 1866.
Reed, E. L.: Leaf nectaries of gossypium. Bot. Gaz., 63; 229-231, 1917.
Steuckart, C: Die BaumwoUe, ihre Herkunft, ihre Verwendung, ihre Geschichte, und Bedeutung. Leipsic, 1914.
Tyler, F. J.: The Nectaries of Cotton. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Plant Ind.
BuU. 131:45-54, 1908.
Varieties of American Upland Cotton.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Plant Ind.
34
of the
World.
New
CHAPTER XXXIV
UMBELLIFERvE
Stems and Leaves.
^AU
The
(Carrot Family)
the
common
A very few
The
representatives of
are shrubs or trees.
leaves
are
alternate,
and
In
In the carrot,
very small.
and Flowers.
Inflorescence
The
inflorescence
is
nearly
inflorescence has
an involucre,
is
it
is
said to be involucrate;
involucellate.
and pentamerous.
The
530
UMBELLIFER^
ovary; the limb of the tube
inconspicuous teeth.
The
is
531
petals, attached to the base of the calyx tube; the tips of the
There are
five stamens,
The
ihilopodium
single.
anther
'^0//
on
lukef
'"oesy^
/dorsal nfc
\/'
jt^:^^ - interval
-lateral ribs
lateral
nb
commissural side
Fig. 218.
Parsnip (Pastinacasativa).
flower,
2M; D,
floral
12; B, face
each,
and
of
two
two
10.
locules,
(D
after Strasburger.)
borne on a
or
insect-pollinated.
The umbeUifers
Protandry is common.
wanting.
are
is
usually
532
Fruit.
The umbelliferous
It is
teristic.
commissure
termed a schizocarp,
two
into
Each individual
very charac-
is
i.e.,
one-seeded
halves
carpel or mericarp
is
the
mericarps.
The two
indehiscent.
At the summit
of
is
branous or corky
ribs,
the primary
ribs.
In
some
cases, there
is
one secondary
rib
many
tubes
making
in
by a
(vittae),
fruit.
These tubes
fruit.
impart to the
is
odor and
oils,
which
taste.
The
Oil
in
parsnip)
or
several
If distinct,
(as
that
is,
is
in
oil
Angelica,
Cymopterus).
mericarp.
The fruit
is
nearly so).
The one
all
(terete or
fills
the
TJMBELLIFERiE
may
533
is
flat.
There is considerable
endosperm present in the seed. The small embryo is
imbedded in the endosperm near the hilum. The fruit is of
greater taxonomic importance than any other portion of the
plant.
Usually, it is necessary to have the mature fruit
before an accurate determination can be made of a species in
hand. Keys to the genera and species are largely based upon
seed faces
be concave or
oily
fruit characters.
Geographical.
is
Key
winged
Fruit not strongly flattened dorsally, usually more or less laterally flattened
(Fig. 222, B).
Stylopodium
conical.
Stylopodium
flat
Apium
or wanting,
(celery
DAUCUS CAROTA
Carum
(caraway).
and parsley).
(Carrot)
is
usually a
During the
first
is
a storage of food in
become
fleshy,
form
The
roots are
of the carrot
much
534
(3)
cambium;
central
(4)
region
good carrot is one with a proportionately large cortex and phloem, because in these most of the
(wood and
pith)
sugar
During
stored.
is
of
'primanj r>6ge
stem,
hispid
rough,
growth,
or 3 feet high,
and
nages
is
-'
Leaves.
All
the leaves
decompound (doubly
are
compoimd).
ones
pinnate,
The lower
two-
are
to
three-
the segments
lobed or pinnatifid,
Inflorescence
Flowers.
Fruit
Fig. 219.
carota).
A,
view.
{A
of carrot
cross-section; B,
after Sargenl) .
(Daucus
cence
external
umbel.
B X
i o.
The
is
and
inflores-
compbund
At maturity, the
outermost pedicels bend
The
narrow
lobes.
made up
The
and
cleft into
number
of
There are
tips
turned
in.
UMBELLIFERiE
535
stylopodium
The
is
stigmas.
Fruit
sally flattened.
and each
long hairs,
hooked
is,
The
of
each mericarp.
ribs,
The seed
is
flattened
slightly curved.
Geographical.
It has
dorsally,
commissural side
Asia.
the
hairs.
tervals, that
of
is
of
Fig. 220.
Types
of carrots
Scarlet; C, Oxheart; D.
Long Orange.
Varieties.
ing as to
There
size,
are
numerous
As
to shape of
536
may
(Fig. 220).
1.
Vallery).
2.
tip,
The
roots
may
White
French Forcing Oxheart, Long Orange), or purple- violet
(some Egyptian and Spanish varieties).
Uses. Medium-size carrots, particularly those with yellow
or orange flesh, are used as a table vegetable and for the
seasoning of soups and stews. The larger, coarser varieties,
such as Large White, Large Yellow Belgian, Danvers and
White Vosges, are grown for feeding stock during the winter
Belgian), red (Carentan), orange or orange red (Early
season.
The yellow
is
sometimes
PASTINACA SATIVA
Habit, Roots, and
Stems.
(Parsnip)
The
parsnip
is
of
either
During the
from
The tall, erect stems are grooved, smooth or
2 to 3 feet.
somewhat downy pubescent, and become hollow.
Leaves.^ The lower and basal leaves are petioled, pinnately
compound, the thin segments ovate or oval, lobed, incised
or dentate.
The upper leaves are sessile, much smaller than
lower,
and
not so deeply lobed. The terminal leaflet of
the
thin,
each leaf
is
usually three-lobed.
is
sent
up
to a height of
'
UMBELLIFER^
Inflorescence and Flowers.
The
537
flowers
(,Fig.
221) are
in. broad
cres
and involucels
markedly
538
The
oil
The
expanded
two mericarps con-
olive-green
The
Geographical.' The wild parsnip, Pastinaca saliva, from which our cultivated varieties are derived, is a native of Europe. This wild form has become naturalized in many sections of North America, bccurring as a weed
along roadsides and in waste places.
Varieties.
There are comparatively few parsnip varieties.
Probably the most popular sorts are the Guernsey and Hollow
Crown. In both of these, the crown is concave.
Fig.
APIUM
(Celery
and Parsley)
this
The white
or greenish flowers are in compound umbels. The involucre
and involucels may be present or wanting. The calyx teeth
UMBELLIFER^
As
arc absent.
in at the
in
many
The
tip.
539
fruit (Fig.
222)
is
flattened laterally,
ribs
the
oil
tubes are
side.
in the
Apium
species,
leplophyllum.
following key.
Key to
AProM PETROSELINUM
Description.
first
(Parsley)
is
high.
sent
up an
The upper
erect, highly
When
parsley
As
is
two types
of
540
^Leaves plain,
not curled.
I.
Plain Parsley.
2..
Leaves curled.
The turnip-rooted
a small, fleshy root,
Hamburg
or
which
APIUM GRAVEOLENS
This
Description.
there
species
habit,
parsley
is
latter.
The
common
tions of
season.
first
Of
course,
in
may
be sent
growing,
celery
is
made
to pre-
erect, glabrous,
pinnately
fruit
oil
to 3 feet high.
The
This
leaves are
leaf segments.
flowers are in
umbels.
The
The
and
compound with
or incised
the
stem
with
up the
seed,
of leaves
If the plants
celery.
a type bearing
is
is
is
is
on the commissural
ribs.
number
side.
celery
common
and
celery,
(2) celeriac,
by breeding and
selec-
"German
celery" or turnip-rooted
UMBELLIFER^
like rootstock, 2
to 4 inches long.
541
self-blanching varieties
of the
common
and early
fall
page 250)
is
Fig. 223.
celery: (i)
Blanching
away from
(see
the
(After Vilmorin.)
easily
Green or winter
varieties
not
as
quick-growing or
542
more, with better keeping qualities when stored for the winter
(Giant Pascal, Boston Market, Winter Queen, Giant White
Solid).
Celery culture
muck
is
carried on
soils in
regions
Celery
Uses.
leaf stalks.
The
is
grown
leaves are
garnishing and
seasoning, and the seeds are used for flavoring salads and
soups.
is
The
is
used as a flavoring or
stewed separately.
References
Coulter,
J.
belliferje.
Contr. U.
S.
J.
N.
Monograph
Nat. Herb.,
7,
No.
of the
i:
North American
1-256, 1900.
Um-
CHAPTER XXXV
VACCmiACEiE
This
(Huckleberry Family)
is
There are two important genera from an agricultural standVaccinium and Gaylussacia. The former genus
point,
includes a rather large number of species grown for their
fruit;
these
take
in
the
bilberry,
blueberry,
cranberry,
may
known
cell.
Gaylus-
its ten-celled
by
false partitions.
Habit.
The
prostrate
arboreum,
American
shrubs
the
or,
in
a few instances
farkleberry)
small
{e.g.,
tree.
Vaccinium
Some South
544
berry,
or
bil-
the
European cranberry).
The flower
The small
-^.j^ 'to/
ally
(Fig- 225)
\^^'^^y
ovary,
Fig. 224.
diagram
Floral
of Vaccin-
ium.
and usu-
The
calyx
the
hmb
(free
portion) four- to
persistent or deciduous.
and
either
The sympetalous
lobes
The
corolla
may
be either globe-shaped,
bell-
many
terminal
anther
orolla
filament
'fn?ctar
(j^iani
\ahx
tube^
locules wilh
ovules
Fig. 225.
Flower
of
Vaccinium.
and either
commonly
flattened,
vacciniacejE
545
to ten-celled
The ovary is inferior, four- to five-celled or eightby false partitions, and has a fihform style, a
Fruit.
The
fruit
and one
is
five-lobed or
tip, four- to
The
bony seed
in a fleshy
coat,
endosperm.
VACCINIUM
The
The
are leathery.
They have
leaves
Pollination.
Coville
in a blueberry.
describes the
method
of polhnation
most Vaccinium
for
The
species.
The
bell-shaped flower
is in-
way
If pollen
that
is
35
In
is
later
drops
off.
546
after they
or firmness.
Species of Vaccikium
2 feet tall.
Berries black.
axils,
axils.
VACCINIACE^
Plants
tall,
3 to 12 feet,
547
and spreading.
(tall
or oval-leaved bilberry).
swamp huckleberry).
GAYLUSSACIA
Description.
Members
of this
alter-
leaves.
The inflorescence is
The small white or pink flowers are on two-bracteolate pedicels.
The calyx tube is short, five-lobed or
five-toothed, and persistent.
The stamens are 10 in number,
and their anthers open by terminal pores. The fruit is
The "seeds"
seed-Uke nutlets.
each
are
covered
with
endocarp.
Geographical.
The
genus
is
distributed throughout
about 40 species.
growing in North America.
America.
It possesses
There are
Species of Gaylussacia
Leaves
Leaves
2 to
i
to 2 inches long.
Of the above
species, G. resinosa
stiff
is,
as a rule, the
This species
is
common
a shrub,
It
548
CRANBERRIES
Some
cus,
bil-
In
berries,
is
it is
Fig. 226.
We
grown
in America:
seems that the appearance of the flower in the bud has probably suggested the name cranberry or "craneberry." Just
before the flower opens, the pedicel, calyx and corolla resem-
This
is
VACCINIACE^
leaves,
The
they
flowers
are
occur in
berry
ovoid,
red,
is
summit
549
The
At the
bent inward.
This species
is
It
is
It
is
also
is culti-
Cape
Cod,
The
nesota.
New Jersey,
grown
boggy
regions.
is
Cran-
groups, based
1.
fruit
Bell.
varieties
2.
3. Olive.
or
4.
is
The berry
young;
is
it is
The
small cranberry
is
550
flowers
are
in
short,
terminal,
one-sided
The
clusters.
dark red.
This plant grows wild from Massachusetts to Labrador,
west to British Columbia and Alaska. Although not culberries are
Nova
Scotia,
gather
to
eastern markets.
Both
see the
of the
U.
S.
Dept.
Davis,
W.
T.
Sci., 2:
High-bush Blueberries.
63-64, 1909.
CHAPTER XXXVI
OLEACE^
Family Description.
The
(Olive Family)
This
is
compound.
or
fascicle.
or
is
is
dioecious;
style is absent.
The fruit
is
or drupe.
members
OLEA EUROPCEA
Description.
feet high.
(OUve)
All fruit
is
is
a small tree 20 to 25
twice.
The
positely
rule,
quent.
is
on the stem.
The
less fre-
pistil one.
SSI
552
The
Fig. 227.
the
Olive
country
is
Branch and
Exp. Sla.)
(Olea europoea).
Mediterranean region
of CaUfornia.
fruit.
The
(From
Calif.
Agr.
olive requires a
OLEACE^
553
The delay
penetration.
in
oil
in part,
as soaking in
warm
water,
The
last
method appears
to
be the best.
The
Propagation.
olive is very
may
be
any kind
made
will
grow.
For propa-
or 2 feet,
split lengthwise,
Uses.
They
hand-picked
fruit.
The pulp
The
fruit is
yielding a product
is
which
is
CHAPTER XXXVII
CONVOLVULACE^
The
warm
mentioned
the
sweet potato,
Indians,
moon-flower {Ipomma
bona-nox)
corolla
me
morning
,
stigma
slainen
bindweeds {Convolvulus
Habit.
repre-
family
this
are
Leaves.
Fig. 228.
Flower of sweet
potato (Ipotncea batatas) length-
nate,
(After Sargent.)
The
exstipulate,
entire,
den-
and Flowers.
and sympetalous
of
spp.).
of the
trees,
Inflorescence
Most
sentatives
orary
Cfl/UA
tropical
wise section.
glory
(Fig. 228).
The
They
in
an
axil-
calyx
is
attached below
The
CONVOLVULACE^
555
The
anther-bearing.
its
lobes;
all
are
base,
longitudinally dehiscent.
has two
cells
ovules.
four to six
Fruit.
is
cells,
The fruit
is
a capsule;
its
Stamens and
Stamens and
IPOM(EA BATATAS
(Sweet Potato)
is
a sinistrorse-twin-
much
thickened roots.
quantities of starch.
itself is
them
large
the
roots,
piece
is
Then
the piece
It
is
is
further cut
it
produces sprouts.
replanted.
adventitious
buds
develop.
will
fre-
These
Leaves.
are
alternate,
heart-shaped,
petiolate,
flowers
and Flowers.
are
axillary,
The
large,
solitary
or
purple,
con-
cjonose.
The
5S6
sympetalous corolla
is i
The
corolla
is
and
folded
seeds.
home
America.
The original
West Indies and Central
is
of tropical origin
it is
well-drained, light
soils.
"yams."
'
CONVOLVULACEiE
sorts
Vineless
Yam,
SS7
Hall,
Dooley Yam,
Fig. 229.
Types of sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas). A, Black Spanish;
B. Shanghai;
Big Stem Jersey; D, Red Bermuda; E, Southern Queen.
{Modified after Corbelt.)
Price has
558
Red Bermuda).
3.
Leaves lobed
(Fig.
230, C)
Yam,
Vineless
Yam).
Sweet potato varieties
may have
is
purple.
Yam, Early
i.
2.
3.
4.
New Jersey).
Red Bermuda).
Uses.
Some
chiefly as a
grown
for
sized
potatoes,
known
human
hog pasture.
food.
The
Small-
corn meal in
its
chemical composition.
References
CHAPTER XXXVIII
SOLANACE^
The potato
family
is
(Potato Family)
it
has
1, 600
common
species in 70 genera.
potato,
Irish
eggplant,
tomatoes,
belladonna
etc.
Representatives
Habit of Plants.
stipules,
paniculate.
perfect,
with
The
and vary
five
united lobes.
five-lobed.
The
The
corolla is
sympetalous, mostly
(tomato), bell-shaped (Physalis), funnel-form {Lyciutn vulgare), salver-form or tubular (Petunia spp.)
many
There are as
all
560
The
single ovary
Fruit.
spp.),
The
is
in Ly-
slender, simple,
is
fruit
is
In both cases,
it
bears numer-
slit
and
eggplant).
SOLANUM
Habit.
common
potato, etc.), or
dulcamara, bittersweet).
In most species,
climbing herbs
(S.
Leaves.
The
and lobed
Inflorescence,
and Flowers.
The
inflorescence is
cymose
(bittersweet), umbellate
,
or rarely' paniculate.
The
{S.
flowers
solanacejE
561
The
calyx
is
fiye-pleft.
The
corolla
is
rotate
or
rarely
broadly
bell-
There are
five
the corolla (Fig. 232); the filaments are short, the anthers
and sometimes
ally
longitudinally.
is
The
ovary
slender
is
slit,
superior, usu-
stigma terminal.
Fruit.
The
fruit is a
Key
Not
tuber-bearing.
pear).
inch in diameter.
36
S. carolinense
562
Tuber-bearing.*
*
key to 37
species.
the relation of
common
is
Corolla rotate.
tUile.
SOLANUM TUBEROSUM
This species includes
They
food.
all
(Potato)
common
potato, but
Habit.
less
spreading
is
practically perennial
It has
by means
of
its
Roots.
Upon
is less
Stems.
Potato
medium
the
in
ordinary
fohage-bearing
Stem
is
{aerial).
is
The
stems.
The
discussion
of
SOLANACEiE
563
quadrangular.
Leaves.
Fig. 231.
Flowering branch
supplementary
leaflets
The
The
The
(Solanum tuberosum).
number of
number and importance
petiole bears a
which vary
on the stem.
of potato
in
rachis
is
The
At
the begin-
564
The
single terminal
soon followed by
which
two lateral leaflets, and these by others, so that the leaf soon
becomes distinctly pinnatifid.
Considerable differences have been foimd to exist in the
appearance of the leaves of the different agricultural varieties.
Flower (Fig. 232). The corolla is tubular, with five lobes.
frequently appears alone,
leaflet,
is
Fig. 232.
Potato
(Solanum tuberosum).
There
is
and
to i)-^ inches
al-
ternate with the corolla lobes, and are attached to the tube.
The stamens
SOLANACE^
produce
fertile flowers.
565
of
round
to
fruit,
will
be
formed or fruit
carpels
with numerous ovules in each locule.
Opening of Flower and Pollination. The anthers are
mature at the same time that the stigmas are receptive. The
flowers have been found to open between 5 and 6 o'clock
a.m. The pollen is usually shed on the second day of bloom-
and at this time, the pistil is most receptive. The anthers open at the top by a pore and, in some cases, split for a
short distance. The pollen is carried by the wind. The
flowers produce no nectar and are not visited by insects to
any extent, although several species of insects have been reported as visiting the flowers. East concludes from obsering,
vations of his
own (and of
The
is
Some
is
do not
fruit as freely
now
power.
While
many of
some
bloom
and more
freely
and
set seed.
many
varieties',
it is
of
of less value.
In
many
do not open.
In the Pearl
566
is
and
virile pollen;
while those
and that the best tubers and the largest yield are produced by the type of plant whose flower buds do not even
Furthermore, these buds do not show any other
swell."
color than green and they soon wither and break off.
yield,
Fruit.
The
fruit (Fig.
is
233)
pulp.
ball,"
The
fruit is called
brown,
balls are
Single fruits
may
seed balls of Early Rose. One seed ball from a Pearl crossed
with a Rural contained no seed, while six seed balls of the
reciprocal cross all bore abundant seeds.
Removal of the
early tubers induces fruit-bearing, while removal of the
flowers
is
Seed.
in the green,
small, kidney-shaped,
Germination of Seed.
many who
and embedded
fruit.
As a
varieties.
know
result,
little
or
Potato seed
balls,
basal views.
showing a
cluster,
and
lateral, sectional
and
S68
hairs.
Development
ling.
From
enth to
day
stolons
the
first
axils
(Fig.
the
of
the
arise
pair
the fifty-sixth
seeding,
after
Seed-
of the
the thirty-sev-
234);
cotyledon
leaves.
possess
small
rudi-
When
penetrate
their tips
the
soil.
strike
the
Fig. 234.
grown from
Young potato
from
seed.
tubers
plant- grown
(After Percival.)
Roots soon
first
Hence the
the
seed,
plant,
are
de-
of
arise
Tubers
year.
produced on seedlings
However, Frazier reports
year,
SOLANACE^
569
the tuber as a
cutting
However, when
is
stem
axis or
(Fig. 12).
The length
of the stolon
vated varieties,
commersonii,
it
it is
The
of 10 feet.
seems to
In culti-
number
of
the tuber
is
when
As a
in
the
above ground
small
tubers.
will
is
have a tendency to
This
normal
and the stems
swell and produce
is
active,
interfered with
phenomenon
often
is
indicative
of
Rhizoctonia.
Fungus Theory
of Tuberization.
In
general,
it is
found
the tubers
is
orchids
fungus.
production
is
encouraged in certain
of hypertrophied
570
When
the potato
was
first
introduced in France,
it
was
was
inferred that
new
fected the
when
From
not form.
of tubers
tural
may
medium
when
result
is
high.
However,
not appear
It
must be present
for
in fungi
than
more concentrated
other plants,
it
cell
sap
is
From
usually present
enter.
It
has actually been found that cultures of Fusarium in macerated potato tuber preparations increase the concentration.
In this connection,
dryness of
soil
it is
may
the concentration of
History.
utilized
by
the Chilean
SOLANACEiE
571
There
is
Fig. 235.-
of
and
all
S. tuberosum
is
come
characterized and
(sharp-pointed).
its
and
differentiated
its floral
calyx which
is
from
all
characters, notably
always mucronate
572
plant
'
'
(potato)
to
correspond to these
characters.
Varieties.
variety
names
United States.
Many
of these
Usually,
new
varieties are
the
The
is
latest
that of Stuart.
vascular
ring
-eye
external
medulla
Fic. 236.
Diagrammatic section
of
potato tuber.
the groups.
The student
is
referred to Bull.
176, U.
S.
groups.
Periderm or
and 237)
skin.
2.
Cortex.
3.
Vascular ring.
SOLANACE^
4.
External medulla.
5.
Internal medulla.
573
According to Coudon and Boussard, these zones (excepting vascular ring) are proportioned (by volume) as follows:
Per cent.
8.79
36.19
.34-17
..
14-95
-peridefm
outer
cortex
jnrter
cortex
Fig. 237.
of cortex of
For consideration
lows:
1.
Periderm or
2.
Vascular ring.
3.
Parenchyma.
(a)
(b)
skin.
Cortex.
1.
External.
2.
Internal.
Medulla.
1.
External.
2.
Internal.
574
Periderm or Sfcin.^The
stolon,
tuber,
a thin
It has
epidermis,
fibro-
As the tuber
undergo
disappears
entirely.
these
layers
These outer
corky
layers
most
cells
outer-
off,
The
of
The
cells of
the different
The number
of layers
to as
many
(skin)
becomes
Some
is
claim
eyes, the
made
the case.
periderm
thicker.
is
At the
is
not always
varieties as they
rough-skinned potato
type of netting
is
is
in storage,
of superior quaUty.
The
size
and
SOLANACE^
Vascular Ring.
The
At
is
The
It
and medulla.
575
tissue,
between cortex
becomes thinner
i.e.,
The vascular
The vascular
poor in starch.
ring
is
easily recog-
Parenchyma.
Almost the
mass
entire
parenchyma, and
will
The parenchyma
cortex,
is
is
Cortex.
The
cortical
The
layer
of the
It is separated
outer cortex
The
is
parenchyma
made up
cells of
is
just
ably smaller than those of the medulla, and hence the density
of the cortex is greater.
is
The
cortex
probably due to
is
its
greater density.
576
The
Maiiy
internal medulla
usually
is
more
or less star-shaped.
medulla penetrate
is
radiations, while in
very
much
many round
As a
less
intermixed,
long potatoes,
rule, in
it is
typically star-
shaped.
The
more
its
and hence
less
New
varieties based
Color.
red, violet, of
diilerent
shades,
known.
cases.
In propagation by cuttings,
Yellow tubers have given red and violet ones, a white tuber
has given two red and two white tubers, and one with a
bluish color has given a series white in color.
The
Pearl
SOLAN ACK^
577
markets.
Yellow
flesh is correlated
to be of
making
Eyes
of salads
and
for frying.
The
(Fig.. 236).-
Such a group
area.
depression
is
of
buds
is
called
the
"eye."
The
when the tuber was yoiuig, but later disappears. The "eye
brow" ("eye yoke") is the line above the depression the
a simple shoot.
The
central
bud
in the
"eye"
is
commonly
tubers.
In the
latter,
it
is
same time spirally on the tuber. Beginning at one end of a tuber and proceeding toward the
other end, at the same time turning the tuber, usually enables
alternately
and
at the
The
tuber
is
578
is spoken of as
vary in different varieties from very deep to level with the
minal eye
surface;
smooth potatoes.
as a result, decay
are stored.
invited
is
Smooth
varie-
is
smooth
The number
and
and
color.
in Early Ohio,
N^w
from
Yorker,
7 to 22.
it
same
ranges from 7 to
The number
of eyes
(in-
of the
Potatoes
some changes
in storage.
Not
undergo
When
sprout-
cells of
In
general,
cellular
much
potato
density
Cellular density
their
The
is
an
SOLANACE^
579
varieties,
it
is
is
the
more
intact
number
of the cells
rich,
In France,
it
fewer starch
compact
cellular
remain
(heavy)
soils
small
of analyses
in Europe.
in the follow-
ing table:
Source
No. of
analyses
No. of
varieties
Protein
Starch
Quality
Very good.
Very good.
Cornell
43
1.899
Maine
l6
2.
170
17.356
18.037
136
2.
200
18.400
U.
S. all
sources
France
Coudon
Coudon
Coudon
Coudon
and
and
and
and
Boussard.
2.676
11.798
Very good.
Boussard.
2.
411
Passable.
Poor.
Boussard
Boussard.
2-365
13.218
14. 118
12
2.090
16.047
Good.
The
from East:
is
S8o
Zone
Variety
Carman No.
Total N,
fresh basis,
per cent.
Total N.
dry
basis,
per cent.
20
20.9s
18.46
0.46
2.
Outer Med.
Inner Med.
0.47
2.56
14.04
0.4s
Cortical
22 20
Outer Med.
Inner Med.
19.41
0.49
0.51
0.52
Cortical
Rural
Yorker.
New
No.
Dry
matter,
per cent.
14.92
23
2.63
3-49
This table shows that the dry matter decreases from the
The
nitrogen content
center, although
larity of percentage,
content.
amount
The inner
cells of
much
larger
nal medulla.
The outer
cells of
cells of
the inter-
removed
content.
and the
size of the
tuber or
its total
starch
small grains.
Starch-grain formation
is
very slow.
At
first,
many
size.
This increase in
size
begins
much
sooner in early
581
SOLANACEjE
This sugar
cent.
in the
is lost
in starch-making,
but
is
utilized
manufacture of alcohol.
"Mealiness."
of potatoes,
this
deficiency
of
contents
starch,
as
is
ness results.
vary
Quality of Potatoes.
The
seem
to be
The more
For
this purpose, a
commonly cooked by
In
its
S82
form, and
is,
as a result,
more or
less
is
These characteristics are usually found in potatoes which are low in starch and high in protein. In the
United States, on the other hand, where probably nine-tenths
preferred.
tato which
is
is
demanded
for
table use.
In general,
considered that
it is
and containing as large an amount as possible of corand outer medullary layers in proportion to inner med-
Degree
gen
is
starch
of Maturity
States have
stored
grains of
common
observation.
in desirabiUty
with maturity.
varieties are
of potatoes
put on the
districts
do not
on the
plains, at
an altitude of 4,600
feet,
the sexual
opinion
is
At
On
is
is
no
be-
SOLANACEiE
lieved to be the result of "factors
development
of the plants
583
known
He
may
The
leaf-roll,
The nature
of spindling-
is
not
this
well
is
another question.
It
may
be
abundance
of
diastase
at
Investi-
gators express the view that "where suitable sorts are used,
Hence
and climate."
to degenerate
is
it
all
may
favorable conditions of
by environmental
It
is
grown
soil
sorts
be
re1
50
is still
there.
Environmental Relations.^
high, cool regions of
United States
it
The
potato
is
a native of the
In the
five leading
is
potato States
584
It is well
adapted to elevation
over 7oF.
The plant
latter are
Fig. 238.
Percentage
human
have been
fed, in
produced in the
especially hogs.
Germany,
They
In the dried
to cattle
are fed to
state,
they
results.
Potato Starch.
The
potatoes are
first
SOLANACE^
585
and
finally dried.
starch manufacture.
Alcohol.
alcohol manufacture.
The process
alcohol
is
is
In this country,
it is
too expensive
Production of Potatoes.
many produced
of the total.
of
was 5,872,953,000
in 1912
bushels.
Of
this
of potatoes
amount, Ger-
925,775,000
France
third
with
552,074,000
bushels,
SOLANUM MELONGENA
scurfy,
Guinea Squash)
Description.
herb, finally
(Eggplant,
and spiny.
The
The
is
586
The fruit
plant
is
and varying
a native of India.
high temperatures.
They
is
a berry, 3 to 6 inches
Egg-
They
Fig. 239.
A, mature
fruit;
B, leaves; C,
single flower.
Types and
Varieties.
Bailey
The
plants are
tall
and
(Common
Eggplant).
and
thick,
and
There are
forms in
New York
this
fruit
(Black Pekin,
solanaCe^
587
plants are
and
3.
medium
to
tall,
The
slender.
5. melongena var. depressum
The
the
Dwarf
LYCOPERSICUM
Habit of Growth, and Stems.
to
medium, pear-
Purple).
(Tomato)
The
and methods
(L.
of culture.
growth form.
species, climate,
stiff,
is
erect
tall sort
with a few
pimpinellijolium)
growth.
The
Roots.
extensive.
It
is
and not
and is
fibrous
soil
usually short-lived.
it is
they are
reset.
the fine,
tender
fact, the new set of roots possesses greater vigor than those
on a seedling that has not been allowed to wilt; in the latter
case the roots are not injured beyond recovery, and it ap-
588
new
ones.
Leaves.
The
toothed or lobed.
is
The
and Flowers.
Inflorescence
commonly
flowers are
branched at the
The
pendant.
The
tip.
calyx
is five-
and
development
of the fruit.
is
five,
short.
There are
five
stamens (some-
There
is
is
one
pistil
usually two-celled
and Development
of the Fruit.
by
the anthers.
In some instances, this elongation occurs prior to the dehiscing of the anthers, hence eliminating the possibility of selfpollination.
the stigma
it
is
However,
Stigmas
it is
known
that greenhouse tomatoes do not set fruit well unless artificially pollinated, as is
commonly done by
seldom occurs.
Natural cross-polUnation
SOLANACEjE
Extensive experiments
made by
589
blossoms set
self-fertilized
Further-
This phenomenon
Parthenocarpy.
in
By
tomatoes.
without the
this is
fertilization
is
not at
all
the
ovules.
uncommon
of the
Such
fruit
fruits,
of
no germinative seeds.
Abnonnal Tomatoes. Munson has found, in crossing
tomatoes, that the amount of pollen placed on the stigmas
affects the size of the fruit.
Two stigmas -in the same flower
cluster were given different amoimts of pollen: one abundant pollen, the other 10 to 20 grains. With plenty of
course, possess
pollen,
of pollen.
numerous and
small.
590
Geographical.
South America.
number
is
reduced, however,
by some
writers.
There
is
a difference of
Fig. 240.
Cross-section
of
mature
fruit of cultivated
tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum)
L. esculentum
is,
2.
3.
4.
5.
L. pimpinellifolium
Tracy regards as
is
not subdivided.
distinct species: L.
On
plum tomato.
pimpinellifolium, L.
SOLANACE^
591
mduding under
may
tomatoes
of
all
be
distin-
artificially
are understood.
Key to Types
of Cultivated Tomatoes
Plants low,
stiff,
and
Plants
taller,
having
erect,
U pright
much
tomato.
Leaves very
large,
of
almost entire-margined
leaflets,
Large-lea} tomato.
Leaves
of
medium
size,
numerous
to ^^ inch in diameter,
J-^
Fruit varying
somewhat
and
in shape, surface,
preceding, many-celled.
Common
(var. vulgare)
fruit,
than
placenta, and in
color, larger
garden tomato.
As compared
on the
distinct grooves
and placenta are thick and fleshy, and the fruit surface
smooth. There are three general groups of the common
tomato: fruit angular, fruit apple-shaped, and fruit oblong.
walls
(var. cerasiforme)
fruit.
(var.
its
growth habit.
The
large-leaf
tomato
592
(var. grandifolium)
type,
is
of
{Fhy^alis pubescens)
and the
The
or
making
The
raw.
tomato (Cypkomandra
tree
may be
fruit is
common
tomato.
by
its
woody
habit of growth.
History.
The
tomato
is
still
The Spanish
South America.
it
was used
it was
was early known
It
in
A prejudice
alliance
Now, however,
it
is
there are as
many
by
and
seeds-
men.
Uses.
a table vegetable.
Such
varieties as
CAPSICUM ANNUUM
Description.
This
herb, 2 to 5 feet
tall,
species
is
either
an annual or bieimial
(Peppers)
warmer climates
it is
is
cultivated as an annual,
often biennial.
The
leaves are
SOLAN ACEjE
The
The
twos or threes.
593
calyx
is five-Iobecl,
are
solitary, or
truncate, obcon-
cup-shaped or funnel-
ical,
The
form.
with
corolla is white,
usually
rotate,
five-lobed,
^corolla lobei
valvate.
lobes
the
-'Siamen
-cahx
2- celled
lobe
ovary
the
anthers
bluish
longitudinally.
usually
The
two-celled,
dehisce
ovary
is
rarely
and bears a
thread-Uke style, and numer-
three-celled,
ous ovules.
242)
is
many
Fig. 242.
38
fruit (Fig.
annuum).
2.
in color,
are
The
longitudinal
241.
Median
Fig.
section of pepper flower (Capsicum
and short
There
Cross
of the fruit of
pepper (Capsicum
594
Geographical.
Fig. 243.
Fruits
of
peppers
Capsicum had
(Capsicum
its
But
quite well
it is
annuum).
A,
Oxheart
(C.
annuum cerasif orme) B, Cherry (C. annuum cerasif era) C, Celestial (C. annuum abbreviatum) Z>, Chilli (C. annuum acuminatum); E, Long Cayenne
(C. annuum acuminatum); F, Long Yellow (C. annuum longum); G, tabasca
(C. annuum conoides); H, Sweet Spanish (C. annuum grossum) /, Ruby
King (C. annuum grossum); J. Bell (C. annuum grossum); K, Squash (C.
annuum grossum). {After Irish.)
;
';
is
SOLANACE^
produce a full crop before
under glass.
Other Species.
This
C. frutescens.
frost,
is
595
of
Capsicum
of
any importance
The
is
and
is
often
Tjrpes.
Irish,
in his excellent
monograph
genus
of the
Key
Annuum
Fruit oblong-linear.
annuum
C.
i J-^
conoides
fruit.
(Coral
Cluster).
Kaleidoscope,
Red Wrinkled,
annuum abbreviatum
(Celestial,
inches in
(Little
Gem, Cherry,
Composition.
pungent.
varieties of
principle
peppers
to ij^
on the base, C. annuum cerasiforme
Oxheart).
All
The
Etna,
Princess of Wales).
(Coral
Gem, Tabasco,
Chilli,
In the
Cayenne
596
is
is
Medicinally,
"mild."
is
is
Sweet
most part
Bell,
used in a great
Pepper sauce
is
strong vinegar.
examples of
finely
this.
ChilU con carne is a mixture of small,
ground peppers and meat. Peppers are commonly
and squash
such as Little
Gem
and Prince
mangoes.
of Wales, are
Some
varieties,
grown
for orna-
mental purposes.
NICOTIANA
(Tobacco)
Habit'
herbs.
They
tall,
stout
is
half-shrubby.
most part
poisonous properties.
Leaves.
entire or
sessile
and decurrent.
Inflorescence
raceme or
The
calyx
the
fruit.
lobed,
is
The
is
There are
five
SOLAN ACE^
597
split lengthwise.
The
two-celled ovary
The
fruit
is
numerous
it splits
into
N. tabacum (tobacco)
poses.
cial
is
commer-
importance.
NICOTIANA TABACUM
(Tobacco)
common
The
tobacco
is
a strong
to flower
damaged by
tobacco
There
Leaves."
ture,
growth.
their
of
is
and number
leaves are
is
of leaves.
thin, fine
in texture,
and small-veined.
The
is
598
same
In
type.
the
in the
Zimmer Spanish
cigar-filler
tobacco
The
There
transpiration.
is
is
is
"Grain"
of tobacco appears
The
leaf.
papillae
vary
in size
from about
microscopic dimensions.
one to several
filled
The
grain
is
leaf
cells
composed
millimeter to
consists of from
with crystaUine substance.
Grain of tobacco
combination with
is
citric
buyer
its
Pollination
is
taries
Hence, cross-pollination
Moreover, observations
self-fertile
that
SOLANACE^
That the tobacco plant
cence.
599
in all probability,
is,
natu-
rally close-fertilized, is
borne out by the fact that self-fertilization (inbreeding) under control has not resulted in a loss
of vigor.
Fig. 244.
Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). A, flower; B, pistil; C, corolla
cut open and spread out flat; D, cross-section of young fruit; E, lengthwise
section of
Fruit.
sule,
young
(After Strasburger.)
fruit.
The fruit
(Fig. 244) is a
produce as
many
Geographical.
varieties are
climates.
This species
now
single plant
may
as a million seeds.
is
in cultivation
It occasionally escapes
in the
humid
wild.
It is
"
6oO
tobacco "
is
and Oregon.
N.
"Australian
"Indian
or "wild tobacco"
is
name
Types and
There
Varieties.
Common
fillers.
The
made
into cigar
and
of
much
fine texture.
On
soils
produce
Composition.
is
a heavy feeder.
It
6oi
SOLANACEiE
Wood
fires
and charcoal
fires
replaced charcoal
fires
flues,
bright yellow
it is
in
Flue-curing produces a
1865.
tint is obtained
The dark
fully ripe.
Flue-curing entirely
into use.
The green
leaf.
came
by harvesting
Light tobaccos
fires.
may
be
mahogany tobaccos
about four days.
are cured
by
The broad
flues.
leaf
They
are
often carried on
in
Curing
is
It
time
if
artificial
heat
is
used.
shorter
period
of drying
than
is
method, by placing the leaves in piles in a warm, moist atmosphere. When the temperature reaches 125 to i3oF.,
the piles are opened and heaped up again. The piles are
6o2
number
nicotin,
nitrate, a loss of
or of bacterial activity, or
The Tobacco
Industry.
is
From
colonial
It is
1732 in
was used
for the
"payment
In 1777 the tax levy for the county and city of Baltimore was
172 pounds of tobacco per poll.
Maryland were long the only tobacco-producing States. The industry has now spread to other States,
and the production in 1915 is shown in the following table
Virginia and
State
Kentucky
North Carolina
Virginia
'
Ohio
I
Tennessee
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Wisconsin
Connecticut.
Maryland
All other States
United States
'
'
440,000
320,000
192,500
93,700
92,900
31,400
65,000
41 ,000
22,200
22,000
47,700
1,368,400
sgirjl
6o4
The United
States leads
all
tion of
tobacco.
of
306-31S, 1911.
Barnes, J.: The Potato (Solanum Tuberosum): Its History, Microscopical
Characters, and Structure.
194.
Bull. 230:
of Solanacese.
106, 1890.
to
s.,
Bau und
die
SOLANACE^
Magrou, H.: Symbiosis and
605
Tuberization in Potato.
L.,
and
Its Allies.
Jour.
Reed, T.: The Anatomy of Some Tubers. Ann. Bot., 24: 537-548, 1910
(Potato and Jerusalem artichoke).
Rendle, a. B.; Production of Tubers within the Potato. Jour. Bot., 31:
193-19S, 1893-
Rigdway, Charles
7:
S.:
269-288, igi6.
CHAPTER XXXIX
CUCURBITACEiE (Gourd
Faimly)
All
and are
warm
season crops.
Chief of
cucumber.
by
cultivated
distinctly
(Echinocystis lobata)
and
and
The
as ornamental vines.
elaterium)
is
cucumber {Ecballium
and poison-
squirting
Habit.
The members
as "cucurbits."
The majority
of
them
commonly known
stiff
The
hairs.
The
may be
axis
dextrorse
and
The same
The
ten-
Flowers.
The
They
The
its
606
commonly white
limb
is
or
is
tubular or campanu-
CUCUKBIXACEiE
late,
five
imbricated lobes.
607
The
corolla is five-
Fig. 246.
A, staminate flower; B,
pistil-
late flower.
them
In case there
the two broad stamens have two-celled anthers, the other has
a one-celled anther, thus
andrcecium.
The
making
and
6o8
The
fruit
is
is
The
is
some
pumpkin (Cucurbita
bursting
irregularly.
In
many
instances
(watermelon,
fruit is of
CUCUEBITACEiE
Fig. Z48.
Cross-section
Fig. 249.
of
Germination
mature
of
fruit
pumpkin
of
cucumber (Cucumis
(Big
,3Q
609
Tom)
sativus).
6lO
cndocarp.
flat,
and without
endosperm.
the
all
The
common members
cotyledons are
of the Cucurbitaceae.
what
and although
it
varies some-
The peg
Key to
Principal Geneka
CTJCURBITA
Members
of
this
genus are
marked
The tendency is
The
The
The
yellow,
and monoecious.
CUCURBITACE^
6ll
while the pistillate flowers occur near the base of the plant
The
may
be
smooth
(as in C.
maxima)
stamens
is
rudimentary.
In the
pistillate
are
rudimentary
(three
staminodia
commonly
many-
more staminate
Pollination
and
Fertilization.
many
pistillate.
It has
Scallop,
common Crookneck,
and the common field
another.
the varieties of
fertilized.
Mature
Fruit.
The
mature
fruit
is
a pepo.
In the
6l2
Fig. 2S0.
Geograpliical.
ical
Key
Fig. 251.
(After Bailey.)
cucuebitacejE
613
cucurbita pepo
Description.
This
an annual
is
species,
three-
much
is
kin.
it
It
The
The fruit
varies
fruit.
and shape.
There
is
considered
is
in size
Origin.
The calyx
five-lobed.
to
peduncle
by some
pump-
American origin, as
the time America was
to be of
discovered.
home
is
southern Asia.
Types and
Varieties.
ing groups
Mammoth
Soma
are
common
field
and
varieties).
is
solid
is
much
and
smooth and
of various
Plants with slender, running stems; leaves lobed; fruit small, hard, not edible,
of various shapes, Gourds (in part) (C. pepo var. ovifera).
Not
all
"gourds" belong
Benincasa
cerifera.
BOTANY OF
6l4
CROl"
PLANTS
CUCURBITA MAXIMA
Description.
The
This
not ribbed.
The
is
and hairy
not lobed, except on young shoots.
somewhat
cylindrical,
corolla tube
it
The
calyx tube
is
is
The
and
The
not ridged.
i.e.,
steins.
not
is
much
fruit.
are as follows
1.
Turban Squashes.
The
turban or "Turk's-cap."
fruit
This
is
due
and
Hubbard
Squashes.
These
the
are
They
most
popular
Hubbard (Red
of
or Golden
is
the best
known
CUCURBITACE^
5.
Some
diameter of
to 2 feet
Squashes.
Mammoth
These
are
the
(Mammoth Whale
varieties
and a weight
615
pumpkin) attain a
CUCURBITA MOSCHATA
Description.
This
is
and
there.
It
is
The
due
to a
The
lobed.
corolla
it
is
necked.
CUCUMIS
All
of our
common
The
or dissected.
some
The flowers
varieties of
The
species are
tendrils are
are monoecious.
Rane
finds that
flowers.
For
6i6
flowers,
The
The
tary.
calyx tube
limb five-lobed.
The
is
corolla
is
campanulate, deeply
Fig. 252.
Leaves
of
is
The
its
five-
ovary
soli-
The
rudimentary.
is single and
number, and the ovules
numerous.
The
face characters,
Pollination.
tion
and
Griffin gives
sur-
He kepfan
account of
'
'
CUCUKBITACE^
number
617
of flowers
Number
Date
Staminate
of flowers
Pistillate
June 27
June 30
203
338
II
July
474
28
July
7SS
July 10
660
95
87
July 13
64s
31
Total
3,o7S
253
512
42
Here, melons
tained.
middle of August;
Twenty
it
may
is
earlier
than the
insects.
pistillate ones.
In all Cucumis
more numerous and appear
Pollination is carried on by
a good crop.
dropping of the
misshapen
fruit,
and incomplete
fertilization results in
fruit.
Geographical.
There are
close to
Key
to Principal, Species
Stems (cultivated) 6
Cucumis
sativus (cucumber).
6l8
CUCUMIS MELO
Description.
This
is
varies in shape
and
Cucumis melo
is
size.
divided into a
number
fertilized
by each
other.
The
principal
common muskmelons.
To
this
All of
may
them
are
be green- or
Gem,
Rust Resistant Pollock, Ironclad, Montreal Nutmeg, Cosmopolitan, Ryan's Early Watters). The so-called "Rocky
Ford Cantaloupes" are not true cantaloupes; the "Rocky
Fords" include a number of varieties (chiefly Rust Resistant
Pollock No. 25, Netted Gem), all of which are netted melons
(var. reticulatus).
2.
lupensis).
The
salmon-tinted
or
(Hackepsack,
Yellow).
3.
common
netted melons.
Snake Melon
flexuosus).
The
or
They
are ob-
flesh.
CUCUKBITACE^
and thickest at the distal end.
reaches a length of 3 feet, and a diameter of i to 3
twisted, furrowed,
619
It often
inches.
Little
620
Orange Melon,
Used
8.
in
making
Of no
chito)
preserves.
CUCUMIS SATIVUS
Description.
This
is
Inedible.
(Cucumber)
somewhat
The leaves are subcordate, almost as wide as
long, and somewhat five-lobed.
The corolla is yellow.
There is a general impression that the cucumber can be
crossed with the melon. Experiments have shown that this
crossing is impossible.
The fruit is oblong, obscurely threeangled, tuberculate when young, but often becoming smooth
branching.
(in cultivated
Geographical.
years.
forms) at maturity.
Cucumbers
They were
first
cultivated in Asia.
The
growing wild.
of
"cucum-
may
bers" which
common
West
much
common practice to use young cucumThe musk cucumber is also a melon. The
It is a
621
CUCUEBITACEjE
cucumber
star
fruit is
There
{Cucumis
sativus)
(i)
Common
field
cucumbers;
English
(2)
cucumber
is
The
fruit.
fruit
of
the
Common
varieties
kim cucumber
fruit is large
yellow.
Pickles.
The
is
an
The
pickle industry
is
is
the vine.
The
peculiar
622
and
black
also,
sometimes, a spice
pepper,
vinegar
is
added
coriander
seed,
CUCUMIS ANGURIA
Description.
This
is
(Gherkin)
an annual,
creeping,
branching
plant.
percentage of the
fruit.
Small cucumbers
(C
of C.
CITRULLUS
Description.
Citrullus
solitary.
In the staminate flowers, the calyx has a broad
campanulate tube and a five-lobed limb, and the corolla is
five-parted to below the middle; there are three stamens with
subsessile anthers, one of which is one-loculed, the other
two, two-loculed.
In the
pistillate flowers,
is
short,
ovoid with
stigmas,
in
The ovary
CUCURBITACE^
623
CITRULLUS VULGARIS
Description.
The
(Watennelon, Citron)
watermelon
is
angular,
pounds.
Geographical.
It has
The watermelon
is
Types and
may
1.
The varieties
Watermelon. Flesh
Varieties.
of Citrullus vulgaris
Common
of
fruit
comparatively
Citron.
Flesh
feels
much more
As compared with
solid.
The citron
The
It
is
is
not
added
in
them produce
pectin in the
which causes
jelly.
cell
The
walls.
by themselves to make
amount of
This
is
624
The
citron
is
Rane
divides
the
varieties
of
(Light Icings
Early, Jackson);
Cannon
(3)
Ball)
dark
;
(4)
Triumph); and
(6)
CoRBETT, L. C: Cucumbers.
U.
S.
1906.
S.,
and Robert E.
The Peg
of the Cucurbitaceae.
Pammel,
Bull.
1893.
Rane,
F.
W.
Fertilization of the
la.
Muskmelon.
Sci..
150-151, 1898.
II. Classification of
1901.
Watermelons.
CHAPTER XL
COMPOSITiE
The composite
(Thistle Family)
or thistle family
is
760 genera;
it
among
among
is
a short
of the family:
wormwood
yarrow
salsify,
and dandelion.
(Achillea),
(Sonchus), Dahlia,
number
The
list
have a milky
made up mostly
is
of herbaceous
of shrubs, however,
Many
of
flea-
Spanish needles
and a few
sap
is
watery,
The
Leaves.^
leaves
are
either
625
alternate
or
opposite,
stipules.
626
Inflorescence.
The
"sun-
but a
receptacle which
flower"
is
not
A) is a head,
mounted on a common
subtended by an involucre.
The
receptacle
wiers
bracts
recepiacie
ovary wall
<vule
Fig. 254.
Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus). A, lengthwise
section of head. X i B, ray flower, X 6; C, disk flower, cut lengthwise, X 6.
(A after Baillon.)
;
surface
is
vary widely
broad and
leaf -like;
The
recep-
in shape,
The
involu-
series.
COMPOSITE
Flowers.
The
may
flowers
627
be
monoecious or dioecious.
polygamous,
perfect,
sorts of flowers in
(2)
ray or
ligulate.
Disk Flowers (Fig. 254, C). These are perfect and regular
and make up the so-called disk of the composite "flower."
For example, the disk of the "sunflower" is the center. The
calyx is modified, taking the form of a few or large number of
bristles, awns, scales or teeth; this modified calyx is termed
a pappus.
is
entirely wanting.
The
It
is
is
to the corolla
The
five
corolla
its lobes;
The anthers
are often
appendaged at
a single
and a
pistil,
an
single style
cleft at
inferior one-celled
which
is
There
appendages.
Ray
These are
usually
They have a pappus and a strapshaped corolla with either a long or short tube.
imperfect and irregular.
and
is
Tubuliflorce.
The
members
aster,
and goldenrod
In the
LiguliflorcB,
and
consist of five
stamens with
may
628
be present or wanting.
disk
and
receptacle,
ray
.or
and are
very frequently
fruit (achene) is
The pappus
is
one-seeded and
means
by the
of dissemination
wind.
Key
to Important Genera
into a crown,
Cichorium (chicory).
Carduus
tip;
heads
(thistle).
Anthers not tailed at the base; flowers tubular only, or tubular and ligulate.
Receptacle naked.
Ray
Ray
series, Asler.
series,
Erigeron (fleabane).
Receptacle chaffy.
Bracts of involucre foliaceous, Helianthus (Jerusalem artichoke and
sunflower).
Ray
Ray
and wormwood).
COMPOSITE
LACTUCA SATIVA
Description.
Common
629
(Garden Lettuce)
garden lettuce
There
is
is
tall,
annual
thrown up from
Tracy found
Fig. 255.
that, at
Washington, D. C, the
Asparagus
Emperor Forcing)
first
is
sent up.
appearance
(After CorbeU.)
The
(in
leaves
panicle.
The
smaller.
The
inflorescence
is
naked.
The
The
is flat and
and five-toothed at
receptacle
630
The anthers
the end.
The
Fig. 256.
Cutting
of soft,
achenes
on each
face,
style
oblong,
or contracted into a
The
or
narrowed above
or cut-leafed lettuce,
var.
intybacea.
capillary,
(After Corbell.)
bristles.
yellowish,
The
or
brownish.
Origin,
by
and Geographical.
It
is
species, L. scariola.
is
originated
COMPOSITE
wild in Europe, Canary
Isles,
631
also
become naturalized
in the
632
Types
of Lettuce.
cultivated
tinguished
lettuce
by
Four
are
recognized.
These
may
be
dis-
Key to Types
of Lettuce
COMPOSITE
633
tip.
leaved lettuce).
stiff
and
flat,
flattish
Jtule
branches
anther tube
Corolla
pappus
ovary
Fig. 260.
Tracy
classifies
olius)
2H-
TRAGOPOGON PORRIFOLIUS
Description.
fleshy root.
Salsify
The
diameter of about
The
roots
2
is
(Salsify or
"Oyster Plant")
are about
12
is
grayish
634
is
are purple
close
by noon.
and open,
The
in-
linear-lanceolate,
of the flowers.
FiG. 261.
The heads
The corollas
Salsify (Tragopogon
after
porrifolius).
Headin
fruit; receptacle
is
COMPOSITE
635
in this
country in
escape
from
and waste
fields
cultivation.
The Spanish
distributed here.
places,
is
salsify
has a root
The species
widely distributed
probably as an
yellow-flowered
pratensis),
common
It is quite
differs
also
or
salsify
{T.
quite widely
Spanish oyster
from
The
member
of the
somewhat the
"oyster plant."
and
They
as a relish.
CICHORIUM
Description.
herbs.
ones
common name,
The
and
small
peduncled or
bract-like.
of this
The heads
are
large,
and
The
fringed with
small hairs.
five-toothed
five-ribbed,
of a
number
of short scales.
Geographical.
The
of
636
CICHORIUM mXYBUS
Description (Fig. 262).
This
(Chicory or Succory)
is
and auricled
at the
The heads
base.
The
species
is
The
are axillary.
a native of Europe.
It is
introduced into
Nova
Scotia
Such
Common
"Barbe de Capuchin."
CICHORIUM ENDIVA
Description.
numerous
Endive
or pinnatifid;
some
of the
most
it
is
slightly hirsute.
The achenes
an
(Endive)
much
in character;
they
is
is
Witloof chicory
hollow,
The stem
terete,
The flowers
are angular
desirable varieties
The upper
have the
and ribbed.
COMPOSITE
Fig. 262.
637
A,
i;
4; C,
open
flower, face
638
a native of India.
It
is
Endive
Fig. 263.
Tubers
of
{After
Vilmorin.)
COMPOSIT^E
HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS
639
(Jerusalem Artichoke)
Description.
arising
(Fig.
feet;
The leaves
The
Tubular
(disk)
flowers.
Geographical.
(also called
is found
from New Brunswick and Ontario to Georgia and Arkansas, west and north
to Canada.
It is grown as a crop more in Europe than in America.
is
The
Jerusalem artichoke
is
its
is
used as a vegetable.
its large,
Uses.
The
Hogs
the field and permitted to root the tubers from the ground.
References
of Lettuce.
U.
S.
GLOSSARY
Situated the
Imperfectly formed rudimentary.
Acaulescenl. Without an obvious stem.
Accumbent (cotyledons). Their edges against the hypocotyl.
Achene (akene). A
which the
indehiscent
and pericarp are not firmly attached.
(above).
Developing from the outside (below) toward the
Actinomorphic. Regular, ray-shaped; said
can be
a flower when
divided into symmetrical halves by
planes.
Acuminate. Taper-pointed.
Acute. Merely sharp-pointed, or ending
than a
a point
Adnate. Grown
appUed
the growing together
unlike
applied
Out the ordinary
buds or
The arrangement parts the bud.
onions and
With odor and
Abaxile.
axis.
ofiF
Abortive.
or
fruit In
one-celled, dry,
Acropetal.
testa
inside
of
it
radial
in
fast to;
Adventitious.
of
place, as
of
Aestivation.
of
Alliaceous.
taste of
right angle.
less
to
to
parts.
roots.
in
garlic.
One
the nodes.
hilum.
Andrcecium.
The stamens
Produces
collectively.
Annual
(plant).
and then
flowers, fruit,
dies.
Apical. At the
or apex.
which the carpels are separate.
Apocarpy. Condition
tip
in
Jointed.
Ear-like structure.
Auriculate. Eared; furnished with
which pollen
Autogamy. Pollination
the same
the stigma
Awn.
or beard.
A rliculated.
Auricle.
ear-like appendages.
in
of
flower.
Bristle-like structure,
641
is
642
a.xil.
to
base.
to
fleshy
fleshy fruit,
therein,
etc.
seed,
first
fruiting,
in
(leaf).
of
leaf.
whitish,
Bracteclale.
cells.
of
scale-like leaf,
foliage leaves.
bractlets.
Bractecle.
bract.
Bulbils.
as in garlic.
Bulblets.
as in tree
in
so as to
seed).
in
Capitate.
like
Caprification.
of
artificial
figs.
fruit of
carpels.
or
to
of
fruit
of
fruit
in
closely
of flowers.
tail-like
Caulijlorus.
flowers, as in figs.
to
to
Ciliate.
hairs.
leaf-like
stalk-like
petals.
of
or
Cleft.
line.
in grasses.
Coleoptile.
^A
root.
of
Umbelliferje.
carpels, as in
fruit of
GLOSSARY
643
Folded lengthwise.
Overlapping or brought close together.
Convergent. Margins touching.
Convolute. Rolled lengthwise.
Conduplicalc.
Connivem.
Heart-shaped.
Horny.
Corm. The swollen,
a stem.
and
base
Bark region, from epidermis to endodermis.
Corymb. An indeterminate type
flat-topped.
inflorescence that
Corymbose. Corymb-like.
Crenaie. Margins with rounded
Crenulate. With very small rounded teeth; diminutive of crenate.
Culm. The hollow stem
grasses and sedges.
A thin covering a waxy substance called cutin on the outer
wall
epidermal
Cyme. A determinate type
in which the
flowers to
open are those toward the
Cymose. Cyme-like, or bearing cymes.
Decompound. Several times compound or divided, as
leaves
carrot.
Decumbent. More or
prostrate, but with the
ascending.
Decurrent
Exfending down the stem below the point insertion.
Dehiscence. The opening
a
or anther.
Dehiscent. Splitting open.
Dentate. Sharp-toothed; teeth directed forward.
Denticulate. Diminutive
dentate; furnished with very small sharp teeth.
Diadelphous (stamens). United into two
as
many legumes.
Diaphragm. A dividing partition.
Dichogamy. A condition in which stamens and
do not mature
simultaneously.
separate
Diclinism. Stamens and
dioecious and
monoecious plants.
The spreading segments the
from palm
hand.
Dilated. Expanded.
two distinct forms, as
flowers of buckDimorphism. The occurrence
wheat.
Dioecious. Bearing staminate and
flowers on different individual
plants.
Dissected. Divided into many lobes or segments.
Distichous. Two-ranked, as the leaves
grasses.
Divergent. Spreading apart.
Divided. Segmented to the midline, midvein, or base.
member turned away from the main
Dorsal. On the back; surface
Cordate.
Cornells.
of
solid
fleshy,
Cortex.
of
is
teeth.
of
Cuticle.
of
of
cells.
of inflorescence,
first
inside.
in
of
tips
less
of
(leaf).
of
fruit
of
sets,
in
pistils
pistils in
Digitate.
flowers, as
like
of
of
fingers
in
of
in
pistillate
of
of
axis.
644
which the
A one-seeded, fleshy
and exocarp
Drupelet. A small drupe, as in raspberry.
Oval, or the shape an
Emarginate. Notched at the apex.
Embryo.Young plant within the seed.
pericarp (ovary
Endocarp. Inner wall
Endosperm. The stored food supply
a seed.
Drupe.
mesocarp
fruit in
endocarp
is
stony, the
skin-like.
fleshy,
of
Elliptic.
ellipse.
wall).
of
in
and
leaves, petals,
sepals.
bract-like
in
or
inferior;
its tip.
leaf surface.
plant,
it
coats.
as
irregular
if
of light.
Etiolate.
of
wall).
parts.
stipules.
force their
in
to
of
leaf
Extrorse.
referring to
their
Shaped a scythe.
Bundle or
or seed; applied
Capable bearing
flowers with
or
anther with
A sexual process in which two
gametes
Fibrous.
usually
root system
many small threadFilament. Thread; stalk
stamen.
Filamentous. Thread-like.
Fimbriated. Fringed.
Foliaceous.
form and
A dry, dehiscent
with one carpel which
along the
ventral suture.
Funnelform. Funnel-shaped.
Geitonogamy. A method
pollination
which pollen taken from anther
Falcate.
like
Fascicle.
cluster.
of
Fertile.
to
to
fruit
pistils
pollen.
dissimilar
Fertilization.
referring to
Fiber-like,
fuse.
of
like roots.
of
^Leaf-like in
texture.
Follicle.
fruit
of
splits
in
on same plant.
is
GLOSSARY
645
Bent abruptly at an
the bent knee.
Smooth; without
Furnished with glands.
Glaucous. Covered with a
waxy-like covering (bloom)
Globe-shaped.
Globe-shaped.
Glume. General name
bract
grasses and sedges.
Geniculate.
angle, like
Glabrous.
Glandular.-
fine,
which rubs
off easily.
Globose.
Globular.
of
for floral
Cyncecium.
Head.
flowers
of inflorescence in
cluster,
in
in
(flowers).
pistils present.
Perfect,
of
as in
seed,
of
to its stalk.
stiff hairs.
time.
/ mbricaied
O verlappi ng.
into
lobes.
parts.
Indehiscent.
splitting
to
of
Inferior
parts.
Inflexed.
Inflorescence.
cluster.
layer.
in
to
leaf
referring to
Inlrorse.
inside of
their
flower.
Involucel.
involucels.
Involucellale.
Involucratc.
Involucre.
itic,
inflorescence, as in
series of
etc.
(flower)
of
of
series
dissimilar.
646
of
like
Laciniaie.
Plate.
in grasses.
of
Lenticular.
like
lens.
cell walls
Lignified.
lignin.
Ligulate.
Ligule.
of
Locule.
parallel.
Cell cavity.
each
of
split
cell.
in
Lyrate.
the
Lyre-shaped;
is
much
larger than
rest.
marrgin.
Median.
fruit of
wall).
of
of coleoptile
grain,
grasses.
coats.
sac;
in different inflorescences
pistillate
on same plant.
Mucronate.
Veins or
The point
Nerve.
Node.
Nucellus (megasporangium).
Nutlet.
Oh.
A small nut.
The ovule
Obcordate.
tip.
GLOSSARY
647
Egg-shaped
broader end at the
Ovoid. Egg-shaped.
Oblate.
Obovale.
at the tip.
in outline,
Obsolete.
entirely
OcretB.
stipules in
Orbicular.
circular in outline.
(ovule).
Straight;
at
micropyle at the
other.
Ovale.
Ovule.
base.
in outline;
fertilization.
flower.
of
Palmate.
like
leaflets
fingers
of
in oats.
inflorescence.
in
papillae.
Bristle-like,
tip
in
of large,
tissue
cells
intercellular
Parietal.
to
wall;
parietal.
to
in
fruit
fertili-
of
pedicel.
Pedicellate.
of
stalk,
of
in fives.
(flower).
(flower).
pistils;
to
Perianth.
floral
whorl
or whorls.
Perigynous. Calyx,
such that they appear on the
Perisperm. Nucellus.
Pda^otd.
The stalk a
Pericarp. The ovary
and endocarp.
corolla,
of
Petal-like.
Petiole.
leaf.
mesocarp,
648
Plumose. Plume- or
Plumule. The
bud
the young
Polyadelphous (stamens). Separate,
more than two groups.
Polygamo-dicecious. Bearing both perfect and imperfect flowers on the
same plant, with a tendency
become
Polygamous. Both perfect and imperfect flowers present on the same
plant.
becomes
the flower
Pome. A
which the receptacle
pear, and quince.
and surrounds the
Prehensile. Adapted
holding.
pollen before the
Prolandry. In which the anthers
a flower shed
stigmas are
anthers
Protogyny. In which the stigmas
a flower are receptive before
shed
Pubescence. Fine,
Pubescent. Covered with
Raceme. ^Indeterminate type
in which the pedicels are
Phloem.
of
in
is
Pileole.
see).
axis.
further.
of
cleft
pistils
Pistillate.
Plicate.
sides of
^Leaflets
(leaf).
Pinnatifid.
Plaited.
feather-like.
in
first
plant.
or in
dioecious.
to
enlarges,
of
fruit in
fleshy
carpels, as in apple,
for
their
of
receptive.
its
of
their pollen.
soft hairs.
of inflorescence,
Raceme-like.
The
a
Rachis. The
a
Radical. Seeming to come from the
Racemose.
Rachilla.
axis of
axis of
spikelet.
spike.
ground
root.
of
ligulate
of a
composite
head.
floral
(flower).
Reticulate.
Retrorse.
are attached;
GLOSSARY
649
Rotate.
places;
in
prostrate, slender,
as in
berry.
Saccate.
With a sac.
Shaped like an arrow-head, with the lobes turned downward.
Sagittate.
Saherform (sympetalous
Scabrous.
Rough.
corolla).
limb.
foliage
leaf
of
leafless
of
fruit,
split
of cells
thick,
fit
walls.
of
of
leaf, fruit
flower.
wall.
Serrate.
Sessile.
Sitting;
stalk.
in
of
grasses.
Silicle.
Silique.
to
silique,
it is
fruit
lobes.
of
cluster.
of
of
a.
of
pikelet.
sessile
rachis.
in
(flowers).
5/(J>i(j<iefl/. Pertaining to
staminodia,
i.e.,
650
of
Sterile.
Stipitate.
stipe.
Stipules.
of
petiole.
stipules.
easily
trailing
it
Stooling.
of
in
tillering.
Strobile.
pistillate
Stylar.
of
also
of
to style.
Style-foot.
of
fruit.
in
less
inferior
flower.
to,
Sticker.
(flower).
line
flower.
splitting.
fruit,
is
its
flowers.
is
Tassel.
Terete.
in
Tillering.
divisions.
of
in
hair.
hair.
of
flower.
Partially
Trifoliate.
leaflets,
if
Tubercidate.
tip.
tubercles
tuber-like.
Turbinate.
in clover.
off
projections.
GLOSSARY
Umbel.
arise
An
651
Umbellate. Vmhel-like.
of
Undulate.
Utricle.
fruit
in
of
their
Valves.
of
splits.
of
side;
axis.
of
in
Versatile
it
of
is
of
Viscid.
in
in
^Lateral
fruit.
of
in
of
Zygomorphy
(flower).
See Irregular.
circle
INDEX
Almond, 410
Abutilon, 506
hard-shelled, 411
Achillea, 625
oil,
Acrospire, 144
soft-shelled, 411
bitter,
figs,
411
411
sweet, 411
Aloe, 229
275
no
Alopecurus, 79
Alsike clover, 433, 434
Althaea, 506
millet, 213
ofi&cinalis,
507
rosea, 507
70, 75
Aino
Amarelles, 404
Amaryllidaceae, 281
Alae,
4:5
Agrostis, 81
American
Albumin, 105
Aleurone layer, 102
447
cranberry, 548
black currant, 319, 320
crabapple, 379
Alfalfa, 442
American, 447
Arabian, 447
Baltic,
alfalfa,
447
German, 447
Grimm, 447
Peruvian, 447
ivy, 492
laurel,
S43
plum, 397, 400, 401
sickle,
447
Turkestan, 447
variegated, 447
yellow-flowered, 447
Amygdalus
persica, 407
Algae, 62, 63
Amyris, 475
Andropogon, 87, 88
sorghum, 191
Allium, 23 r
halepensis, 197
Angelica, 532
Angiosperma;, 62
multiplicans, 241
Annuals, 21, 70
Antennaria, 625
653
INDEX
654
Asparagus,
Anther, 48, 49
laricinus, 244
Anthyllis, 429
lettuce, 632
Antipodals, 50
medeoloides, 246
Apium,
ofTicinalis, 244,
533, 538
rapaceum, 540
key to principal species
leptophyllum, 539
petroselinum, 539
Apple, 367
American
246
plumosus, 246
sprengeri, 246
of,
S39
Astragalus, 414
Atriplex, 296
hortensis, 299
crab, 379
Auricle, 78
Autogamy,
94
Autumn wood, 40
Avena,
88, 123
abyssinica, 130
algeriensis, 131
barbata, 131
black, 407
brevis, 130
common, 405
Japanese, 407
purple, 407
Siberian, 407
Arabian
447
Arachis, hypogoea, 462
Aragallus, 414
alfalfa,
sterilis,
131
wiestii, 131
Awns, 82
Azalea, 543
elatius, 75
Bagasse, 227
gums, 185
Artocarpus communis, 252
Arundinaria, 84
Ascomycetes, 64
Bambusae, 84
Banner, 414
Artificial
Asparagus, 244
bean, 422, 458
falcatus, 244
"fern" 246
Bamboo, 69
oats,
130
Banyan, 16
tree,
267
'
INDEX
655
fan, 146
leaf, 301,
four-rowed, 144
hooded, 136, 137, 145, 146
hull-less Jerusalem, 145
pulp, 309
hybrid, 145
medium,
312
ornamental, 301
sea-kale, 312
seed, 306
multiple-germ, 306
Nepal, 145
peacock, 146
silver,
six-rowed, 144
spinach, 312
single-germ, 306
two-rowed, 145
bent, 147
wild, 301
erect-eared, 147
naked, 146
nodding, 147
Barnyard
312
Bergamot, 487
Beriberi, 206
grass, 219
Belladonna, 559
Benincasa cerifera, 613
220
Basidiomycetes, 64
Berry, 59
Berseem, 433
Beta, 298
Basin, 378
Bean, 421
cycla, 312
adjuki, 423
maritima, 301
vulgaris,
Biennials, 21
456
Dolichos, 422
Dutch
300
Bidens,- 625
case-knife, 423
Bigarreaus, 403
Bilberry, dwarf, 546
flowering, 423
tall bilberry,
hyacinth, 422
thin-leaved, 544
Jack, 422
547
Bindweed, 284
Binomial system, 64
mung, 423
Bistort, 286
Bittersweet, 561
barley, 145
scarlet runner,
bitter vetch,
423
456
428
blueberry, 547
-tap raspberry, 357
velvet, 422
nightshade, 560
Beards, 82
Beet,
common
salsify, 635
Blackberry, 354
INDEX
656
Blackberry, dewberry, 354
high-bush, 354
key to principal
330
leafy-cluster,
long-cluster,
354
354
loose-cluster, 354
sand, 354
white, 354
Brebas, 27s
Blade, 42, 77
Blanched asparagus, 250
Bromus inermis,
Broom corn, 88,
Blueberry, 550
Brush, 99
Broccoli, 334
76
196, 197
black, 547
Canada, 546
Bryophytes, 62
Buchloe, 70
dactyloides, 76
Buckbean, 414
Buckwheat, 286, 289
black, 546
bush, sso
Bokhara, 453
Boll, S14
Bonavist, 422
Brace roots, 16, 159
common, 289
gray, 294
family, 284
Japanese, 294
notch-seeded, 294
Bracteole, 80
Bracts, 78
Brambles, 351
Bran, 106
Bud
Brandy, 503
accessory, 24
adventitious, 24
variation, 25
Buds, 23
layer, 105
alternate, 25
340
arvensis, 339
axillary, 24
branch, 23
key to species
dormant, 23
of,
327
classification of, 23
flower, 23
grafting, 23
lateral,
24
leaf,
mixed, 23
23
opposite, 25
INDEX
657
Buds, terminal, 24
supernumerary, 24
cerasiforme, 595
conoides, 595
whorled, 25
Buffalo bur, 561
fasciculatum, 595
currant, 319
frutescens, S9S
BuUaces, 400
Bulletin Smyrnas, 275
grossum, 595
longum, S9S
Bundle scar, 26
Bupleurum, 530
Capsule, 58
Caraway, 533
Carbohydrate synthesis, 46
Carduus, 625, 628
Cabbage, 328
common, 331
Carina, 415
common
of,
329
head, 332
Carolina
rice,
206
Carpophore, 532
Carrot, 533
family, 530
Calendula, 625
Carum, 533
Callirrhoe, 508
Caryopsis, 83
Calyx, 48
Catawba
Cambium, 36
Catjang, 458
ring, 38
Camelina, 326
Campanulacex, 600
Cavity, 378
Cayenne pepper, 595
lettuce, 633
Canada
grape, 501
Celeriac,
potato, 639
Celery, 540
rice,
206
thistle, 21,
Canadian
Cane
Cell,
field pea,
420
Cannabis, 252
indica, 281
4
as unit of structure, s
of plant activity, 5
28
sugar, production
540
of,
228
Cell sap, 6
wall, 6, 8
Celluloid, 526
sativa, 276
Cantaloupe, 618
Central cylinder, 17
Cereals, 87
Capparidaceae, 326
Caprification, 273
Caprifig, 269, 272, 276
Capsaican, 595
Cercocarpus, 348
of,
87
small-grain seedlings
of,
88
218
Capsella, 326
maximum, 218
annuum, 592
42
mobarium, 219
of,
218
INDEX
6s8
Chaetochloa,
viridis, 211,
219
Chard, 312
Charlock, 339
Chasmogamy, 82
mitis,
Chenopodiaceae, 296
nobilis, 480,
of,
Cherry, 401
297
487
485
deliciosa, 485
unshiu, 485
sinensis, 480,
sour, 403
sweet, 402
Cladophylls, 244
484
and naming
tomato, 587, 59
Chicasaw plum, 401
Classification
Close pollination, 51
Berseem, 433
crimson, 433, 435
mustard, 340
Dutch, 433
giant, 4S3
ItaUan, 435
Japan, 465
Ladino, 434
Chromoplastids, 8
mammoth,
Chrysanthemum,
meadow, 441
625, 628
Chrysothamnus, 625
medium
Persian, 433
purple, 436
Cichorium, 628
endiva, 63s, 636
intybus, 635, 636
red, 433,
red, 441
436
scarlet, 433,
435
Shaftal, 433
Cinque-foil, 348
Citrange, 489
sweet, 452
Cider, 383
Cloudberry, 350
Club mosses, 62
Cob, 163
Citrus,
476
of plants,
Cleistogamy, 82
ichangensis, 487
Coleanthus, 81
60
INDEX
659
Coleoptile, 104
fodder, 185
Colocynth, 622
oil,
Commissure, 532
Common
apricot, 405
starch, 184
stover, 186
xenia
in,
eggplant, 586
Corolla, 48
fig,
Coronilla, 429
269, 27s
172
Cortex, 17
hop, 33
millet, 219
onion, 232, 237
Corymb, 56
Cos lettuce, 633
Cotoneaster, 366
Cottolene, 524
Cotton, 508
African, 517
American, 512
Companion cells, 35
Compass plant, 632
Chinese, 517
Egyptian, 510
Compositae, 625
of,
628
key
to
important genera
Convolvulus, SS4
figs, 276
Corchorus capsularis, 281
Cordelia
olitorius, 281
line,
377
Coriander, 533
Corinth currants, 501
Cork cambium, 38
tissue,
38
Guatemalan, 512
Nankin, 517
Red
Peruvian, 517
Convolvulacea;, SS4
Core
184
of,
SSS
524
Couloure of Muscat grape, 498
Cowberry, 550
oil,
Cowpca, 460
Crab-apple, American, 379
flowering, 379
narrow-leaved, 379
Corms, 32
Siberian, 379
Corn, 157
INDEX
66o
Sikkimcnsis, 62
Cucurbit, 606
American, 548
European, 544
548
mountain, 550
types
large,
of,
549
Cucurbitaceae, 606
key
wintergreen, 543
95
vetch, 429
Buffalo, 319
Cruciferae, 323
of,
326
620, 621
field,
Missouri, 319
red,
Jerusalem, 617
white, 320
320
musk, 620
prickly, 617
Cuticle, 44
Sikkim, 621
squirting, 606
snake, 620
star, 606,
620
Cydonia, 388
wild, 606
oblonga, 388
Cucumis, 610
dipsaceus, 613
key
Cyperaceae, 85
Cyphomandra
betacea, 592
cantalupensis, 618
Cytase, 142
chito,
Cytoplasm, 6
620
dudaim, 620
flexuosus, 618,
620
inodorus, 619
reticulatus,
610
artificial,
common
Culms, 72
Currant tomato, 587
Cross pollination, 52
Crown
612
ovipera, 613
Crimson
of,
618
saccharinus, 618
Dahlia, 625
moschata, 620
Dangleberry, $47
Danish
ball
INDEX
66
Datura, 359
Daucus, S33
Dwarf broom
carota, 533
varieties of, 535
Delaware grape, 501
Dye-weed, 414
Dent
Ear, 162
Early or forcing radishes, 243
Earth apple, 639
Ecballium elaterium, 606
Dermatogen, 17
Dewberry, 355
blackberry, 354
to principal species
key
Ectoplasm, 6
Egg
nucleus, 50
Eggplant, 585
Diastase, 142
Dichogamy, 169
common, 586
dwarf purple, 587
of,
Dicotyledones, 63
Dimorphism, 292
Dioscorea batatas, 556
Dioscoreaceas, SS^
flowers, 627
38
snake, 587
Eichhornia speciosa, 16
Einkorn, 85,
no
Distichlis, 55
Dock, 284
Elodea, 29
Embryo, 96
Emmer,
sac, so
89, iii, 112, 113
Endive, 636
Endocarp, 58
Drosera, 47
Endodermis,
Dracaena, 229
Drumhead
cabbages, 332
Drupe, 393
Drupaceae, 391
Duboisia hopwoodii, 600
Duckweed, 2
Dukes, 403
Epidermis, 34
Epigaea rcpens, 543
Epiphyte, 28
Episperm, 10
Dutch
clover, 433
Dwarf
bilberry, 546
220
western, 356
Dextrins, 185
Dicot stem, 33
stem, growth in thickness
356
northern, 356
Pacific Coast, 352
southern, 356
Disk
corn, 200
Equisetales, 64
Ericaceae, 543
INDEX
662
Erinocyce
275
figs,
Pig,
common,
269, 275
Cordelia, 276
Erinocyce, 275
Golden, 267
Mission, 275
cranberry, S44
gooseberries, 321
raspberry, 357
wasp, 271
Evergreen or
thorn, 366
wild, 276
Filament, 48
Filicales, 64
Finger millet, 210
Exocarp, 58
fire
"Eyes," 31
Five-finger,
Flat
Fagopyrum, 286
emarginatum, 294
tataricum, 293
vulgare, 289
Fan
onions, 241
Solomon's
seal, 21
barley, 146
348
473
large-seeded, 473
Sicilian,
473
Farkleberry, 543
Fennel, 533
small-seeded, 473
Fleabane, 625, 628
Fenugreek, 467
Fermentation, 150
Fern plants, 62
Flower, apetalous, 55
complete, 55
Fertilization, 52
Festuca ovina, 79
pratensis, 76
Fiber
flax,
hermaphroditic, 55
incomplete, 55
naked, 55
473
of cotton,
514
Ficus, 267
perfect, 55
pistillate,
benghalensis, 267
brevifolia, 268
SS
staminate, s$
symmetry
of,
53
crabapple, 379
elastica, 252
raspberry, 254
religiosa,
267
Adriatic, 275
Flowers, 48
incomplete, 55
parts of representative, 48
INDEX
663
Follicle,
Geitonogamy, 51
58
Generative nucleus, 50
Geotropism, 73
Genista, 414
German
crassifolia,
489
hindsii, 489
japonica, 489
margarita, 488
Four-rowed barley, 144
Foxberry, 550
2n
363
chiloensis, 363,
Globulin, 103
364
glauca, 363
vesca, 363, 364
virginiana, 363
Glucose, 184
Glume, flowering, 80
Glumes,
Fraxinus, 551
Fruits, kinds of, 58
dehiscent, 58
79,
80
dry, 58
fleshy,
414
Gliadin, 105
Fragaria, 358
californica,
447
540
Gherkin, 622
alfalfa,
celery,
59
indehiscent, 50
fig,
267
wonder
Fungi, 62
millet, 218,
Furrow, 100
Goldenrod, 625
Fusarium, 570
Gall flowers, 271
Goober, 462
Gooseberry family, 316
gourd, 617
Gooseberries, 321
American, 321
European, 321
lemon, 620
radish, 341
Goosefoot, 296
tomato, sgo
family, 296
Gaultheria, S43
Gaylussacia, 543, S45> 547
brachycera, 547
dumosa, 547
frondosa, S47
key
to
North American
547
resinosa, 547
219
species of,
gooseberry, 617
INDEX
664
Gourd, winter, 615
Grafting, 36
Graham
flour,
108
Grain, 83
coats, 96
Gramineae, 69
Granules, 8
Grossulariaceae, 316
Ground meristem, 34
Growing point, 57
Guard cells, 45
Guatemalan cotton, 512
Guinea squash, 58?
Gumbo, 527
Gums, artificial,
Grape, 492
Catawba, 501
185
British, 185
Concord, 501
Guncotton, 525
Delaware, 501
Gymnospermas, 62
family, 491
Muscat, 498
Niagara, 501
Hairs, basal, 92
Head, 56
sugar, 18s
Halophyte, 296
lettuce, 633
Hearts, 403
Heath family, 543
Hedysarse, 415
Helianthus, 628
tuberosus, 639
Hemp,
252, 276
sisal,
281
tow, 280
Hennequin, 281
buffalo, 70, 76
Hepaticae, 64
quack, 75
70
Herb,
Hesperidium, 478
rice-cut,
tall oat, 75
Grasses, bulbous, 75
rhizome-bearing, 75
Heterostyly, 292
Hibiscus, 306
esculentus, 507, 527
syriacus, 508
stoloniferous, 76
tufted, 76
Greasewood, 297
Green asparagus, 250
foxtail, 211,
219
Hog
millet, 213
Hollyhock, 508
gages, 398
Green-weed, 414
Homalocenchrus,
Grimm
alfalfa,
Griottes, 404
Groove, 100
447
70, 81
Homogamy, 169
137, 145, 146
INDEX
Hop,
Hordeum,
66s
Hungarian
millet, 219
vetch, 430
475
88, 135
Hyacinth, 229
erectum, 147
nudum, 146
nutans, 146, 147
zeocriton, 146
bean, 422
Hyaloplasm, 6
Hybrid
barley, 145
Hydrocotyle, 530
Hypocotyl, 57, 104
spontaneum, 148
vulgare, 144,
coeleste, 145
coerulescens, 145
Incomplete flowers, 55
Indian corn, 88
146
intermedium, 137, 143, 145, 146
nigrum, 145
pallidum, 143, 145, 146
trifurcatum, 136, 137, 14s, 146
Horse millet, 213
nettle,
560
millet, 213
mustard, 340
tobacco, 600
indeterminate or racemose, 56
scar, 26
Horseradish, 343
Horsetails, 62
simple, 56
Integuments, 50
Intercellular spaces,
Hosackia, 429
Hubbard squash, 614
Internodes, 72
Huckleberry, 547
black, S47, 550
blue, S46, 547
box, S47
bush, S47
Carolina, 547
dwarf, 547
family, 543
swamp, 547
Hull-less Jerusalem barley, 14s
oats, 130
Humulus,
252, 258
japonicus, 265
lupulus, 258
neomexicanus, 265
44
bona-nox, 554
pandurata, 554
purpurea, 554
Italian clover, 435
Japan
clover,
465
ivy, 33
inillet,
rice,
213
206
INDEX
666
Japanese pear, 384, 385
or pot-herb mustard, 340
plum, 400
Jasminium, 551
Jessamine, 551
Lamb's
Jimson-weed, 560
romana, 633
630
scariola,
quarters, 296
Lamella, middle, 375
Jute, 281
Lamina, 77
Large cranberry, 548
leaf tomato, 590
Lathyrus, 414
Lawn
Kalmia, 543
Keel, 415
Jumbos, 464
Juncacese, 85
-seeded
floral, 2
foliage, 2
scale, 2
scar, 26
Kinnikinic, 543
stalk,
Knotberry, 350
Leaflets,
42
44
compound, 44
development of, 42
Koeleria, 79
Kohlrabi, 330, 333
foliage,
kinds
of,
42
Kowliang, 197
Kuhnia, 627
parts
of,
42
Kumquat, 487
Hongkong wild, 489
Marumi, 489
Meiwa, 489
Nagami, 488
473
grass, 70
Layering, 316
Kinkan, 487
Kleinwanzlebener sugar beet, 308
Knaurs, 553
flax,
42
simple, 44
structure of, 44
Ledum, 543
Legume, 413
Leguminosae, 413
oval, 488
round, '489
Lemma, 80
Lemon, 481
Ichang, 487
Lablab, 422
Labrador
tea,
543
Lactuca, 628
sativa, 629
angustana, 632
Lenticel, 27
Lepidium, 326
Lespedeza striata, 465
Lettuce, 628
of,
416
INDEX
Lettuce, asparagus, 632
cos,
633
Low
garden, 629
667
blueberry, 546
.
Luff a, 613
Leucoplastids, 8
Lupines, 465
Lupinus, 46s
Lianas, 33
Lupulin, 264
Licorice,
414
Lignin, 36
Ligulate flowers, 627
Ligule, 78
Ligulifiors, 627
Ligustrum, ssi
Lilac, SSI
Liliaceae,
229
Lilium, 229
Lily, 229
family, 229
Lima
glands, 264
Lupuline, 266
Lycium, 559
Lycopersicum, 587
esculentum, cerasiforme, 587
grandifolium, 587, s88
pimpinellifolium, 587, 588
pyriforme, 587
validum, 587
vulgare, 590
Lycopodiales, 64
Lime, 483
Limequat, 483
LinacesE, 469
Macaroni, 118
Linen, 473
Macounastrum, 284
Linoleum, 473
Linseed oil, 473
Maiz de
Linum, 470
Male nuclei, 50
Mallow family, 505
catharticum, 469
usitatissimum, 470
Llanos, 69
Liverworts, 62
Locks, S14
Loco, 414
Locust, 414
bean, 422
Lodicules, 80
Lodging, 72
Loganberry, 358
Lombard plums, 399
Long-cluster blackberry, 3S4
Loose-cluster blackberry, 354
wheats, 113
coyote, 179
Malting, 149
baccata, 379
coronaria, 379
floribunda, 379
ioensis, 379, 381
key
379
381
Mamme,
272
Mammoni,
272
of,
508
INDEX
668
Mammoth
altissima,
Mane
officinalis,
oats, 130
Mangels, 313
Mangel-wurzels, 313
Man-of-the-earth, 554
454
454
indica, 454
gracilis,
453, 454
speciosa, 454
Melon
apple, 620
pear, 561
Melons, 618
cucumber, 620
Dudaim, 620
Mango, 620
Massecuite, 227
netted, 618
Mayberry, 358
Mazzards, 402
orange, 620
Meadow
pomegranate, 620
Marigold, 625
pineapple, 618
clover, 441
fescue, 76
foxtail,
snake, 618
79
Meadows, 69
winter, 619
Medicago, 441
Mendelism, 421
Mendel's law, 421
Mericarp, 532
Mesembryaceas, 299
Mesocarp, 58
33
grass, 182
Micrainpelis, 608
452
key to principal
tissue,
452
denticulata, 452
reticulata,
Meristem
Micropyle, 50, S7
Middlings, 108
media, 447
448
African, 213
Aino, 218
Medics, 441
orange, 484
Medium
red clover, 44 r
Medulla, 18
Egyptian, 213
foxtail, 211, 216
German, 218
Golden Wonder, 218
Hog, 213
Horse, 213
Melilot, 453
Hungarian, 219
Melilotus, 452
Indian, 213
INDEX
Millet, Japan,
669
213
Russian, 255
white, 25s
Mule
flowers, 271
pearl, 211
Multipliers, 241
Siberian, 218
Mung
true,
bean, 423
210
Musci, 64
Musk cucumber, 620
Mission
Muskmelon, 618
Mustard, 327
figs, 275
Missouri currant, 319
Monocot stems, 39
Monocotyledones, 62
brown, 339
Chinese, 340
Monolepis, 297
Moon-flower, 554
family, 323
Mooting, 73
Indian, 340
Moracese, 252
Japanese, 340
pot-herb, 340
Morellos, 404
Morning
glory, 33
family, 554
Morus,
252, 253
alba, 255
Naked
tartarica, 255
venosa, 25s
key to principal species
oats, 130
wheats, 11 r, 112
of,
255
Nankin
cotton, 517
multicaulis, 256
Nardus, 81
nervosa, 256
Moss plants, 62
Mountain ash, 366
bramble, 351
Nectarine, 410
cranberry, 550
mahogany, 348
spinach, 299
Nepenthes, 47
New Zealand spinach, 299
Niagara grape, 501
timothy, 223
sorrel,
284
tobacco, 600
alata,
600
glauca, 596
persica,
paper, 254
rustica,
600
quadrivalvis, 600
600
INDEX
670
Nicotiana, tabacum, 597
tomentosa, 596
wigandioides, 596
Nodding
Olive, SSI
family, ssi
Onion, 231, 240
common,
barley, 147
232, 237
Node, 22
Egyptian, 241,
Nodes, 72
Non-saccharine sorghums, 196
Northern dewberry, 65, 356
6, 8,
composition
uses
of,
Onobrychis
Oats, 88, 89, 123
Abyssinian, 130
Algerian, 131
of,
243
244
vicisefolia,
46s
Ophioglossales, 64
Orache, 299
Orange, blood, 484
Calamondin, 487
animated, 131
banner, 130.
fly>
242
Nucleoli, 6
Nucleus,
i!42
common, 484
king, 48s
131
mane, 130
mandarin, 485
Mediterranean, 484
Mediterranean, 130
navel, 484
naked, 130
Satsuma, 485
Seville, 487
sour, 487
Spanish, 484
sweet, 484
hull-less,
130
panicle, 130
rough, 131
short, 130
side,
130
126
single,
sterile,
131
Tatarian, 130
twin, 126
wild, 130
Ochrus, 432
Ocrea, 284
Oil cake, 473
meal, 473
trifoliate, 489
Unshiu, 48s
Organs, 4
absorptive, 4
reproductive, 4
Ornamental beet, 301
glutinosa, 204
Okra, 527
granulata, 206
oScinalis, 206
Oleacese, ssi
utilissima, 206
communis, 206
INDEX
Oryza, sativa, minuta, 206
54
superior, 54
wall, loi
Ovules, 48, 50
Oxypolis, S30
Oxyria digyna, 284
Pea,
671
418, 420
field,
flat-podded, 432
garden, 418
perennial, 432
Tangier, 432
wild,
432
Peach, 407
418
shelling,
sugar, 418
464
meal, 465
oil,
465
Pear, 384
Palet, 80
Palisade tissue, 44
common,
Panicle, 56, 79
oats, 130
Panicum, 210
miliaceum, 210, 213
compactum, 215
384, 385
tomato, 587
Pearl barley, 149
millet, 211
contractum, 215
Peepul
eSusum, 215
Pencilaria, 213
PapaveracejE, 326
267
Penny
cress,
326
Pepino, 561
Pepo, 608
Parsley, 539
Parsnip, 536
Pepper, 592
Parthenocarpy, 374
Parthenocissus, 492
Fastinaca, 533
sativa, 536
Pasture crop, 149
Patent flour, 108
Cayenne, 595
Tabasco, 595
vine, 492
Perennial, 20, 70
pea, 432
tree onions, 243
Perianth, 49
Periblem, 17
Patanas, 69
Pea, 417
chick, 467
common
tree,
sweet, 432
Pericarp, loi
Pericycle, 17
family, 413
everlasting, 432
edible-podded, 418
INDEX
672
Plant body,
Petals,
alfalfa,
leucoplastids, 8
Petunia, 559
PhaeophycesE, 63
Phaseolus, 421
Plerome, 17
Plum, American, 397, 400, 401
Chicasaw, 401
family, 391
angularis, 423
hortulana, 400
aureus, 423
key to principal
Japanese, 400
tomato, 590
asparagus, 246
Plumy
nanus, 426
Phleum, 222
Poa
pratensis, 70
PoacesE, 69
alpinum, 223
pratense, 222
Pod, 58
corn, 178, 180
18, 3 s
of,
Polar nuclei, 50
36
Polish wheat,
parenchyma, 35
Photosynthesis, 46
in,
112, 113
Phycomycetes, 64
mother
Phylloxera, 499
tube, 52
cells,
Phylogeny, 83
Pollination, 51
Physalis, SS9
Pickles, 621
PolygonacesE, 284
50
Pomacese, 366
key to important genera
104
51
Pistillate inflorescence, 55
Pome, 366
Pomelo, 48s
Poncirus, 476, 489
trifoliata,
Pitcher plants, 47
Pitching, 150
489
Pith, 18, 39
Placenta, 50
Placentation, 53
Plant body> i
Potamogeton, 29
397
multiflorus, 423
elements, functions
of,
myrobalan, 400
macTocarpus, 424
Pistil, 48,
chromoplastids, 8
48
Pileole,
of,
Plastids, chloroplastids, 8
447
Petiole, 42
Phloem,
discovery
of,
nomenclature, 64
Persicaria, 286
Peruvian
cell,
structure
Potato, 561
of,
family, 559
onions, 241
of,
367
INDEX
'otentilla,
Psedera tricuspidata, 33
348
'oulard wheat,
673
m,
Pseudomonas
112
Psilotales,
cucumber, 617
radicicola,
413
64
Ptelea, 475
Privet, SSI
Pteridophytes, 62
Profichi, 272
Pumpkin, 613
Prophyllum, 80
field,
Prop
mammoth,
Proso, 213
613
6x5
Valparaiso, 6x5
millet, 2X0
Protandry, 170
Protease, 142
clover,
Proteose, 105
vetch, 428
Protogyny, 170
Protoplasm, 9
Protoplasmic membrane, 6
436
Pyrus, 384
Protoplast, 6
Prunes, 398
Prunus, 394
Quackgrass, 21, 70
Quamoclit quamoclit, SS4
Quince, 388
americana, 400
amygdalus, 410
Rabbit-brush, 625
angustifolia, 401
armeniaca, 40s
Raceme,
avium, 402
Rachilla, 79
besseyi,
Rachis, 79, 92
Radicula, 344
404
400
cerasifera,
56, 78
armoracia, 34s
nasturtium-aquaticum, 345
cuneata, 404
dasycarpa, 407
Radicle, 57
Radish, 34X
domestica, 398
emarginata, 404
garden, 341
hortulana, 400
rat-tailed,
insititia,
wild, 342
key
to
399
main groups
mahaleb, 404
mume, 407
munsoniana, 401
nigra, 401
pennsylvanica, 404
persica, 407
pumila, 404
sibirica,
triflora,
43
407
400
of,
394
Ragi
343
millet, 210
Raphanus, 341
caudatus, 343
raphanistrum, 342
sativus, 341
Raspberry, 3S7
American
red, 3S7
INDEX
674
Raspberry, European
key
red,
Root
357
357
cap, structure
of,
20
-hair zone, 19
primary, 10
purple-cane, 357
Ray
flowers, 627
Receptacle, 49
Red cabbages, 332
character
systems,
currant, 320
:^,
10
adventitious, 11
development
primary, 10
Retting, 279
tap, 14
of, 10.
fibrous, lo, 11
Rheum, 289
temporary, 10
palmatum, 289
undulatum, 289
tubercles, 413
Roots adventitious, 11
Rhizoctonia, 569
air,
Rhizomes, 29, 75
Rhododendron, 543
Rhodophyceae, 63
Rhubarb, 286
classification of,
16
medium
of
growth, 16
general characteristics
length of
life of,
soil,
structure
of,
319
16
of,
16
tap, 14
work of, 14
Rootstocks, 29, 7S
Rosaceae, 348
Canada, 206
of Sharon, 508
cultivated, 206
large-kemeled, 206
Rough
small-kerneled, 206
oats, 131
Root cap,
glaucifolius, 357
chamsemorus, 350
cuneifolius, 354, 355
17
crown, 157
idaeus,
20
15
water, 16
development
of,
21
seminal, 10
14
of,
primary, 91
temporary, 91
upon
357
invisus, 356
key to groups
of,
353
of,
350
INDEX
Rubus, leucodermis, 357
microphyllus, 358
neglectus, 358
San Pedro
figs,
275
Sanicula, 532
Sarcobatus, 297
Sarracenia, 47
nigrobaccus, 354
albinus, 354
Sauerkraut, 332
sativus,
354
occidentalis, 357
strigosus, 357, 358
trivialis, 356
villosus, 354, 356
roribaccus, 356
vitifolius, 352, 356,
Rue
67s
Savannahs, 69
Scallop, 613
358
family, 475
strawberry, 363
vetch, 428
Rumex, 284
Runner,
Schizomycetes, 63
Schizophytes, 63
Schuster, 84
296
Scientific
Rutabaga, 337
Rutaceae, 475
key to important genera
Rye, 88, 89, 153
name, 64
common name, 66
names, descriptive nature of, 66
versus
vetch, 430
Scion, 36
of,
476
Scutellum, 104
Sachs, 177
Sage, 625, 628
Sainfoin, 465
Sake, 207
anatolicum, 155
Salicornia, 297
Salsify,
628
black, 635
Spanish, 635
yellow-flowered, 635
Salsola, 296
montanura, 155
Second patent, 108
Secondary cortex, 38
Sedges, 85
Seed
ball,
306
Saltbush, 296
coats, 57
Salt-grass, 55
germination
Salt wort, 47
leaves, 59
Samara, 551
bur, 560
Sand
blackberry, 354
grape, 499, 500
pear, 384, 385
of,
59
principal parts
Seeds, 57
.Seedlings, 57
Self -fertility,
372
of, i
INDEX
676
Self-sterility, 372,
Sitopyros,
497
no
Sepals, 48
Sequoias, Giant, 2
Smilax, 244
Smith, 17s
Serradella, 465
Setaria, 210
Smyrna
Seville orange,
figs,
273, 275
487
Shaddock, 485
eggplant, 587
Soapweed, 229
Shank, 163
Shantz, 117
Solanaceae, SS9.
key to important genera of, 560
Sheath, 77
Solanum, 560
Sheep's fescue, 79
chiloense, 561
commersonii, 561
dulcamara, 560, 561
elsagnifolium, 560
immite, 561
development
of,
22
jamesii, 56r
crabapple, 379
millet, 218,
melongena, 361
depressum, 587
219
vetch, 430
Sicilian flax,
473
Sicyosperma
610
gracilis,
Silique,
Silks,
Silo,
32s
325
171
186
hemp, 281
of,
maglia, 561
esculentinum, 586
serpentinum, 587
muricatum, 561
nigrum, 560, 561
Sophia, 326
Sophora, 415
Sorbus, 366
Sorghum, 88
Sorghums, 191
561
INDEX
Sorghums, uses
of,
199
Valparaiso, 615
Stamens, 48
Staminate inflorescence, 55
Standard, 414
broom corn, 200
max, 456
patent, 108
needles, 625
orange, 484
salsify,
677
635
Spathe, 234
Stele, 17
Stem, of dicot, 33
wheats, 11
Sperm
nuclei, 50
Spermatophytes, 62
aerial, 2
classification
of,
medium
Sphenophyllales, 64
Spike 56, 79
Stems, 22
general characteristics
structure
Spinacea, 298
underground,
work
oleracea, 298
common
of growth, 28
garden, 300
key to groups
of,
300
of,
41
Stigma, 48
Stipules, 42
New
Stock, 36
Spines, 33
Stolon, 32
Spiraea,
348
Spongy parenchyma, 44
Spotted bur clover, 442, 449
Spreading oats, 130
Stomata, 45
Stone crop, 47
Spur, 23
Strawberry
Stooling, 22, 73
296
Spurs, 367
Squash, 610
Canada crookneck,
Hubbard, 612, 614
mammoth
33
Steppes, 69
Stewart, 167
mountain, 299
Zealand, 299
of,
610, 612
whale, 615
Virginian, 363
marrow, 614
wood, 364
of,
26
INDEX
678
Streamside grape, 66
Taraxacum, 628
Streptochsta, 81, 84
Sturtevant, 159, 167, 178
Stylar canal, 168
Tares, 429
Style,
48
Stylopodium, 531
Succory, 635, 636
Suckers, 160
Testa, loi
pea, 418
Summer
275
wood, 40
Sundew, 47
Sunflower, 625, 628
Swedes, 337
Swedish clover, 433, 434
Sweet clover, 452
white, 4S4
yellow, 454
plants, 62
Thermopsis, 414
Thin-leaved bilberry, 544
Thistle, 62s, 628
family, 625
Thlaspi, 326
Thorn
Tillandsia usneoides, 28
Tillering, 22, 73, 74
Timothy,
orange, 484
Tissue, 4
pea, leaf, 43
potato, sss
Tobacco, S96
sorghums, 196
75, 222
Australian, 600
Indian, 600
mountain, 600
Synconium, 268
Persian, 600
Synergids, 50
Systema Naturje, 61
Systematic botany, 60
Syringa, 551
"wild," 600
Tomato, 587
cherry, 587, 590
currant, 587
garden, 590
Tap
root system, 13
husk, 592
key to types of cultivated, 591
large leaf, 590
592
upright, 587, 59
Toothed bur
clover, 442,
452
INDEX
679
Topinambour, 639
Top
Tube
Torch-wood, 475
Torus, 49
Toxylon pomiferum, 252
Tracheal tubes, 36
nucleus, 50
569
Tulip; 229
Tracheids, 36
Tragopogon, 628
Turkestan
porrifolius,
of,
Tubers, 30, 31
Tubuliflorae, 627
alfalfa,
447
633
common, 335
pratensis, 635
Swede, 337
Turnip-rooted celery, 540
Twin oats, 126
Transpiration stream, 47
Tree, 2
Two-rowed
barley, 145
tomato, S92
Trifoliate orange, 489
Umbel,
Umbelliferje, 530
530
key to genera
alexandrinum, 433
hybridum, 433, 434
of
economic impor-
tance, S33
56, 234,
433
of,
perenne, 439
repens, 433
suaveolens, 433
Trigonella foenum-groecum, 467
EEstivum,
HI,
boeoticura, 112
capitatum, 116
durum, in,
hermonis, 114
ovata,
no
thaoudar, 112
membranaceum, 544
mjTtillus, 546
nigrum, 546, 550
ovalifolium, S47
oxycoccus, 546, 549
arboreum, 543
atrococcum, 547, 550
caespitosum, 546
vacillans, 546,
n6
^
55
virgatum, 544
vitis-idaea, 546, 550
Vacciniaceae, S43
species of,
INDEX
68o
Vacuole, 7
Variegated
Vitacese, 491
447
Vascular bundles, 35
elements, 35
Vegetative activity,
Vitis,
aestivalis,
of,
492
492
499, 500
bourguiniana, 501
riparia, 499,
500
crown, 429
Dakota, 429
vinifera,
rotundifolia, 499,
500
499
Hungarian, 430
Narbonne, 429
narrow-leaved, 428
Water
kidney, 429-
cress, 345
hyacinth, 16
purple, 428
Russian, 430
scarlet,
lily,
Siberian,
430
430
woolly-podded, 429
Vetchling, 432
Vexillum, 414
Vicia, 414, 426
angustifolia, 428
atropurpurea, 428
villous,
dewberry, 356
Wheat,
88, 89, 91
common
durum,
428
in,
in,
112, 113
hard, 106
fulgens,
narbonnensis, 429
bread,
89,
429
key to important species
of,
427
sativa, 427,
villosa,
soft,
429
427, 430
spelt,
catjang, 458
sequipedalis, 458
sinensis, 458,
106
Vigna, 458
460
no
dasycarpa, 429
ervilia,
29
428
currant, 320
mulberry, 255
mustard, 327, 340
Whortleberry, 546
Wild barnyard
beet, 301
grass, 210
INDEX
Wild cabbage, 328
68
Xylem,
18,
36
cotton, 520
cucumber, 606
Yams, 556
emmer,
Yarrow, 623
Yellow egg plums, 399
fig,
114, 115
276
oats, 130
salsify,
pea, 432
Young
radish, 342
Yucca, 229
rice,
207
tobacco, 600
Windberry, 550
Windsor bean,
Wine
635
dicot stem, 33
427, 429
grape, 499, 500
Wines, 502
Wings, 415
36
parenchyma, 36
fibers,
strawberry, 364
Wormwood,
625, 628
Xanthoxylum, 473
Xenogamy, 52, 95
'Wolberry, 550
Wood, 36
elements, functions
37
japonica, 179
ramosa, 179
Zigzag clover, 433, 441
Zizania aquatica, 206
miliacea, 207
Zygote, 52
of,
180