FROM THE SCHOLARLY EDITION TO VISUALIZATION: RE-USING

ENCODED DATA FOR HISTORICAL RESEARCH

MALTE REHBEIN

Abstract This paper reports from the perspective of a historian who is

investigating an early medieval manuscript, aiming at opening it up for further
research and exploring its location in space, time, and intellectual context. The
manuscript in question and the texts it carries show a complex, interwoven
network of intra- and intertextual relations and the paper argues that only
a combination, provided by computational means as the methodological key,
of two usually distinct research approaches, namely close reading and distant
reading, can deliver answers to the research questions imposed. The paper
introduces some central methods of an interdisciplinary field, commonly known
as digital humanities, in the realm of data representation (data modeling and
text encoding) as well as core applications in the realm of data presentation
and analysis (digital editing and visualization). As these supportive methods are
neither the starting-point for historical research nor an end-in-itself, they are
mirrored against scholarly practices of both, of the early Middle Ages and of
modern scholarship.
Keywords: medieval manuscripts, digital editing, visualization, data modeling,
text encoding

1. a historians perspective
1.1 The Wrzburg Saint Matthew
The Wrzburg Saint Matthew1 is an unusual early-medieval manuscript with
extensive and complex glossing and commentaries on the text of the Matthew
International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing 8.1 (2014): 81105
DOI: 10.3366/ijhac.2014.0121
Edinburgh University Press 2014
www.euppublishing.com/ijhac

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Gospel.2 It is part of the so called Libri Sancti Kiliani collection which belonged
to the Library of the Wrzburger Domstift soon after the foundation of the
diocese in AD742 and which has been in possession of the Wrzburg University
Library since secularization in 1803.3 With almost 200 medieval codices, Libri
Sancti Kiliani is a rich and important collection which offers excellent sources
especially in the Anglo-Saxon context, the oldest of these manuscripts dating
back to the 5th century AD.4 The collection has been described as a Schatzhaus
der deutsch-insularen berlieferung and a Monument von europischem
Rang5 . Mlzer characterizes the library as a Gebrauchsbibliothek,6 that is, a
library that was actively used as a place for study and teaching from its beginning
in the 8th century until early modern period. The library can hence be seen as a
witnesses for medieval scholarship and script over the course of the centuries.
This is particularly true for one of its oldest manuscripts, the so-called
Wrzburg Saint Matthew,7 a parchment codex, 34 folios, 290235mm, in four
gatherings that contains the text of the Matthew Gospel and interlinear and
marginal glosses in Latin language embedding some traces of Old-Irish.8 The
manuscript has been dated to the last third of the eighth century while the glosses
and commentaries date to the beginning of the ninth century.9 Paleographers
state that the text of the Matthew gospel was written by an Irish scribe in Irish
majuscules, while the glosses might partly be written on the continent in Irish
minuscule.10
In addition to the interlinear and marginal glosses, the Wrzburg Matthew
features 28 cedulae,11 parchment slips of various sizes, which contain more
extensive commentaries than the glosses, mostly on the text of the Gospel
but also on other topics.12 These commentaries were written by three different
scribes but none by the scribe of the Gospel text or by the glossator. They have
probably been added to the manuscript on the continent at a later stage. The
manuscript itself, however, was created in Ireland in the last third of the eighth
century AD, in a period of lively activity of Irish writing centres,13 a time that
also produced such splendid and luxurious Gospel books as the Book of Kells
(early ninth century AD) in the monastic scriptoria of Ireland.
The Wrzburg Matthew was probably brought to the area now known as
Lower Franconia and the town of Wrzburg by Irish monks and missioners,
maybe in the neighborhood of Clemens Scotus himself, on their peregrinatio,14
a practice not uncommon for this period.15 Indeed, the practice had significant
influence not only for the development of the church in the Middle Ages16 but
also for shaping the future civilization in Europe.17 The text actually contains
only the Gospel following Matthew (hence the modern name), but the scribes
addition of the words in red ink on top of folio 1r: Incipit euangelia numero
quatuor Matheus Marcus Lucas Iohannis, suggests that the manuscript was
likely planned as a book containing the other three canonical Gospels as well.
The text of Matthew is complete (all 28 chapters), but the glossing ends suddenly
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with chapter 16, which indicates that neither the scribe of the textbook itself who
intended to include all four Gospels nor its glossator ever finished their works.
1.2 Medieval Scholarly Practice
The main text of the Wrzburg Matthew is characterized by generous space
between the lines and in the margins; space on the manuscript pages that was
later used by a different scribe to include explanations (glossing) of single
words or passages of the main text. As one can assume that this space was left
blank intentionally by the scribe of the Gospel text, the Wrzburg Matthew was
designed from the very beginning as a scholarly textbook, a manuscript for
teaching and studying the text of the bible that led to glosses and commentary
accumulate in a haphazard fashion between lines, in margins and on inserted
scraps of parchment.18
This is contrary to another scholarly practice from this period which can
be observed in the Carolingian Glossed Psalters in which the annotation is
complete from the moment of production,19 i.e., main text and commentaries
are written in the same work-flow (if one allows this modern terminology) with
strict mise-en-page, technically innovative for their time (though exegetically
conservative), but sharply distinct from the marginal and interlinear notes in
a school text.20 Kelly summarizes his findings about the Wrzburg Matthew:
The text is definitely Hiberno-Latin. All evidence points to a late eighthcentury date [. . .]. It reflects all the standard Early Medieval and Hiberno-Latin
exegetical practices use of a Latin text, use of the Fathers but it demonstrates
an uncommon interest in history. This last point should prevent its relegation
to nothing more than a catalogue listing; in an age of sometimes extreme
allegorizing, this commentator strove for balance and perspective.21 In the
following, I would like to illustrate this scholarly practice of glossing and
commenting along three examples: an interlinear gloss, a macaronic gloss and a
commentary by compilation.
1.2.1 The Interlinear Gloss
The Wrzburg Matthew follows the text of the Vulgate. On folio 1r of the manuscript, for instance, we read about the genealogy of Christ: Iudas autem genuit
Phares et Zaram de Thamar. Phares autem genuit Esrom. Esrom autem genuit
Aram (and Judah the father of Perez and Zerah by Tamar, and Perez the father
of Hezron, and Hezron the father of Ram, Matt. 1:3).22 Christ, as we know
from Matthew, was seen in the male descent of Abraham and David, and three
times fourteen generations are described in Matt. 1:216 until the birth of Iesus
qui vocatur Christus. This genealogy basically consists of a chain of Hebrew
names but unlike the Latin language of the base text, Hebrew was apparently
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Figure 1. Sample from Wrzburg, Universittsbibliothek, M.p.th.f.61, f. 1r showing the text of Matt. 1:3 and interlinear glossing.
Reproduced by kind permission of Universittsbibliothek Wrzburg. Universittsbibliothek Wrzburg.

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not known to the glossator and/or his readership or audience. In the temporal and
geographic space of the production and usage of the manuscript, Hebrew names
required an explanation in order to make their meaning understood.
The example given here illustrates how the glossator explains the name of
Esrom (Hezron), father of Aram (Ram) in Matt. 1:3. The explanation was likely
found in Jerome, one the major patristic authorities referred to in that time,
who wrote a book on the interpretation of Hebrew names (Liber interpretationis
Hebraicorum nominum)23 . Jerome explains Esrom using the words sagitam vidit
(he has seen an arrow) and the glossator of the Wrzburg Matthew puts this
interpretation as an interlinear gloss in the empty space above the word Esrom.
Whoever used and read the manuscript after the glossing was completed could
then read the Bible text as Phares autem genuit Esrom (.i. [id est] sagitam vidit).
This technique of glossing and its practical arrangement in form of interlinear
or marginal explanations is widely used in the Wrzburg Matthew as well as
in other comparable manuscripts. The technique is used for explaining places,
events and names (locus, tempus, persona) as well as for specific words or
expressions in Latin that required further explanations as well as for exegetical
commentaries on the meaning of the Bible that are in style and content following
closely the Irish pattern established by Bischoff.24
1.2.2 A Macaronic Gloss and Early-medieval Markup
A commentary on one of the cedulae picks up Matt. 27:26 (Then he released
for them Barabbas, and having scourged Jesus, delivered him to be crucified)
and discusses the scourging of Jesus Christ in the context of his crucification.
The commentator explains why Jesus was additionally scourged (flagillatum) in
spite of the fact that Pilate had not believed him to be guilty of anything evil
(Matt. 27:23):
Iesum flagillatum .i. signum dilse cimbeto quomodo innocens a sanguine
iusti qui eum flagillatum tradidit; sed sciendum est Romanis legibus
ministrasse quibus mos est ut qui crucifigitur prius flagillis uerberetur
(f. 23ar )
Jesus was scourged because of the Roman law (Romanis legibus), the
commentator argues in the second part (sed sciendum. . . ) of his explanation by
which it is custom (mos) to scourge everyone prior to crucification. In the first
part where the lemma Iesum flagillatum is picked up, the commentator explains
why Pilate considers himself being innocent (innocens ego sum a sanguine iusti,
Matt. 27:24): a sign (signum) that is dilse cimbeto, Old-Irish words meaning a
captives due.25
In the context of this paper is not of primary interest to discuss the use of OldIrish (the Wrzburg Matthew contains five such passages)26 and the function
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Figure 2. Sample from Wrzburg, Universittsbibliothek, M.p.th.f.61, folio 23ar,

showing a parchment slip with a comment on Matt. 27:26 and the macaronic gloss
in Old-Irish. Reproduced by kind permission of Universittsbibliothek Wrzburg.
Universittsbibliothek Wrzburg.

of bilingual glossing.27 But it is the way by which the scribe indicates words
in a language different from the rest and makes this explicit to himself and
his readers. Figure 2 shows how the two words in Old-Irish dilse cimbeto are
marked by four horizontal dashes placed above them, and these strokes are not
the common abbreviation signals but a form of markup to make the reader aware
of the use of a different language28 an indication that the Wrzburg Matthew
was written with a particular readership in mind. The manuscript gives us more
examples of such early-medieval markup. For instance, some of the external
references (such as Origines, Jerome) which the commentators used for their
compilations (see below) are explicitly indicated to the reader, often at the
margin, as para-texts clearly distinguishable from the content. This system of
marking up had become a typical practice.29
1.2.3 Compilation
On folio 1a, the commentator asks a question about the marital status of Mary:
Quaeritur cur non de semplici uirgine sed desponsata conceptus est Christus?
Why, he asks rhetorically, is Christ not born to a simple virgin (simplex virgo)
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but instead to an engaged woman (desponsata)? He does not give the answer
himself but refers back to patristic authorities. He starts with Jerome: Id est
[de] tribus causis ut Hieronymus dicit and repeats what Jerome has written
about this question.30 But the commentator does not end with Jeromes opinion;
rather, he pursues answers to this inquiry, virtually asking other authorities
by using his source texts and compiling an extensive discussion around the
question of Marys marital status. The commentator refers to twelve different
passages overall (from eight source texts by seven authors),31 some of which he
makes explicit (such as the above mentioned Jerome), while leaving others to be
elucidated by modern scholars.
The sources have apparently been known, directly or indirectly, to the
commentator. They form an intertextual space (not necessarily his library,
though)32 out of which he brings new light into this discussion for either himself
(if we regard the cedulae as personal notebooks) or his readership. The glosses
form a spectrum, ranging from excerpts from patristic sources (sometimes
attributed) to commentary that can be described as original and creative, Cahill
states.33 But the function of the cedulae remains unclear. Due to their ephemeral
nature, they usually have not survived from the early Middle Ages34 and we
do not have many extant examples witnessing this practice. However, taking
personal notes in such manner is not an invention of the 8th century as we already
know from Pliny the Elder that he extensively used commentarii (commentarius
can be translated with note or notebook), i.e. excerpts he made and he used
for writing his Historia Naturalis.35
In case of the Wrzburg Matthew, the cedulae might also function as notes in
order to prepare a new commentary on Matthew such as the one by Hrabanus
Maurus (see below). In any case, glosses and commentaries allow the modern
scholar to gain deep insight into the scholarly practice of the early Middle Ages
and into the spaces of knowledge of writers and their readers.
1.3 Research Challenges
Cahill describes the Wrzburg Matthew as not a tiny bundle but a complicated
jumble.36 More than 40 different source texts used in the glosses and
commentaries have been attributed so far, leading to an interwoven network
of inter-textual relations. McGurk additionally attests that the mise-en-page of
the manuscript is in a haphazard fashion,37 leaving the modern scholar with a
complex system of intra-textual relations in which the reference from lemma to
gloss (and vice versa) is not always obvious even with the support of signes de
renvoi which the scribes occasionally used.
From the research perspective of a modern scholar, Most states: If we
consider the aims and dynamics of commentary, it seems clear that one of its
central goals even if not its only one, but perhaps not even an indispensable
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one is the elucidation of a text by some other author. It is worth asking (1)
whose text is elucidated, (2) for whom, (3) by whom, (4) where, and (5) why.38
I would like to add to Mosts general list of research questions on commentaries:
(6) how is the elucidation put into practice and what are the scribers techniques,
(7) what is the knowledge that is processed into the commentary, and (8) how
does the library the commentator uses look like. Answers to these questions lead
to new insight into the knowledge of the Wrzburg commentators. To begin,
I approach them with a method which I will outline below.
Apart from generally opening up this manuscript for research, there are historical puzzles around the Wrzburg Matthew that have not been solved yet and that
primarily deal with the location of the manuscript in space, time and intellectual
context, e.g. what are the commentators main interests: theology or as Kelly
suggests history?39 A very important question in this context that has been
discussed by scholars for a long time deals with the relation (if there is any at
all) between the Wrzburg manuscript and Hrabanus Maurus (c.780856) commentary on the Matthew Gospel (Expositio in Matthaeum)40 . That the Wrzburg
commentaries are closely related to (or even written by) Hraban had been
suggested very early by Oegg41 and research had followed Oeggs suggestion
only until Bischoffs seminal turning points.42 Bischoff refuted any assumption
that the Wrzburg manuscript had influenced Hrabanus Maurus employing paleographic and philological evidence.43 While most researchers accept this analysis,44 Gorman has more recently refuted Bischoffs theory stating that in the early
Middle Ages the evidence for exegetical activity in Ireland is practically nonexistent.45 This would in turn question Ireland as the intellectual origin of the
Wrzburg Matthew and put the manuscript back in closer relation to Hrabanus
Maurus commentary. Gorman himself, however, has heavily been criticized in
his approach, and his view has not received general acceptance.46 More recently,
however, Cahill has put at least one of the commentary slips into a possible
intellectual relation to Hrabanus47 but without delivering the final evidence.48
A proper and comprehensive exploration of intertextual relations seem to be
the key to answering these questions, and it is my hope that by combining two
scientific approaches to text(s) close reading and distant reading one of the
two controversial opinions can finally be verified. This requires investigating interwoven data on a large-scale and can be achieved only in the digital medium.49

2. critical editing in a digital environment

2.1 Digital Editing
Traditionally, opening up primary sources such as the Wrzburg Matthew for
further research is done by the common and well-established method of scholarly
editing. A scholarly edition is an instrument for close reading, for thorough
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analysis of texts as a whole or direct access to text passages in question.

Within the digital medium, neither scholarly editions as instruments nor close
reading as a method have disappeared but they have been transformed and are
complemented by the capabilities of information and computing technology with
its capabilities of dealing with large sets of data, of creating multi-dimensional
cross-linking, of providing dynamic, interactive outputs and visualizations, and
by the omnipresence of the data.
Generally, the digital medium is nowadays appropriate if not natural not
only for preparing but essentially for presenting and publishing the edition.
The advantages that the digital approach offers have widely been discussed,50
and they are particularly valid for medieval glosses and commentaries with
their complex intra- and intertextual structures. Alternatively, hybrid editions
(print and digital) should be considered for publication as Bergmann proposes
especially for glosses.51 This is a technique that is increasing in practice.
The Wrzburg Matthew is due for a new scholarly edition. Kelly states
about the editio princeps52 : In 1954 Bischoff criticized Kberlins edition for
serious omissions (mit schweren Mngeln) and called the reproduction faulty
(fehlerhaft). Clearly a critical edition is a sine qua non for future work.53
Critically editing the Wrzburg Matthew in the 21st century, however, goes a
step further beyond mere reproduction of the text, its commentaries and their
sources. In addition to providing the text, the purpose of the new edition that I
am currently working on is to reflect on the scholarly practice of early-medieval
scholarship and what is more: to give insight into the spaces of knowledge of the
glossator and the commentators.
Digital editing reflects on the traditional method of scholarly editing and not
only transforms it from book-based publication into a new medium, but develops
it further by complementing and eventually changing the traditional practice with
the capabilities of the digital medium as outlined above. In the following, I would
like to discuss digital editing as one of the cores of development and application
of digital methods and tools for humanities research.
2.2 Data Modeling and Encoding
The core of any digital humanities project and digital editions in particular is,
however, constituted by a process of transformation into computational data.
This transformation, or transcoding54 , is always based on formulae or data
models which comprehend not only the historical objects we study (such as
manuscripts) but also the way we study them. This is to be regarded along the
complete value chain of research: from the digitization of primary sources
(data acquisition), through the analytical, e.g. hermeneutic, central aspect of
our research (information analysis), to the publication of its results (scientific
communication). The analytic aspect, especially, needs to be modeled into the
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digital medium, too. However, one can observe at this point that fundamental
research in the Digital Humanities has followed a more technology-driven
discussion and not sufficiently drawn attention to the impact that methods,
theories, practices and intellectual schools of the Humanities should have on
the design of the digital medium.
For more than twenty years, an appropriate model for both representing data
(from the manuscript) and expressing what we think about it and why (i.e.,
our analytical research) in a formalized way has been constituted around the
practice of text encoding. Text encoding is a process of transformation by which
we model what we see on the manuscript and how we interpret it in a digital
format: Before they can be studied with the aid of machines, texts must be
encoded in a machine-readable form. Methods for this transcription are called,
generically, text encoding schemes; such schemes must provide mechanisms
for representing the characters of the text and its logical and physical structure
[. . . ] ancillary information achieved by analysis or interpretation [may also be
added].55 Text encoding also allows us to transform scholarly practices of the
past (glossing, commenting, compiling, marking) into something computable,
and this is essential for understanding the Wrzburg Matthew.
Encoding is not necessarily a method known only to the Humanities, but
the Humanities have developed a widely accepted model: guidelines and a socalled schema, developed and maintained by the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI),
containing a comprehensive vocabulary and set of rules and constraints to make
explicit (markup) features of text. Markup is, however, not an invention of the
Digital Humanities. It has been a common practice for centuries as the example
of the macaronic gloss in the Wrzburg Matthew itself illustrates. The indication
of the words in a different language (dilse cimbeto) by vertical strokes follows
the same principle as the modern approach: it makes explicit a particular feature
of the text.
The TEI-model56 is far more comprehensive, of course, and is capable
of treating and encoding texts from various perspectives: as a sequence of
characters (signifiers), as units and their meanings, in its inner (logical) structure,
by layout and topology (codicology) of their carriers (manuscripts, typescripts,
inscriptions, etc.), within their (chronological and intellectual) processes of
writing, production and reception, in their contexts including intertexts and
paratexts, in relation of text and image, etc. The TEI-model has been developed
in order to facilitate the creation of digital representations of texts. It does
not immanently address the human reader, or presentation of texts. Hence,
encoding is not thinkable save the exception of archival purposes without its
counterpart decoding. Decoding is the reverse process of encoding: it converts
the code symbols used by the encoding back into information understandable
by a receiver.57 In the context of digital editing which we discuss here, decoding
serves to create human readable output in various formats. During the decoding
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within in a digital editing process, the encoded texts are transformed so that
they can be used in the required reading interface(s), sometimes dynamically
and on-the-fly, following user interaction, sometimes statically for printed or
hybrid output.
The following example is taken from the Wrzburg Matthew to exemplify
the role of text encoding in creating this edition along three use-cases: (1)
structuring the textual data, (2) marking up intra-textual links, and (3) marking
up inter-textual references. There are, naturally, many more features of this
manuscript, such as editorial interventions, annotations, aspects of codicology
and paleography that are encoded for this edition. But by studying these three
principal characteristics of the Wrzburg Matthew, it might be illustrated best
how encoding can help creating the edition and its different forms of output.
Figure 358 shows a simplified sample from the encoding of the Wrzburg
Matthew. It represents the text of Matt. 1:3, hence part of the genealogy of Christ
mentioning Esrom as one of his ancestors together with the explanation (sagitam
vidit) of this name. It is encoded employing the data model provided by the TEI
which itself is (technologically) based on XML (Extensible Markup Language).
XML is a meta markup language. It defines a general set of rules for encoding
data (not necessarily textual) and provides a syntax which can be used to build
more specific rules and vocabularies in order to design an encoding model or
schema for particular purposes. The TEI is such a purpose-based model. It is
designed for electronic texts in general, as outlined above, but can and should be
adapted59 to the needs of individual projects.60
The XML syntax stipulates the hierarchical use of elements and attributes
to encode information bound to a sequence of characters. In line 4, for
instance, we encode (or mark up) the word Esrom using the element term
to indicate that Esrom is term (a lemma) that is glossed by the glossator:
< term > Esrom < /term > . The portion of the text that we want to encode
specifically, in this case Esrom, is surrounded by a start-tag which carries the
name of the element and a corresponding end-tag, both indicating the boundaries
of this specific encoding. The encoding is detailed further by the use of attributes
(here: xml:id and target) which carry additional information.61 I will return to this
topic later.
Encoding structural information. In the context of the Wrzburg Matthew,
the encoding structures the data. As one can see from the code example above,
the data model in principle employs four hierarchical levels. The first two levels
follow the (modern) inner structure of the Gospel, its division into chapters
and verses. The element div is used for this purpose and by characterizing
it further using the attribute type, the kind of the level in question (either
Latin capitulum for chapter or versus for verse) is made explicit. Note that
all information is inherited, i.e. a verse always belongs to a chapter and takes
over for instance its number: < div type = versus n = 3 > would encode this
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Figure 3. Sample encoding (simplified) from the Wrzburg Matthew.

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verse as the third verse within this (first) chapter < div type = capitulum
n = 1 > . The third level of encoding uses the element ab (anonymous block,
a generic structural element) and allows to distinguish between the main text
(type = textus), the glosses (type = glossaeInterlineares), and the commentaries (type = commentarii). The fourth level occurs only within the glosses or
commentaries whenever (which is often the case) one verse of the Gospel text
is glossed or commented more than once. Each gloss or commentary is encoded
using the element gloss.
Encoding intra-textual links. The medieval glossator of the Wrzburg
Matthew usually puts the explanation of words or text passages in proximity to
the lemma, mostly into the empty space directly above it. Sometimes, however,
when there is no sufficient space, he puts the commentary somewhere else, for
instance in the margin of the manuscript and uses signes de renvoi to make the
link between gloss and lemma clear. Digital encoding works in a similar way: it
first makes both textual units, i.e., the lemma and its gloss(es), identifiable for the
computer by assigning them unique identifiers. This is expressed by the attribute
xml:id. The data model further designates the attribute target with the same
value for pointing bi-directionally from one to the other: the target of the gloss
corresponds with the xml:id of the lemma in question.62
Encoding inter-textual references. The content of the gloss (sagitam vidit) is
taken from an external source, Jeromes book of Hebrew names.63 The element
ref makes this fact (or better: this editorial interpretation) explicit. It further
employs a typology for classifying the kind of reference (type = patristic)64
and it encodes where this reference is taken from. The attribute cRef contains a
canonical description of this reference in form of a uniform resource identifier
(URI). This is a naming convention consistently used throughout the whole
project. In this example, HI stands for Jerome (Hieronymus), nom is an
abbreviation for the work in question (Liber interpretationis Hebraicorum
nominum), 61.9 identifies a passage within the edition of this work (page 61,
line 9) which we (the modern editors) refer to (CCSL 72). Information on how
to resolve these URIs and how to address the source texts outside the immediate
scope of this project is described in the meta data section of the encoding.
To avoid redundancy and to facilitate consistency, this is done only once for
each work.
2.3 Decoding
Text encoding is a method for creating representations of historical data in
a computer-readable and processable format. Digital editing encompasses the
creation of an interface which provides access to the text constituted by the
editor, annotations, contextual information and if possible digital images of
the manuscript(s). This presentation of the encoded data in a form which is
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Figure 4. Wrzburg Matthew digital edition; prototype (linear text view).

readable and usable by the human researcher requires a process of decoding as

defined above. For the Wrzburg Matthew digital edition, decoding is technically
realized by using the database query language XQuery and by the Extensible
Stylesheet Transformation Language.65 Without going into details here, it is
worth mentioning that these technologies are capable of creating different
outputs for different purposes, even dynamically on users request. Figures 4
and 5 illustrate two prototype outputs of the data (views), both intended to
become integral part of the Wrzburg Matthew digital edition.
The first view, Figure 4, resembles a traditional edition. It is organized along
the structure of the Gospel, presents the text in a linear way, puts glosses
and commentaries underneath their lemmata, and presents annotations and
references separately. It enhances the traditional view and functionality of an
edition, though, by highlighting areas of interests at the users request (such as
the typology of the glosses) or by directly linking to referenced works. To create
the second view, the same encoded data is used, but it is decoded in a way to
allow a completely different form of output, one that gives the user a structured
access to the data and emphasizes not the linear presentation of the Gospel text,
but the glosses and their lemmata. This spreadsheet-like format is motivated by
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Figure 5. Wrzburg Matthew digital edition; prototype (structured view).

traditional annexes (such as the index auctorum in the Corpus Christianorum

series), but unlike indexes or concordances in printed editions, the data here
is sortable and searchable and, what is more, it always stays within its textual
context (for instance of gloss and corresponding lemma) and directly links to
related texts, be they internal or external.

3. visualization
Digitally editing a manuscript such as the Wrzburg Matthew is a natural step
for opening up the text for future research. The edition alone, however, is not
sufficient as it does not eliminate the complexity of the interwoven network
of intertextual relations. In order to meet the research challenges, especially to
locate the codex in space, time, and intellectual context, the encoded data needs
to be analyzed further. This analysis can be undertaken by employing another
core application of the Digital Humanities: information visualization.
Information visualization can be understood as the use of computersupported, interactive, visual representations of abstract data to amplify
cognition,66 a method for seeing the unseen,67 its primary objective being
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to gain insight into an information space.68 Haber observes three functions

of visualization for cultural studies: illustrating the researchers narrative
(prevailing), presenting results of research (as in sciences), or serving as
a methodological element.69 Information visualization has been indeed used
widely in the (Digital) Humanities recently, though mostly for static presentation
of results. While information visualization (if used critically) is often desirable
along the researchers narrative, it hardly takes advantage of the potential of
digital media and computing technology. Especially in the case of complex,
interwoven networks of large-scale data, interactive tools are required and
information visualization can function as the crucial methodological element for
analyses. They can help us to see the patterns, and put together the pieces of
the jigsaw, from the chaotic plethora of information that confronts us about parts
of the past.70 Research so far has paid attention to this with the slogan datadriven history but employs it only for data that is per se highly structured and
predestined for statistics such as census, serial sources or prosopography.
Concerning historical (or literary) data, we can observe two major trends:
distant reading71 and close reading. Both are supported by methods of the Digital
Humanities; information visualization usually addresses distant reading while
close reading is supported by digital editing. In an interview with the New
York Times, Grafton states that these tools have enormous implications [. . . ]
in their ability to reveal unexpected patterns and associations in the historical
record [They. . . ] can pick up big changes [and] you cant do this by using older,
conventional means of reading books and taking notes.72
For the Wrzburg Matthew these tools can be applied to visualize the
intertextual relations and to map the resulting intellectual network. The
underlying model for this network is based on a graph representation into which
the encoded data is automatically transformed. Graphs are, mathematically
speaking, a collection of nodes (or vertices) together with a collection of edges
that connect pairs of nodes. Graphs are generally quite powerful for historical
research, e.g. for visualizing historical (social) networks73 or for expressing
textual variation.74
To simplify the idea of graphs for analytic and visualization purposes,
we might regard textual units from the Wrzburg Matthew (glosses and
commentaries) as well as textual units from the referenced works as nodes in the
graph. Any relation between them is considered as an edge. Figure 6 represents
the interlinear gloss with the explanation of the name of Esrom that we have
already seen in the encoding. It models it as a pair of nodes which is connected by
an edge. The edge represents the inter-texual relation between two textual units
which are themselves modeled as nodes: the gloss in the Wrzburg Matthew
on the left and the source text from Jerome on the right. The edge is further
qualified or attributed by additional information about the type of relation; in this
case it is a verbatim, implicit citation. The sum of all textual units and relations
96

Figure 6. Graph representation of an intertextual relation (simplified).

Re-using Encoded Data for Historical Research

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Figure 7. Snapshot of the visual representation of the Wrzburg Matthew

intertextual space, highlighting the relation between Jeromes Book of Hebrew
names and the commentary on Matt. 1.

among them in form of nodes and edges make up the graph representation of the
Wrzburg Matthews intertextual space.75
The prototypes presented here are created using the open-source software
Gephi, an interactive visualization and exploration platform for all kinds of
networks and complex systems, dynamic and hierarchical graphs.76 To allow
Gephi to operate on the TEI-based encoded data of the Wrzburg Matthew
edition, it needs to be transformed into a graph representation format, such as
GEXF (Graph Exchange XML Format) which is XML-based and in which nodes
and edges are described in a straight-forward way. Hence, the data is decoded for
the visualization software which in turn decodes it for the human reader to create
interactive visualizations.
Figure 7 shows a visual snapshot of the intertexual space of the Wrzburg
Matthew, highlighting the strong influence Jeromes Liber Interpretationis
Hebraicorum Nominum had on the glossing of Matt. 1. Due to its interactive
nature as an analytical tool, the visualization allows further exploration of this
space of various kinds. Such software usually provides functionality which
encompasses zooming, panning, shifting focus, filtering, running different
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Figure 8. The intertextual intersection between the Wrzburg Matthew and

Hrabanus Maurus commentary on Matthew.

algorithms, exploring statistics and metrics, and layouting: the user interacts
with the representation, manipulates the structures, shapes and colors to reveal
hidden properties. The goal is to help data analysts to make hypotheses,
intuitively discover patterns, isolate structure singularities or faults during data
sourcing. It is a complementary tool to traditional statistics, as visual thinking
with interactive interfaces is now recognized to facilitate reasoning.77
In the New York Times report, Grafton continues by stating that the new
analytical techniques wont replace the close reading and interpretation of
text that is the province of scholars.78 Hence, both are required: firstly, only
distant analysis79 allows the recognition of relevant pieces from the vast and
complex network of extant data and information. And this provides, secondly,
the foundation out of which the researcher, by close reading and hermeneutic
analysis, is able to draw profound conclusions about the past. While most Digital
Humanities projects focus exclusively on one or the other, either on visualization
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Malte Rehbein

and distant reading80 or on close reading such as digital editing, the Wrzburg
Matthew project bridges the gap between the two approaches.
Technically, the transformation from TEI into GEXF is a unidirectional
process (i.e. it cannot be reverted without loss of information), and is a
specialized decoding for use in visualization software. Yet, information about
the textual units is conveyed through the transformation which allows the user
to jump back from the visualization into the digital edition. This conception
of a simultaneous close and distant reading in an enhanced hermeneutic loop
facilitates what is demanded by Grafton. Figure 8 exemplifies this. It shows the
combined intertextual spaces of the Wrzburg Matthew and another text that
we have already discussed, Hrabanus Maurus Expositio. The algorithms of the
visualization software automatically arrange and clusters sources commonly and
frequently referred to by both commentaries. The researcher can now explore
this intersection between the two main nodes (indicated in blue) in greater
detail. Provision of direct links to the text passages in question facilitates the
examination of these texts thoroughly by close reading and interpretation.
In order to generate reliable results, however, much more data has to be taken
into account, something which is beyond the scope of the Wrzburg Matthew
editorial project alone. But it does set a research agenda for the future: a map of
medieval knowledge from which one could reason out, for instance, the location
of exegetical practice and creativity in space and time.

4. summary and outlook

Areas and limits of scholarly thinking and practice constitute a space of
knowledge81 in a specific context which can be a scholar itself, his or her specific
work, a school or also a zeitgeist. The case of the Wrzburg Matthew has
shown that spaces of knowledge can manifest themselves not only physically
(as in manuscripts or books), but also through the amount and character of
intertextual references which are witnesses for typical practices of medieval
scholarship. By mapping this system of references, the intellectual network in
which scholars gathered and operated with data and information is becoming
visual and analyzable.
Investigating such spaces of knowledge leads not only to a better
understanding of the history of scholarship, it also shows the limits of thinking
itself and gives insight into what people of the past knew and could know.
Especially in the Middle Ages in which knowledge physically depended on
the possession of or accesses to rare codices, thoughts and comments are
transmitted by scholars to contemporary thinkers or to posterity by typical
practices of medieval scholarship such as writing, commenting, or glossing.
For a contemporary study of the history of ideas, analyzing the system of
intertextual references of the past is the key to a better understanding of
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knowledge acquisition, creation and transmission. This requires a birds-eye

view on the complexity of such a network as well as in-depth studies. By
combining these two, often distinct, methodological approaches to the same set
of data, the digital medium provides this facility for research. Typical questions
from micro studies can now be answered in a totally new dimension, which
allows for the consideration of far larger areas than before, and facilitates the
tracing of development of knowledge in space, time and intellectual context.

end notes
1

6
7

Wrzburg, Universittsbibliothek, M. p. th. f. 61. The research outlined here has been
generously funded by a Marie Curie European Reintegration Grant (European Union Research
Framework Programme FP7). I would also like to express my thanks to Hans-Gnter Schmidt
(University Library Wrzburg), Anthony Harvey (Royal Irish Academy), and Dibh
Crinn (National University of Ireland, Galway) for supporting the project. This research
would not be possible without the fundamental groundwork of late Michael Cahill.
See D. Crinn, Mo-Sinnu Moccu Min and the Computus of Bangor, Peritia 1 (1982),
281295; J. F. Kelly, The Wrzburg Saint Matthew, Wrzburger Dizesangeschichtsbltter
55 (1993), 512; and especially Michael Cahill, The Wrzburg Matthew: Status Quaestionis,
Peritia 16 (2002), 125, for recent research on this manuscript.
H. Thurn, Die Wrzburger Dombibliothek des frhen Mittelalters, Wrzburger
Dizesangeschichtsbltter 54 (1992), 5567.
G. Mlzer and H. Thurn, eds., Die Bibliothek des Wrzburger Domstifts: 7421803, eine
Ausstellung der Universitts-Bibliothek Wrzburg 20. 10. - 30. 11. 1988 (Wrzburg, 1988),
provides insight into the richness of the Libri Sancti Kiliani. The collection is currently
being digitized (Virtuelle Bibliothek Wrzburg, Libri sancti Kiliani digital, http://www.librikiliani.de/, last accessed 30 August 2012).
G. Mlzer, Die Bibliothek des Wrzburger Domstifts in Mlzer and Thurn, eds., Die
Bibliothek des Wrzburger Domstifts, 2138. Cited here at 22.
Mlzer, Die Bibliothek, 34.
Kelly, The Wrzburg Saint Matthew, seems to be the first to use this name for the manuscript
in English research literature. Cahill, The Wrzburg Matthew has picked up Kellys idea
of naming the manuscript while earlier research (B. Bischoff and J. Hofmann, Libri sancti
Kyliani: Die Wrzburger Schreibschule und die Dombibliothek im VIII. und IX. Jahrhundert
(Wrzburg, 1952); B. Bischoff, Wendepunkte in der Geschichte der lateinischen Exegese
im Frhmittelalter (Sacris erudiri 6, no. 2, 1954), 189281; Crinn, Mo-Sinnu Moccu
Min referred only to the shelf mark. K. Kberlin, Eine Wrzburger Evangelienhandschrift
(Augsburg, 1891)) titled his transcription of M.p.th.f.61 less specified Eine Wrzburger
Evangelienhandschrift (a Gospel manuscript from Wrzburg), following G. Schepss, Die
ltesten Evangelienhandschriften der Wrzburger Universittsbibliothek (Wrzburg, 1887):
Die ltesten Evangelienhandschriften der Wrzburger Universittsbibliothek (the oldest
Gospel manuscripts from the Wrzburg University Library).
Editio princeps: Kberlin, Eine Wrzburger Evangelienhandschrift. Catalogued in: H. Thurn,
Die Pergamenthandschriften der ehemaligen Dombibliothek (Wiesbaden, 1984), 4445;
Bischoff and Hofmann, Libri sancti Kyliani; J. F. Kenney, The sources for the early history
of Ireland, 2 vols, Records of civilization (New York, 1929) 55, CLA 9.1415, 1416, BCLL
288, 768, 790, Patrick McGurk (1994, 79); F. Stegmller, Repertorium biblicum medii
aevi, 7 (Matriti, 1961); G. Mlzer and H. Thurn, eds., Die Bibliothek des Wrzburger
Domstifts: 7421803 (Wrzburg, 1988), 59. A much earlier description can be found by

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Malte Rehbein

9
10
11

12
13

14
15
16
17
18

19
20
21
22
23
24

25

26
27

28
29

30

J. A. Oegg, Versuch einer Korographie der Erz- u. Groherzogl. Haupt- u. Residenzstadt

Wrzburg (Wrzburg, 1808).
Thurn, Die Pergamenthandschriften, 4445.
Bischoff and Hofmann, Libri sancti Kyliani.
According to Cahill, The Wrzburg Matthew. Older descriptions state the number of these
cedulae with 30 while Oegg, Versuch einer Korographie, 471, reports of . . . lots of bigger
and smaller pieces or leaves, partly stitched, partly glued. . . (. . . eine Menge grerer und
kleinerer Zettel oder Blttchen, theils eingeheftet, theils angeleimt. . . ) and gives the number
of these pieces with 128. Although it is possible that a large number of the cedulae is lost, no
traces have yet been found.
Such as No. 29 on the computus ( Crinn, Mo-Sinnu Moccu Min).
B. Bischoff, Manuscripts and libraries in the age of Charlemagne, Reprinted, Cambridge
studies in palaeography and codicology, 1 (Cambridge, 1995), 13.
L. E. von Padberg, Christianisierung im Mittelalter (Darmstadt, 2006), 2627.
H. Birkhan, Bausteine zum Studium der Keltologie (Wien, 2005), 379.
Padberg, Christianisierung, 46.
Bischoff, Manuscripts and libraries, 12.
P. McGurk, The oldest manuscripts of the Latin Bible, in R. Gameson, ed., The Early
medieval Bible: Its production, decoration and use, Cambridge studies in palaeography and
codicology, 2 (Cambridge, 1994), 123. Cited here at 45.
M. Gibson, Carolingian Glossed Psalters, Gameson, The Early medieval Bible, 78100.
Cited here at 79.
Gibson, Carolingian Glossed Psalters, 79.
Kelly, The Wrzburg Saint Matthew, 12.
All English translations of the Bible are taken from the English Standard Version (ESV).
CCSL 72.
D. Crinn, Wrzburg, Universittsbibliothek, M. p. th. f. 61 and Hiberno-Latin exegesis
in the VIIIth century, in A. Lehner, ed., Lateinische Kultur im VIII. Jahrhundert: TraubeGedenkschrift (St. Ottilien, 1989), 209216. Cited here at 211; Bischoff, Wendepunkte.
eDIL c.110, l.64. Liber Questionum in Evangeliis constitutes the same compilation without the
Old-Irish words: IESUM FLAGILLATUM. Quomodo innocens a sanguine usti qui flagellatum tradit?
(J. Rittmueller, ed., Liber qvestionvm in evangeliis. Corpvs Christianorvm Series Latina 108
(Turnhout, 2003), 438).
Cahill, The Wrzburg Matthew, 15.
D. Crinn, The earliest Old Irish glosses, in R. Bergmann, E. Glaser and C. MoulinFankhnel, eds., Mittelalterliche volkssprachige Glossen: Internationale Fachkonferenz des
Zentrums fr Mittelalterstudien der Otto-Friedrich-Universitt Bamberg, 2. bis 4. August
1999, Germanistische Bibliothek, 13 (Heidelberg, 2001), 731. Cited here at 19.
Crinn, Wrzburg, Universittsbibliothek, 215.
Stansbury attributes this invention to Bede (M. Stansbury, Early-Medieval Biblical
Commentaries, Their Writers and Readers, Frhmittelalterliche Studien 33 (1999), 4992.
Cited here at 73).
As of Hieronymus Christ is not born to a simple virgin but to an engaged woman (own
translation): first reason to protect, through the genealogy of Joseph, the origin of Mary;
second reason so that she would not be stoned by the Jews as an adulteress; third reason to
have the husbands solace while fleeing to Egypt [. . . ] (i. causa ut per genealogiam Ioseph[i]
origo Mariae seruaretur; ii. causa ne lapidaretur a Iudeis quasi adultera; iii. causa ut in
Aegiptum fugens haberet solacium uiri).

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31

32

33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45

46

47
48

49

50

51

52
53
54
55

Hieronymus Stridonsis, Liber interpretationis Hebraicorum nominum and In Mattheum;

so-called Ambrosiaster, Questiones; Faustus Riensis, De Spiritu Sancto; Augustinus
Hipponensis, Contra Faustum; Arnobius (the younger) Conflictus cum Serapione; Beda
Venerabilis, In Acta; Isidorus Hispalensis, Etymologiae.
Lapidge discusses a hypothesis in which he envisages a scholar undertaking his work
of compilation from the resources of a well-stocked library amongst one of the Irish
communities (M. Lapidge, The origin of the Collectanea, in M. Bayless and M. Lapidge,
eds., Collectanea Pseudo-Bedae. Scriptores Latini Hiberniae, Vol. 14 (Dublin, 1998), 112.
Cited here at 6). This might not be the case here, though. Crinn argues that this
passage might well be taken from the earlier commentary Pseudo-Theopilius of Antioch,
Commentarius in IV evangelium ( Crinn, Wrzburg, Universittsbibliothek, 213).
Cahill, The Wrzburg Matthew, 25.
Lapidge, The origin of the Collectanea, 6.
Stansbury, Early-Medieval Biblical Commentaries, 52.
Cahill, The Wrzburg Matthew, 25.
McGurk, The oldest manuscripts of the Latin Bible, 45.
G. W. Most, ed., Commentaries, Aporemata, 4 (Gttingen, 1999), VIII.
Kelly, The Wrzburg Saint Matthew, 10.
CCCM 174 and 174A.
Oegg, Versuch einer Korographie, 472. Hrabans Expositio is likely to be younger, though.
Bischoff, Wendepunkte.
Bischoff, Wendepunkte, 252.
See, for instance, Crinn, Wrzburg, Universittsbibliothek.
M. Gorman, A Critique of Bischoffs Theory of Irish Exegesis: The Commentary on Genesis
in Munich Clm 6302 (Wendepunkte 2), The Journal of Medieval Latin 7 (1997), 178233.
S. Weber, Iren auf dem Kontinent: Das Leben des Marianus Scottus von Regensburg und die
Anfnge der irischen Schottenklster (Heidelberg, 2010), 304307.
Cahill, The Wrzburg Matthew, 24.
In this context, the relation between the Wrzburg Matthew and Liber questionum in evangeliis
(LQE) is also of great interest: an early eighth century full-scale commentary on the Gospel
according to Matthew, intended as a reference work for ecclesiastics who wrote, taught, or
preached (J. Rittmueller, ed., Liber qvestionvm in evangeliis. Corpvs Christianorvm Series
Latina 108 (Turnhout, 2003), 11*).
In the controversy on Bischoffs turning points, Wright suggests to validate Bischoffs theory
by exploiting the resources of the new electronic text databases (C. D. Wright, Bischoffs
Theory of Irish Exegesis and the Genesis Commentary in Munich clm. 6302. A Critique of a
Critique The Journal of Medieval Latin 10 (2000), 173).
Recently: P. Sahle, Digitale Editionsformen. Zum Umgang mit der berlieferung unter den
Bedingungen des Medienwandels (Norderstedt, 2013), 3 volumes.
R. Bergmann, Editions und Forschungsaufgaben, in R. Bergmann, ed., Die althochdeutsche
und altschsische Glossographie (Berlin, 2009), 16361642. Cited here at 1637.
Kberlin, Eine Wrzburger Evangelienhandschrift.
Kelly, The Wrzburg Saint Matthew, 12.
L. Manovich, The language of new media (Cambridge, 2001), 46.
M. Sperberg-McQueen, Text Encoding and Enrichment, in I. Lancashire, ed., The humanities
computing yearbook: 198990; a comprehensive guide to software and other resources
(Oxford, 1991), 503.

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56

57
58
59

60

61

62

63

64

65
66

67

68

69
70

71

72
73
74

75

76

Current version 2.1.0, LISTERV 16.0, published 18th June 2012, http://listserv.brown.edu/
archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=tei-l;4d467bcc.1206, last accessed 30 August 2012.
Wikipedia, Code, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code, last accessed 19 June 2012.
Colors and bold fonts are not part of the encoding. They are included only to make the codes
better understandable for the human reader.
I say should be adopted here as we know from model theory that every model is bound to
a specific purpose and is always subjective (H. Stachowiak, Allgemeine Modelltheorie (Wien,
1973)).
In this understanding, the Wrzburg Matthew project has developed its own encoding model
based on TEI and we might regard the TEI as a meta model and XML as a meta meta
model.
It is important to note that XML-based documents follow a hierarchy. Any element is either a
sibling to another element or child. In case of the latter, all information encoded using elements
and attributes is inherited to the next (child-) level.
The bi-directional linking looks redundant at a first glimpse, but is not. The relation between
lemma and gloss is not always a 1:1-relation as there are lemmata with more than one gloss as
well as there are glosses commenting on more than one lemma.
We cannot refrain from using an additional element ref in our structure as the relation
between gloss and external references is usually not a 1:1-relation. Glosses and especially
commentaries can be compiled out of many sources, and there are parts of glosses and glosses
as a whole that cannot be attributed to an external source at all.
This is a simplified view. The actual typology is far more complex and includes the distinction
between implicit and explicit usage of external sources, between the type of usage (verbatim,
paraphrase etc.), and the exegetical intention (historical, anagogic etc.)
Both are standards published by the World Wide Web Consortium.
S. K. Card, J. D. MacKinlay and B. Shneiderman, Readings in information visualization:
Using vision to think (San Francisco, 1999).
B. McCormick, T. DeFanti and M. Brown, Visualization in Scientific Computing, Computer
Graphics 21 (1987), 114.
H. Senay and E. Ignatius, A knowledge-Based System for Visualisation Design, IEEE
Computer Graphics 14, 6 (1994), 3647.
Peter Haber, Digital past: Geschichtswissenschaft im digitalen Zeitalter (Mnchen, 2011),
136.
M. Greengrass and L. Hughes, eds., The Virtual Representation of the Past (Aldershot,
2008), 2.
F. Moretti, Graphs, maps, trees: Abstract models for a literary history (London, 2005);
J. Goodwin, Reading graphs, maps & trees: Responses to Franco Moretti (Anderson, 2011).
A. Eisenberg, Avalanches of Words, Sifted and Sorted, The New York Times, 25.03.2012.
Historical Network Research, https://sites.google.com/site/historicalnetworkresearch/, last
accessed 28 Jun 2012.
M. Rehbein, Multi-level variation in MITH, ed., Digital Humanities 2009: Conference
Abstracts (Maryland, 2009), 1112.
Graph theory has developed different kinds of graphs, but the assumption that the Wrzburg
manuscript uses its older source texts and that there is no reference back makes it a directed
acyclic graph. The way the graph is used in this (simplified) discussion puts the Wrzburg
Matthew in its center and analysis intertextual relations only from with it as an origin. In the
design of a map of medieval knowledge (see below), the analysis will not have a single origin
and hence the graph will not be acyclic anymore.
Gephi, http://gephi.org, last accessed 28 Jun 2012.

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77
78
79
80

81

Features, Gephi, http://gephi.org/features, last accessed 28 June 2012.

Eisenberg, Avalanches of Words, Sifted and Sorted.
Eisenberg, Avalanches of Words, Sifted and Sorted.
The Republic of Letters project is an example for this: it provides interactive, visual maps of
correspondence during the Enlightenment but does not allow the researcher to actually read the
letters (Mapping the Republic of letters, https://republicofletters.stanford.edu/, last accessed 28
Jun 2012).
The concept of spaces of knowledge in the context of this case-study and beyond has been
jointly developed and discussed with Antonia Landois (Universitt Wrzburg) for whose
insight and invaluable contribution to this research I am very grateful.

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