CHAPTER ONE

IntroductionConcept of Stress
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

Introduction
Forces And Stresses
Axial Loading: Normal Stress
Shearing Stress
Bearing Stress In Connections
Application To The Analysis Of Simple Structures
Stress On An Oblique Plane Under Axial Loading
Stress Under General Loading Conditions: Components Of Stress
Ultimate And Allowable Stress: Factor Of Safety
Review And Summary

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The main objective of the study of the mechanics of materials is to
provide the engineer with the means of analyzing and designing various
machines and load-bearing structures. Both the analysis and the design
of a given structure involve the determination of stresses and
deformations. This first chapter is devoted to the concept of stress.
1

1.2 FORCES AND STRESSES

Forces (external and internal): Consider the structure in
Fig. 1.1, from the knowledge of statics we know that the
boom AB and rod BC are two-force members. The forces
in the two members can be determined by Equilibrium
Conditions using the Free-body Diagram as the
following.

Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.3

Fig. 1.4

From the free-body diagram of pin B and the force triangle (Fig. 1.3),
we obtain:

Stresses:

The force per unit area, or the intensity of the forces

distributed over a given section, is called the stress on that section and
is denoted by Greek letter . The stress formula:

(1.1)

Fig. 1.5

Fig. 1.6

The sign of stress: + tensile stress

(member in tension)

compressive stress (member in compression)

The unit of stress:

a Pascal. SI metric unites are used.

1 kPa = 103 Pa = 103 /2

1 MPa = 106 Pa = 106 /2

1 GPa = 109 Pa = 109 /2

1.3 AXIAL LOADING: NORMAL STRESS

Axial loading: Forces directed along the axis of
the rod
Normal stress: Average of the force per unit area
in a member under axial loading

Stress at point Q:

(1.1)
Fig. 1.7

The relation between the axial load P

And stress (by equilibrium)

Fig. 1.8

The actual distribution of stresses in any

given section is statically indeterminate.
5

 A uniform distribution of stress is possible only if the line of action

of the concentrated load P pass through the centroid of the section
considered.

Fig. 1.9

If a two-force member is loaded axially, but eccentrically as

shown in Fig. 1.11 , then the internal forces in a given section
must be equivalent to a force P applied at the centroid of the
section and a couple M of moment M = Pd, the distribution of
stresses cannot be uniform.

Fig. 1.10

Fig. 1.11
6

1.4 SHEARING STRESS

Shearing Force or Shear

Average Shearing Stress
Bolt, Pins and Rivets
Single shear and Double shear

Fig. 1.12

Fig. 1.13

Average shearing stress:

P
A
The distribution of shearing stresses across the section cannot be
assumed uniform
Rivet single shear (free body diagram analysis)

ave =

Fig. 1.14

Fig. 1.15

Equilibrium Condition Free-body diagram

Fig. 1.16

Fig. 1.17

Double shear (free-body diagram)

ave =

P F
=
A 2A

1.5 BEARING STRESS IN CONNECTIONS

Fig. 1.18

Fig. 1.19

Bearing stress:

b =

P P
=
A td

1.6 APPLICATION TO THE ANALYSIS OF

SIMPLESTRUCTURES

Fig. 1.20

Determination of the normal stress in two-force members

First to calculate the force in each of the members by free-body
diagram analysis and equilibrium equation for a rigid body:

= 0,

= 0,

M=0

Calculate the tensile stress in each cross-section of rod BC

10

 Determination of the shearing stress

in various connections
Single shear (Pin at C)
Double shear (Pin at A)
For example:

ave

PinC

P
50 103 N
= =
= 102 MPa
A 491 10 6 m 2

Fig. 1.21

Fig. 1.22
For example: Pin at B, the largest shearing stress
occur in section G and H, where

B ,ave =

PG
25 kN
=
= 50.9 MPa
6
2
A 49110 m

Fig. 1.23

Determination of bearing stresses in members, pins and

brackets.

11

1.7 STRESS ON AN OBLIQUE PLANE UNDER AXIAL

LOADING

Axial force cause both normal and

shearing stresses on planes not
perpendicular to the axis of the member.
Considering the equilibrium of
Fig. 1.26 (b) and resolving P into normal
component F and shearing component V,

Fig. 1.24

we have:

F = P cos

V = P sin

The corresponding average normal and

shearing stresses are

F
P cos
P
=
=
cos 2
A A0
A0
cos
V
P sin
P
=
=
=
sin cos
A
A
A0
0
cos

Fig. 1.26
12

Or:

2 = 0 2
0

= 0
=
0
We can see that:

At = , = =
= 0
0
and

0 when

90

At = and = = 0
and at = 45,

= =
At = ,

20

= =

2 0

Fig. 1.27

0
2

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1.8 STRESS UNDER GENERAL LOADING

CONDITIONS: COMPONENTS OF STRESS

Fig. 1.28

Consider a body subjected to several

loads 1 , 2 , etc. Now lets define the stress at a
point Q inside the body. Define the stress on a
small area normal to the x axis:

F x V yx Vzx
,
,
A A A

Fig. 1.30

Letting

0, we define the stress

components at point Q as
F x
x = lim
A0 A

xy = lim
A0

V yx
A

Vzx
xz = lim
A0 A

The sign of stresses

Fig. 1.31
14

Similarly we can define the stress

components on the small area (or
point Q) normal to the y and z axes:

Important relations between

shearing stress components:
Considering the six equilibrium
conditions of small cube of side a

Fig. 1.32

F = F = F = 0
M = M = M = 0
x

Fig. 1.33

From

M = (
z

We have

xy

A)a ( yx A)a = 0

xy = yx

Similarly, yz

= zy yz = zy
Fig. 1.34
15

Only 6 stress components are required to define the

condition of stress at a given point Q, instead of 9 as originally
assumed
3 Normal Stresses , ,
3 Shear Stresses

, ,

At a given point, shear cannot take place in one plane only; an equal
shear must be exerted on another plane perpendicular to the first
one

Fig. 1.35

Same loading condition may

lead to different
interpretations of stress
situation at a given point,
depending upon the orientation of the
element considered. More detail will be
discussed in Chapter 6.

Fig. 1.36

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1.9 ULTIMATE AND ALLOWABLE STRESS: FACTOR

OF SAFETY
Concept of ultimate load and its determination
Ultimate normal stress and ultimate shear stress
Concept of allowable loadworking load or design load

Factor of safety = F.S.=

Factor of safety =

ultimate load

allowable load

ultimae stress

allowable stress

The determination of the factor of safety should be based upon

many considerations.

Fig. 1.37

Fig. 1.38

17

REVIEW AND SUMMARY

(On PP.44-46 of the text book)
Axial loading. Normal stress

Transverse forces. Shearing stress

Single and double shear

18

Bearing stress

Stresses on an oblique section

Stress under general loading

Ultimate strength
Ultimate load and allowable load
Factor of safety

19