PNotes Success Bio F4-Ok

Biology
Made Easy
FORM 4
Virtual
Notes
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Biology
Objective
State the aim of the experiment.
Problem
statement
Pose questions about the observations made.
Hypothesis
Formulate a possible explanation or prediction

based on the observations.
Variables
Identify and control the manipulated, responding

and constant variables.
Materials
and
apparatus
List the materials and apparatus which will be

used during the experiment.
Technique
State the technique involved in obtaining

the results.
Procedure
Write the instructions to carry out the experiment.

The procedures should be written using reported
speech. For example, Examine the slide under the
microscope should be written as The slide is
examined under the microscope.
Diagrams can be drawn to show the set-up of the
experiment. They should be simple and twodimensional. The apparatus should be drawn with
a clear outline and labelled accordingly.
Results
Present the results in the form of simple diagrams,

charts, graphs or tables. Include calculations where
necessary.
Discussion
Discuss, analyse and interpret the data obtained, then

determine the relationship between the manipulated
variable and responding variable.
Conclusion
Draw a conclusion based on the hypothesis given

earlier.
Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2014
CH
CHAPTER 2
Cell Structure and Cell Organisation
Human cells and the adaptations to their functions
Nerve cells
Have long, thin fibres called axons
to conduct nerve impulses.
Red blood cells

Shaped like biconcave discs and are
very flexible, allowing them to move
easily along the narrowest blood
vessels.
Sperm cells
The tail allows the sperm to swim
towards the ovum.
The head contains one set of
chromosomes from the male
organism.
White blood cells

Can change their shape to migrate
to the sites of injuries to fight
infections.
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Cellular components of a plant cell
nu
plasma membrane
chloroplast
3
1
nucleus
2
4
mitochondrion
cell wall of
adjacent cell
vacuole
rough ER
lysosome
2
ribosome
granu
smooth ER
outer membrane
Golgi
apparatus
inner
membrane
Nucleus
Controls all cellular activities.
Contains DNA which determines
the characteristics of a cell.
strom
nucleoplasm
nucleolus
ou
inn
nuclear
membrane
pore in nuclear
membrane
C
C
o
l
c
p
nucleus
nuclear envelope
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
outer membrane
Ribosomes sites of protein synthesis

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
ribosomes
transports proteins made by ribosomes
throughout the cell
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER) synthesises lipids and carries
out detoxification of drugs and metabolic
by-products
outer membrane
inner membrane
cristae
matrix
inner membrane
granum
Mitochondrion
site of cellular
respiration
5
stroma
thylakoid
Chloroplast
Captures the energy
of sunlight and converts
light energy into
chemical energy during
photosynthesis.
vesicles
Golgi apparatus
Processes,
packages and acts
as a transport
centre of
carbohydrates,
proteins and
glycoproteins.
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Human tissues
Tissues
P
Functions
Epithelial tissues at the

surface of the skin
Form a protective barrier against infections

and mechanical injuries.
Epithelial tissues at the

lining of glands, ducts
and kidney tubules
Secrete substances.
Example: Sweat glands in the skin secrete
sweat.
Epithelial cells which

line the alveoli and blood
capillaries
Thin, flat and arranged in a single layer to

allow for easy diffusion of respiratory gases.
Skeletal muscles
Contract and relax to produce movements of

body parts.
Cardiac muscles
Contract to pump blood from the heart.
Smooth muscles
Contract and relax to produce involuntary

movements.
M
t
Nerve tissues
Generate and transmit nerve impulses over

long distances.
Connective tissues
Bind and support other tissues.

Bone tissue provides protection to internal
organs and supports the body.
Tendon attaches muscles to bones.
Blood tissue transports nutrients and
respiratory gases, fights infections and helps
in blood clotting.
G
(
V
(
Plant tissues
Tissues
Functions
ns
Epidermal tissues
Protect plants from mechanical injuries.
Ground tissues:
(a) Parenchyma
tissue
Stores products of photosynthesis such

as sugar.
o
es.
(b) Collenchyma
tissue
Provides support in herbaceous plants.
s of
(c) Sclerenchyma
tissue
Supports and strengthens plants.
Meristematic
tissues
Divide through mitosis to increase the

number of cells.
er
Vascular tissues:
(a) Xylem tissue
rnal
elps
(b) Phloem tissue
Conducts water and minerals from the

roots to the shoots.
Provides support and mechanical
strength to the plants.
Transports organic substances from the
leaves to other parts of the plant.
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CHAPTER 3
Movement of Substances across the

Plasma Membrane
CHA
Structure of the membrane

carbohydrate
phospholipid
cholesterol
pore
Effe
sol
cel
cel
The
the
con
insi
carrier protein
pore protein
phospholipid
hydrophilic
head
hydrophobic
tails
hydrophilic
head
Structure of the plasma

membrane according to
the fluid mosaic model:
The components of the
plasma membrane are not
rigid but form a dynamic and
fluid structure. The proteins
form a mosaic pattern.
Proteins and phospholipids
can move sideways within
the membrane.
Wa
cell
The
and
This
as h
nd
s
Movement of Substances across the

CHAPTER 3 Plasma Membrane
Effects of hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solutions on animal cells
Effects of hypotonic
solutions on animal
cells (red blood
cells)
Effects of isotonic
solutions on animal
cells (red blood
cells)
Effects of hypertonic
solutions on animal
cells (red blood
cells)
The solution outside

the cell is less
concentrated than the
inside of the cell.

the cell has the same
concentration as the
cytoplasm fluid within
the cell.

the cell is more
inside of the cell.
Water diffuses into the Water diffuses into

and out of the cell at
cell by osmosis.
equal rates.
Water diffuses out of

the cell by osmosis.
The cell starts to swell The cell maintains its The cell shrinks and
normal shape.
and eventually burst.
the plasma membrane
crinkles up.
This condition is known
as haemolysis.
The red blood cells are

said to have crenated
(crenation).
ds
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CH
Effects of hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solutions on plant cells
Effects of hypotonic
solutions on plant
cells
Effects of isotonic
solutions on plant
cells
Effects of hypertonic
solutions on plant
cells

the cell is less
inside of the cell.

the cell has the
same concentration
as the cytoplasm
fluid within the cell.

the cell is more
inside of the cell.
Water diffuses into

the large central
vacuole by osmosis.
Water diffuses out of

Water diffuses into
and out of the cell at the cell by osmosis.
equal rates.
The large central

vacuole expands and
swells up. The
plasma membrane
presses hard against
the cell wall.
The cell maintains

its normal shape.
The cell is said to be

turgid.
10
The vacuole and

cytoplasm shrink and
the plasma membrane
pulls away from the cell
wall.
The plant cell becomes
flaccid and undergoes
plasmolysis.
CHAPTER 4 Chemical
ChemicalComposition
Compositionofofthe
theCell
Cell
nic
t
Medium of
biochemical
reactions
he
Maintains
osmotic
balance
of
.
nd
ane
cell
mes
oes
Lubrication
Transport
medium
Importance
of
water
Provides
support
Maintains
body
temperature
Provides
moisture
11
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CHAPTER 4 Chemical Composition of the Cell

Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
Maltose
Sucrose
Lactose
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Glucose + glucose
Glucose + fructose
Glucose + galactose
condensation
hydrolysis
condensation
hydrolysis
condensation
hydrolysis
maltose + water
sucrose + water
lactose + water
Nucleic acids
DNA consists of
two strands of
polynucleotides
twisted around
each other to
form a double
helix.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
12
Structure of a nucleotide
phosphate group
s
nitrogenous base
pentose sugar
Protein structure
ply
Tertiary structure
leu
val
lys
val
val
lau
lys
lys
lya
gly
his
of
f
es
d
ala
gly
gly
ala
lys
his
val
lys
lys
pro
lys
pro
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Quarternary structure
13
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The production of extracellular enzymes

1 The nucleus contains DNA which carries the information for the synthesis of
enzymes.
2 Proteins are synthesised at the ribosomes.
3 The synthesised proteins travel through the rough ER.
4 The protein departs from the rough ER in vesicles that bud off from the membranes
of the rough ER.
5 These transport vesicles fuse with the Golgi apparatus.
6 The proteins are then modified in the Golgi apparatus.
7 Secretory vesicles containing these proteins bud off from the Golgi apparatus
and fuse with the plasma membrane before releasing the proteins as enzymes
outside the cells.
plasma membrane
protein secreted outside

the cell as enzymes
7
6
Golgi apparatus
secretory vesicle
transport vesicle
DNA
1
2
rough endoplasmic
reticulum
nucleus
14
of
us
es
The uses of enzymes in daily life and industry

Protease tenderises meat and removes the skin of fish.
Cellulase breaks down cellulose and removes seed coats from
cereal grains. It also extracts agar from seaweed.
Amylase and amyglucoxidase convert starch to sugar in the
making of syrup.
Trypsin removes hair from animal hides.
Zymase converts sugar into ethanol.
Amylase removes starch stains on clothes.
Lipase ripens cheese.
Rennin solidifies milk proteins.
15
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CHAPTER 4
5 Chemical
Cell Division
Composition of the Cell
CH
centrioles
Early prophase
Centrioles migrate.
Chromosomes condense.
Nucleolus disappears.
Nuclear membrane disintegrates.
An
C
S
o
chromosome
spindle
fibres
Late prophase
Spindle fibres form.
Spindle fibres attach to
chromosomes.
chromosome
Metaphase
Chromosomes line up
at the equatorial plane
(metaphase plate).
metaphase plate
16
Tel
S
C
N
n
Cy
Cl
the
da
CHAPTER 5 Cell Division

centromere
Anaphase
Centromeres divide.
Sister chromatids move toward
opposite poles.
Telophase
Spindle fibres disappear.
Chromosomes uncoil.
Nuclear membrane and
nucleolus re-appear.
cleavage furrow
Cytokinesis
Cleavage furrow divides
the cell into two identical
daughter cells.
daughter cells
17
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CH
Meiosis I
Prophase I
Nuclear membrane disintegrates.
Synapsis (pairing of homologous
chromosomes) and crossing
over occur.
Metaphase I
Homologous chromosomes
line up on the metaphase plate.
Each homologous chromosome
is attached to the fibres from
one pole.
Meiosis II
Prophase II
Nuclear membrane
disintegrates.
18
Metaphase II
Spindle fibres attach to both
sides of the centromere.
Chromosomes line up on
the metaphase plate.
s
te.
me
th

Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes
are pulled apart.
Centromeres do not divide.
Sister chromatids stay joined.
Anaphase II
Centromeres separate
and chromatids (daughter
chromosomes) are drawn
towards opposite poles.
Telophase I
Chromosomes uncoil (partially).
Nuclear membrane forms.
Cytokinesis occurs.
Telophase II
Nuclear membrane forms.
Cytokinesis occurs.
Four haploid cells are formed
from one diploid parent cell.
19
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CHAPTER 6
CH
The human digestive system

Teeth
Cut, tear and grind food.
Tongue
Helps swallow food.
Salivary glands
Secrete salivary amylase
to break down starch.
Epiglottis
Prevents food from
entering trachea.
Oesophagus
A tube connecting
the mouth to the
stomach.
Liver
Removes toxins
from blood.
Regulates food
substances.
Converts excess
amino acids
to urea.
Produces bile.
Gall bladder
Stores bile.
Bile neutralises
stomach acid.
Large intestine
Excess water
reabsorbed
into blood.
20
Nutrition
Stomach
Gastric glands secrete
pepsin which hydrolyses
proteins and rennin
which coagulates milk.
Pancreas
Secretes pancreatic
amylase, trypsin
and lipase.
Small intestine
Digested food
substances absorbed
into blood.
b
c
(
g
a
a
bloo
Rectum
Stores faeces.
Anus
Faeces egested.
lymph
vesse
CHAPTER 6 Nutrition
Adaptation of the small intestine for absorption
The villi:
are numerous in number to increase the surface area for
absorption
have thin walls for easy absorption of digested food
have a network of blood capillaries for the efficient
transport of digested food
have lacteals for the absorption of fatty acids and glycerol
food.
from
ea.
fatty acid
ete
yses
glycerol
lk.
eatic
n
rbed
epithelial cells (absorb

glucose, amino acids,
fatty acids and glycerol)
lacteal
(absorbs
fatty acids
and
glycerol)
blood
capillaries
(absorb
glucose and
amino
acids)
blood capillaries
ces.
sted.
lymphatic
vessel
to liver
to blood
circulatory
system
21
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CHAPTER 6 Nutrition
Absorption and assimilation of nutrients
End products
Absorbed through
Glucose
Blood capillaries by
facilitated diffusion
and transported to
the liver via the
hepatic portal vein.
22
Substrate for cellular

respiration.
Excess glucose is converted
into glycogen and stored in the
liver.
In the cell, glucose is oxidised
during cellular respiration.
Used in the synthesis of
plasma proteins.
Excess amino acids are
deaminated, and urea is
excreted.
In the cell, amino acids are
needed to synthesise
enzymes and hormones.
Amino acids
Fatty acids,
glycerol,
vitamins A, D,
E, K
Assimilation
Lacteals by diffusion
and transported in
the lymphatic system
and finally in the
bloodstream.
Major components of the

plasma membrane
(phospholipids).
Excess fats are stored in
adipose tissue as reserve
energy.
upp
epi
spo
me
The adaptation of leaf cells for photosynthesis

Cross section of a leaf
Packed tightly together in an

upright arrangement to receive
maximum sunlight.
Have a high density of
chloroplasts to carry out
photosynthesis.
Thin and transparent to allow

light to penetrate the leaf and
reach the chloroplasts
cuticle
palisade mesophyll
upper
epidermis
spongy
mesophyll
lower
epidermis
Have large air

spaces between
the cells for easy
diffusion of water
and carbon dioxide
to the palisade cells.
Contain
chloroplasts
which carry out
photosynthesis.
stoma
xylem
bundle sheath
collenchyma
phloem
Xylem transports mineral ions

and water to the leaf.
Phloem transports products of
photosynthesis away from the
leaf.
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The mechanism of photosynthesis
During the light reaction,

chlorophyll captures light
energy which excites the
electrons. The electrons
leave the chlorophyll
molecules.
Light energy splits water
molecules (photolysis of
water) into hydrogen ions
and hydroxyl ions.
Hydrogen ions combine

with electrons released
by the chlorophyll molecules
to form hydrogen atoms.
ATP molecules are also
formed.
In the dark reaction,

hydrogen atoms are used
to fix carbon dioxide in a
series of reactions catalysed
by photosynthetic enzymes.
CH2O is formed.
6 units of CH2O combine to
form one molecule of
glucose.
Each hydroxyl ion loses an

electron to form a hydroxyl
group.
The electron is received by
a chlorophyll molecule.
The hydroxyl groups
combine to form water and
oxygen.
Word equation for photosynthesis:
6CO2 + 6H2O
24
C6H12O6 + 6O2
C
g
o
c
a
3
p
2
r
T
m
I
C
g
CHAPTER 7 Respiration
Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration
Complete oxidation of
glucose in the presence
of oxygen to form
carbon dioxide, water
and energy.
38 molecules of ATP are
produced.
2898 kJ of energy is
released.
Takes place in the
mitochondria.
In all organisms:
C6H12O6
6O2
+
glucose
oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O
carbon
water
dioxide
2898 kJ
energy
Anaerobic respiration
Incomplete oxidation of
glucose in the absence of
oxygen to form lactic acid and
energy (in muscle cells) or
ethanol, carbon dioxide and
energy (in yeast).
2 molecules of ATP are
produced.
210 kJ of energy is released
during fermentation by yeast
and 150 kJ of energy is
released during anaerobic
respiration in the muscle cells.
Takes place in the cytoplasm.
In muscle cells:
C6H12O6
glucose
In yeast:
C6H12O6
glucose
2C3H6O3
lactic acid
+ 150 kJ energy
2C2H5OH + 2CO2
ethanol
carbon
+ 210 kJ
dioxide
energy
25
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CHAPTER 6 Nutrition
Respiratory structure of fish
opercular
chamber
gills
Respiratory structure of frogs
filaments
mouth
gill arch
lamella
heart
lungs
lamellae
blood flow
flow of water
blood
vessels
water flows in the opposite

direction to the blood flow
Characteristics of the
respiratory structures
Respiratory structure of insects

spiracle
trachea
air sac
muscle
spiracles
tracheole
26
Numerous folded linings

increase surface area
to volume ratio for an
efficient gaseous
exchange.
The linings are thin,
one-cell thick to allow a
higher rate of gaseous
exchange.
The surfaces for the
gaseous exchange
are constantly moist
for easy diffusion of
respiratory gases.
Respiratory structure of humans
deoxygenated blood
pulmonary arteriole
(O2 poor)
bronchiole
pulmonary venule
(O2 rich)
heart
lungs
alveolar
space
lood
essels
the
ures
inings
area
r an
n,
ow a
eous
he
e
ist
of
oxygenated blood
blood
capillaries
covering
alveoli
alveolus
air
O2
O2
CO2
CO2
O2
CO2
Oxygen diffuses from the alveolus to the blood capillaries.

Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood capillaries to the alveolus.
27
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CHAPTER 7 Respiration
CH
Transport of carbon dioxide from body cells to lungs

Carbon dioxide released by respiring cells is transported as
dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood plasma (7%)

carbaminohaemoglobin (23%)
bicarbonate ions (70%)
Tissue
Lung
Hb : Haemogl
Haemoglobin
g obin
Blood plasma
CO2
(carbaminohaemoglobin)
CO2 Hb
+
Hb
CO2
H2O
carbonic
anhydrase
H2CO3
HCO3
(carbonic acid) (bicarbonate ion)
H 2O
CO2
CO2
Excreted
28
Hb
carbonic H CO
anhydrase 2 3
CO2 Hb
HCO3
HCO3
red blood cell
O3
CHAPTER 8
Dynamic Ecosystem
Energy flow within a food chain
8 When secondary consumers eat primary
consumers, 10% of the primary consumers

energy is transferred to the secondary
consumers.
Quarternary
consumer
9 The carnivores also lose energy through

respiration, defaecation and excretion.
10 The secondary consumers are then eaten by
Tertiary
consumer
tertiary consumers and subsequently the

quarternary consumers feed on the tertiary
consumers.
11 This is how energy flows from one trophic

level to the next.
4 When primary consumers eat the producers,
Secondary
consumer
10% of the energy stored in the producer is

transferred to the primary consumers.
5 90% of the energy is lost to the environment.

6 Primary consumers use this energy for
growth and movement, and to maintain body

temperature.
Primary
consumer
7 When consumers excrete and defaecate,
energy is made available to the decomposers.
1 The producer absorbs solar energy and

converts it into chemical energy during
photosynthesis.
Producer
2 Some of the energy is used by the producer

for cellular growth.
3 When the producer dies, this energy is made
available to other organisms by decomposers.
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CHAPTER 8 Dynamic Ecosystem
CH
Colonisation and succession in a pond

submerged plants
Succession begins with the growth of

submerged plants like Hydrilla sp. and
Elodea sp.
floating
plants
submerged
plants
organic matter
floating plants
sedges
herbaceous plants
emergent plants
(sedges)
cattails
sedges cattails
When submerged plants die and

decompose, their organic matter is
converted into humus at the pond base.
The shallower condition becomes
more suitable for the growth of
floating plants such as Lemna sp.
and Eichornia sp.
The addition of more organic matter to
the pond base causes the pond to
become shallower.
The floating plants are replaced by
emergent (amphibious) plants such
as sedges and cattails.
When emergent plants die, their
decomposed remains add to the
sediments at the base of the pond.
The shallow condition of the pond
favours the growth of herbaceous
plants.
Eu
or
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
primary forest
30
As time passes, the land becomes

drier and favours the growth of
land plants such as shrubs and bushes.
A primary forest emerges and eventually
turns into a tropical rainforest which is
known as a climax community.
CHAPTER 9
Endangered Ecosystem
The process of eutrophication
of
nd
ase.
to
ch
shes.
ually
is
Eutrophication is the artificial nutrient enrichment of an aquatic system with organic matter
or inorganic nutrients which cause the excessive growth of aquatic plant life.
1 Excess nutrients cause the rapid growth of algae (algal bloom) in a lake.
2 Algae consume a lot of oxygen and block sunlight penetration.
3 Photosynthesis decreases further the oxygen level in the lake.
4 Algae die without being consumed because they grow faster than their consumers.
5 Photosynthetic organisms die and organic matter accumulates at the bottom of the
lake.
6 Dead organic matter is a food source for microorganisms such as aerobic bacteria.
7 Aerobic bacteria use up and deplete the oxygen content in the water.
8 Aquatic organisms compete for oxygen. This results in a high biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD).
9 Low concentration of oxygen kills fish.
The effects of global warming

Melting of polar ice caps and glaciers causes sea levels to rise and subsequently floods
in low-lying areas.
Droughts occur in more areas and this leads to a drop in crop yields.
Changes the wind direction and distribution of rainfall. Affects agricultural activities.
Spread of disease-carrying vectors such as the vector for dengue fever.
The effects of ozone depletion

Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation leads to higher risks of skin cancer,
cataracts and sunburns.
UV light weakens the immune system.
UV light reduces nutrient contents in soil and this decreases crop yields.
UV light damages chlorophyll and reduces photosynthesis in plants.
UV light kills phytoplankton which affects marine food chains.
Ozone depletion leads to an increase in Earths temperature.
31
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CHAPTER 8 Dynamic Ecosystem

A T
2 Some solar radiation

is reflected by the
atmosphere
and Earth's surface.
CH
5 Some of the infrared

radiation passes through
the atmosphere and is
lost in space.
S
6 Some of the infrared radiation is
by the greenhouse gas molec absorbed and re-emitted
ion passes
ules. The direct effect is
1 Solar radiat
e.
the
er
warm
ph
ing
of the Earth's surface and the
clear atmos
troposphere.
through the
Surface gains more heat and infrared
radiation is emitted again.
3 Solar energy is absorbed by the

Earth's surface and warms it...
E A R
4 ...and is converted into heat causing

the emission of the infrared
radiation back to the atmosphere

First published 2015
ISBN 978 983 47 1339 3
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stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
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Biology

State the aim of the experiment.

Pose questions about the observations made.

Formulate a possible explanation or prediction

Identify and control the manipulated, responding

List the materials and apparatus which will be

State the technique involved in obtaining

Write the instructions to carry out the experiment.

Present the results in the form of simple diagrams,

Discuss, analyse and interpret the data obtained, then

Draw a conclusion based on the hypothesis given

Cell Structure and Cell Organisation

Human cells and the adaptations to their functions

Red blood cells

White blood cells

Cellular components of a plant cell

Ribosomes sites of protein synthesis

Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2014

Epithelial tissues at the

Form a protective barrier against infections

Epithelial tissues at the

Epithelial cells which

Thin, flat and arranged in a single layer to

Contract and relax to produce movements of

Contract to pump blood from the heart.

Contract and relax to produce involuntary

Generate and transmit nerve impulses over

Bind and support other tissues.

Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2014

Protect plants from mechanical injuries.

Stores products of photosynthesis such

Provides support in herbaceous plants.

Supports and strengthens plants.

Divide through mitosis to increase the

(b) Phloem tissue

Conducts water and minerals from the

Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2014

Movement of Substances across the

Structure of the membrane

Structure of the plasma

Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2014

Movement of Substances across the

The solution outside

The solution outside

The solution outside

Water diffuses into the Water diffuses into

Water diffuses out of

The red blood cells are

Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2014

The solution outside

The solution outside

The solution outside

Water diffuses into

Water diffuses out of

The large central

The cell maintains

The cell is said to be

The vacuole and

Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2014

Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2014

CHAPTER 4 Chemical Composition of the Cell

Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2014

Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2014

The production of extracellular enzymes