Class number: 17

TOPICS
VI. Animal Reproduction (Chapter 46)
VII. Animal Development (Chapter 47)
VIII. Protozoan Diversity (Chapter 28)
IX. Animal Diversity (Chapter 32 and 33)
X. Vertebrates (Chapter 34)
Animal Reproduction
Are you living?
Cells and organization
Energy use and metabolism
Response to environmental changes
Regulation and homeostasis
Growth and development
Biological evolution
Reproduction
Formation of new younger individuals
Offspring tend to have traits like those of their parents
To perpetuate the population, to maintain the species, to
avoid going extinct
Overview: pairing up for sexual reproduction
Each earthworm produces sperm and eggs; in a few weeks, new
worms will hatch from fertilized eggs
Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom
Sexual reproduction is the creation of an offspring by fusion of a
male gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg) to form a zygote
Asexual reproduction is creation of offspring without fusion of
egg and sperm
Modes of reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Formation of new individuals whose genes all come from
one parent, without fusion of sperm and oocyte
Structurally simple
Almost always relies of mitotic cell division
Advantages
Animals in isolation need not find mates

Numerous offspring formed in a short time (ideal for

colonizing a habitat rapidly)
Little energy expenditure
Beneficial in stable, favorable habitats, perpetuates
successful genotypes precisely
Doesn't promote genetic variability
Offspring are clones (genetically identical copies of the
single parent)
Cloning is advantageous only if
Parents are highly adapted to the environment
Environment stays stable and favorable.
Mechanisms of asexual reproduction
Fission (example: Anthopleura elegantissima)
In sea anemones, planaria
Budding - Obelia
In budding, new individuals arise form
outgrowths of existing ones
In cnidarians (hydrozoans), annelids
(freshwater oligochaeta, polychates)
Fragmentation, accompanied by regeneration
Fragmentation is breaking of the body into
pieces, some or all of which become adults
Must be accompanied by regeneration
In many sponges, cnidarians, tunicates and
echinoderms (especially sea stars)
Gemmulation (formation of gemmules)
In freshwater sponges and a few marine

sponges

When threatened with death due to

environmental conditions, sponges release gemmules into the
sediment, where they become dormant. When conditions improve,
gemmules develop into new sponges.
Parts:
Micropyle
Archaeocytes
Spicules
Parthenogenesis is development of a new individual
from an unfertilized egg.
Several genera of fish, amphibians and lizards
reproduce only through a complex form of parthenogenesis that
involves the doubling of chromosomes after meiosis.

Asexual whiptail lizards are descended from a

sexual species, and still exhibit sexual behavior.
In rotifers, cladocerans (crustaceans), aphids,
honeybees, frogs, whiptail lizards and turkeys
Rotifers
mainly freshwater, free-living,
pseudocoelomates
Bdelloid Rotifers - Philodina
40,000,000 years without sex, yet
survive
Have C-shaped corona which takes
in food
Mastax "chew" the food
Stomach and intestines further
digest food
Has a brain
Germo-vitellarium - equivalent to
ovaries, there's a pair
Cloacal opening, where eggs come
out
Monogonont Rotifers - Brachionus
Amictic females, amictic eggs
Produces a diploid egg, which
develops into an amictic female (also diploid)
Only occurs in favorable conditions
If conditions are unfavorable,
mictic females produce a haploid egg, and an unfertilized haploid egg,
which turns into a haploid male, which has virtually no digestive,
excretory, nervous, and muscular system, but have sperm and a
penis, which will fertilize a haploid egg by attaching to a female
(hypodermic impregnation), then dies. A dormant zygote is produced
from fertilization until conditions improve.
Cladocera (Crustacea) - Daphnia
Asexual eggs (parthenogenic eggs)
Favorable conditions (spring)
Brood pouch
Viviparous young (live birth)
Sexual eggs (ephippium, ephippia)
Unfavorable conditions (summer)
Dormant eggs
Hatch in favorable conditions (spring)
Males appear from a process similar to that
of rotifers.

Desert-grassland whiptail lizards

Aspidoscelis uniparens - unisexual (all females)
Cloaca-to-cloaca (cloacal apposition)
Sexual behaviour still exhibited (pseudocopulation)
The acting female has higher estradiol, the acting
male has a higher level of progesterone
A. inornatus ancestor, still alive, bisexual
Sexual reproduction
Formation of new individuals by fusion of haploid gametes to form a
zygote
Gametes arise by meiosis
Female gamete (egg, ovum, oocyte)
Large and stationary
Male gamete (sperm, spermatozoon, sperm cells)
Much smaller, and motile; numerous
Advantages
Promotes genetic variability
Generates unique combination of genes inherited from two parents
Offspring have a variety of phenotypes.
Enhances the reproductive success of the parents when
environmental conditions change rapidly and adversely.
Disadvantages
Biologically expensive (bioenergetically costly/ large energy
outlay)
Gonochoristic (Dioecious)
Most animals
An individual with only one set of reproductive structures: male or
female
Structures require high maintenance, thus costing a lot of energy
Structures
Penis spermatophore (passage for sperm) - males
Spermatheca (sperm storage) - females
Sex pheromones
Metabolites, airborne or waterborne
Lure mates (Lepidoptera ex. butterflies and moths)
Modern humans have less sex pheromones due to daily
baths, lotions, perfumes, soap, deodorants, feminine wash/ douching
Muskrat males have scent glands on its behind which
produces musk oil which acts as pheromones, it has been synthesized into male cologne
(Jovan)
Cannot reproduce all day long because animal may become
vulnerable

Hermaphroditic (Monoecious)
Single individual with both sets of reproductive structures
Simultaneous hermaphroditism
Testis --> vas efferens --> vas deferens --> seminal vescicle
Ovary --> oviduct --> uterus
In parasites: ex. Chinese liver fluke (Clonorchis sinensis)
Looks for partner, exchanges gametes by
discharging sperm from it's excretory pore into the entry passage of another. (cross
fertilization)
Internal fertilization
In earthworms
External fertilization
Sequential hermaphroditism
In slipper shell limpet Crepidula fornicata
Have ciliated velum which allow it to swim
Veliger larvae attach to a stratum (such as a rock)
and develops into an adult limpet which is always female. More veliger larvae attach to
the female which is attached to the rock, and these larvae are male when attached. As
more veliger larvae settle, they all become male. The males underneath the new males
become female.
Intersex phase - male becoming a female
Protandry: male at first, then becomes female
Environmental cues (Crassostrea americana
- American oyster) - due to pheromones
Protogyny: female at first then becomes male
Bluehead wrasse (Thalossoma bifasciatum)
Harem style- one male, many females.
When male dies, one female becomes male

Why is sex expensive?

Full separation into male and female imposes biologically expensive demands.

All kinds of structural and behavioral adaptations to get he sperm to the

egg.

Behavioral terms: male and female reproductive cycles must bew

synchronized: gametes released at the same time.

Complex hormonal control mechanisms and sensory

receptors that detect such stimuli as longer days and other environmental cues.

Means by which males and females recognize each other;

energy outlays needed for coming up with structural signals such as bright feathers and
for performing courtship routines.

Structural terms (fertilization less complicated among aquatic

animals)

In

External fertilization: large number of sperm and eggs;

almost always synanymous to aquatic animals.
Internal fertilization: all land dwelling animals and some
aquatic forms.
Another requirement: nourishment of fertilized egg and protection of
embryo.
Yolk: amount varies
Alecithal- no yolk - sea urchin eggs; has Pluteus larva with
complete digestive system, which comes out 40 hours after fertilization.
Mesolecithal - moderate yolk - frog eggs
Telolecithal - much yolk - bird eggs
Isolecithal - small amount; uniformly distributed mammals
Parental care
Oviparous - eggs released to the outside
Ovoviviparous - eggs develop within and hatched live from
mother's body - various annelids, some fishes (some sharks), few snakes (copperhead),
lizards, some brachiopods, gastropods
Viviparous - egg nourished directly from maternal tissues;
mammals
Semelparous organisms
Wait long time before mating
Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)
Breed only once, and die after.
Salmon swim upstream to find a mate, female spawns thousands of
eggs, which get fertilized, then the salmon die.
Iteroparous organisms
Multiple reproductions
Frogs
flagrante delicto - caught in the act

Frog reproduction

Eggs surrounded by jelly coats

Male clasps female (amplexus), eggs fertilized as they are shed

Cleavage, egg nourished by yolk

Tadpole with external gills feed on algae

Skin fold grows over gills, water exits through spiracle

Hind limbs, then forelimbs emerge

Tail shortens by reabsorbtion, metamorphosis completes

Sexually mature after 3 years

Young of frog is called froglet.

Anurans (all frogs)

Live in epiphytes (aerial plants)

Orchids or bromeliads

Pygmy marsupial frog- Flectonotus pygmaeus - female nurture in pouches

Poison arrow frog - Phyllobates bicolor - males nurture

Surinam frog Ceratophyrs cornuta - female nurture

Darwin's frog - Rhinoderma darwinii - male nurtures by swallowing frog until

the vocal pouch
Reproductive anatomy of the human male
Testis - where sperm is formed continuously
Rete testis -> efferent ductules -> epididymis
Epididymis - sperm begin to mature
Vas deferens
Ejaculatory duct - sperm receives secretions from the next three
parts
Seminal vescicle
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral gland
Urethra - where sperm is ejaculated
Scrotum - contains the testis, and is outside the abdominal cavity
(37C) because temperature in scrotum is optimal for sperm
production (34C)
Male may become infertile if testes are in abdominal cavity Cryptorchidism
Semen
Body fluid similar to tears, saliva
Colorless
High in protein (30% more than cow's milk)
Low calorie (fat and sugar content 1/9 of that in milk)
Sperm
Secretions
98% of the semen
From seminal vescicle
Fructose
Prostaglandins - useful when sperm is on the
way to the egg, helps the sperm move
Prostate gland
Anticoagulant
Citrate
Neutralize vagina pH (3.8 - 4.2)
Bulbourethral gland

Mucus like - for lubrication

Penis
For delivery of sperm
Seminiferous tubules
inside testis
Sperm not yet mature
Basement membrane
Spermatogonium
Primary spermatocytes - mature spermatogonium - diploid
Secondary spematocytes - primary spermatocytes under
go meiosis 1 - haploid
Spermatids - through meiosis 2
Finally become sperm
Epithelial tissue
65-75 days
Interstices
Gaps between seminiferous tubules
Leydig cells - release testosterone
Interstitial endocrinocytes
Sertoli cell
Sustentacular cell / nurse cell
It takes sperm 74 days to get from the testes to the ejaculatory
duct
Structure of sperm cell
Acrosome
Hydrolytic enzymes - to get through the wall of the oocyte
Flagellum - microtubules made of tubulin (similar to actin) arranged in "9+2" configuration, prevents sperm from
being ripped apart during ejaculation

Sex hormones
Testosterone
From testes in males.
Secondary male characteristics, including :
Hair
Broad shoulders
Deep voice
Apocrine sweat glands - puberty
Eccrine sweat glands - pre puberty
Oil glands
Estradiol/ estrogen

In males, it reabsorbs water, ions and proteins in the

efferent ductules, making the sperm more concentrated.
In males, it is produced in the adrenal glands, specifically,
the adrenal cortex
Both originate from cholesterol, which is a steroid

Hypothalamic neurosecretory cells

Produces GNRH (gonadotropic releasing hormone), which
stimulates the pituitary gland to produce FSH (follicle stimulating
hormone) and luteinizing hormone, which stimulates creation of
testosterone and estrogen.
FSH is mediated by the sertoli cells by producing inhibin
LH mediated by Leydig cells by producing testosterone.
When testosterone is in acceptable levels, it inhibits the anterior
pituitary gland and the hypothalamus.
What is happening to sperm in men?
1996 Brit med
Men born after 1970 had sperm count 25% lower tha.
Those born before 1959?
1995 study of men in Paris France
2.1% annal decline over past 20 years
Quality of sperm is in decline
Increase in incidence of testicular cancer and undescended
testicles
What could be causing oligospermy?
Stress, smoking, drug use
Men having children later in life
Increase in STDs
Shift from boxers to briefs
Briefs push testes closer to the body, thus increasing
temperature
Environmental pollutants such as DDT, some forms of
dioxins, PCBs, and a number of synthetic substances environmental estrogens (xenoestrogens)
Lab tests: small amounts of industrial chemicals, delivered
at crucial stage of fetal development, ca feminize a male
embryo, producing smaller testicles, low sperm output, and
small penis
To be considered fertile, a male has to have a sperm count
of 48 million/mL, >63% motile sperm. An infertile male has
a sper count of less than 13.5 million/mL and <32% motile
sperm.

Reproductive anatomy of the female

Ectopic pregnancy - when the egg attaches to the body cavity
There's is a hormone that splits the pubic bones slightly to allow
passage of baby.
Vagina is acidic, with a pH of 3.8-4.2
Bacterium Lactobacillus acidophilus is the reason for the pH. It produces lactic
acid.
Every month, an egg cell is released from the ovary and goes to the Fallopian tube
where it may be fertilized.
When egg is fertilized, it becomes a blastula and goes to the uterus.
Ovaries take turns in releasing oocytes.
Oogenesis
Diploid cell in embryo (oogonia) --> differentiation and onset of meiosis I
--> primary oocyte, arrested in prophase of meiosis I --> present at birth
(400000- 1m - 2m) --> only one primary oocyte develops into a secondary
oocyte, which is arrested at metaphase of meiosis II and is released from
the ovary each month
Spermatogenesis vs oogenesis
Males are born with spermatogonia, at sexual maturity, spermatogonia
develop into primary spermatocytes, which undergo meiosis to become
secondary spematocytes, which undergo meiosis again to become
spermatids, which develop into sperm.
Oogonium in ovary becomes a primary oocyte which groans in the
follicle, which reaches maturity at the secondary oocyte stage, where it is
now essentially a glandular structure that releases estrogen. The oocyte is
then released (ovulation), accompanied by some follicle cells. The
ruptured follicle becomes a corpus luteum, which produces progesterone
for ten days if egg is unfertilized, and 3 months if it is, then degenerates.
Spermatogenesis - 1 spermatogonium, 4 sperm
Oogenesis - 1 oogonium, 1 ovum
When a woman no longer responds to hormones that stimulate ovulation, she
undergoes menopause.
Reproductive cycles in mammals
Menstrual cycle
Happens in women and a few primates
Ovulation concealed.
Endometrium shed.
Refer to Campbell page 1011
Sperm live for 72 hours in the woman's body
Estrous cycle
Happens in most primates and the rest of the mammals

Ovulation is known by the males and females because ovulation is the

time where they are most fertile and sexual active
Estrus period - slightly heightened body temperature - willing to have sex
Endometrium resorbed
Animals have sex for the sole reason ofreproduction. People do it for reproduction
and for recreation.
Women will get pregnant during the ovulation period.
Males are ready to have sex when erectile tissues (corpora cavernosa) when a
man is aroused, instead of the blood going back to the heart, it builds up in the
erectile tissue, causing erection.
Chemistry
L-arginine (amino acid) --> nitiric oxide synthase -> enzyme 1 -->
nitric oxide --> activates enzyme Guanylate cyclase --> increases
levels of cGMP (cyclic guanosie monophosphate) --> relaxes and
dilates blood in penis so blood can flow --> erection
Nitric oxide --> broken down by enzyme 2--> erectile dusty ton if
too much
Viagra counteracts enzyme 2, causing erections (sildenafil citrate)
Intense shearing forces 5 m/s
400 M sperm ejaculated (per 3.5 ml)
Mucus layer on cervix, blocking sperm, however, estrogen from the
female and prostaglandins from the male thins the layer, leaving a few
hundred thousand sperm
There are macrophages in the uterus, which attack the sperm
They are also given glucose baths and proteins (sperm capacitation), to
energize the sperm
There is an increase in temperature in the Fallopian tube where the egg is.
In the oviduct, there about 200 left

Preventing unwanted pregnancies

Fertility control - behavioral, physical, chemical, or surgical interventions that
disrupt reproductive behavior or affect gamete survival
Behavioral intervention
1. Abstinence
2. Withdrawal - coitus interruptus
Risk: sperm are in bulbourethral fluid before
ejaculation
3. Rhythm method
Based on menstrual cycle
Physical intervention
Diaphragm
Condom

Chemical intervention
Douching
Spermicidal foam or spermicidal jelly
The pill
Estrogen progestin - prevents ovulation
Minipill (progestin only)- alters cervical mucus
Surgical intervention
Tubal ligation
Vasectomy (surgical, laser or non-scalpel vasectomy)
Implantation control - physical or chemical interference with the
blastocyst's ability to become lodged in the wall of the uterus
Intrauterine device
Morning after pill (e.g. Postinor)
Abortion
Surgical
Non surgical - use of RU 486- blocks progesterone
receptors in uterus, terminates pregnancy within first 7
weeks

Key events in animal development

Gametogenesis
Limited differentiation, under control of parental genes
Fertilization
Sperm activates maternal control elements in egg cytoplasm
Cleavage
Zygote divides by mitosis (increase in number of cells, but no
increase in size); gene activity cells largely under direction of
maternal control elements in the cytoplasm
Gastrulation
Embryonic layers form; gene activity proceeds according to control
elements in the nucleus of each differentiated cell - which activate
different parts of the same set of DNA in different cells
All organisms except diploblastic phyla have 3 layers
Neurulaton
Neural tube forms (nervous system first to develop)
Organogenesis
Body organs are formed, cells interact, further differentiate
Growth and tissue specialization
Organs acquire their specialized structural and chemical properties
which continue past the time of birth
Problems of sperm in the sea

Although the secondary oocyte is a large target for sperm, conditions conspire
against sperm-egg coming together in just a chance encounter
The enormous dispersing effect of the ocean
Limited swimming range of sperm
Presence of gametes from other species
Solutions to the problems of sperm
Release a large number of sperm
Sperm release triggered by chemical cues from oocyte (chemotactic
factors that are species specific); to attract sperm to individuals of
the same species
Oocyte has receptor sites that bind with proteins on the head of the
sperm

Difference between external and mammalian fertilization

Mammalian eggs have no jelly coats and no vitelline layer
Mammals have follicle cells that may get in the way, and
there's no fast block to polyspermy
There is no fertilization envelope in mammals
In mammals, the whole sperm goes in the egg as opposed to
sea urchins whose nucleus only goes in.
First cleavage takes 36 hours in mammals as opposed to 90
minutes in sea urchins
Study figures in chapter 49
To make babies
Problems
Female infertile: failure to ovulate; blockage in
oviducts
Male infertile: oligospermy; sperm not motile enough
Sexually transmitted diseases - often produce scar
tissues that block the oviducts
Antibodies produced in the uterus - immobilize sperm
Solutions
Hormone therapy - to increase production of sperm or
oocyte
Surgery - to correct disorders (blocked oviducts)
Cryopreservation - sperm banks; oocyte storage
Assisted reproductive technology
In vitro fertilization - sperm and oocyte in
culture dish; up to 8 cell stage, then
transferred to uterus
Zygote intrafallopian transfer - zygote placed
in the Fallopian tube (oviduct)

Gamete intrafallopian transfer - sperm and

oocyte placed in the Fallopian tube (oviduct)
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection - head
sperm/spermatids injected in oocyte for
fertilization
Surrogate motherhood - poses difficult ethical
and legal problems

Protozoan Protista
Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1674
Animal like Protists - classified according to locomotion and
mode of getting food (before, no longer true)
Class Mastigophora - flagellum
Class Sarcodina - psudopodia
Class Sporozoa - spore formers
Class Ciliophora - cilia
Advances in eukaryotic systematics have caused the
classification of Protists to change significantly
Protist is the informal name of the kingdom of mostly
unicellular eukaryotes
Protists constitute a paraphyletic groups, and Protista is no
longer valid as a kingdom
Protists are eukaryotes and thus have organelles and are more
complex than prokaryotes
Most Protists are unicellular, but there are some colonial and
multicellular species
Protists, the most nutritionally diverse of all eukaryotes include
Photoautotrophs, which contain chloroplasts
Heterotrophs, which absorb organic molecules or
ingest larger food particles
Mixotrophs, which combine photosynthesis and
heterotrophic nutrition
Protists can reproduce asexually or sexually
Endosymbiosis in eukaryotic evolution
There is now considerable evidence that much protist
diversity has its origins in endosymbiosis
Excavata
Characterized by cytoskeleton
These 2 groups live in anaerobic environments, lack
plastids and have modified mitochondria
Diplomonads
Have modified mitochondrion called
mitosomes

Giardia intestinalis = Giardia lamblia

May be in intestine of humans and
wild and domestic animals
Mllions of cysts pass through the
feces
Wilderness steams or lakes
contaminated with cysts
Cysts are durable, last 2-3 months
Cysts taken in by drinking water that
is contaminated
Risk: giardiasis or backpacker's
disease (sever diarrhea, intestinal
cramps)
Parabasalis
Have reduced mitochondria called
hydrogenosomes that generate some
energy anaerobically
Include Tricomonas vaginalis
Largest (7-32 micrometers long) of
trichomonads present in females
Inhibits vagina primarily, associated
with lowered acidity
Treatment: suppositories, douch of
dilute vinegar, powdered containing
boric acid or acid creams or jellies;
antibiotics
In males: invades prostate and
seminal vesicles, Skane's glands in
urethra
Risk: trichomoniasis (STD)
Euglenozoa
Diverse clade that includes predatory
heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs and
pathogenic parasites
The main feature distinguishing them as a
clade is a spiral or crystalline rod of unknown
function in their flagellum
Kinetoplastids
Have a single large mitochondrion
with unorganized mass of DNA called
a kinetoplast
Trypanosoma congolense
Blood flagellates = hemoflagellates

Have basal granules, basal body,

blepharoplast = kinetosome ultrastructure of flagellum
Bodo - good kinetoplastid
Kinetoplasts - disc shaped DNA
containing organelle within a large
mitochondrion
Trypanosoma brucei - 3 subspecies
Trypanosoma brucei
gambiense
Trypanosoma brucei
rhodesiense
Trypanosoma brucei brucei
Trypanosomiasis - sleeping sickness,
mental dullness
Euglenids
Have one or 2 flagella that emerge
from a pocket from the end of the cell
Have light detectors which help orient
the euglenid
Shifts from autotrophic to
heterotrophic in unfavorable
conditions
Has a contractile vacuole which takes
up water, and gets rid of excess

Alveolates
Have membrane bound sacs called alveoli, whose function is
unknown
Part of chromaveolata
Dinoflagellates
Diverse groups of aquatic mixotrophs and
heterotrophs
Blooms are cause of red tides
Pyrodinium bahamence var. compressum
First discovered in the red sea
Causes red tides (algal blooms) in the
Philippines
Pyridinium bahamence var. bahamence
Not toxic
Pfiesteria piscicida
In north Atlantic ocean (NC, VA, MD)

Life cycle has 24 stages: cysts, flagellated

stages (suck out juices of menhaden and oily
fishes), amoeboid stages (feast on the dead fish)
Called the cell from hell
Ceratium hirudinella, Noctiluca bioluminescent
(not harmful)
Zooxanthellae
endosymbionts in hard corals
In gastrodermis of hermatypic corals
Apicomplexans
Are parasites of animals, and some cause
serious human diseases
One end, called apex, contains a complex of
organelle used for entering host
Have apicoplasts
Plasmodium
Species and periodicities of episodes of chills
and fevers
Plasmodium vivax
Tertian or benign malaria, every 48h
Plasmodium ovale
Every 48 h
Plasmodium malariae
Quartan malaria, every 72 h
Plasmodium falciparum
Subtertian, malignant tertian malaria, every 4048h, most virulent
Vector: mosquito Anopheles (Diptera), female
Number of species of Mosquitos: 3000-3500
Species of Anopheles: 1000
Less than 12 dozen have malaria
Anopheles gambiae
Schizogony - multiple fission
Have micro and macrogametocytes, which is
sucked back by the mosquito
Peritrophic membrane - chitinous membrane of
the gut of mosquitos, where fertilization takes
place
Oocytes undergo sporogony, which produces
sporozoites
Ciliates
Have 2 types of nucleii

Dimorphic nucleii
Have large macronucleus for nutrition and
micronucleus for reproduction
Paramecium
Refer to book
Binary fission is unique to ciliates

Rhizaria
Foraminiferans are named for porous, generally multi
chambered

Difficulties in controlling malaria

The vector mosquitos Anopheles
Persistence of breeding places (fresh waters) of Anopheles Mosquitos
Different susceptibilities of Anopheles individuals to insecticides
Exposure to mosquito bites
The parasite alters the surface chemistry of RBC so that the RBC sticks to the
tissue lining the blood vessel
This removes the cell and it's parasite from general
circulation,preventing destruction of that blood cell by the immune
system within the hosts spleen: the rbcs do not circulate through the
spleen
Plasmodium falciparum erythrocoetiz membrane protein 1 (pfemp1)
Parasite is intracellular
Plasmodium stages
Different stages in plasmodium life cycle
Different species
Genome of plasmodium
14 chromosomes
5279 genes
23M nitrogen base pairs
Genome of Anopheles gambiae
14000 genes
278m base pairs
Unikonta
Gymnamoeba
Naegleria fowleri
Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) amoeba enters brain.
You die.
The amoebas in us
Entamoeba gingivalis
Trophozoite

10-20 micrometers
Entamoeba histolytica
Trophozoite and cyst
Iodamoeba buetschlii
Trophozoite and cyst

Reproduction in protozoan Protists

Asexual reproduction
Binary fission
Transverse fission
Ciliates
Under influence of macronucleus
Euglypha
Longitudinal fission
Euglenids
Kinetoplastids
Trypanosoma
Euglena
Oblique fission
Dinoflagellates
Multiple fission
Schizogony
Sporozites
Mereozoites of Plasmodium in human host
Sporogony
Oocyst of Plasmodium in mosquito
Sexual reproduction
Conjugation
in ciliates only, same species, same variety (syngen),
different mating types
Schistosoma japonicum
Schistosoma haematubium
Schistosoma mansami
Myllokumingia Fenjiaoa advanced chordate
Pan troglodytes - chimpanzees
Pan paniscus