LECTURE 7

Isolated Switch-Mode DC/DC Converters

DC Power Supply Control

17Jun13

Isolated Switch-Mode DC/DC Converters-1

Introduction
In DC/DC converters used in DC Power Supplies, an electrical
isolation between the input and output sides is a requirement.
In computer DC power supplies, multiple outputs at different
voltage levels are produced to feed analog and digital circuitry. In
multi-output DC power supplies, different outputs have to be
isolated from one another and the input.
The electrical isolation is provided through a high-frequency
transformer that is considered a part of the DC/DC converter
topology. High-frequency transformers are smaller, lighter and less
expensive when compared with line-frequency transformers.
The cores of high-frequency transformers, which are made of
highly-permeable material, such as iron powder and ferrite, with
low electrical conductivity, have lower maximum flux density when
compared with iron cores of line-frequency transformers. As a
result, they are normally operated at the knee of magnetization
curve (B-H curve) to make the most of the available capability. This
is however at the risk of core saturation.
Isolation through a transformer provides the flexibility of voltage
level adjustment.
17Jun13

Isolated Switch-Mode DC/DC Converters-3

Isolation Transformer Model
The circuit symbols of a 2-winding transformer are shown below.

The dots used on the primary and secondary windings define the
relationship between the voltage polarities and current directions on
two sides of the transformer.
The model of an ideal 2-winding transformer and the relationship
between input and output voltages and currents are:

v1 i2 N1

v2 i1 N 2

17Jun13

Isolated Switch-Mode DC/DC Converters-5

Isolation Transformer Model
The complete model of a transformer is:

17Jun13

ip: primary current

is: secondary current
R1: primary winding series resistance
R2: secondary winding series resistance
L1: primary winding leakage inductance
L2: secondary winding leakage inductance
Rm: resistance representing transformer core loss
Lm: Magnetizing inductance

Isolated Switch-Mode DC/DC Converters-5

Isolation Transformer Model

Even though the ideal model is often used in preliminary analysis of

power electronic circuits, the simplified model shown below is
preferred in the cases where the magnetizing inductance plays an
important role in the operation and is an important parameter in the
design of certain converters such as flyback converter.

In the simplified model, the series resistances and leakage

inductances have been neglected as they are small and do not play
an important role in the general operation of power electronic
converters. Leakage inductances can however be important when
the analysis is performed at the level of switching transients.
Care must be taken to make sure the core of a high-frequency
transformer is reset at the end of each switching period. Otherwise,
magnetic flux will build up, leading to core saturation. When the
core saturates (d/dt 0), the transformer winding terminal voltage
assumes very close to zero values, causing excessive overcurrents.
17Jun13

Flyback Converter-1

[1]
Flyback Converter

Flyback converter topology is derived from Buck-Boost converter

topology. As in buck-boost converter, energy is stored in an inductor
(Lm in flyback) when the switch is ON and released to the load
when the switch is OFF.

Buck-Boost Converter

17Jun13

Flyback Converter-2
Lets assume the components are ideal, the transformer has a
magnetizing inductance of Lm, the circuit is at steady-state, and C is
large enough for the output voltage to be considered constant.

Flyback Converter
[1]

Topological Mode I: Switch ON

17Jun13

Flyback Converter-3
When the switch is turned ON,

v1 Vi Lm
I Lm

diLm
dt

on state

diLm

I Lm

dt

on state

I Lm
dTs

Vi
Lm

dTsVi

Lm
[1]

Topological Mode I: Switch ON

17Jun13

Flyback Converter-4

When the switch is turned ON,

v1 Vi v2

N2
Vi
N1

The voltage v2 and Vo add up and reverse bias the diode D. As a

result,

i2 0 i1

N2
i2 0 ii iLm
N1

When the switch is ON, the magnetizing inductance current rises

linearly and energy is stored in Lm. Secondary winding current is
equal to zero and no energy transfer to the load takes place.
In transformer terminology, during switch on-period, magnetic flux
rises in the core and magnetic energy is stored in the transformer.

[1]

Topological Mode I: Switch ON

17Jun13

Flyback Converter-5

Flyback Converter
[1]

Topological Mode II: Switch OFF

17Jun13

10

Flyback Converter-6

When the switch is turned OFF, the current in the magnetizing

inductance is temporarily interrupted. This results in an Ldi/dt
voltage of reverse polarity across Lm. This voltage is transformed to
a voltage of reverse polarity on the secondary side that overcomes
Vo and forward biases the diode D. With the diode turn-on, the path
for secondary current is provided, allowing for magnetizing
inductance current to flow through primary winding. The output
voltage will be reflected on the primary side across the magnetizing
inductance with reverse polarity. As a result, the current in the
magnetizing inductance falls and the energy stored in it during
switch on-period is transferred to the load.
The operation in switch off-period can also be explained in terms of
transformer flux based on the fact that, as the switch opens, the
transformer flux cannot change instantaneously, in the same way
that the inductor current cannot change instantaneously.

[1]

Topological Mode II: Switch OFF

17Jun13

11

Flyback Converter-7
When the switch is turned OFF,

v2 Vo v1

N1
Vo
N2

diLm
diLm
N1
Vo Lm

N2
dt
dt
I Lm

off state

I Lm

off state

I Lm
(1 d )Ts

N1 Vo
N 2 Lm

(1 d )TsVo N1

Lm
N2

[1]

Topological Mode II: Switch OFF

17Jun13

12

Flyback Converter-8
When the switch is turned OFF,

iLm i1

iD i2
I D Io

N1
N
i1 1 iLm
N2
N2

Vo
R

vS Vi v1 Vi
iC iD I o

N1
Vo
N2

V
N1
iLm o
N2
R

[1]
Topological Mode II: Switch OFF
17Jun13

13

Flyback Converter-9
Output-to-Input Voltage Ratio

At steady-state, when the magnetizing inductance current is

repetitive (or transformer flux is repetitive), the peak-to-peak ripple
in the magnetizing inductance current is the same during on-period
and off-period of the switch. Therefore,
I Lm

on state

I Lm

off state

I Lm

dTsVi (1 d )TsVo N1
V
d N2

o
Lm
Lm
N2
Vi 1 d N1

Note the similarity between the output-to-input voltage ratios of

flyback converter and buck-boost converter. The difference is in the
transformer turns-ratio.

[1]
Flyback Converter
17Jun13

14

Flyback Converter-10
Other Relations for Flyback Converter
I i I S dI Lm

I Lm

Po V 2
o
2
2

I i Vi
V
V
dV
N
N
o
i
2
2

R o

2
d
d dVi dVi R (1 d ) R N1 (1 d ) R N1

I Lm ,max I Lm
I Lm ,min I Lm

I Lm
2
I Lm
2

I C I D I 2

N1
N
I1 1 I Lm ,max
N2
N2

[1]
Flyback Converter
17Jun13

15

Flyback Converter-11
Output Voltage Ripple and Capacitor Design
Due to the fact that the output stage of flyback converter is the same
as that of buck-boost converter, the formula for output voltage ripple
will be the same as that for buck-boost converter.
Vo
d

Vo
RCf s

Note: For I Lm ,min

if I Lm ,min

N1
d
ID. C
Vo
N2
Rf s
Vo

N1
I D , a different formula has to be derived for
N2

output voltage ripple. Here, the formula is given without proof.

2

N1
I o (1 d )
I Lm ,max
N
Vo
N
2

, if I Lm ,min 1 I D .

N
Vo
N2
2I Lm 1 f s CVo
N2

17Jun13

16

Example
The flyback converter shown below has the following parameters:

Vi = 36V
N1:N2 =5:2
Lm = 400H
C = 150F
fs = 30kHz
R = 10
Vo= 12V

Find the duty ratio, magnetizing inductance current average,

minimum and maximum values, and the output voltage percent
ripple. Simulate the converter using PSIM and show important
current and voltage waveforms.

Flyback Converter
17Jun13

[1]
17

Solution
The duty ratio can be found as follows:

Vo
V N
d N2
d

o 1

Vi 1 d N1
Vi N 2 1 d
Vo N1
Vi N 2
1
1
d

0.455
36 2
Vo N1
Vi N 2
1
1
1
12 5
Vi N 2
Vo N1
The magnetizing inductance current average, minimum and
maximum values can be found in the following way:
I Lm

Vo2
122

0.879 A
dVi R 0.455 36 10

I Lm

dTsVi
dVi
0.455 36

1.365 A
3
6
Lm
Lm f s 400 10 30 10
1.365
1.56 A
2
2
I Lm
1.365

0.879
0.197 A 0 continuous iLm
2
2

I Lm ,max I Lm
I Lm ,min I Lm
17Jun13

I Lm

0.879

18

Solution (Cont.)
The output voltage ripple calculation starts with a check on the
validity of the conventional formula.
N1
5

I
0.197

0.493 A
Lm ,min N
2
2

V 12

I D I o o 1.2 A

R 10
N1
I Lm ,min
I D Conventional formula is not valid.
N2
2

N1
5

I o (1 d )
I Lm ,max
1.56 1.2 (1 0.455)
N2
Vo
2

5
N
Vo
2 1.365 30 103 150 106 12
2I Lm 1 f s CVo
2
N2

0.011 1.1%

17Jun13

19

Solution (Cont.)
The setup in PSIM will look like the following:

17Jun13

20

Solution (Cont.)
The simulation results are as follows:

17Jun13

21

Solution (Cont.)
The simulation results are as follows:

I D Io
1.2 A

Vo
0.0109
Vo
1.1%

17Jun13

22

Solution (Cont.)
The simulation results are as follows:

17Jun13

23

Flyback Converter-12

PROS
Single-switch, no output inductor
Single-ended topology (Emitter or Source of switch at the same
potential as the input voltage negative terminal.)
Simplest circuit, low-cost
Low turn-on loss (Switch current rises gradually at a rate controlled
by Lm.)
CONS
High output capacitor ripple current
High turn-off loss (Switch voltage rises quickly to a level dictated
by input and output voltages and transformer turns-ratio.)
Unidirectional core excitation, poor transformer utilization
High switch and diode voltage stresses

[2]
Flyback Converter
17Jun13

24

Flyback Converter-13
Discontinuous Mode of Operation
1st-order system (easy to stabilize)
Better utilization of magnetics
High output capacitor ripple current
Continuous Mode of Operation
2nd-order system
Right-Half-Plane (RHP) zero
Difficult to stabilize

Flyback Converter

17Jun13

[2]

25

1-Switch Forward Converter-1

PROS
Single-ended topology, Simple Circuit
Low output ripple
CONS
Large output inductor
Unidirectional core excitation (need for reset winding), Poor
transformer utilization
High switch voltage stress

[2]
1-Switch Forward Converter
(derived from buck converter)
17Jun13

26

1-Switch Forward Converter-2

[2]

1-Switch Forward Converter

Continuous Mode of Operation:

iLo continuous
Discontinuous Mode of Operation:
iLo discontinuous
Normally operated in continuous-mode low ripple current

17Jun13

27

2-Switch Forward Converter-1

[2]

PROS
Low switch voltage stress
Simple circuit
Low output ripple
No reset winding needed
Higher power capability than 1-switch forward converter
CONS
Large output inductor
Unidirectional core excitation, poor transformer utilization
Switching losses
Double-ended topology; driving S1 and S2 needs two isolated
power supplies, since the emitters (sources) of the two switches
are not at the same potential. Also, isolation between control
circuit and power circuit is necessary.
17Jun13

28

2-Switch Forward Converter-2

[2]
2-Switch Forward Converter

Continuous and Discontinuous Modes of Operation:

Normally operated in continuous-mode.
Continuous-mode is preferred, as it results in low rms current in
switches and low ripple in filter elements.

17Jun13

29

 PROS

Push-Pull Converter

Simple circuit, Low output ripple

Bidirectional core excitation, automatic core reset
Output inductor can be half the size of that in forward converter due to
double effective switching frequency.
Better transformer utilization.
Common-emitter (source) configuration Drivers of both switches can
use the same power supply. Also, control and power circuits do not need
to be isolated.

CONS

High switch voltage stress (2Vi), high switching losses

Magnetics still not fully utilized. In each half-cycle, only half of the
transformer winding is used.

[2]

Push-Pull Converter

17Jun13

30

Half-Bridge DC-DC Converter

[2]
Half-Bridge DC-DC Converter

PROS

Input-to-output Power flow in both half cycles

Fully utilized transformer , bidirectional core excitation
Better suited for high input voltage due to VS,off being equal to
Vin (not 2Vin) for both S1 and S2.

CONS

High-side driver needed for S1

High current through S1 and S2 for low input voltage high
conduction losses
17Jun13

31

Full-Bridge DC-DC Converter

[2]
Full-Bridge DC-DC Converter

PROS

Simple circuit, Low output ripple

Input-to-output Power flow in both half cycles
Fully utilized transformer, bidirectional core excitation
Better suited for high input voltage due to VS,off being equal to
Vin like half-bridge (not 2Vin as in push-pull) for both S1 and S2.
Suitable for higher power than push-pull converter

CONS

High-side driver needed for S1 and S3

High switching losses, High voltage stress across output diodes
17Jun13

32

Multiple-Output Isolated DC-DC Converters-1

The isolated DC-DC converter topologies introduced so far have only
one output. In DC power supplies, it is sometimes desirable to have a
number of outputs with different output voltages and isolated from
one another. As an example, consider the power supply of a PC
featuring output voltages +12V, -12V and +5V. A multiple-output DC
power supply can be developed based on any of the isolated DC-DC
converter topologies introduced. For this, an isolation transformer
with multiple secondary windings will be required. The magnitudes
of the output voltages will be determined by the primary-to-secondary
turns-ratios and the duty ratio of the switch(es).
Note that only one of the output voltages can be controlled by the
duty ratio(s) of the switch(es). As a common practice, the output with
a larger load (larger output current or output power) is chosen to be
controlled by switch duty ratio. This is because this output voltage is
more critical and has to be more tightly regulated. Also, controlling
the output voltage corresponding to the largest load by duty cycle
control of the DC-DC converter guarantees a higher-efficiency
operation. To control the magnitudes of other output voltages, other
schemes such as linear voltage regulator and Magnetic Amplifier
(MagAmp) are employed.

17Jun13

33

Multiple-Output Isolated DC-DC Converters-2

A DC power supply based on flyback converter with four outputs is
shown below.

[1]
A 4-output DC power supply based on flyback converter topology

17Jun13

34

Multiple-Output Isolated DC-DC Converters-3

A DC power supply based on 1-switch forward converter with three
outputs is shown below.

[1]

A 3-output DC power supply based on 1-switch forward converter topology

17Jun13

35

A Complete Switch-Mode DC Power Supply

(Switcher)-1

110V
AC

EMI
Filter

Fuse

Diode
Rectifier

Thermistor

LPF

Thermistor

4-output
Flyback
Converter

+12V
Regulator

+12V

+5V
Regulator

+5V

-5V
Regulator

-5V

-12V
Regulator

-12V

[3]

17Jun13

36

A Complete Switch-Mode DC Power Supply

(Switcher)-2

110V
AC

EMI
Filter

Fuse

Diode
Rectifier

Thermistor
Thermistor

LPF

4-output
Flyback
Converter

+12V
Regulator

+12V

+5V
Regulator

+5V

-5V
Regulator

-5V

-12V
Regulator

-12V

Bleeder
Resistors

Coupled
Inductors
[3]
17Jun13

37

A Complete Switch-Mode DC Power Supply

(Switcher)-3

110V
AC

EMI
Filter

Fuse

Diode
Rectifier

Thermistor

LPF

Thermistor

4-output
Flyback
Converter

+12V
Regulator

+12V

+5V
Regulator

+5V

-5V
Regulator

-5V

-12V
Regulator

-12V

[3]

17Jun13

38

A Complete Switch-Mode DC Power Supply

(Switcher)-4

110V
AC

EMI
Filter

Fuse

Diode
Rectifier

Thermistor
Thermistor

LPF

4-output
Flyback
Converter

+12V
Regulator

+12V

+5V
Regulator

+5V

-5V
Regulator

-5V

-12V
Regulator

-12V

[3]

17Jun13

39

A Complete Switch-Mode DC Power Supply

(Switcher)-5

110V
AC

EMI
Filter

Fuse

Diode
Rectifier

Thermistor

4-output
Flyback
Converter

LPF

Thermistor

+12V
Regulator

+12V

+5V
Regulator

+5V

-5V
Regulator

-5V

-12V
Regulator

-12V

[3]

17Jun13

40

A Complete Switch-Mode DC Power Supply

(Switcher)-6

110V
AC

EMI
Filter

Fuse

Diode
Rectifier

Thermistor
Thermistor

LPF

4-output
Flyback
Converter

+12V
Regulator

+12V

+5V
Regulator

+5V

-5V
Regulator

-5V

-12V
Regulator

-12V

[3]

17Jun13

41

MagAmp (Magnetic Amplifier)

[3]

Mag. Amp. (Magnetic Amplifier)

When reset current is equal to zero, Mag. Amp. is saturated and
behaves as a good conductor.
When a reset current is applied, Mag. Amp. will block.
The number of blocked volt-seconds depends on the reset
current value.
When the 12-V output has a voltage greater than +12 V, reset
current makes the Mag. Amp. block, till output voltage becomes
equal to +12 V. Then, reset current goes to zero and core is
saturated and behaves as a good conductor.

17Jun13

42

DC Power Supply Control-1

[1],[4],[5]

A closed-loop control is required to compensate for components nonidealities and variations in the source voltage and load power, and
deliver regulated output voltages at the desired levels.
Feedback control loops are designed to satisfy conflicting
requirements of speed of response, accuracy of regulation and
stability.
It is desired to start from a set of desired specifications and reach at
exact circuit parameters and component values that satisfy those
specifications.
In the discussions to follow, a buck converter operated in continuousconduction mode is used to illustrate the basic concepts and common
techniques involved in the systematic design of closed-loop controls
for DC power supplies.

17Jun13

43

DC Power Supply Control-2

The figure below shows a typical closed-loop control system

composed of a Power Converter or Modulator, as the plant, and an
error detector and amplifier called an Amplifier, as the controller. The
main objective of the control loop is to regulate the controlled variable
according to a reference set-point.
The modulator in the figure below is a buck converter, but the method
that will be presented is general and is applicable to a wide variety of
modulator structures.

Closed-Loop Control System for

a Buck Converter

17Jun13

44

Concept of Stability-1

Normally, stability is not an issue at low frequencies, i.e., when there

is no change (system at steady-state) or the changes are small and
slow. In such cases, the negative feedback keeps the controlled
output regulated at the desired value. The main concern is with highfrequency phenomena. Control loop analysis and design are based on
dynamic behaviour of the system.
There is a 180 phase shift due to negative feedback. At a specific
frequency, the additional phase shift caused by reactive elements and
time delays can also become equal to 180. At this frequency, the
total phase shift around the loop becomes 360. Now, if the net gain
around the loop becomes 1 at the same frequency, the circuit will
become an oscillator due to positive feedback.
The objective in loop design is to keep the total phase shift around
the loop from reaching 360 before the loop gain falls below 1 or
0 dB.

Amplifier vcontrol

Vo ,ref

GA ( s)

Vo , fbk

PWM

GPWM ( s )

Converter & Load

Vo
d
GC ( s )

Sensor
Gsensor ( s )
Control Block Diagram

17Jun13

45

Concept of Stability-2
Based on the block diagram of the system, the following closed-loop
transfer function can be derived.

Closed loop Transfer Function

GF ( s )
1 GLoop ( s )

GF ( s ) GA ( s ) GPWM ( s ) GC ( s )
GLoop GF ( s ) Gsensor ( s )
Amplifier vcontrol

Vo ,ref

GA ( s)

Vo , fbk

PWM
GPWM ( s )

Converter & Load

Vo
d
GC ( s )

Sensor
Gsensor ( s )
Control Block Diagram

17Jun13

46

Stability Indices-1

Phase Margin is defined as the difference between the sum of the

phase shifts of the blocks around the loop and -180, at cross-over
frequency (the frequency at which the loop gain is unity or zero db).
Note that db is 20 log (Magnitude).
A phase margin of larger than 45 is commonly used to ensure
stability.

PHASE MARGIN PM Loop

0.001s 2
s 2 s 0.25
Magnitude (dB)

Gloop ( s )

@ f cross over

(180 )

Bode Diagram
20

0db

0
-20
-40
-60
-80
0

Phase (deg)

-45

Bode Plots

-90
-135

Phase
Margin

-180
-2

10

17Jun13

-1

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

10

10

47

Stability Indices-2
Gain Margin is defined as the difference between unity (or 0db)
and the overall loop gain at the frequency where the total phase shift
of the blocks around the loop is -180.

GAIN MARGIN GGM 1 GLoop ( s )

Magnitude (dB)

0.001s 2 20
Gloop ( s ) 2
s s 0.25 0

@ Loop 180

Bode Diagram

-20

Gain
Margin

-40
-60
-80
0

Phase (deg)

-45

Bode Plots

-90
-135
-180
-2

10

17Jun13

-1

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

10

-180

10

48

Concept of Stability-3
To stabilize a loop, one can reduce the amplifier gain so that the
loop gain cross-over occurs at a frequency well below where phase
shifts from reactive elements and time delays become significant.
Problem: unacceptable speed of transient response!
Desired: a cross-over frequency of as high as possible while
keeping a good phase margin.
Solution: Tailoring the frequency response of the Amplifier to
compensate for some of the Modulator phase shift in the region of
gain cross-over.
Small-Signal Linear Model is used to design the compensator
based on the given performance specifications in time and
frequency domains.

17Jun13

49

Small-Signal Linear Model-1

Including the load resistance R in the output low-pass filter,
neglecting the inductor series resistance, and assuming RC << R, the
small-signal linear model of the buck converter including the filter
and the load becomes:

vo
Vi
1 sRC C

GC ( s )
( s)
1
1
L C 2 RC
d
s
s

L
RC
LC

Note that this is the same as the linear model derived for buck
converter, except for the fact that the inductors series resistance has
been ignored and the load resistance has been considered.

Buck Converter
17Jun13

LPF
50

Small-Signal Linear Model-2

Earlier, the following formula for duty ratio in terms of control

signal and peak value of triangular carrier signal was derived:
v
1
d

d control GPWM ( s )
vcontrol Vtri
Vtri
Note that in PWM, using a sawtooth waveform as the carrier signal,
if the peak value of the triangular signal is equal to 1, control signal
will represent duty ratio.

Vtri
0

vcontrol
t

switch control signal

ton AC BC vcontrol
d

Ts AE DE
Vtri Vi

vtri

ON

vo ,unfiltered

OFF

t
ON

Vo
0
17Jun13

toff

ton
Ts 1/ f s

OFF

51

Buck Converter Bode Plots

G

Bode Diagram
60

3 0 0 0 0 s + 4 .3 0 4 1 0 8
(s)
s 2 1, 3 5 9 s 1 .4 3 5 1 0

Magnitude (dB)

40
20
0
-20

Vi
1 sRC C

GC ( s )
R
1
1
LC 2 C

s
s

LC
L RC

-40
0

Phase (deg)

-45
-90

Bode plots of Buck

Converter

-135
-180
2

10

10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

The low-frequency behaviour is defined by a fixed gain Vi and minimal phase

shift.
At the resonant frequency of the LC filter, the gain breaks to a
40dB/decade slope associated with a -180 phase shift.
At a frequency, which is usually higher than the resonant frequency of the LC
filter, the capacitive reactance of the filter capacitor becomes smaller than its
ESR (RC) and the L-C filter turns into an L-R filter. The slope of the gain
changes to -20 dB/decade associated with a -90 phase shift. Adding a small
shunt capacitor across the output terminals can correct this by extending the
range of filters L-C behaviour.
17Jun13

52

Basic Amplifier Structures-1

The amplifier provides a high gain at low frequencies, a low gain at

high frequencies, and a desirable phase shift at the cross-over
frequency.
The three basic amplifier structures presented here can be realized by
operational amplifiers. PWM chips can also be used, but with limited
flexibility.

Type 1 Amplifier

The schematic diagram of a Type 1 Amplifier and the corresponding

Bode plots are shown below.
2
Bode Diagram

GA ( s)

10

Magnitude (dB)

5
0
-5
-10
-15
-89

Phase (deg)

-89.5
-90
-90.5
-91
0

10

Type 1 Amplifier Schematic diagram

17Jun13

10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Type 1 Amplifier Bode plots

53

Basic Amplifier Structures-2

Type 1 Amplifier (Cont.)
Type 1 Amplifier is a simple integrator, with a single pole at the origin.
Its gain rolls off at -20 dB/decade indefinitely and the cross-over
frequency is where reactance of C1 becomes equal to R1. (1/C1s=R1)
The phase shift of Type 1 Amplifier is -90 at all frequencies.
Type 1 Amplifier is used to compensate loops where the modulator
phase shift is minimal, e.g., below the LC filter resonance frequency.
Bode Diagram
10

1
R1C1 s

2
s

5
Magnitude (dB)

GA ( s)

GA ( s)

0
-5
-10
-15
-89

Phase (deg)

-89.5
-90
-90.5
-91
0

Type 1 Amplifier Schematic diagram

17Jun13

10

10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Type 1 Amplifier Bode plots

54

Basic Amplifier Structures-3

Type 2 Amplifier
The schematic diagram of a Type 2 Amplifier and the corresponding
Bode plots are shown below.
Type 2 Amplifier has a single pole at the origin and a zero-pole pair in
addition.
The zero-pole pair causes a zero-gain-slope region and a corresponding
phase bump. The gain slope on both sides of this region is - 20dB /
decade and the phase shift throughout the -20dB/decade regions is -90.
In the zero-slope region, phase shift tends towards 0.
s 2000
1.25 106 s 2 0.282 s

30
Magnitude (dB)

GA ( s )

Bode Diagram
40

20
10
0
-10

Phase (deg)

-20
0

Type 2 Amplifier Schematic diagram

-45

-90
2

10

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Type 2 Amplifier Bode plots

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

10

10

55

Basic Amplifier Structures-4

Type 2 Amplifier (Cont.)
The height of the bump is related to the width of the zero-slope region
and has a maximum of 90.
Type 2 Amplifiers are used to compensate loops where modulator phase
shift is approximately -90 at the frequency of the desired loop gain
cross-over.
The Amplifier transfer function is designed such that the overall loop
cross-over frequency occurs in the centre of zero-gain-slope region.
s 2000
1.25 106 s 2 0.282s

GA ( s)
Bode Diagram
40
30
Magnitude (dB)

1
s
R2 C1
GA ( s)

C C2
R1C2 s s 1

R
C
C
2 1 2

20
10
0
-10

Phase (deg)

-20
0

-45

Type 2 Amplifier Schematic diagram

-90
2

17Jun13

Type 2 Amplifier Bode plots

10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

10

10

56

Basic Amplifier Structures-5

Type 3 Amplifier
The schematic diagram of a Type 3 Amplifier and the corresponding
Bode plots are shown below.
Type 3 Amplifier has a single pole at the origin and two zero-pole pairs
in addition. The two zeros are coincident and the two poles are
coincident, as well.
1000s 2 200000 s 1 107
GA ( s )
s 3 4000 s 2 4 106 s
Bode Diagram
40

Magnitude (dB)

20
0
-20
-40

Type 3 Amplifier Schematic diagram

Phase (deg)

-60
45

-45

-90
0

10

10

10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

17Jun13

Type 3 Amplifier Bode plots

57

Basic Amplifier Structures-6

Type 3 Amplifier (Cont.)
The two zero-pole pairs cause a +20 dB/decade-gain-slope region and a
corresponding phase bump. The gain slope on both sides of this
region is -20dB / decade and the phase shift throughout the
-20db/decade regions is -90. In the +20 dB/decade-gain-slope region,
phase shift tends towards +90.
The height of the bump is related to the width of the +20 dB/decadegain-slope region and has a maximum of 180.

Magnitude (dB)

1
1

s
s
( R1 R3 )C3
R2 C1
R1 R3
GA ( s )
R1 R3C2
C C2
1
ss 1

s
R2 C1C2
R3C3

1000 s 2 200000s 1 107

GA ( s)
s 3 4000 s 2 4 106 s
Bode Diagram

40
20
0
-20
-40

Phase (deg)

-60
45

Type 3 Amplifier Schematic diagram

-45

-90
0

10

10

10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

17Jun13

Type 3 Amplifier Bode plots

58

Basic Amplifier Structures-7

Type 3 Amplifier (Cont.)
Type 3 Amplifiers are used to compensate loops where modulator phase
shift is approximately -180 at the desired loop cross-over frequency.
The Amplifier transfer function is designed such that the loop cross-over
frequency occurs in the center of +20 dB/decade-gain-slope region.
Type 3 Amplifier has the largest phase boost of any practical amplifier
configuration. It is not practical to compensate for more than -180
phase shift. If Modulator phase shift at the chosen cross-over frequency
is greater than -180, one can cross the loop over at a lower frequency,
where modulator has a
smaller phase lag, or
modify the modulator to
reduce phase shift at the
desired
cross-over frequency.
Bode Diagram

40

Magnitude (dB)

20

-20
-40

Type 3 Amplifier Bode plots

Phase (deg)

-60
45

-45

-90
0

10

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10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

10

10

59

Idea of K Factor-1

K Factor is a tool for synthesis of Amplifiers for control loops.

K Factor is defined as follows:
K
K 1

fp
fz

(Type 2 Amplifier), K

fp
fz

(Type 3 Amplifier)

(Type 1 Amplifier and Type 2 with coincident f p and f z )

Type 1 Amplifier
Type 1 Amplifier is a special case of Type 2 Amplifier, where fp and fz
coincide and cancel each other resulting in a K equal to 1.
Bode Diagram
10

Magnitude (dB)

5
0
-5
-10

Type 1 Amplifier Bode plots

-15
-89

Phase (deg)

-89.5
-90
-90.5
-91
0

10

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10
Frequency (rad/sec)

60

Idea of K Factor-2
Type 2 Amplifier
In Type 2 Amplifier, the loop cross-over frequency is chosen at the geometrical
mean of the pole-zero pair frequencies for maximum phase boost. Therefore,

fp
K
fz

f c f p f z

f p Kf c

fc
f

z K

The amplifier is designed such that loop cross-over frequency occurs at fc.
The larger the K, the larger the distance between fp and fz and the larger the
phase boost.
Bode Diagram
40

Magnitude (dB)

30

Type 1: Reference

20
10
0

K fc

fc

fc / K

-10

Phase (deg)

-20
0

-45

Type 2 Amplifier Bode plots

-90
2

10

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10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

10

10

61

Type 3 Amplifier

Idea of K Factor-3

In Type 3 Amplifier, the loop cross-over frequency is chosen at the geometrical

mean of the pole-zero pair frequencies for maximum phase boost. Therefore,

fp fp
fp
K

fz fz
fz

f c f p f z

f p K fc

fc
f

z
K

The amplifier is designed such that loop cross-over frequency occurs at fc.

The larger the K, the larger the distance between fp and fz and the larger the phase boost.
Bode Diagram
40

Magnitude (dB)

20

Type 1: Reference

0
-20
-40

fc / K

fc

K fc

-60
45

Phase (deg)

Type 3 Amplifier Bode plots

-45

-90
0

10

10

10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

17Jun13

62

Derivation of K Factor-1
Type 2 Amplifier

The phase shift due to a zero or pole is given by:

z tan 1

f
f
, p tan 1
fz
fp

By superposition, at cross-over frequency,

Boost z p tan 1

fc
f
f
f
1
tan 1 c tan 1 c tan 1 c tan 1 K tan 1
fc
fz
fp
Kf c
K
K

From trigonometry,

tan 1 ( X ) tan 1 (1/ X ) 90

Therefore,

Boost tan 1 ( K ) tan 1 ( K ) 90 2 tan 1 ( K ) 90

tan 1 ( K ) ( Boost 90 ) / 2 ( Boost / 2) 45
K tan[( Boost / 2) 45 ]
17Jun13

63

Derivation of K Factor-2
Type 3 Amplifier
Type 3 Amplifier has two coincident zero-pole pairs. The phase boost due to each zeropole pair is given by:

Boost tan 1 K tan 1

1
K

For two coincident zero-pole pairs, the phase boost is two times that for one zero-pole
pair, i.e.,

1
Boost 2 tan 1 K tan 1

Incorporating the trigonometric identity

tan 1 ( X ) tan 1 (1/ X ) 90

one gets

Boost 2 tan 1 K tan 1 K 90 2[2(tan 1 K ) 90 ] 4(tan 1 K ) 180

tan 1 K ( Boost 180 ) / 4 ( Boost / 4) 45

K tan[( Boost / 4) 45 ] K tan[( Boost / 4) 45 ]

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64

Using K Factor-1
Step 1: Make Bode Plots of Modulator
This can be done in two ways:
By Analysis: The small-signal model of modulator can be used to plot the Bode
diagrams. This method is not accurate, as some parasitic effects are not included
in the model.
By Measurement: This method is preferred. The Bode plots are created by a
special type of equipment called Frequency Response Analyzer. A small
sinusoidal signal superimposed on a dc signal is used as the duty ratio for the
converter switch. As the frequency of the ac signal is varied over a wide range,
the magnitude and phase angle of the ratio of the ac component of the output
voltage to the ac component of duty ratio is measured at each frequency. The
data thus collected will be used to create the Bode plots of the converter.

Step 2: Choose a Cross-Over Frequency f

This is normally chosen to be as high as possible, since a higher cross-over
frequency implies a faster transient response. The cross-over frequency is
chosen where the modulator phase shift is still less than 180.
For a lab prototype, the cross-over frequency can be pushed to the limit.
However, for mass production, where significant differences in component
values from one unit to another unit are expected, it is best not to push the
loop to the limits. The same rule applies to the cases where the unit is
subjected to wide ranges of input voltage, load and temperature variations.
17Jun13

65

Using K Factor-2
Step 3: Choose the Desired Phase Margin
A phase margin of 90 means that your system is stable as a rock.
Phase margin of 60 is a compromise between fast transient response
and stability.
Phase margins of 30 or less cause the system to have substantial
ringing when subjected to transients and little tolerance for
component or environmental variations.

Step 4: Determine the Required Amplifier Gain at

Cross-Over Frequency
The amplifier gain at cross-over frequency must be equal to the
modulator loss. Therefore,
Amplifier Gain 1/( Modulator Gain Voltage sensor Gain PWM Controller Gain)

In terms of dB,
Amplifier Gain ( Modulator Gain Voltage sensor Gain PWM Controller Gain)
17Jun13

66

Using K Factor-3
Step 5: Calculate the Required Phase Boost
From the definition of Phase Margin,
PHASE MARGIN M ph (Modulator Amplifier ) (180 )

The phase shift of the Amplifier can be expressed as:

Amplifier 90 Boost

Therefore,
M ph (Modulator Amplifier ) (180 ) [Modulator (90 Boost )] (180 )
Modulator Boost 90
Boost M ph Modulator 90

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67

Using K Factor-4
Step 6: Choose an Amplifier Type
Type 1 Amplifier: This amplifier is the simplest in structure and
requires the lowest number of parts, but offers no phase boost. It is
proper to use this amplifier for the cases where the loop is crossed
over before the resonant frequency of the LC filter.
Type 2 Amplifier: This amplifier is used where the required phase
boost is below 90. It is most practical where the required phase
boost is less than about 70. Note that a large boost calls for a large
K, and for a large K one has to pay a penalty on the low-frequency
gain. Type 2 Amplifier is used where the Modulator gain is falling
off at about a -20db/decade and the phase shift is about -90. This is
the case in current regulators, or in voltage regulators above the
frequency of the ESR zero of the main filter capacitor.
Type 3 Amplifier: This amplifier is used where the required phase
boost is below 180. It offers the largest boost for a given K factor.
The drawback is using the highest number of parts. Type 3 Amplifier
outperforms Type 1 and Type 2 Amplifiers in the sense that it offers
the highest low-frequency gain and lowest high-frequency gain for a
given cross-over frequency and phase margin.
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68

Using K Factor-5
Step 7: Choose a Value for R1

The value of R1 is chosen based on the amount of current that one

wants to draw from the modulator output. For a low-power highvoltage supply, R1 is typically large. For a high-power low-voltage
supply, R1 can usually be arbitrarily selected.
The current through R1 has to be much larger than the input and bias
currents of the OpAmp used as the error amplifier. R1 should not be
too small, since all other component values will change accordingly.
For example, a low value of R1 implies large values for capacitors.
This makes the capacitors more expensive. Also, large capacitors
will draw higher currents that may overload the output of the
operational amplifier.

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69

Using K Factor-6
Step 7: Choose a Value for R1 (Cont.)

The bias resistor Rbias (connected in shunt at the negative input of

OpAmp) sets the dc operating point of the loop, but has no effect on
ac operation. It does not enter the calculations for cross-over
frequency and phase margin.

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70

Using K Factor-7
Step 8: Calculating the Amplifier Component Values
Assumptions:

Resistors are in ohms.

Capacitors are in farad.
Phase is in degrees.
Frequency is in hertz.
Gain is a dimensionless ratio (not db)
K is K Factor and is a dimensionless ratio.
fc is the chosen overall loop cross-over frequency.

Type 1 Amplifier

K 1
C1 1/(2 f c GA R1 )

Type 1 Amplifier provides no phase boost. The phase margin can be found as follows:

Boost M ph Modulator 90
Boost 0 M ph Modulator 90
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71

Using K Factor-8
Step 8: Calculating the Amplifier Component Values
(Cont.)
Type 2 Amplifier
K tan[( Boost / 2) 45 ]
GA ( s )

k A (1 s / z )
s (1 s / p )

C2 1/(k A K 2 R1 )
C1 C2 ( K 2 1)
R2 K /(2 f c C1 )

The derivations of the formulas for amplifier component values are

given in Appendix A.
In Type 2 Amplifier, the required phase boost should be chosen
between 0 and 90.
It is worthwhile to verify that the required amplifier gain at all
frequencies is less than the open loop gain of the amplifier, since
OpAmps are not ideal devices.

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72

Using K Factor-9
Step 8: Calculating the Amplifier Component Values
(Cont.)
Type 3 Amplifier

K tan[( Boost / 4) 45 ]

C2 1/(k A K R1 )

k A (1 s / z ) 2
GA ( s)
s (1 s / p ) 2

C1 C2 ( K 1)
R2 1/( z C1 )
R3 R1 /( K 1)
C3 1/( p R3 )

The derivations of the formulas for amplifier component values are

given in Appendix B.
In Type 3 Amplifier, the required phase boost should be chosen
between 0 and 180.
It is worthwhile to verify that the required amplifier gain at all
frequencies is less than the open loop gain of the amplifier, since
OpAmps are not ideal devices.
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73

Using K Factor-10
Optimization of Amplifiers
Type 1 Amplifier

There is nothing that can be done to optimize a Type 1 Amplifier.

Type 2 Amplifier

There is nothing that can be done to optimize a Type 2 Amplifier. With the K
factor, the gain and the locations of the zero and pole are determined for a
particular operating point. There is nothing that can be done about the
performance at other operating points.

Type 3 Amplifier

In Type 3 Amplifier, it was assumed that the two zero-pole pairs were
coincident. This results in a pointy phase bump at the cross-over frequency
leading to a large enough phase margin.
Spreading zeros and poles tends to broaden and flatten the phase bump,
reducing the phase boost at cross-over frequency and the phase margin.
Optimum performance, i.e., largest phase margin for smallest K factor, is
obtained when zeros are poles are coincident.
In cases, where a wide range of variations for input voltage, load and
temperature is expected, Modulator transfer function experiences wide
variations. In such cases, it is wise to sacrifice optimum performance at a
certain operating point to gain satisfactory performance over a wide
operating range.
17Jun13

74

Example

Design a feedback controller for a buck converter with the following

specifications:
L=100H, C=697 F, RC =0.1, fs=100kHz, Vi=30V, Po=36W,
Vo=12V.
The output voltage sensor in the feedback path has a gain of ksensor=0.2
@ 1kHz. The steady-state error has to be zero. The cross-over
frequency has to be as high as possible.
Assume GPWM = 0.556 @ 1kHz.

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75

Solution

Step 1: Modulator Bode Plots

vo
Vi
1 sRC C

GC ( s)
(s)
1
1
L C 2 RC
d
s
s

LC
L RC
G

3 0 0 0 0 s + 4 .3 0 4 1 0 8
(s)
s 2 1, 3 5 9 s 1 .4 3 5 1 0

Bode Diagram

24.66db

40

Magnitude (dB)

20

-20

-40
0

Phase (deg)

-45
-90
-135
-180
2

10

17Jun13

10

10

1kHz

Frequency (rad/sec)

10

138

10

76

Solution (Cont.)
Step 2: Cross-Over Frequency
Choose fc=1kHz which is larger than the resonant frequency
of the LC filter (fr,LC=602.84 Hz). In this way, the loop phase
angle will be larger than -180 at all frequencies.
Step 3: Phase Margin
Mph=60
With this phase margin, the closed-loop system settles
quickly without oscillations.
Step 4: Required Amplifier Gain at fc
GC @ fc = 24.66 dB = 17.1
Therefore, at fc,
GAmplifier

17Jun13

GPWM

1
1

0.526
Gsensor GC 0.556 0.2 17.1

77

Solution (Cont.)
Step 5: Required Phase Boost

Boost M ph Modulator 90 60 (138 ) 90 108

Note that GPWM and Gsensor are assumed to produce zero
phase shift.
Step 6: Amplifier Type
Since the required phase boost is between 90 and 180,
Type 3 Amplifier will be the only choice.
Bode Diagram
40

Type 1: Reference

0
-20
-40

fc / K

fc

K fc

-60
45

Phase (deg)

k A (1 s / z ) 2
GA ( s )
s (1 s / p ) 2

Magnitude (dB)

20

-45

-90
0

10

17Jun13

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

10

10

78

Solution (Cont.)

Step 7: Choose R1
Choose R1=100k.
Step 8: Find Amplifier Component Values

tan[(108 / 4) 45 ]

K tan[( Boost / 4) 45 ]

f p K fc

fc

z
K

k A (1 s / z ) 2
one can find kA in GA ( s )
s (1 s / p ) 2

9.47

From

to be
2

2
2
2
1 c / p
1 jc / p

k A GA ( s )
jc
G
s
(
)

A
c
2
2
@ fc
@ fc
1 jc / z
12 / 2
c z

1
2

1
1 c / p
9.47 348.99
GA ( s)

c
0.526
2

1000
2
@ fc
1 9.47
1 c / z

17Jun13

79

Solution (Cont.)
Step 8: Find Amplifier Component Values (Cont.)
From

C2 1/(k A K R1 )
C1 C2 ( K 1)
R2 1/( z C1 )
R3 R1 /( K 1)
C3 1/( p R3 )

one can find:

C2 3.03nF , C1 25.66nF , R2 19.09k , R3 11.81k , C3 4.38nF .

This completes the loop design. Now, lets verify the design
through simulation of the circuit using PSIM.

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80

Solution (Cont.)
PSIM Simulation
From Po=36W and Vo=12V, one can find the load resistance
as follows:
Vo2
Vo2 (12) 2
R

4
Po
R
Po
36
Lets try the transient response following steady-state
conditions by changing the load by 25%, i.e., from 4 to 3
and back to 4 .

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81

Solution (Cont.)
PSIM Simulation (Type 3 Amplifier)

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82

Solution (Cont.)
PSIM Simulation Results (Type 3 Amplifier)

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83

Solution (Cont.)
PSIM Simulation (PI Controller)

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84

Solution (Cont.)
PSIM Simulation Results (PI Controller)

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85

References:
[1] D.W. Hart, Introduction to Power Electronics, Prentice
Hall, 1997.
or
D.W.Hart, Power Electronics, McGraw-Hill, 2011.
[2] Prof. P. Jains Course Notes (Concordia University, 1996)
[3] Horowitz and Hill, The Art of Electronics, Cambridge University
Press, 2nd Edition, 1994.
[4] H. Dean Venable (President of Venable Industries, Inc.*),
THE K FACTOR: A NEW MATHEMATICAL TOOL
FOR STABILITY ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS,
Proceedings of the tenth National Power Conversion Conference,
Powercon 10, 1983, pp. H1-1 to H1-12.
* Venable Industries offers Frequency Response Analysis Systems
based on Fourier Integral Analysis machines.
[5] N. Mohan, Internet-Based Short Course: Power Electronics
Principles for Practicing Engineers, Module 3: Designing Feedback
Control of DC-DC Converters and Soft-Switching, Aug. 20, 2004,
10:00-11:30 a.m., Central Time, University of Minnesota.
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86