M. B. Patil
mbpatil@ee.iitb.ac.in
www.ee.iitb.ac.in/~sequel
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
R
1
VCC = VCC .
R +R
2
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
R
1
VCC = VCC .
R +R
2
v2 =
(R + R)
1 1+x
1
1
VCC =
VCC (1 + x) (1 x/2) VCC = (1 + x/2) VCC ,
R + (R + R)
2 1 + x/2
2
2
where x = R/R .
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
R
1
VCC = VCC .
R +R
2
v2 =
(R + R)
1 1+x
1
1
VCC =
VCC (1 + x) (1 x/2) VCC = (1 + x/2) VCC ,
R + (R + R)
2 1 + x/2
2
2
where x = R/R .
For example, with VCC = 15 V , R = 1 k, R = 0.01 k ,
v1 = 7.5 V ,
v2 = 7.5 + 0.0375 V .
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
Rc
v1
Amplifier
v2
Rb
Vo
Rd
v+
Amplifier
vo
v+ = vc + vd /2
v = vc vd /2
v+
Amplifier
vo
v+ = vc + vd /2
v = vc vd /2
v+
Amplifier
vo
v+ = vc + vd /2
v = vc vd /2
Ad
.
Ac
v+
Amplifier
vo
v+ = vc + vd /2
v = vc vd /2
many applications. In such cases, mismatch between circuit components will determine the overall
common-mode rejection performance of the circuit.
R2
i1
Vi1
Vi2
R1
i
i+
Vo
R3
RL
R4
R2
i1
Vi1
Vi2
R1
i
i+
Vo
R3
RL
R4
Method 1:
Large input resistance of Op Amp i+ = 0, V+ =
R4
Vi2 .
R3 + R4
R2
i1
Vi1
Vi2
R1
i
i+
Vo
R3
RL
R4
Method 1:
Large input resistance of Op Amp i+ = 0, V+ =
Since V+ V 0, i1 =
R4
Vi2 .
R3 + R4
1
1
(Vi1 V )
(Vi1 V+ ) .
R1
R1
R2
i1
Vi1
Vi2
R1
i
i+
Vo
R3
RL
R4
Method 1:
Large input resistance of Op Amp i+ = 0, V+ =
R4
Vi2 .
R3 + R4
1
1
(Vi1 V )
(Vi1 V+ ) .
R1
R1
R2
i1 R2 V+
(Vi1 V+ ) .
R1
Since V+ V 0, i1 =
i 0 V o = V
R2
i1
Vi1
Vi2
R1
i
i+
Vo
R3
RL
R4
Method 1:
Large input resistance of Op Amp i+ = 0, V+ =
R4
Vi2 .
R3 + R4
1
1
(Vi1 V )
(Vi1 V+ ) .
R1
R1
R2
i1 R2 V+
(Vi1 V+ ) .
R1
Since V+ V 0, i1 =
i 0 V o = V
R2
(Vi2 Vi1 ) .
R1
R2
i1
Vi1
Vi2
R1
i
i+
Vo
R3
RL
R4
Method 1:
Large input resistance of Op Amp i+ = 0, V+ =
R4
Vi2 .
R3 + R4
1
1
(Vi1 V )
(Vi1 V+ ) .
R1
R1
R2
i1 R2 V+
(Vi1 V+ ) .
R1
Since V+ V 0, i1 =
i 0 V o = V
Difference amplifier
R2
Vi1
Vi2
R2
Vi1
R1
R1
Vo
R3
RL
R2
Vo1
R3
R4
RL
R1
AND
Vi2
R4
Case 1
Vo2
R3
RL
R4
Case 2
Method 2:
Since the Op Amp is operating in the linear region, we can use superposition:
Difference amplifier
R2
Vi1
Vi2
R2
Vi1
R1
R1
Vo
R3
RL
R2
Vo1
R3
R4
RL
R1
AND
Vi2
R4
Case 1
Vo2
R3
RL
R4
Case 2
Method 2:
Since the Op Amp is operating in the linear region, we can use superposition:
Case 1:
Difference amplifier
R2
Vi1
Vi2
R2
Vi1
R1
R2
R1
Vo
R3
RL
Vo1
R3
R4
RL
R1
AND
Vi2
R4
Case 1
Vo2
R3
RL
R4
Case 2
Method 2:
Since the Op Amp is operating in the linear region, we can use superposition:
Case 1:
Case 2:
R3 + R4
R2
R4
Vo2 = 1 +
Vi2 .
R1
R3 + R4
Difference amplifier
R2
Vi1
Vi2
R2
Vi1
R1
R2
R1
Vo
R3
Vo1
R3
RL
R4
RL
R1
AND
Vi2
R4
Case 1
Vo2
R3
RL
R4
Case 2
Method 2:
Since the Op Amp is operating in the linear region, we can use superposition:
Case 1:
Case 2:
R3 + R4
R2
R4
Vo2 = 1 +
Vi2 .
R1
R3 + R4
1+
R2
R1
R4
R3 + R4
Vi2
R2
R2
Vi1 =
(Vi2 Vi1 ) , if R3 /R4 = R1 /R2 .
R1
R1
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Difference amplifier
1k
1k
Ra
Rc
v1
10 k
R2
1 k R1
v2
Vo
Rb
1k
VCC
Rd
1k
1 k R3
RL
R4
10 k
Bridge
Difference amplifier
Difference amplifier
1k
1k
Ra
Rc
v1
10 k
R2
1 k R1
v2
Vo
Rb
1k
VCC
Rd
1k
1 k R3
RL
R4
10 k
Bridge
Difference amplifier
The resistance seen from v2 is (R3 + R4 ) which is small enough to cause v2 to change.
This is not desirable.
Difference amplifier
1k
1k
Ra
Rc
v1
10 k
R2
1 k R1
v2
Vo
Rb
1k
VCC
Rd
1k
1 k R3
RL
R4
10 k
Bridge
Difference amplifier
The resistance seen from v2 is (R3 + R4 ) which is small enough to cause v2 to change.
This is not desirable.
need to improve the input resistance of the difference amplifier.
Difference amplifier
1k
1k
Ra
Rc
v1
10 k
R2
1 k R1
v2
Vo
Rb
1k
VCC
Rd
1k
1 k R3
RL
R4
10 k
Bridge
Difference amplifier
The resistance seen from v2 is (R3 + R4 ) which is small enough to cause v2 to change.
This is not desirable.
need to improve the input resistance of the difference amplifier.
We will discuss an improved difference amplifier later. Before we do that, let us
discuss another problem with the above difference amplifier which can be important
for some applications (next slide).
Difference amplifier
R2
vi1
vi2
R1
vo
vi1 = vc vd /2
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
R3 = R1
R4 = R2
Difference amplifier
R2
vi1
vi2
R1
vo
vi1 = vc vd /2
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
R3 = R1
R4 = R2
R2
(vi2 vi1 ) .
R1
The output voltage depends only on the differential-mode signal (vi2 vi1 ),
i.e., Ac (common-mode gain) = 0.
Difference amplifier
R2
vi1
vi2
R1
vo
vi1 = vc vd /2
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
R3 = R1
R4 = R2
R2
(vi2 vi1 ) .
R1
The output voltage depends only on the differential-mode signal (vi2 vi1 ),
i.e., Ac (common-mode gain) = 0.
In practice, R3 and R1 may not be exactly equal. Let R3 = R1 + R .
Difference amplifier
R2
vi1
vi2
R1
vo
vi1 = vc vd /2
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
R3 = R1
R4 = R2
R2
(vi2 vi1 ) .
R1
The output voltage depends only on the differential-mode signal (vi2 vi1 ),
i.e., Ac (common-mode gain) = 0.
In practice, R3 and R1 may not be exactly equal. Let R3 = R1 + R .
R2
R2
R2
vo =
1+
vi2
vi1
R1 + R + R2
R1
R1
R2
R
'
(vd x vc ) , with x =
(show this)
R1
R1 + R2
Difference amplifier
R2
vi1
vi2
R1
vo
vi1 = vc vd /2
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
R3 = R1
R4 = R2
R2
(vi2 vi1 ) .
R1
The output voltage depends only on the differential-mode signal (vi2 vi1 ),
i.e., Ac (common-mode gain) = 0.
In practice, R3 and R1 may not be exactly equal. Let R3 = R1 + R .
R2
R2
R2
vo =
1+
vi2
vi1
R1 + R + R2
R1
R1
R2
R
'
(vd x vc ) , with x =
(show this)
R1
R1 + R2
R2
R2
|Ac | = x
|Ad | =
, since x 0.01 (with 1% tolerance resistors).
R1
R1
Difference amplifier
R2
vi1
vi2
R1
vo
vi1 = vc vd /2
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
R3 = R1
R4 = R2
R2
(vi2 vi1 ) .
R1
The output voltage depends only on the differential-mode signal (vi2 vi1 ),
i.e., Ac (common-mode gain) = 0.
In practice, R3 and R1 may not be exactly equal. Let R3 = R1 + R .
R2
R2
R2
vo =
1+
vi2
vi1
R1 + R + R2
R1
R1
R2
R
'
(vd x vc ) , with x =
(show this)
R1
R1 + R2
R2
R2
|Ac | = x
|Ad | =
, since x 0.01 (with 1% tolerance resistors).
R1
R1
However, since vc can be large compared to vd , the effect of Ac cannot be ignored.
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Difference amplifier
R2
vi1
vi2
R1
vo
vi1 = vc vd /2
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
R3 = R1
R4 = R2
|Ac | = x
R2
R2
R
, |Ad | =
, where x =
.
R1
R1
R1 + R2
Difference amplifier
R2
vi1
vi2
R1
vo
vi1 = vc vd /2
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
R3 = R1
R4 = R2
R2
R2
R
, |Ad | =
, where x =
.
R1
R1
R1 + R2
In our earlier example, vc = 7.5 V vd = 0.0375 V .
|Ac | = x
Difference amplifier
R2
vi1
vi2
R1
vo
vi1 = vc vd /2
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
R3 = R1
R4 = R2
R2
R2
R
, |Ad | =
, where x =
.
R1
R1
R1 + R2
In our earlier example, vc = 7.5 V vd = 0.0375 V .
|Ac | = x
With R1 = 1 k, R2 = 10 k, x = 0.01 ,
|Ac vc | = x
R2
vc = 0.01 10 7.5 = 0.75 V .
R1
Difference amplifier
R2
vi1
vi2
R1
vo
vi1 = vc vd /2
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
R3 = R1
R4 = R2
R2
R2
R
, |Ad | =
, where x =
.
R1
R1
R1 + R2
In our earlier example, vc = 7.5 V vd = 0.0375 V .
|Ac | = x
With R1 = 1 k, R2 = 10 k, x = 0.01 ,
R2
vc = 0.01 10 7.5 = 0.75 V .
R1
R2
|Ad vd | =
vd = 10 0.0375 = 0.375 V .
R1
|Ac vc | = x
Difference amplifier
R2
vi1
vi2
R1
vo
vi1 = vc vd /2
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
R3 = R1
R4 = R2
R2
R2
R
, |Ad | =
, where x =
.
R1
R1
R1 + R2
In our earlier example, vc = 7.5 V vd = 0.0375 V .
|Ac | = x
With R1 = 1 k, R2 = 10 k, x = 0.01 ,
R2
vc = 0.01 10 7.5 = 0.75 V .
R1
R2
|Ad vd | =
vd = 10 0.0375 = 0.375 V .
R1
|Ac vc | = x
Vi1
A1
i1
R2
R4
R3
A3
R1
Vo
B
Vi2
Vo1
A2
RL
R3
R2
R4
Vo2
Vi1
A1
i1
R2
R4
R3
A3
R1
Vo
B
Vi2
Vo1
A2
RL
R3
R2
R4
Vo2
V+ V VA = Vi1 , VB = Vi2 , i1 =
1
(Vi1 Vi2 ) .
R1
Vi1
A1
i1
R2
R4
R3
A3
R1
Vo
B
Vi2
Vo1
A2
RL
R3
R2
R4
Vo2
1
(Vi1 Vi2 ) .
R1
Large input resistance of A1 and A2 the current through the two resistors marked R2 is also
equal to i1 .
V+ V VA = Vi1 , VB = Vi2 , i1 =
Vi1
A1
i1
R2
R4
R3
A3
R1
Vo
B
Vi2
Vo1
A2
RL
R3
R2
R4
Vo2
1
(Vi1 Vi2 ) .
R1
Large input resistance of A1 and A2 the current through the two resistors marked R2 is also
equal to i1 .
V+ V VA = Vi1 , VB = Vi2 , i1 =
Vi1
A1
i1
R2
R4
R3
A3
R1
Vo
B
Vi2
Vo1
A2
RL
R3
R2
R4
Vo2
1
(Vi1 Vi2 ) .
R1
Large input resistance of A1 and A2 the current through the two resistors marked R2 is also
equal to i1 .
1
2 R2
Vo1 Vo2 = i1 (R1 + 2 R2 ) =
(Vi1 Vi2 ) (R1 + 2 R2 ) = (Vi1 Vi2 ) 1 +
.
R1
R1
V+ V VA = Vi1 , VB = Vi2 , i1 =
Vi1
A1
i1
R2
R4
R3
A3
R1
Vo
B
Vi2
Vo1
A2
RL
R3
R2
R4
Vo2
1
(Vi1 Vi2 ) .
R1
Large input resistance of A1 and A2 the current through the two resistors marked R2 is also
equal to i1 .
1
2 R2
Vo1 Vo2 = i1 (R1 + 2 R2 ) =
(Vi1 Vi2 ) (R1 + 2 R2 ) = (Vi1 Vi2 ) 1 +
.
R1
R1
R4
R4
2 R2
Finally, Vo =
(Vo2 Vo1 ) =
1+
(Vi2 Vi1 ) .
R3
R3
R1
V+ V VA = Vi1 , VB = Vi2 , i1 =
Vi1
A1
i1
R2
R4
R3
A3
R1
Vo
B
Vi2
Vo1
A2
RL
R3
R2
R4
Vo2
1
(Vi1 Vi2 ) .
R1
Large input resistance of A1 and A2 the current through the two resistors marked R2 is also
equal to i1 .
1
2 R2
Vo1 Vo2 = i1 (R1 + 2 R2 ) =
(Vi1 Vi2 ) (R1 + 2 R2 ) = (Vi1 Vi2 ) 1 +
.
R1
R1
R4
R4
2 R2
Finally, Vo =
(Vo2 Vo1 ) =
1+
(Vi2 Vi1 ) .
R3
R3
R1
V+ V VA = Vi1 , VB = Vi2 , i1 =
Instrumentation amplifier
Vi1
A1
Vo1
R4
R1
i1
R2
A3
R3
Vo
R2
R3
RL
R4
Vi2
A2
Vo2
Instrumentation amplifier
Vi1
A1
Vo1
R4
R1
i1
R2
A3
R3
Vo
R2
R3
RL
R4
Vi2
A2
Vo2
The input resistance seen from Vi1 or Vi2 is large (since an Op Amp has a large input
resistance).
Instrumentation amplifier
Vi1
A1
Vo1
R4
R1
i1
R2
A3
R3
Vo
R2
R3
RL
R4
Vi2
A2
Vo2
The input resistance seen from Vi1 or Vi2 is large (since an Op Amp has a large input
resistance).
the amplifier will not load the preceding stage, a desirable feature.
Instrumentation amplifier
Vi1
A1
VCC
Ra
R1
i1
v2
Rb
R4
Rc
v1
Vo1
R2
Vo
R2
R3
Rd
A3
R3
RL
R4
Vi2
A2
Vo2
The input resistance seen from Vi1 or Vi2 is large (since an Op Amp has a large input
resistance).
the amplifier will not load the preceding stage, a desirable feature.
Instrumentation amplifier
Vi1
A1
VCC
Ra
R1
i1
v2
Rb
R4
Rc
v1
Vo1
R2
Vo
R2
R3
Rd
A3
R3
RL
R4
Vi2
A2
Vo2
The input resistance seen from Vi1 or Vi2 is large (since an Op Amp has a large input
resistance).
the amplifier will not load the preceding stage, a desirable feature.
As a result, the voltages v1 and v2 in the bridge circuit will remain essentially the same
when the bridge circuit is connected to the instrumentation amplifier.
Instrumentation amplifier
vi1
A1 v
o1
R2
R4
R3
R1
A3
i1
B
vi2
vi1 = vc vd /2
vo
R3
R2
A2
R4
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
vo2
As we have seen earlier, vi1 and vi2 can have a large common-mode component (vc ).
What is the effect of vc on the amplifier output vo ?
Instrumentation amplifier
vi1
A1 v
o1
R2
R4
R3
R1
A3
i1
B
vi2
vi1 = vc vd /2
vo
R3
R2
A2
R4
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
vo2
As we have seen earlier, vi1 and vi2 can have a large common-mode component (vc ).
What is the effect of vc on the amplifier output vo ?
v+ v vA = vc vd /2 , vB = vc + vd /2 .
Instrumentation amplifier
vi1
A1 v
o1
R2
R4
R3
R1
A3
i1
B
vi2
vi1 = vc vd /2
vo
R3
R2
A2
R4
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
vo2
As we have seen earlier, vi1 and vi2 can have a large common-mode component (vc ).
What is the effect of vc on the amplifier output vo ?
v+ v vA = vc vd /2 , vB = vc + vd /2 .
i1 =
1
1
1
(vA vB ) =
((vc vd /2) (vc + vd /2)) = vd .
R1
R1
R1
Instrumentation amplifier
vi1
A1 v
o1
R2
R4
R3
R1
A3
i1
B
vi2
vi1 = vc vd /2
vo
R3
R2
A2
R4
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
vo2
As we have seen earlier, vi1 and vi2 can have a large common-mode component (vc ).
What is the effect of vc on the amplifier output vo ?
v+ v vA = vc vd /2 , vB = vc + vd /2 .
i1 =
1
1
1
(vA vB ) =
((vc vd /2) (vc + vd /2)) = vd .
R1
R1
R1
vc has simply got cancelled! (And this holds even if R2 and R20 are not exactly matched.)
Instrumentation amplifier
vi1
A1 v
o1
R2
R4
R3
R1
A3
i1
B
vi2
vi1 = vc vd /2
vo
R3
R2
A2
R4
vi2 = vc + vd /2
RL
vo2
As we have seen earlier, vi1 and vi2 can have a large common-mode component (vc ).
What is the effect of vc on the amplifier output vo ?
v+ v vA = vc vd /2 , vB = vc + vd /2 .
i1 =
1
1
1
(vA vB ) =
((vc vd /2) (vc + vd /2)) = vd .
R1
R1
R1
vc has simply got cancelled! (And this holds even if R2 and R20 are not exactly matched.)
The instrumentation amplifier is very effective in minimising the effect of the common-mode
signal. (Note that component mismatch in the second stage will cause a finite CMRR, but the first
stage has effectively amplified only vd while leaving vc unchanged; so the overall CMRR has
improved.)
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
Current-to-voltage conversion
Current-to-voltage conversion
Is
Vo1
Current-to-voltage conversion
Ro
Is
Vo1
Vi
Ri
AV Vi
Vo2
amplifier
However, this simple approach will not work if the next stage in the circuit (such as an
amplifier) has a finite Ri , since it will modify Vo1 to Vo1 = Is (Ri k R) , which is not
desirable.
Current-to-voltage conversion
i
Is
Vo
RL
Current-to-voltage conversion
i
Is
Vo
RL
V V+ , and i 0 Vo = V Is R = Is R .
Current-to-voltage conversion
i
Is
Vo
RL
V V+ , and i 0 Vo = V Is R = Is R .
The output voltage is proportional to the source current, irrespective of the value
of RL , i.e., irrespective of the next stage.
Current-to-voltage conversion
i
Is
Vo
RL
V V+ , and i 0 Vo = V Is R = Is R .
The output voltage is proportional to the source current, irrespective of the value
of RL , i.e., irrespective of the next stage.
Example: a photocurrent detector.
Current-to-voltage conversion
i
Is
Vo
Is
RL
Vo
RL
Vbias (negative)
V V+ , and i 0 Vo = V Is R = Is R .
The output voltage is proportional to the source current, irrespective of the value
of RL , i.e., irrespective of the next stage.
Example: a photocurrent detector.
Current-to-voltage conversion
i
Is
Vo
Is
RL
Vo
RL
Vbias (negative)
V V+ , and i 0 Vo = V Is R = Is R .
The output voltage is proportional to the source current, irrespective of the value
of RL , i.e., irrespective of the next stage.
Example: a photocurrent detector.
Vo = Is R . The diode is under a reverse bias, with Vn = 0 V and Vp = Vbias .
Vi
Vc
i1
R
i
Vo
RL
Vi
Vc
i1
R
i
Vo
RL
V V+ = 0 V i1 = Vi /R .
Vi
Vc
i1
R
i
Vo
RL
V V+ = 0 V i1 = Vi /R .
Since i 0 , the current through the capacitor is i1 .
C
dVc
Vi
= i1 =
.
dt
R
Vi
Vc
i1
R
i
Vo
RL
V V+ = 0 V i1 = Vi /R .
Since i 0 , the current through the capacitor is i1 .
C
dVc
Vi
= i1 =
.
dt
R
Vc = V Vo = 0 Vo = Vo C
dVo
dt
Vi
R
i1
Vi
i
Vo
RL
V V+ = 0 V i1 = Vi /R .
Since i 0 , the current through the capacitor is i1 .
C
dVc
Vi
= i1 =
.
dt
R
Vc = V Vo = 0 Vo = Vo C
Vo =
1
RC
dVo
dt
Vi
R
Z
Vi dt
Integrator
C
Vi
R = 1 k , C = 0.2 F
R
Vo
RL
Vo =
1
RC
Vi dt
Integrator
C
Vi
R = 1 k , C = 0.2 F
R
Vo
RL
Vo =
Vi
3
Vo
3
0
0.5
1
1.5
t (msec)
2.5
1
RC
Vi dt
Integrator
C
Vi
R = 1 k , C = 0.2 F
R
Vo
RL
Vo =
1
RC
Vi dt
Vi
Vi
3
0
Vo
0
3
Vo
3
6
0
0.5
1
1.5
t (msec)
2.5
0.5
1
1.5
t (msec)
2.5
Integrator
C
Vi
R = 1 k , C = 0.2 F
R
Vo
RL
Vo =
1
RC
Vi dt
Vi
Vi
3
0
Vo
0
3
Vo
3
6
0
0.5
1
1.5
t (msec)
2.5
0.5
1
1.5
t (msec)
2.5
Offset voltage
Vi
Vo
0
1
Vi (mV)
Offset voltage
Real Op Amp
Ideal Op Amp
Vi
VOS
Vo
Vo
Vsat
Vsat
0
1
Vi (mV)
0
1
Vi (mV)
Offset voltage
Real Op Amp
Ideal Op Amp
Vi
VOS
Vo
Vo
Vsat
Vsat
0
1
Vi (mV)
0
1
Vi (mV)
Offset voltage
Real Op Amp
Ideal Op Amp
Vi
VOS
Vo
Vo
Vsat
Vsat
0
1
Vi (mV)
0
1
Vi (mV)
Offset voltage
Real Op Amp
Ideal Op Amp
Vi
VOS
Vo
Vo
Vsat
Vsat
0
1
Vi (mV)
0
1
Vi (mV)
Offset voltage
Real Op Amp
Ideal Op Amp
Vi
VOS
Vo
Vo
Vsat
Vsat
0
1
Vi (mV)
0
1
Vi (mV)
Effect of VOS
10 k R2
10 k
1k
Vi
R2
1k
Vi
R1
Vo
RL
R1
Real
VOS
Ideal
Vo
RL
Effect of VOS
10 k R2
10 k
1k
Vi
R2
Real
1k
Vi
R1
R1
VOS
Vo
R2
Vi + VOS
R1
Vo
RL
RL
By superposition, Vo =
Ideal
1+
R2
R1
Effect of VOS
10 k R2
10 k
1k
Vi
R2
Real
1k
Vi
R1
R1
VOS
Vo
R2
Vi + VOS
R1
Vo
RL
RL
By superposition, Vo =
Ideal
1+
R2
R1
Effect of VOS
10 k R2
10 k
1k
Vi
R2
Real
1k
Vi
R1
R1
VOS
Vo
R2
Vi + VOS
R1
Vo
RL
RL
By superposition, Vo =
Ideal
1+
R2
R1
Effect of VOS
Vc
Vc
C
C
i1
Vi
i1
Vi
R
Vo
RL
Real
VOS
Ideal
Vo
RL
Effect of VOS
Vc
Vc
C
C
i1
Vi
i1
Vi
Real
Vo
RL
V V+ = VOS i1 =
VOS
Ideal
Vo
RL
1
dVc
(Vi VOS ) = C
.
R
dt
Effect of VOS
Vc
Vc
C
C
i1
Vi
i1
Vi
Real
Vo
RL
VOS
Ideal
Vo
RL
1
dVc
V V+ = VOS i1 = (Vi VOS ) = C
.
R
dt
Z
1
i.e., Vc =
(Vi VOS ) dt .
RC
Effect of VOS
Vc
Vc
C
C
i1
Vi
i1
Vi
Real
Vo
RL
VOS
Ideal
Vo
RL
1
dVc
V V+ = VOS i1 = (Vi VOS ) = C
.
R
dt
Z
1
i.e., Vc =
(Vi VOS ) dt .
RC
Even with Vi = 0 V , Vc will keep rising or falling (depending on the sign of VOS ).
Eventually, the Op Amp will be driven into saturation.
Effect of VOS
Vc
Vc
C
C
i1
Vi
i1
Vi
Real
Vo
RL
VOS
Ideal
Vo
RL
1
dVc
V V+ = VOS i1 = (Vi VOS ) = C
.
R
dt
Z
1
i.e., Vc =
(Vi VOS ) dt .
RC
Even with Vi = 0 V , Vc will keep rising or falling (depending on the sign of VOS ).
Eventually, the Op Amp will be driven into saturation.
need to address this issue!
Effect of VOS
Integrator with Vi = 0 V :
R
C
i1
i1
Vc
R
Vc
R
Vo
VOS
(a)
Vo
RL
VOS
RL
(b)
Effect of VOS
Integrator with Vi = 0 V :
R
C
i1
i1
Vc
R
Vc
R
Vo
VOS
(a)
(a)
Vo
RL
VOS
RL
(b)
VOS
dVc
= C
R
dt
Z
1
Vc =
VOS dt Op Amp saturates.
RC
i1 =
Effect of VOS
Integrator with Vi = 0 V :
R
C
i1
i1
Vc
R
C
Vc
R
Vo
VOS
Vo
RL
(a)
VOS
RL
(b)
VOS
dVc
= C
R
dt
Z
1
Vc =
VOS dt Op Amp saturates.
RC
(a)
i1 =
(b)
R0
Vo = 1 +
VOS .
R
Effect of VOS
Integrator with Vi = 0 V :
R
C
i1
i1
Vc
R
C
Vc
R
Vo
VOS
Vo
RL
(a)
VOS
RL
(b)
VOS
dVc
= C
R
dt
Z
1
Vc =
VOS dt Op Amp saturates.
RC
(a)
i1 =
(b)
R0
Vo = 1 +
VOS .
R
Effect of VOS
Integrator with Vi = 0 V :
R
C
i1
i1
Vc
R
C
Vc
R
Vo
VOS
Vo
RL
(a)
VOS
RL
(b)
VOS
dVc
= C
R
dt
Z
1
Vc =
VOS dt Op Amp saturates.
RC
(a)
i1 =
(b)
R0
Vo = 1 +
VOS .
R
Effect of VOS
Integrator with Vi = 0 V :
R
C
i1
i1
Vc
R
C
Vc
R
Vo
VOS
Vo
RL
(a)
VOS
RL
(b)
VOS
dVc
= C
R
dt
Z
1
Vc =
VOS dt Op Amp saturates.
RC
(a)
i1 =
(b)
R0
Vo = 1 +
VOS .
R
Q8
741
Q2
Q1
I+
B
I
B
Q3
Q4
Q7
Q5
R1
Q6
R3
R2
Q8
741
Real Op Amp
I+
B
Ideal Op Amp
Vo
I
B
+
Q2
Q1
I+
B
I
B
Q3
Q4
Q7
Q5
R1
Q6
R3
R2
I+
B
I
B
Q8
741
Real Op Amp
I+
B
Ideal Op Amp
Vo
I
B
+
Q2
Q1
I+
B
I
B
Q3
Q4
Q7
Q5
R1
Q6
R3
R2
I+
B
I
B
Q8
741
Real Op Amp
I+
B
Ideal Op Amp
Vo
I
B
+
Q2
Q1
I+
B
I+
B
I
B
Q3
Q4
Q7
Q5
R1
I
B
Q6
R3
R2
Op Amp
IB
IOS
VOS
741
80 nA
20 nA
OP77
1.2 nA
0.3 nA
10 V
BJT input
411
50 pA
25 pA
0.8 mV
FET input
1 mV
BJT input
i1
Vi
Ideal
R1
Vo
RL
I
B
I+
B
i1
Vi
Ideal
R1
Vo
RL
I
B
I+
B
Assume that the Op Amp is ideal in other respects (i.e., VOS = 0 V , etc.).
i1
Vi
Ideal
R1
Vo
RL
I
B
I+
B
Assume that the Op Amp is ideal in other respects (i.e., VOS = 0 V , etc.).
V V+ = 0 V i1 = Vi /R1 .
i1
Vi
Ideal
R1
Vo
RL
I
B
I+
B
Assume that the Op Amp is ideal in other respects (i.e., VOS = 0 V , etc.).
V V+ = 0 V i1 = Vi /R1 .
i2 = i1 IB Vo = V i2 R2 = 0
Vi
IB
R1
R2 =
R2
Vi + IB R2 ,
R1
i1
Vi
Ideal
R1
Vo
RL
I
B
I+
B
Assume that the Op Amp is ideal in other respects (i.e., VOS = 0 V , etc.).
V V+ = 0 V i1 = Vi /R1 .
Vi
IB
R1
i.e., the bias current causes a DC shift in Vo .
i2 = i1 IB Vo = V i2 R2 = 0
R2 =
R2
Vi + IB R2 ,
R1
i1
Ideal
R1
Vo
Vi
RL
I
B
I+
B
i1
Ideal
R1
Vo
Vi
RL
I
B
I+
B
Assume that the Op Amp is ideal in other respects (i.e., VOS = 0 V , etc.).
i1
Ideal
R1
Vo
Vi
RL
I
B
I+
B
Assume that the Op Amp is ideal in other respects (i.e., VOS = 0 V , etc.).
V V+ = Vi i1 = Vi /R1 .
i1
Ideal
R1
Vo
Vi
RL
I
B
I+
B
Assume that the Op Amp is ideal in other respects (i.e., VOS = 0 V , etc.).
V V+ = Vi i1 = Vi /R1 .
i2 = i1 IB =
Vi
IB .
R1
i1
Ideal
R1
Vo
Vi
RL
I
B
I+
B
Assume that the Op Amp is ideal in other respects (i.e., VOS = 0 V , etc.).
V V+ = Vi i1 = Vi /R1 .
Vi
IB .
R1
Vi
R2
Vo = Vi i2 R2 = Vi
IB
R2 = Vi 1 +
+ IB R2 .
R1
R1
Again, a DC shift Vo .
i2 = i1 IB =
C
Vc
Real
i1
Vi
Ideal
Vo
RL
I
B
I+
B
C
Vc
Real
i1
Vi
Ideal
Vo
RL
I
B
I+
B
Even with Vi = 0 V , Vc =
1
C
C
Vc
Real
i1
Vi
Ideal
Vo
RL
I
B
I+
B
Z
1
C
Vc
Real
i1
Vi
Ideal
Vo
RL
I
B
I+
B
Z
1