Fluid Mechanics

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FLUID MECHANICS
Definitions:
Fluid: A substance in a liquid or gas phase is referred to as fluid.
In fluids, shear stress is proportional to the strain rate.
Viscosity: It is a property which enables a fluid to offer resistance
to relative motion between adjacent layers.
Surface Tension: It is defined as the tensile force acting on the
surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between
two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like
a membrane under tension. Unit: N/m
Some Practical Applications of Surface Tension:
Formation of Dew drops on grass during early morning
Adding detergent to the water
Birds can drink water from ponds
Capillarity: It is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a
liquid surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level
of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. Its value
depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the
tube and surface tension of the liquid.
Important Application of Capillarity: Rise of water to the top
of tall trees.
Pressure: In a fluid at rest, the normal stress is called as
pressure. The normal stress is nothing but the normal component
of the force acting on a surface per unit area.
Pascals Law: Pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the same amount
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Bernoullis Equation: The sum of the kinetic, potential and

flow energies of a fluid particle is constant along a streamline
during steady flow when the compressibility and frictional effects
are negligible.
Archimedes Principle: The buoyant force acting on a body
immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of a fluid displaced by
the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced
volume.
Buoyancy: When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force
is exerted by the fluid on the body. This upward force is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is called as
buoyancy.
Applications: 1. Rise of warm air in a cooler environment
2.A Helium Balloon raising in air
Reynolds Number: It is the ratio of inertia force to that of
viscous forces acting on a fluid. It is a characteristic number used
for determining the nature of fluid flow.
Re< 2300
Laminar Flow:
2300<Re<4000 Transition flow
Re> 4000
Turbulent flow
FLOW TYPES AND EQUATIONS
Laminar Flow: Laminar flow is defined as that type of flow in
which the fluid particles move along well defined paths or stream
line and all the stream lines are straight and parallel. Re< 2300
Turbulent Flow: In this flow, the fluid particles move in a zigzag
way due to which eddy formation takes place resulting in high
energy loss.
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Steady Flow: Motion of a fluid is said to be steady when the fluid

parameters at any point in the flow field remain constant with
respect to time. Parameters Velocity, pressure, Temperature
and density Eg: Flow of water in a pipe line due to a centrifugal
pump being run at uniform rotational speed.
Unsteady Flow: The type of flow in which the velocity, pressure
or density at a point changes with respect to time. Eg:
1. Liquid falling under gravity out of an opening in the bottom
of a vessel.
2. Wave motion and the cyclic movement of large bodies of
water in tidal flow.
Uniform Flow: The type of flow in which the velocity at any
given time does not change with respect to space or location is
called as uniform flow.
Non Uniform Flow: The type of flow in which the velocity at any
given time changes with respect to space or location is called as
non uniform flow.
Stream line: A stream line is a curve that is everywhere tangent
to the instantaneous local velocity vector. They are useful as
indicators of the instantaneous direction of fluid motion
throughout the flow field.
Streak Lines: A streak line is the instantaneous picture of
position of fluid particles that have passed through a fixed point in
the flow field. Eg: Dye in a water flow or smoke in an air flow .
Path Lines: A path line represents a trace or trajectory of a fluid
particle over a period of time. Path line shows the direction of the
velocity of the same fluid particle at successive instants of time.
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Rotational Flow: The type of fluid flow in which the fluid

particles while flowing along stream lines also rotate about their
own axis. Eg: Water in a river stream.
Irrotational Flow: The type of fluid flow in which the fluid
particles while flowing along stream lines do not rotate about their
own axis.
Vortex: Vortex flow is defined as the flow of a fluid along a
curved path or the flow of a rotating mass of fluid. There are two
types namely free vortex and forced vortex.
Free vortex: When no external torque is required to rotate the
fluid mass, the flow is of free vortex type.
Forced Vortex: When some external torque is required to rotate
the fluid mass, the flow is of forced vortex type. Eg: When a glass
filled with water is rotated about its axis, the fluid is forced
outwards due to centrifugal force.
One dimensional flow: The type of flow in which the flow
parameters (mainly velocity) are a function of time and only one
space co ordinate. Equation: u = f(x), v=0 and w=0. Where u,v,w
are velocity components in x,y and z directions.
Two dimensional flow: The type of flow in which the velocity is
a function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinates.
Equation: u = f1(x,y) v = f2(x,y) and w=0.
Eg: 1.Flow over a long cylinder. 2. Wing blowing over a long pipe
perpendicular to its axis.
Three Dimensional flow: The type of flow in which the velocity
is a function of time and three mutually perpendicular directions.
Equation: u = f1(x,y,z) v = f2(x,y,z) and w=f3(x,y,z). Eg: Flow over
a car
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Continuity Equation: The equation based on the principle of

conservation of mass is called as continuity equation. Applying
the equation for in compressible fluid we get
A1V1 = A2
Eulers Equations: The equation of motion along a stream line in

which forces due to gravity and pressure are taken into
consideration. Viscous forces are assumed to be zero and the flow
is assumed to be ideal.
p
+ g dz +
Navier Stokes Equation: Refer e book

Bernoullis Equation:
p
g
v2
+ 2g
+ z = constant (along
Assumptions in Bernoullis Equation:

1.
2.
3.
4.
The
The
The
The
fluid is ideal i.e. the viscosity is zero

flow is steady
flow is incompressible
flow is irrotational
Boundary Layer: The region in the flow in which the viscous

shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt is called as
boundary layer. This is also called as velocity boundary layer. In
other words it is nothing but the hypothetical boundary surface
which divides the flow in a pipe into two regions.
Drag: Resistance offered to the body by the fluid in the direction
of fluid flow is called as drag force.
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Lift: The components of the pressure and wall shear forces in the
direction normal to the flow tend to move the body in that
direction, and their sum is called as lift.
FLOW MEASURING DEVICES

FLOW MEASURING DEVICES
1. Orifices and mouthpieces
2. Weirs and notches
3. Venturimeters & Nozzles
PURPOSE
Discharge from a tank or
reservoir
Discharge in an open channel
Discharge through a pipeline
Obstruction Flow meters: Orifice, venturi and Nozzle meters

Principle: The flow rate through a pipe can be determined by
constricting the flow and measuring the decrease in pressure due
to the increase in velocity at the constriction site.
Venturi Meter:
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The coefficient of discharge of a venturimeter is generally in

the range of 0.92 to 0.98. The cd is comparatively high owing to its
stream lined design.
Orifice meter: It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow
of a fluid through a pipe. The orifice diameter is generally 0.5
times the diameter of the pipe though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8
times the pipe diameter. The cd of an orifice meter is in the range
of 0.62 to 0.65.
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Pitot Static Tube
A pitot probe is just a tube with a pressure tap at the stagnation

point that measures stagnation pressure , while a Pitot static
probe has both a stagnation pressure tap and several
circumferential static pressure taps and it measures both static
and stagnation pressures. Thus the pitot static probe measures
the local velocity by measuring the pressure difference in
conjunction with the Bernoulli Equation.
Buckinghams theorem: If there are n variables
(Independent and dependent variables) in a physical phenomenon
and if these variables contain m fundamental dimensions (M, L,
T).then the variables are arranged into (n-m) dimensionless
terms. Each term is called as term.
Important Dimension less Numbers:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reynolds Number
Froudes Number
Eulers Number
Webers Number
Machs Number
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Mach number: It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the

inertia force of a flowing fluid to the elastic force. Deriving we get
Mach number =
Speed of flow
Speed of sound
Eulers Number: It is defined as the square root of the ratio of

the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the pressure force.
Webers Number: It is defined as the square root of the ratio of
the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the surface tension force.
Froudes Number: It is defined as the square root of the ratio of
the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the gravity force.
Model Law Used
1.Reynolds Model Law
2.Froudes model law
3.Eulers Model Law

4.Webers Model Law
5.Mach Model Law
Application
Pipe flow
Resistance experienced by
fully immersed bodies
Free surface flows such as
flow over spillways
Flow of jet through an
orifice
Closed pipe Turbulent
Applications
Capillary rise in narrow
passages
Capillary movement of
water in soil
Aero Dynamic testing
Water Hammer Problems
Head Loss: Head loss is a measure of the mechanical energy

dissipated via internal fluid friction. In a pump, the head loss
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represents the additional height that the fluid needs to be raised

by a pump in order to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe.
Once the pressure loss is known the required pumping power to
overcome the loss can be calculated.
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Fluid Mechanics

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2013 Mechanical Corporation.

2013 Mechanical Corporation.

Bernoullis Equation: The sum of the kinetic, potential and

2013 Mechanical Corporation.

Steady Flow: Motion of a fluid is said to be steady when the fluid

2013 Mechanical Corporation.

Rotational Flow: The type of fluid flow in which the fluid

2013 Mechanical Corporation.

Continuity Equation: The equation based on the principle of

Eulers Equations: The equation of motion along a stream line in

Navier Stokes Equation: Refer e book

Assumptions in Bernoullis Equation:

fluid is ideal i.e. the viscosity is zero

Boundary Layer: The region in the flow in which the viscous

2013 Mechanical Corporation.

FLOW MEASURING DEVICES

Obstruction Flow meters: Orifice, venturi and Nozzle meters

2013 Mechanical Corporation.

The coefficient of discharge of a venturimeter is generally in

2013 Mechanical Corporation.

Pitot Static Tube

A pitot probe is just a tube with a pressure tap at the stagnation

2013 Mechanical Corporation.

Mach number: It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the

Eulers Number: It is defined as the square root of the ratio of

2.Froudes model law

3.Eulers Model Law

5.Mach Model Law

Head Loss: Head loss is a measure of the mechanical energy

2013 Mechanical Corporation.

represents the additional height that the fluid needs to be raised

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