Humidity, Condensation, and Clouds

The role of water in the

atmosphere
Terms and definitions for
atmospheric moisture
The impact of moisture
on comfort
Formation of dew, frost,
haze, fog, and clouds
Classification of fog and
cloud types

Distribution of Water on Earth

Total hydrosphere

1.4109 km3

Oceans
Glaciers
Ground water
Lakes/rivers
Atmosphere
biosphere

1.3109 km3
2.8107 km3
8.1106 km3
0.2106 km3
1.3104 km3
0.6103 km3

(=97.3%)
(=2.7%)
(=0.001%)

Oceans

Glaciers
Groundwater
Lakes/rivers
atmosphere

The atmosphere contains only ~ 1 week supply of precipitation!

Properties of Water

Most abundant trace gas; Large variability:

0 4%

Large amounts are found close the surface, decreasing quickly aloft.
[g H2O/ kg air]
Altitude [hPa]

Altitude [hPa]
5 km

1.5 km

Winter

Global distribution of H2O

in the northern hemisphere

Summer

Properties of Water

Most abundant trace gas; Large variability: 0 4%

Large amounts are found close the surface, decreasing quickly aloft.
Source: evaporation from the ocean and land. Sink: precipitation.

Hydrologic Cycle

Evaporation & transpiration by plants liquid water into atmospheric vapor.

Condensation converts water vapor back to a liquid droplet, which may
then fall as precipitation to ground or surface water supplies.

Properties of Water

Most abundant trace gas; Large variability: 0 4%

Large amounts are found close the surface, decreasing quickly aloft.
Source: evaporation from the ocean and land. Sink: precipitation.
Surface Tension: highest of all common liquids

Properties of Water

Most abundant trace gas; Large variability: 0 4%

Large amounts are found close the surface, decreasing quickly aloft.
Source: evaporation from the ocean and land. Sink: precipitation.
Surface Tension: highest of all common liquids
Heat Capacity: highest of all common solids and liquids (1 cal g-1 C-1)

Properties of Water

Most abundant trace gas; Large variability: 0 4%

Large amounts are found close the surface, decreasing quickly aloft.
Source: evaporation from the ocean and land. Sink: precipitation.
Surface Tension: highest of all common liquids
Heat Capacity: highest of all common solids and liquids (1 cal g-1 C-1)
Most important greenhouse gas

Radiative Properties:
- transparent to visible wavelengths
- virtually opaque to many infrared wavelengths
- large range of albedo possible
water
Ice
Snow
Cloud

10 % (daily average)
30 to 40%
20 to 95%
30 to 90%

Properties of Water
Structure of Water
Water's unique molecular structure and hydrogen bonds enable
all 3 phases to exist in earth's atmosphere.

Properties of Water
Structure of Water
Also: hydration possible

Hydration

H2O permanent dipol:

H2O taken
up by ions

particle
growth
increasing
water content
of particles

Properties of Water
Water on earth exists in all 3 phases

Properties of Water
Phase changes of water:

Atmospheric Moisture
Describing atmospheric moisture

Atmospheric water vapor can

be defined in different ways,
including
absolute humidity v,
specific humidity q,
mixing ratio r,
vapor pressure e,
dew point temperature Td,
relative humidity RH

Absolute Humidity v, Specific Humidity q, Mixing ratio r

Absolute humidity =
mass of water vapor/volume of air

mv
v =
V
For a given mass of water vapor
in an air parcel, the absolute
humidity v changes as the
parcel volume changes
(e.g., lifts or descends).

Specific humidity =
mass of water vapor/total mass of air

mv
q=
ma
Specific humidity q is not affected
by changes in parcel volume.
Mixing ratio = mass of water
vapor/mass of dry air

mv
r =
md
usually, q r

Atmospheric Moisture
Vapor pressure e:
Air molecules all contribute to air pressure p
Each subset of molecules (e.g., N2, O2, H2O) exerts a partial pressure

pa = q pq

The vapor pressure, e, is the pressure exerted by H2O vapor molecules in air
the larger the vapor pressure is, the more H2O vapor molecules in air
2-30 mb common at surface

Atmospheric Moisture
Saturation vapor pressure es:

In general: water molecules move between the liquid and gas phases
Unsaturated air

Atmospheric Moisture
Saturation vapor pressure es:

In general: water molecules move between the liquid and gas phases
Unsaturated air

Saturated air

Saturated air (e = es):

for every water molecule evaporated into the air, a vapor molecule would
condense to liquid water (equilibrium)
in this case: water vapor pressure (e) = water saturation vapor pressure (es)
The air can not hold more water vapor

Atmospheric Moisture
Condensation, Evaporation, Saturation Vapor Pressure (SVP)
EQULIBRIUM
Number of molecules escaping particle = number of molecules entering particle

in this case: partial gas pressure

saturation vapor pressure (SVP)

What happens, if there is no equilibrium?

partial gas pressure > SVP

SVP > partial gas pressure

Atmospheric Moisture
Saturation vapor pressure es:

Note: Water saturation vapor

pressure decreases with altitude

Atmospheric Moisture
Relationship between temperature and saturation vapor pressure:
Clausius-Clapeyron equation
Saturation vapor pressure es increases exponentially with temperature
At higher T, faster water molecules in the liquid escape more frequently
causing saturation water vapor amount to rise
We sometimes say: Warmer air can hold more water vapor

L 1 1
es = e0 exp ( )
RV T0 T
es [kPa]
L [J Kg-1]
e0 [kPa]
Rv [J K-1 kg-1]
T [K]

= saturation vapor pressure

= latent heat of vaporization or deposition
= 0.611 kPa at T0=273.15 K
= gas constant for water vapor
= temperature

Atmospheric Moisture
Relationship between temperature and saturation vapor pressure:
Clausius-Clapeyron equation
Note:
Es(water) > Es(ice) at all times!
this difference is reason for raindrop growth in cumulus clouds

partial gas pressure > SVP

SVP > partial gas pressure

condensation
partial gas pressure > SVP

Evaporation

SVP > partial gas pressure

Atmospheric Moisture
Dew-Point Temperature Td:
Temperature to which air must be
cooled to become saturated
(at constant pressure and water vapor content).
Always: Td T
Difference between relative humidity (RH) and dew-point temperature Td:
RH: measure of how close the air is to saturation,
Td : measure of the airs actual moisture content.
The higher Td, the more water vapor in the air.
Dew point depression: T- Td
The larger the dew point depression is, the drier the air is, or the air is
farther away from saturation

Atmospheric Moisture
Dew-Point Temperature Td:
Average surface dew-point temperature (F)

January

July

Atmospheric Moisture
Dew-Point Temperature Td:
Dew-point temperature Td as function of saturation vapor pressure es
The higher Td, the more water vapor in the air.

L 1 1

( )
es = e0 exp
R T T
d
V 0

Td
L
e0
Rv
T0

[K]
[J Kg-1]
[kPa]
[J K-1 kg-1]
[K]

1 RV
es
Td =
ln( )
e0
T0 L

= dew-point temperature
= latent heat of vaporization or deposition
= 0.611
= gas constant for water vapor
= 273.15

Atmospheric Moisture
Relative humidity (RH):
The ratio of the actual amount of water vapor in the air compared to the
maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold.

e
q
r
RH = 100 = 100 = 100 100
es
qs
s
rs
RH [%]
es, qs, s, rs

= relative humidity
= pressure, specific humidity, absolute humidity,
mixing ratio of water vapor at saturation vapor
pressure

Atmospheric Moisture
Relative Humidity Trends

RH indicates air parcel proximity to saturation.

Higher RH does not necessarily mean more water vapor in the air
RH increases by adding more water or dropping T.
Dew point Td is the temperature at which saturation occurs (i.e. RH=100%).

RH=100% ?

Td ?

A common misconception:
Air with high RH must have a greater water vapor
content than air with lower RH.
Which place has more water vapor in the air?
International Fall, Minnesota:
T= - 10oC and RH = 100%
or
Phoenix, Arizona:
T= 20oC and RH = 30%

International Fall:
Temperature
(C)

Saturation mixing ratio rs

(g/kg)

-20

0.75

-10

2.00

3.50

5.00

10

7.00

15

10.00

20

14.00

T = -10 oC; rs = 2 g/kg,

RH = 100% = r / rs
Actual mixing ratio r:
r = RH x rs = 1 x 2 g/kg
= 2 g/kg

Phoenix:
T = 20 oC; rs = 14 g/kg,
RH = 30% = 0.3 = r / rs
Actual mixing ratio r:
r = RH x rs = 0.3 x 14 g/kg
= 4.6 g/kg

Atmospheric Moisture
Specific Humidity vs. Saturation
Which environment has
higher water vapor in
the air:
Desert air or polar air?
While RH may be higher
in polar air (or during
winter-time), more water
is actually absorbed in
desert air (or during
summer).

Atmospheric Moisture
Specific Humidity vs. Saturation
Warm air can absorb more vapor than cold
air, so for a given parcel of air, specific
humidity declines from its highest in the
tropics to its lowest in the colder poles.
Desert air is far from saturated, cold polar
air nears saturation.

Specific Humidity
(latitudinal distribution)

Relative Humidity
(latitudinal distribution)

Atmospheric Moisture
Specific Humidity vs. Saturation

Relationship between
specific humidity and relative
humidity and its dependance
on air temperature

Exercise:
a chilly morning in Houston:
Temperature: 10oC; RH = 100%.
In the afternoon, the air warms to 30oC
Assumption:
Same air mass has been in the area, i.e. the
moisture content in the air has not changed
much from the morning to the afternoon.
Would RH increase or decrease in the afternoon
from the morning?
What would be the RH in the afternoon?

Houston morning:
T=10C; RH=100%

RH =

e
100
es

What is the vapor pressure, e,

in the morning?
emorning = RHmorning x es = 100% x es
at 10C, es = 12 mb

Houston morning:
T=10C; RH=100%

RH =

e
100
es

What is the vapor pressure, e,

in the morning?
emorning = RHmorning x es = 100% x es
at 10C, es = 12 mb
emorning = RHmorning x es = 12 mb

Houston morning:
T=10C; RH=100%

RH =

e
100
es

What is the vapor pressure, e,

in the morning?
emorning = RHmorning x es = 100% x es
at 10C, es = 12 mb
emorning = RHmorning x es = 12 mb
In the afternoon:
at 30C, es = 42 mb
RHafternoon = (emorning/es afternoon) x 100
= (12 mb / 42 mb) x 100
= 28%

Atmospheric Moisture
Sources of Moisture

Why is the southwest coast of the US hot and dry,

while the Gulf coast is hot and moist?
Both are adjacent to large bodies of water
Both experience onshore wind flow on a regular basis

Atmospheric Moisture
Sources of Moisture

Cooler Pacific waters create

lower humidities along the W coast

warmer Gulf waters generate high

humidity along the SE and E coast.

Atmospheric Moisture
Relative Humidity and Comfort
Unsaturated air (low RH) may absorb more water from the evaporation of
human sweat.
The departure of fast moving, and by definition higher temperature, water
molecules into the vapor phase cools the human skin (effect increases with
decreasing RH).
Air close to saturation (high RH) lowers cooling of human skin due to less
evaporation.

Atmospheric Moisture
Heat Index & Safety

Human perception of
temperature is distinct
from measured air
temperature, and is
particularly different at
higher RH when the human
body is less efficient at
sweating and self-cooling.
On hot days, fans that
move saturated air away
from the skin help humans
avoid unwanted heat
syndromes.
Apparent temperature
[Heat Index] takes into
account ambient air
temperature with RH.

Atmospheric Moisture
Heat Index & Safety

Measurement of Atmospheric Moisture

Sling Psychrometer (also aspirated Psychrometer available)
Wet bulb temperature indicates how cool a surface will become by
evaporating water into the air.
When compared with the dry bulb, or regular air temperature (T), it
indicates relative humidity (RH) and dew point (Td).

Why necessary to whirl or aspirate a psychrometer?

Measurement of Atmospheric Moisture

Hair & Other Hygrometers
Human and horse hair becomes roughly 2.5% shorter as RH drops from
100% to 0% (used as the principle of the hair hygrometer).
Other hygrometers are based on electrical resistance (humidity changes
resistance), infrared absorption (by water vapor), and dew point
condensation (cooling surface of a mirror until condensation forms).

http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/multimedia/Hygrometer.html

Summary of moisture variables

Vapor pressure the pressure exerted by the water vapor molecules
in a given volume of air
Absolute humidity the density of water vapor which is the ratio
of mass of water vapor and the volume of air.
Specific humidity the ratio of mass of water vapor in a given
air parcel to the total mass of air in the parcel
Mixing ratio - the ratio of mass of water vapor in a given air
parcel to the total mass of dry air in the parcel
Relative humidity The ratio of the amount of water vapor in
the air compared to the amount of required for saturation
Dew point temperature - Temperature to which air must be
cooled (at constant pressure and constant water vapor content)
to become saturated
Wet bulb temperature - The lowest temperature that can be
obtained by evaporating water into the air.

SUMMARY
1.

Saturation exists when the number of water molecules evaporating from a

liquid equals the number condensing.

2.

In our atmosphere, condensation occurs primarily when the air is cooled.

3.

Absolute humidity describes the mass of water vapor in a fixed volume of air,
or the water vapor density.

4.

The airs actual (water) vapor pressure is an indication of the airs water vapor
content.

5.

Relative humidity, expressed as a percent, does not tell us how much water
vapor is actually in the air, rather it tells us how close the air is to being
saturated.

6.

Without changing the airs water vapor content, as air cools the relative
humidity increases, and as air warms the relative humidity decreases.

7.

The dew-point temperature is a good indicator of the airs water vapor content.
High dew points indicate high water vapor content and vice versa.

8.

When the air temperature and dew point are close together, the relative
humidity is high; when they are far apart, the relative humidity is low.

9.

Summertime is generally more humid in the eastern half of the United States
because of the air flow off the warm Gulf of Mexico.

10. High relative humidity in hot weather can make us feel it is hotter than it
actually is by retarding the evaporation of perspiration