Prosiding Wetland

PROCEEDINGS
International Workshop on Sustainable

Management of Lowland for Rice
Production
Banjarmasin, 27-28 September 2012
INDONESIAN AGENCY FOR AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
2013
PROCEEDINGS
International Workshop on Sustainable
Management of Lowland for Rice Production
Banjarmasin, 27-28 September 2012
EDITORS:
Edi Husen (Chair)
Dedi Nursyamsi (Member)
Muhammad Noor (Member)
Arifin Fahmi (Member)
Irawan (Member)
I G.P. Wigena (Member)
MANAGING EDITOR
Widhya Adhy
Wahid Noegroho
Published in 2013:
Indonesian Agency for Agricultural Research and Development Ministry of
Agriculture
Jl. Ragunan 29. Pasar Minggu
Jakarta Selatan 12540. Indonesia
Telp (021) 7806202
Fax (021) 7800644
e-mail: info@litbang.deptan.go.id
www.litbang.deptan.go.id
Funded by DIPA Balai Penelitian Pertanian Lahan Rawa TA 2013
ISBN 978-602-8977-65-4
FOREWORD
In Indonesia, there are about 33.4 million ha of wetlands, 9.5 million ha of which are
suitable for agriculture. Approximately 5 million out of 9.5 million ha of the land have
been reclaimed and used by farmers, government, and private sectors for crop production,
such as in Sumatera and Kalimantan. This wetland becomes more important in the future
as an alternative land for food production due to an increase growth of human population
and accelerated reduction of fertile land. However, the uniqueness of wetland properties,
its utilization for agriculture requires a proper management to ensure the sustainability of
the ecosystem and productivity of the land for crop production.
So far, a lots of learning and experience gained from the development of wetland areas.
For example, today we see a large and growing number of cities such as Palembang,
Banjarmasin, Palangkaraya, Pontianak, Pekanbaru, and Jambi was originally developed
from wetlands, which previously flooded during rainy season. Some provinces such as
South Kalimantan, Jambi, West Kalimantan, and South Sumatera, their sources of food
supply, especially rice, were produced from wetlands. Likewise for other crops, especially
coconut, oil palm and rubber, were also cultivated extensively in wetlands. This shows a
significant contribution of wetland to the development of the region with a strong base in
agriculture, especially for food security and farmers livelihoods.
In the future, swamplands will be a basis for the development of agriculture, especially
foodcrop, because of the difficulties in finding fertile land and the increase demand for
food supply. The potential use of swamp land is huge, both in terms of coverage areas and
its capacity and opportunity to increase the productivity of existing land, primarily
through increasing cropping index. Stagnation of swampland development in recent years,
in addition to a low adoption of technological and social aspects, also due to the issues
related to resource diversity and climate change. The productivity of rice in the
swampland is still relatively low (2 to 3 t dry grain ha -1), whereas the productivity in some
areas with good management can reach 5 to 7 t dry grain ha -1.
Based on the issues, the papers in this proceedings illustrate the important of wetland for
future food production and the potential use of various appropriate technology innovations
to overcome the complexity of contraints in developing wetlands. The papers presented
and discussed in the workshop are the results of research and development as well as the
concept and experience of researchers from various research institutions and academia, as
well as a success story associated with wetlands management in Indonesia, Vietnam, and
Africa.
Upon completion of the preparation of these proceedings, I thank to all those who
contributed and participated in the organization of workshops, and particularly to the hard
work and creativity of the editorial team.
Hopefully this proceedings is useful for all of us.
Director General of IAARD,
Haryono
i
ii
TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
FOREWORD .......................................................................................................
TABLE OF CONTENT ......................................................................................
iii
WELCOME ADDRESS ......................................................................................
vii
KEYNOTE SPEECH ..........................................................................................
ix
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .........................
xiii
MAIN PAPERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
Tidal Swamp for Future Food Support in Facing of Climate Change

Muhrizal Sarwani, Mohammad Noor and Edi Husen. ...................................
Opportunities and Uniqueness of Suitable Lowland Bio-Physics for

Sustainable Rice Production
Bart Schultz ....................................................................................................
13
Flood and Tidal Inundation in The Context of Climate Change and Sea
Water Level Rise and Proposed Adaptation Measures in the Mekong Delta
To Quang Toan and Tang Duc Thang ............................................................
27
Strategy of Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Lowland

Management for Poverty Alleviation
Lala M. Kolopaking and Mohammad Iqbal ...................................................
39
SUPPORT PAPERS
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Application of Azolla Pinnata Enhanced Soil N, P, K, and Rice Yield

A. Arivin Rivaie, Soni Isnaini, and Maryati ...................................................
61
Raising Corn Technology on Peat Land at Gambut Mutiara Village, Riau

Province
Isdijanto Ar-Riza dan D. Nazemi ....................................................................
67
Carbon and Methane Emission at Acid Sulphate Soil of Tidal Swampland

Nurita, M. Alwi, and Y. Raihana ....................................................................
75
Mineralisation of Reclaimed Peats for Agriculture: Effects of Lime and

Nitrogen Application
Akhmad R. Saidy ............................................................................................
87
Contribution of Endophytic Microbes in Increasing the Paddy Growth and

Controlling Sheath Blight Diseases at Transplanting Stage on Tidal
Swamps
Ismed Setya Budi, Mariana, Ismed Fachruzi, and Fachrur Rozy ...................
97
iii
Page
10. Does Rice Straw Application Reduce Iron Concentration and Increase Rice
Yield in Acid Sulphate Soil
Arifin Fahmi and Muhrizal Sarwani ...............................................................
107
11. Emission of Methane and Carbon Dioxide at Management of Organic

Matter on Acid Sulphate Soil under Laboratory Experiment
Wahida Annisa, A. Maas, B. Purwanto, and J. Widada .................................
115
12. Performance of Some Rice Varieties on Acid Sulphate Soils

Andi Wijaya, Yakup Parto, Imelda Marpaung, and Siti Nurul Aidil Fitri ......
129
13. Pests at Fresh Swamp and Tidal Lowland of South Sumatra

Khodijah, Siti Herlinda, Chandra Irsan, Yulia Pujiastuti, Rosdah Thalib,
and Tumarlan Thamrin ..................................................................................
137
14. Potential of Indigenous Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria from Fresh-Water

Inceptisols to Increase Soluble P
Nuni Gofar, Hary Widjayanti, and Ni Luh Putu Sri Ratmini .........................
145
15. Predatory Arthropods on Paddy Field of Fresh Swamp Applied by

Mycoinsecticide and Synthetic Insecticide
Siti Herlinda, David Afriansyah Putra, Chandra Irsan, Yulia Pujiastuti, and
Rosdah Thalib ................................................................................................
155
16. Preliminary Study of Water Availability Related to Impact of Climate

Change (Case Study: Tanjung Api-Api Port Area, Banyuasin Valley)
Yunan Hamdani, Budhi Setiawan, Dwi Setyawan, and Azhar K. Affandi ......
165
17. PUGAM: A Specific Fertilizer for Peat Land to reduce Carbon Emission
and Increase Soil Productivity
I G.M. Subiksa ................................................................................................
175
18. Rice Farming Systems in South Sumatra Tidal Swamp Areas: Problems and
Feed Back Based on Farmers Point of Views
Yoyo Soelaeman, Maswar, and Umi Haryati ..................................................
183
19. Sample Preparation for Peat Material Analysis

Masganti .........................................................................................................
197
20. Technical Approach of Erosion and Sedimentation on Canal (Case Study in

Delta Telang I, Banyuasin, South Sumatra Province)
Achmad Syarifudin, Momon Sodik Imanudin, Arie S. Moerwanto,
Muhammad Yazid, and FX Suryadi ................................................................
203
21. The Improvement of Idle Peatland Productivity for Paddy through Organic
amelioration
Eni Maftuah, Linda Indrayati, dan Mukhlis ..................................................
213
22. Identification of Lowland Irrigation Condition on Irrigation Network

Krueng Aceh and Krueng Jreu in Aceh Besar
Deddy Erfandi ................................................................................................
223
iv
Page
23. Optimal Water Sharing for Sustainable Water Resource Utilization by
Applying Intermittent Irrigation and SRI in Paddy Field: Case Study of
Cicatih-Cimandiri Watershed, West Java
Popi Rejekiningrum and Budi I. Setiawan ......................................................
231
24. Vulnerability Analysis of Flooding in Residential Areas at Sub River

Watershed Borang, Palembang City (Case Study: Sangkuriang Indah
Residential)
Ilmiaty R.S., Susanto R.H., Setiawan B. , FX Suryadi, and Anggrayeni S.......
247
25. Utilization Of Purun Tikus (Eleocharis Dulcis) To Control The White

Stem Borer In Tidal Swampland
M. Thamrin, S. Asikin, M.A. Susanti and Mahrita Willis ................................
265
26. The Effect of Hermetic Storage to Preserve Grain Quality in Tidal Lowland,
South Sumatra
Rudy Soehendi, Martin Gummert, Syahri, Renny Utami Somantri, Budi
Raharjo, and Sri Harnanik .............................................................................
275
27. Conservation Soil Tillage at Rice Culture in Acid Sulphate Soil

R. Smith Simatupang and Nurita ....................................................................
287
28. Relationship between Soil Chemical Properties and Emission of CO2 and
CH4 of Guludan at Surjan Systems in Acid Sulphate Soil
Ani Susilawati and Bambang Hendro Sunarminto .........................................
299
29. Utilization of Lowlands Swamp for Rice Field in Accordance with Fisheries
and Animal Husbandry (Case Study in Pampangan, South Sumatra
Province, Indonesia)
Dina Muthmainnah, Zulkifli Dahlan, Robiyanto H. Susanto, Abdul Karim
Gaffar, and Dwi Putro Priadi ........................................................................
307
30. Water Use Efficiency Improvement of Lowland Rice Based on Carbon

Eficient Farming (CEF) in Sukamandi
Umi Haryati and Yoyo Soelaeman .................................................................
315
31. The Regional of Water Quality Distribution of Peat Swamp Lowland Jambi
Muhammad Naswir, Susila Arita, Marsi, and Salni .......................................
337
32. The Nutrients Quality of Fiber Palm With Ammoniation-Fermentation

Ali A.I.M., S. Sandi, Muhakka, and Riswandi .................................................
351
33. Financial Analysis of Citrus Farming on Sorjan System at Tidal Swampland

Yanti Rina D. and Dedi Nursyamsi ................................................................
357
34. Technology of Iron Toxicity Control on Rice at Acid Sulfate Soils of Tidal
Swamplands
Izhar Khairullah and Muhrizal Sarwani .........................................................
369
Page
35. The Potency of Indigenous Rice Cropping System in Conserving the
Natural Enemies of Pest (Predators and Parasitoids) in Back Swampland,
South Kalimantan
Helda Orbani Rosa, Mariana, and Dewi Fitriyanti .......................................
383
36. Vulnerability the Quality Improvement of Giant Freshwater Prawns

Postlarvae (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) in Swamp Media with Addition
Sodium during the Acclimatization
Ferdinand Hukama Taqwa, Ade Dwi Sasanti, A.K. Gaffar, and Yuri Amiro
Hitosi ..............................................................................................................
389
SCHEDULE OF THE PROGRAM ...................................................................
395
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS .................................................................................
397
vi
WELCOME ADDRESS
DIRECTOR GENERAL OF INDONESIAN AGENCY OF AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
International Workshop on Sustainable Management
of Lowland for Rice Production
Banjarmasin, 27 - 28 September 2012
Honorable:
Minister for Research and Technology
Vice-Minister of Agriculture
Governor of South Kalimantan
Honorable speakers from UNESCO, Hokkaido University, CIRAD and the
Mekong Delta Research and Development Center
Ladies and gentlemen, workshop participants
Assalamualaikum Warohmatullah Wabarkatuh
Good Morning
First of all, we pray to GOD the Almighty for all the blessings and grace we got, so that
we are able to be present here in International Workshop on Sustainable Management of
Lowland for Rice Production with theme "Lowland for food sufficiency in the global
climate change.
Honorable Minister, Vice Minister, Governor and all the participants,
Lowland such as swamplands have long been exploited and developed, either by farmers
or by the government and has contributed significantly to national food production.
Based on the available technology and innovation and the potential that can be developed
in the future, we believe that the lowland have potency and strategically as one of the
national barns. In addition, several other issues such as the challenge of the increasing
need for food, while overshadowed by the conversion and degradation of arable land as
well as global warming, lowland is no longer positioned as an alternative resource, but it
has been our hope.
Indonesia alone has the potential to swamp land suitable for farming about 10 million
hectares of the total area of 33.43 million hectares.
However, the newly developed approximately 5 million hectares with production
performance around 600-900.000 tons/year. Productivity can be achieved in the
swampland is between 3-4 t/ha. If optimized to achieve 5-6 t/ha and with increased
vii
cropping intensity, this land can contribute significant additional production. Our
Projections using the lowland of 10 provinces (1 M hectares) with optimization through
increased cropping intensity (IP) and the utilization of abandoned land can be contributed
additional 3.5 million tons of paddy rice per year. In addition, approximately 35% where
the transmigration site swamplands covering 84 Housing Units (UPT) in Kalimantan, 201
in Sumatra and 19 unit in Sulawesi strongly associated with the development of
community development or poverty alleviation.
This workshop will discuss some fundamental related to the development and
management of swamplands, opportunities and uniqueness of swamplands, climate
change, innovative technology of swamplands management, indigenous knowledge in
managing swamplands and various social economic aspects for swampland development.
Besides that, the results of research and development as well as the experiences of the
experts on lowland management will be presented among others by UNESCO-the
Netherland, Hokkaido Univ, Japan, UNSRI, IPB, Unlam and IARRD. There will also be
presented the successes story of the manager or the agency that manage the lowland
(Regent Barito Kuala, Regent Banyuasin, Dr. To Quang Toan (DMDRC, Vietnam), and
Dr. Lidon (CIRAD, Africa). Also, poster presentation will be display during this
international workshop which will attended by almost 150 peoples as academician,
researcher, practicion, decision making from outside and inside of Indonesia. In addition,
participants were also invited to see the success of our lowland in Terantang village,
Barito Kuala district, about 15 km from Banjarmasin, in the side River Barito. The area
has been reclaimed during the 1980s and developed the water system in 1994, which is
now a center for the rice and oranges production in South Kalimantan.
Participants,
On this occasion, I thank you to the Minister of Research and Technology and Vice
Minister of Agriculture to present here at this important workshop and giving key speech,
and we do hope our vice Minister will officially opened the workshop.
Enjoy the workshop while feeling the atmosphere of the lowland in the city of
Banjarmasin. Thank you for your attention.
Wassalamualaikum Warahmatullahi Barakatuh.
Director General of IAARD,
Haryono
viii
KEYNOTE SPEECH
VICE MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE OF THE REPUBLIC
OF INDONESIA
of Lowland for Ric e Production
Assalamualaikum Warahmatullahi Wabarokatuh

Good morning, my best wishes for all of us
Ladies and Gentlemen,
In Indonesia, a land clearing of swamp area has been started since 1969 in conjunction
with the Transmigration Program. But long before that, traditional farmers have already
done it in several areas. The opening of swamp land by Indonesian government was based
on the success of the Banjar tribe in Borneo and Bugis tribe in coastal area of Sumatra in
utilization of swamp area for agriculture. About 3 million ha of swamp area have been
opened by the society organizations for cultivation of rice, coconut, and rubber.
So far, a lots of learning and experience gained from the development of swampland
areas. For example, today we see a large and growing number of cities was originally
developed from swamplands, which previously flooded during rainy season. Palembang,
Banjarmasin, Palangkaraya, Pontianak, Pekanbaru, and Jambi is a great example of the
growing cities with a background of swamp land. In addition, some provinces such as
South Kalimantan, Jambi, West Kalimantan, and South Sumatera, their sources of food
supply, especially rice, were produced from swamp areas.
Likewise for other crops, especially coconut, oil palm and rubber, were also cultivated
extensively in swamplands. This shows a significant contribution of swampland to the
development of the region with a strong base in agriculture, especially for food security
and farmers livelihoods.
The success of farmers in the use of swampland has disproved the opinions of Western
scientists, in particular Dutch stating that swamplands are unsuitable for cultivation.
However, we also never forget the failure experience in the past, especially in developing
of one million ha of peatlands in 1999. The key of failure is related to the unproperly
planning and development of the model, which is less attention to the environmental
aspects and sustainability of resources. But this failure should be used for learning
ix
experience in the development of swamp in the future, particularly in supporting food

security.
In the future, swamplands will be a basis for the development of agriculture, especially
foodcrop, because of the difficulty of finding fertile land and the demand for food
continues to increase.
The potential use of swamp land is huge, both in terms of coverage areas and its capacity
and opportunity to increase the productivity of existing land, primarily through increasing
cropping index (IP). Stagnation of swamp land development in recent years, in addition to
a low adoption of technological and social aspects, also due to the issues related to
resource diversity (biodiversity) and climate change. These issues make us anxiousness
for a while in developing swamplands for agriculture.
Currently, at least 1.2 million ha of swamp land is used for rice production every year
yielded range from 1.0 to 1.5 million tonnes of grain/year. The productivity of rice in the
swampland is still relatively low, i.e. 2 to 3 t dray grain/ha, whereas the productivity in
some areas with good management can reach 5 to 7 t dry grain/ha.
Therefore, the productivity of existing swampland is still potential to be improved by
technological innovation and increasing cropping index (IP). In addition, at certain
conditions, such as under an extreme climate-related drought (El-Nino), more swamp
lands are potentially used for crop production, particularly swampy marsh.
On the other side of the seasonal pattern of rice production in swamplands generally
"contradictory" to the rice field, particularly in Java. At a minimum production (off
season) in Java, it is the peak production in swamplands. This condition, the swamp areas
become a buffer or safety of national food security and potentially as food barn, especially
in challenging of the climate change issues.
Swamp land is part of wetland agroecosystem, meaning that it is dependent on the
upstream (terrestrial) and will have an impact on the downstream (river water, lake).
Besides having roles in food production the swamplands is also very important for
environmental functions. Thus, swamp land management must be integrated with the
environmental management.
Technological innovation in managing of swamp land, rice cultivation in this area and
farmers experience in utilization of swamp land are more than enough. However, some
consideration and attention are worth to be noted, such as: (1) characterization and
identification of the development area for transfer of technology, (2) the availability of
facilities and infrastructure of the water system (water gates, ponds), road for farming and
x
agricultural machinery (tractors, etc.), (3) institutional farmers and capital, (4) the
accessibility to inputs (seeds, fertilizers, medicines), and (5) market and price guarantees.
To improve farmer welfare, it requires the integration of rice with annual crops
(horticulture, plantations), with fish, or with livestock that is now being developed.
Integration of rice with citrus and vegetables increased farmers' income to be about 5-6
times compared with just rice alone.
Based on the issues, this workshop is very important. The discussion and attention needs
to be addressed to the use of appropriate technology or innovation to overcome the
complexity of swamplands for agriculture. The holistic discussions and approaches are
required to resolve the problems by considering various aspects. It means that the package
of technology to be developed on swamplands should be comprehensive and multipurpose.
I hope the workshop today can raise a variety of learning and experience to acquire a
thought, ideas and reliable and comprehensive strategies in managing and utilizing of
swamplands. The description presented on the properties of swamp resources including
land, water, climate, and crop as well as land management will provide an overview that
swamplands are complex and site-specific, thereby it is important to be investigated in
detail before being selected as agricultural land in a wide sense.
Finally, the expectation that SWAMP AS A FOOD BARN IN GLOBAL CLIMATE
CHANGE or Lowland for food sufficiency in the global climate change could become a
reality.
Billahittaufiq wal hidayah, Wassalamualaikum Warahmatullahi Wabarakatuh.
Vice Minister of Agriculture,
Rusman Heriawan
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xii
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

of Lowland for Rice Production
International Workshop on Sustainable Management of Lowland for Rice Production on

27-28 September 2012 in Banjarmasin, was officially opened by the Vice Minister of
Agriculture, attended by around 200 participants from various ministries, Universities,
local government and foreign participants from the Netherland, France, Japan and
Vietnam.
This workshop highlights several important conclusions and recommendations as follows:
1. The role of tidal swamp is very strategic as SE Asian rice bowl. This land can buffer
the low production of irrigated rice production areas during the dry season. Despite
fragile land condition, marginal soil fertility, and environmental risks that may arise,
the scarcity of more suitable lands positions the high population density SE Asia to
utilizing this marginal land.
2. From about 33 Mha Indonesian wetland, about 9.5 Mha is considered suitable and
around 5 Mha has been developed for agricultural development.
3. Rice yield of the wetland is relatively low of about 1-4 ton/ha. The yield level and
production can potentially be increased to 5-8 ton/ha through water and soil
management practices and variety improvement.
4. Further expansion of agriculture to these lands must be done very selectively and
cautiously as not to repeat the failure of the notorious 1 Mha ex Mega Rice Project.
The use of peatswamp poses local problems in the forms of peat subsidence, acid
sulphate problem, and disappearance of its role to mitigate floods and droughts. High
potential emissions, which threatens both the national and global environment must
also be fully considered.
5. Several supporting factors are prerequisites in developing tidal swamp areas for rice
production, including: (1) technological innovation, especially on land management,
water management, adaptive-high yielding varieties; (2) water regulation
infrastructure; and (3) improved accessibility to the agricultural areas and to market,
and (4) warranty of market demands.
6. The cases in Vietnam, West Africa and Japan have exemplified the best management
practices for lowland rice cultivation. Water management through avoidance of salt
intrusion effects and development of adaptive variety have been the main key
xiii
management practices of rice cultivation in the Mekong Delta to feed the Vietnamese
people as well as for export. Japan was in an era of emphasizing the development of
high quality and high yielding varieties supported by soil management practices. In
recent years, however, Japan put more emphasis on soil management and
environmental aspects supported by research on development of adaptive, high quality
and high yielding varieties. High yielding varieties actively absorb nutrients from the
planting to maturing stage, while the traditional varieties actively absorb nutrients until
grain tillering stage only. In Western Africa the emphasis is on water distribution to
meet crop requirement.
7. The workshop has emphasized the importance of farmers participation in technology
adaptation at farmer level. Socio-economic and cultural systems are also emphasized
as key factors in the sustainable management of lowland for rice production.
8. Research institutions and universities, in collaboration with the central and local
government play a very strategic role in technology development to improve the
synergy between the national strategy, local government priority and farmers needs.
xiv
SCHEDULE OF THE PROGRAM

DAY-1, Thursday, 27 September 2012, Rattan Inn Hotel, Banjarmasin
Time
Session
Speaker
08.00-08.30
Registration
Committee
08.30-08.40
Welcoming address
Governor of South
Kalimantan
08.40-09.00
Opening Speech
DG of IAARD
09.00-10.00
Opening ceremony and Keynote

Speech
Vice Minister of
Agriculture of Indonesia
10.00-10.15
Coffee break
10.15-11.00
Keynote speech II
Moderator/ Secretary
Minister of Research and

Technology of Indonesia
Plenary presentation (I and II))

11.00-11.30
Tidal Swamp for Future Food

Support in Facing of Climate
Change
Dr. Muhrizal Sarwani
11.30-12.00
Opportunities and Uniqueness of Prof. Bart Schultz

Suitable Lowland Bio-Physics for
Sustainable Rice Production
12.00-12.30
Discussion
12.30-13.30
Lunch
Dr. Iding Chaidir/ Ir.

Anny Mulyani, MS
Plenary presentation (III to V)

13.30-14.00
New Concept on High Rice

Production by Increasing Soil
Fertility
Prof. Mitsuru OSAKI
14.00-14.30
Integrated Lowland Development

and Management to Increase
National Food (Rice) Production
Prof. Robiyanto
14.30-15.00
Discussion
15.00-15.20
Coffee Break
Prof. Dr. Fahmuddin

Agus/Dr. Edi Husen,
MSc
395
Time
Session
Speaker
Moderator/ Secretary
Success Story (I to II)

15.20-15.40
Success Story of Tidal Swamp

Farming System in Barito Kuala,
South Kalimantan, Indonesia
Barito Kuala Regent
15.40-16.00
Success Story of Tidal Swamp

Farming System in Banyuasin,
South Sumatera, Indonesia
Banyuasin Regent
16.00-16.30
Discussion
16.30-16.50
Success story of Lowland

MSc. To Quang Toan
Development and Management in
the Mekong Delta and Planning
for Water Resources Management
for Sustainable Agricultural
Cultivation Adapting to Climate
Change and Sea Level Rise
16.50-17.10
Success story of Lowland

Management in Africa
17.10-17.40
Discussion
17.40-19.00
Break and praying
19.00-21.00
Dinner
Prof. Dr. Lutfi Fatah

Arsyad /
Dr. M. Noor
Dr. Kasdi Subagyono/Dr.

Izhar Khairullah
Dr. Bruno Lidon
Hosted by DG of IAARD
DAY-2, Friday, 28 September 2012, Rattan Inn Hotel, Banjarmasin

Plenary Presentation (VVII)
08.30-09.00
Strategy of Climate Change

Mitigation in Wetland
Management for Poverty
Alleviation
Prof. Lala Kolopaking
09.00-09.30
Sociological aspect of the

development of Tidal Swamp in
Kalimantan
Dr. Taufik Hidayat
09.30-10.00
Discussion
10.00-10.15
Coffee break
10.15-10.45
Conclusion
Dr. Kasdi Subagyono
10.45-11.30
Closing remarks and ceremony
DG of IAARD
11.30-14.00
Lunch and praying
14.00-17.00
Field trip to Karang Buah Village, Committee

Belawang Sub District, Barito
Kuala Regency, South Kalimantan
Province
17.00
Return to Hotel
396
Dr. Trip Alihamsyah/

Dr. Sri Rochayati, MSc
Committee
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
Nr. Name
Institution
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Balai Pengkajian Teknologi Pertanian Maluku

Balai Penelitian Lingkungan Pertanian
Balai Penelitian Teknologi Pertanian Bali
Universitas Sriwijaya
Balai Pengkajian Teknologi Pertanian Papua
Balai Pengelola Alih Teknologi Pertanian
Balai Pengkajian Teknologi Pertanian Kalsel
Balai Penelitian Tanah
Pemerintah Kabupaten Batola
Balai Besar Litbang Sumberdaya Lahan Pertanian
Balai Penelitian Pertanian Lahan Rawa
Balai Penelitian Agroklimat dan Hidrologi
Balai Besar Mekanisme Pertanian
Balai Pengkajian Teknologi Pertanian Sulawesi Utara
Universitas Lambung Mangkurat
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
Dinas Pertanian dan Hortikultura Riau
French Agricultural Research Centre for International
Development
Dinas Pertanian Tanjab Barat
Balai Pengkajian Teknologi Pertanian Bengkulu
Dewan Riset Nasional
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1
1Muhrizal
1IAARD
WETLAND FOR FUTURE FOOD PRODUCTION IN

FACING CLIMATE CHANGE
Sarwani, 2Mohammad Noor, and 1Edi Husen
Researchers at Indonesian Center for Agricultural Land Resources Research and

Development (ICALRD). Jl. Tentara Pelajar No. 12 Cimanggu-Bogor
2IAARD
Researcher at Indonesian Wetland Research Institute (IWETRI). Jl. Kebun Karet, Lok
Tabat. Banjarbaru-South Kalimantan
Abstract. Utilization of wetlands for agriculture in the last few decades shows rapid
development. However, the growing issue of climate change and global warming in line
with broad and rapid development of wetland is envisaged by potentially increasing
greenhouse gas emissions and pollution. Therefore, implementation of environmentally
benign farming system needs to be realized. The basic concept of environmentally benign
or friendly farming in the context of wetland agriculture is the ability and efforts to
maintain agricultural production (yields and economics) at a certain optimum level. This
concept is highly dynamic concerning the nature of wetlands in relation to its historical
development for farming and current choice versus global demand. The choice is related
to the government's strategic policy to protect and feed the people that continue growing.
Meanwhile, the demand in respect to the international concern is related to the world
issues and the efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and development of green
economy. Wetland farming system consists of biophysical and socioeconomic elements
interlinked with each other. Biophysical elements include subsystems of soil, water,
plants, pests and diseases, and environment. Socio-economic elements include
comparative advantage, public perception, and sociological conditions. Environmentally
friendly farming in the context of wetland agriculture develops as a result of the
interaction between biophysical and socio-economic elements. Efforts to be addresed to
support the implementation of environmentally friendly wetland farming systems are: (i)
improving land and crop management system, (ii) increasing in value added, (iii)
strengthening institutions, and (iv) policy support.
INTRODUCTION
Utilization of wetlands for agriculture has been taking place since the 13th century at the
era of Majapahit Kingdom (Darmanto 2000). In the period 1950-1980 Indonesia is rice
importing countries. To minimize the import, the Indonesian government expanded the
area of food crop in wetland area targeted 5.25 million ha in Kalimantan and Sumatra for
15 years through the Tidal Rice Project (P4S). The P4S project is supported by the
transmigration programs for the poor in Java and Bali to Kalimantan and Sumatra
settlement. However, the use of wetlands increases public concerns in relation to
environmental issues, land degradation, and poverty. Stronger environmental issues are
related to climate change and global warming along with the rapid development of oil
Sarwani et al.
palm and rubber plantations in the wetland area that allegedly has the potential to increase
greenhouse gas emissions (Agus and Subiksa 2008; Suryatmojo 2012).
This paper reviews agricultural practices in wetland in the context of environmentfriendly farming. Environmentally friendly farming is a perspective to see the extent
farmersof effort or ability dealing with the current demands and interests. Implementation
of environmentally friendly farming systems requires a well planning for moving forward.
POTENCY AND USE OF WETLAND

Wetland area in Indonesia reached 33.4 million ha consisting of 20.14 million ha of tidal
land and 13.30 million ha of swampy areas. However, the suitable area for agriculture is
estimated 13.70 million ha which consists of 9.53 million ha of tidal land and 4.17 million
ha of swampy areas. Wetland area which has been utilized is only about 5.27 million ha
which consists of 2.27 million ha opened by government for transmigration settlement
units and 3.00 million ha opened by local community independently (Noor 2004). The
results of potential land analysis from ten provinces showed that by the optimalization of
the land supported by technology innovation and good cultivation management can obtain
additional production of 3.5 million tons of grain per year (Noor and Nursyamsi 2012). In
addition, about 20% or an area of 2.0 to 2.5 million ha of peat and swamp lands has
developed into oil palm and rubber plantations spread across Kalimantan, Sumatra and
Sulawesi. Agronomically and economically, wetland and peatland are also feasible for the
development of oil palm and rubber plantations as it can provide a profit for farmers and
entrepreneurs. It is just necessary required a wise land management in order to remain
environmentally friendly. Thus, future wetlands areas are likely to be the source of new
economic growth and source of foreign exchange.
Integrated farming systems between food crops and annual crop (oil palm) can be
done by increasing the distance between the line width of the oil palm, so that the rice
become a supporting plant. This model becomes mutually beneficial integration, so
concerns of further decrease of rice land area that reduces rice production can be
overcome.
Wetland for Future Production in Facing Climate Change
Figure 1. Performances of rice, vegetable crops, oil palm, and rubber in wetland farming
ADVANTAGES OF WETLAND FOR FUTURE FOOD PRODUCTION

Improved Food Production Opportunities
Of wetland that has been opened by the government, 2.44 million ha has been
utilized, i.e. for rice (1.182 million ha), estate crops (0.499 million ha), ponds (0.441
million ha), and other uses such as settlements and roads (0.320 million ha). Projections of
additional rice production by relying only on wetland from 10 provinces can be about 3.5
million tons of paddy rice per year by land optimalization through increased cropping
intensity and the use of abandoned land (Noor and Nursyamsi 2011).
Although a target of rice production according to the initial plans for the
development of an area of 5.25 million ha still cannot be reached as expected, the role of
wetlands cannot be ignored. At least, the availability of wetland that has been reclaimed
(3,767,571 ha) can be optimized and some of them that are unutilized (1,335,782 ha or
35.45%) can be used to increase domestic rice production. Moreover, it is still available
potential wetlands that have not been reclaimed (7,075,794 ha). Based on land availability
map of Balai Besar Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumber Daya Lahan Pertanian in year
Sarwani et al.
2009, of 30.7 million ha of potential land, approximately 7.0 to 7.9 million ha of which
are available for extension (idle bongkor wetland not included).
Availability of Technology
The successful development of wetlands for agriculture, especially rice has been
achieved by several tidal swamp areas like in South Kalimantan (Terantang in Barito
Kuala district and Kurau in Tanah Laut district), in South Sumatra (Telang and Karang
Agung in Banyuasin district), in Central Kalimantan (Terusan in Kapuas district), and
fresh swamps in South Kalimantan (Babirik in Hulu Sungai Utara district). One or two
areas of 17 provinces that has wetlands become a central of rice production. The success
of various regions in the utilization of wetland for increased production is numerous and
not all are presented in this paper. However, the efforts to become wetland as barns in
some areas are supported by technological innovations generated by IAARD and several
other institutions, including universities.
Technology innovations for wetland management as well as rice cultivation
techniques are available and farmers experiences in using wetland are more than enough.
However, some are worth and important to be concerned, i.e. (1) transfer of technology
requires the characterization and identification of development areas, (2) facilities and
infrastructure of water management (water gates, ponds), farm roads and agricultural
machinery (tractors) are available, (3) farmers institutions and capital are exist, (4) seeds,
fertilizers, pesticides are accessible, and (5) there are markets and competitive price.
Policy and Implementation
Accelerating the development of wetlands is determined by policy support
(political will) from the government, including legal institutions and efforts to improve
community awareness. In this case, the findings of research or technological innovation
play an important role.
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES IN WETLAND

Wetland farming system consists of biophysical and socioeconomic components which
are interlinked with each other. Biophysical component includes land resources as a
medium for plants, pests and diseases, climate and infrastructures. Socio-economic
biophysical includes human resources as the main actors or agents of changes having
perceptions and sociological conditions that may affect attitudes and behaviors.
Environmentally friendly farming in the context of wetland is a natural system that is
developed as a result of the interaction between biophysical and socio-economic elements.
The following descriptions are some biophysical and socio-economic conditions of
wetlands for agricultural uses.
4
Biophysical and Environmental Conditions of Wetlands

Soil subsystem
Soil in wetlands as a medium for plant growth has various constraints. In general,
land suitability classes of wetlands are conditional suitable with mild to severe limiting
factors, and some are not suitable for agriculture. Wetlands have highly fragile; as such
their intensive use or recklessly land clearing may create many problems, especially
acidification (pH 2 to 3), elevated levels of toxic elements such as Al, Fe, Mn, organic
acids, and sulfides. Some of wetlands have low nutrient status; particularly those are
intensively for land for food crops. Acidification processes and nutrient deficiency
(nutrient shortage) are often occurred after reclamation of wetland and then use it for
longtime without proper management.
Water management is the main key in opening or reclamation of wetland for plant
growth; as such plant can grow well without flooded in rainy season or drought in dry
season. Reclamation system at early stage to drain the water could also cause over
drainage and irreversible drying. Opening or reclamation of wetlands should be followed
by constructing water gates in order to maintain water level, so that the soil remains moist
or wet.
In traditional agricultural practices, especially in using wetlands for seasonal crops,
organic matter management and minimum tillage known as tajak puntal hambur system,
together with the applications of ash, salt and animal manures have been practiced widely.
This management is practiced by farmers in response to wetland conditions. However,
under the conditions of limited availability of fertilizers (as well as expensive) some
farmers no longer apply fertilizer on farmland based on recommended dose, or their
partially just fertilize the land with fertilizer N (urea) only, or with N and P without K
fertilizer. These practices cause a decrease in the production of biomass or yield and
accelerate land degradation (Noor 2012)
Water subsystem
Water management is a key to successful utilization of wetlands for agriculture.
Water sources come from rain, rivers, seas, forests and swamps of adjacent streams or
flood from upstream. Water quality depends much on water circulation or replacement
that occurs periodically from tidal water and floodwater from upstream areas such as in
fresh wetlands. In general, water quality at high tide or rainy season is better than those at
low tide or dry season. Water quality at low tide or dry season is more acidic (pH 2-3),
and high levels of sulfate (SO4), organic acids, and Fe 2+ (Anwar and Mawardi 2011).
Management practices, especially in areas that have been reclaimed equipped with
water gates, some water gates have been damaged and are not functioning so that the
water flows freely causing drought at dry season. Constructing floodgates or ponds (dam
Sarwani et al.
overflow) by local communities should always be encouraged widely to prevent drought

(EMRP 2009; Noor 2010). In addition to conserve water, ponds also prevent fires and
land degradation, especially those used for annual crops. To increase cropping or planting
intensity (IP) for food crops, water management systems are very important and
absolutely necessary.
Plant subsystem
Various crops that are now growing in wetlands are the result of adaptation and
domestication of wild crops by farmers in the long time period. In present agricultural
practices, the use of local varieties of food crops and annual crops are widely possible.
Although their low productivity, local varieties are known for their availability and
accessibility and required not much fertilizers. Until this time, the production of local
varieties is still relatively low.
Introducing new superior varieties or clones require an alteration in crop
cultivation and farmers mindset that may be confronted by local habits and customs. The
use of high-yielding rice varieties by farmers in wetlands agriculture is still low, or around
10-15%, and about 85-90% of the farmers still use local varieties because of some
considerations, i.e. (i) the seeds are easy to obtain because most farmers develop their own
seeds, (ii) the selling price is more expensive and marketable, (iii) it does not require
intensive care and much fertilizers, (iv) its ability to resist pests and diseases are quite
good, and (v) it has long-lived (11 months) giving opportunities for farmers to do another
works outside farmland. The use of high yielding varieties are often challenged by: (i)
limited support of infrastructure for water system service and mechanization for some
land preparation, (ii) low price of agricultural products, and (iii) the availability of
fertilizers and pesticides at the right time, quantity and quality.
Pest and disease subsystem
Pests and diseases infestation in wetlands is quite high, among others are rat, plant
hopper, blast, white pests, and stem borers, especially for food crops. The use of
pesticides does not seem to help much; even worst it kills also natural pest and disease
enemies if it uses excessively. Pest management to control the outbreak of certain pest due
to environmental disturbance is often faced by unsupported cultivation systems that are
managed in traditional way. Agricultural practices like food crops (rice) with different
planting time, small scale of farmland and inadequate fertilizer inputs weaken plant vigor
that are susceptible to pests and diseases. In addition, the use of crop varieties that are
susceptible to pests and diseases and limited plant rotation become the main factor for not
optimal yields. Moreover, expensive of pesticides makes farmers reduce the dose and
intensity of spraying resulting increasing levels of pests and diseases incidents.
Environment subsystem
The changes of natural wetland ecology are associated with climate change and
global warming. Climate change triggered by increasing emissions of greenhouse gases
(GHG) (CO2, CH4, NO2) in wetlands becomes a global concern, thus wetland
management and utilization, especially peat lands, gains special attention. Increasing
activities in using wetlands for various purposes are alleged to boost GHG emissions that
affect climate change. Wetlands have biomass with around 200 tons of carbon that can be
a source of emissions when burned or decomposed (Rahayu et al. 2005 in Harsono, 2012).
Therefore, management of wetland should be based on mitigation of GHG emissions.
Some research reported that water management by maintaining the water table at a depth
of 30 cm or less can reduce GHG emissions and prevent fires. Application of local
chicken manure can also lower GHG emission. The use of certain varieties such as
pineapple with low GHG emission is encouraged since it is known as a highly adaptive
plant in wetlands with acidic soil conditions (pH 2-3) and poor drainage or in thick peat
lands, which can yield 3 t of pineapple ha-1 (Noor 2004).
Socio-economic Conditions of Wetland Agriculture
Comparative advantage
Background and policy direction on the opening of wetlands for agriculture in the
beginning (1982-1999) devoted to increase food crop production, especially rice to
strengthen food security at that time. But long before that, actually wetlands have been
developed by the local community with a variety of annual crops such as coconut, rubber,
cocoa, citrus and oil palm. The fact that some farmers have changed their commodities
from food crops to other crops is an indicator that rice is no longer attractive or lower
advantage compared to other crops. Currently, most wetlands for rice farming have been
converted to non-agricultural purposes.
The expansion of oil palm and rubber plantations by private companies increased
rapidly in the last ten years (Noor 2012). In one hand, fast development of these
plantations provide a rapid impact on socio-economic development, but in another hand it
may reduce national food production in the future because some of productive wetlands
are converted or not optimized for food production.
Public perception
Controversy about the use of wetlands for agriculture is still strongly sensed by
public in general. Improper management of previous Peatland Mega Project (PLG) in
Central Kalimantan also increases negative perceptions and conceals its potential use for
agriculture. Reports on the failure of transmigration in this Mega Project with increasing
growth of poverty in this location add further the length of bad record of wetlands for
7
Sarwani et al.
agriculture (Levang 2007). However, gradually it realizes that the successful use and
development of wetlands is strongly influenced by well understanding of the nature and
characteristics of wetlands prior to opening the land for agriculture. Inadequate experience
in technical and strategic development of wetland raises many problems that are difficult
to solve quickly and appropriately.
Sociological conditions
The development of society globally has a consequence in increasing various
regulations and policies. The authority to handle the wetlands is not merely the domain of
the Ministry of Agriculture, but is also areas of the Water Resources at the Ministry of
Public Work and the Environment at the Ministry of Environment. These conditions
increase the complexity of the future development of wetlands. The involvement of many
agencies or institutions, in one hand may provide a comprehensive, holistic and integrated
solutions approach in handling various aspects according to each responsibility and
power, but in another hand it may also promote overlapping tasks and works.
The use of wetlands is also become a global issue related to the environmental
problems in terms of climate change. The government's commitment to reduce GHG
emissions as much as 26% by his own efforts or 40% by external funding has been able to
temporarily stop the clearing of forests and peat lands for plantation, particularly oil palm
(Presidential Instruction No. 10/2011). This opportunity is expected to be used for the
improvement of wetland management system and intensification of the lands that already
exist.
ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY WETLAND AGRICULTURE

The basic concept of environmentally friendly farming in wetland agriculture is the efforts
to maintain agricultural production at a minimum level. This concept is highly dynamic
concerning the nature of wetlands in relation to its historical development for farming and
current choice versus global demand. The choice is related to the government's strategic
policy to protect and feed the people that continue growing. Meanwhile, the demand in
respect to the international concern is related to the world issues and the efforts to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and develop green economy. At the field level, to achieve
environmentally friendly wetland agriculture it requires a proper land resources
management to meet adequate food production, conserve natural resources, and at the
same time maintain environmental quality. This requirement can be achieved by: (i)
improving land and crop management systems, (ii) increasing the value added, (iii)
strengthening institutional cooperation, and (iv) government policy.
Improvement of Land and Plant Management Systems

Management of wetlands should be regulated and directed to follow an integrated
system in single management unit. Zoning of wetland areas (macro to micro) is required
to eliminate the effects of development that may arise in the region and surrounding areas.
Referral for the zoning is based the interests that include areas for conservation
(forests/protected areas, peat land with thickness 3 m depth or more, peat dome,
distinctive regions as protected habitats) and areas for regional development (coastal and
adaptive areas, areas for agriculture and fisheries). In agreement to the characteristics of
wetlands, the smallest management unit could be based on the characteristics of the
hydrological units (swamp/river/watershed).
Added Value Increase
Most management systems in agriculture, fisheries, livestock in wetlands is still
labor intensive and traditional. The use of technological innovation is still limited. Even if
technological innovations have started to be introduced, only few of them are adopted and
it is also limited to some components, such as the use of recommended varieties, dosage
of fertilizers, and tractors for land preparation. This may one of the reasons less interest of
the younger generation to agriculture, particularly in wetlands that are often muddy and
dirty.
Improvement in cultivation technology, including proper cropping pattern of
farming with diversification of commodities (e.g. citrus and rice - paddy - crops vegetables) and diversification of farming such as crop - livestock integration (ricechicken, rice-fish) can increase farmers income. In line with the diversification of
commodities, opportunities to increase farmers income can also be achieved by
secondary product processing, so this added value can benefit the farmers. Other added
value is the utilization of agricultural waste, such as rice straw for mushroom, animal
feed, even biogas for domestic use.
Strengthening Institutional Cooperation
Implementation of environmentally friendly farming systems or sustainable
agriculture cannot be separated from the involvement of the stakeholders and institutional
cooperation at national and local levels. The cooperation includes institutions of policy
makers, extensions, and research and development. Currently, the institutional
cooperation is still limited to the level of communication and is expected to further
progress to the level of implementation. The efforts to change and improve the way of
cultivation and cropping patterns as well as the implementation of technological
innovations are expected to include always various stakeholders (institutions at various
levels).
Sarwani et al.
Government Policy
Government empowerment in terms of policy to implement environmentally
friendly farming systems in wetlands is very important. Nowadays, government concern
and commitment to develop wetland is still discontinuous (inconsistent). Regional
autonomy basically gives an opportunity for local governments to take advantage of
widely use of wetlands for food and energy (plantations). However, encouragement and
support by the government is still required.
An interesting example is the planning of Government of East Kalimantan and
Bulungan to utilize Delta Kayan, Bulungan district, East Kalimantan province for food
production, known as Delta Kayan Food Estate (KADEFE). KADEFE first harvest at 26
November 2012 is reported to yield rice with average productivity of 6.65 tons (GKP) ha-1
or 5.75 tons of grain ha-1 (equivalent to 3,607 tons of rice ha-1). The yield achieved is quite
high. When it is calculated with rice price about Rp.8,000/kg, the result is Rp.28,856,000.
In addition, KADAFE also harvest chili with a productivity of 0.75 kg plant-1. Of the 700
plants (with a total yield of 525 kg) and price about Rp 20,000 kg-1, it yielded Rp.
10,500,000. Total revenue from rice and chili farming reaches Rp. 39,356,000. If the
production cost of growing rice and chili is Rp. 7,000,000, then the farmers earn about Rp.
32,000,000 season-1. This income is not included the revenue from fish and vegetable
crops (eggplant). This Delta Kayan area has the opportunity for 3 planting seasons per
year. In this project, the local government engaged partnerships with several companies
that have investments in East Kalimantan.
FUTURE RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT OF WETLAND

Research required to support future development of wetlands should be directed to or
focus on: (1) mapping the potential land and recommendation to develop wetlands per
district/sub-district as a basis for development planning of wetlands; preparation of
wetland Planting Calendar in various climatic conditions; mapping of disaster prone areas
related to climate change, (2) producing adaptive crop varieties, its propagation and
spread on a large scale to the wetlands areas, (3) generating models of regional water
system (macro and micro) as the basis of wetland water management, including the
dynamics water level predictions model, and macro and micro water balance, (4)
generating appropriate cultivation technology to improve land productivity, lower GHG
emissions, and economical, (5) modification of agricultural mechanization tools to be user
and environmentally friendly as well as economical, including efficient and effective
water gate models, (6) formulation of organic and bio-fertilizers (in situ) to remediate
bongkor swamp land, including the development of nano-technology for fertilizers, (7)
creating institutional models and the empowerment of farmers to wise use of wetland for
agricultural, and (8) the dissemination of technological innovations in wetland
10
management to stakeholders and users, through the national and international cooperation
partnerships, visitor plots, and seminars.
CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS

(1) Wetland farming systems are developed along with human intervention through
technology, including the development of actor or principal agent attitudes, which
originally use wetland is just to meet the family needs, then became a profit oriented
(agribusiness).
(2) Wetland farming system consists of interrelated biophysical and socioeconomic
elements. Biophysical elements include: (i) land subsystems, (ii) water, (iii) plants,
(iv) pests and diseases, and (v) environment. Socioeconomic elements include: (i)
comparative advantage, (ii) public perception, and (iii) sociological conditions.
Environmentally friendly farming in the context of the nature of wetland system are
formed as a result of the interaction between biophysical and socio-economic
elements.
(3) The efforts needed as the hopes to create environmentally friendly wetland farming
systems in supporting wetlands for future food production are: (i) improving land
and crop management systems, (ii) increasing the value added, (iii) strengthening
institutional cooperation, and (iv) government policy, including policies in the
conduct of the study.
(4) Strengthening research which includes mapping of potential wetland resources,
recommendation to develop wetland as a basis for planning, planting calendar,
generating models of regional water system and its management, producing adaptive
crop varieties and cultivation technologies to improve land productivity with GHG
emissions, formulation organic and bio-fertilizers to remediate bongkor
unproductive wetland, including the development of nano-technology for fertilizers,
empowering productive farmers institution and dissemination of appropriate
technological innovation for wetland management.
REFERENCES
Agus, F dan I.M.G. Subiksa. 2008. Lahan Gambut : Potensi untuk Pertanian dan Aspek
Lingkungan. Balai Penelitian Tanah dan World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF).
Bogor-Indonesia. 36 hlm.
11
Sarwani et al.
Anwar, K dan Mawardi, 2011. Dinamika Tinggi Muka Air dan Kemasaman Air Pasang
Surur Saluran Sekunder Sepanjang Sungai Barito. Tanah dan Iklim Edisi Khusus
Juli: 1-12. Bogor: Balai Besar Sumber Daya Lahan Pertanian.
Darmanto, 2000. Kilas Balik Pengembangan Lahan Rawa : Sejarah Ilmu Reklamasi
Rawa. Pidato Pengukuhan Lektor Kepala Madya dalam Ilmu Teknik Sipil.
Yogyakarta: Fakultas Teknik Sipil UGM.
EMRP. 2008. Master Plan for the Conservation and Development of the Ex Mega Rice
Project In Central Kalimantan. Report First Draft for Counsultation July. 2008.
GOI-RNE. Jakarta-Palangka Raya.189 p.
Harsono, S. S. 2012. Mitigasi dan Adaptasi Kondisi lahan Gambut di Indonesia dengan
Sistem Pertanian Berkelanjutan. Jurnal Ilmu Sosial Transformatif Wacana 27/XIV: 11-38.
Levang, P. 2003. Ayo Ke Tanah Sabrang : Transmigrasi di Indonesia (Judul asli La
terraden face-La transmigration en Indonesie). Disertasi KPG-IRD- FJP. Jakarta.
362 hlm.
Noor, M. 2004. Lahan Rawa: Pengelolaan Tanah Bermasalah Sulfat Masam. Jakarta:
RajaGrafindo Persada/Rajawali Press.
______ 2010. Lahan Gambut : Pengembangan, Konservasi dan Perubahan Iklim.
Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada Univ. Press.
______ 2012. Kearifan Lokal Pertanian di Lahan Gambut. Dalam Edi Husen, M. Anda,
M. Noor, Mamat HS., Maswar, A. Fahmi dan Y. Sulaiman (ed.). Pengelolaan
Lahan Gambut Berkelanjutan 155-172. Bogor: Balai Besar Litbang SDLP.
Suryatmojo, H. 2012. Adaptasi Masyarakat di Kawasan Ekosistem Gambut dalam
Mengantisipasi Perubahan Iklim. Jurnal Ilmu Sosial Transformatif Wacana
27/XIV: 55-84.
12
32
2
OPPORTUNITIES AND UNIQUENESS OF SUITABLE

LOWLAND BIO-PHYSICS FOR SUSTAINABLE RICE
PRODUCTION
Bart Schultz
UNESCO-IHE, Chair Group Land and Water Development, Delft, the Netherlands
Abstract. Especially in the humid tropical zone, lowlands are to a large extent used for
rice cultivation. Their unique suitability is primarily based on the flat topography, fertile
clay soils, availability of fresh water resources, and possibility for rational lay out of the
fields. Examples can predominantly be found in many countries of the Asian Continent.
Due to this, combined with the on-going population growth and urbanization, the
lowlands play an increasing role in worlds' rice production. However, there are also risks
that carefully need to be dealt with. Such risks concern the requirement of adequate water
management and for several areas flood protection, land subsidence when peat soils are
reclaimed, loss of natural values, environmental degradation, and to a certain extent
possible impacts of climate changes. It will therefore be of utmost importance that
integrated approaches are being followed in development and management of lowlands.
Indonesia avails of 20 million ha tidal lowlands and 13 million ha non-tidal lowlands.
About 8 million ha of the tidal lowlands are potential for rice cultivation, of which almost
4 million ha has already been reclaimed. Of the non-tidal lowlands the potential area for
rice cultivation is estimated at 5 million ha, of which 2 million might have been
reclaimed. While the reclaimed lowlands are generally located on clay soils and especially
the government schemes have a rational lay out, they have good potential for agricultural
development, with a rice crop in the wet season and a second rice crop, or a dry food crop
in the dry season. It is even possible to grow three crops per year. The integrated approach
would have to be based on effective water management in combination with adequate
farming systems technology and post harvest activities. In order to investigate and
promote such an integrated approach there has been, among others, long term cooperation
between Sriwijaya University, UNESCO-IHE and farmers representatives. Over the years,
this cooperation has been strongly supported by the concerned Indonesian Ministries,
Provincial and District Authorities, as well as by Netherlands Development Cooperation.
Based on this, a rich stock of information on the potentials of the lowlands has been
obtained. The results show that when an integrated approach is being followed and the
suitable areas are being developed and effectively managed, the lowlands have unique
opportunities for sustainable rice production.
INTRODUCTION
Lowlands - flood prone areas - can be found all over the world, along coasts, in river
floodplains, and as inland depressions. In their natural state, these are, in many cases,
sensitive areas with a high ecological value. Therefore they are basically unsuitable for
development. However, due to their generally strategic location there is often a
tremendous pressure to develop these areas for various types of land use. Initially after
13
Schultz
reclamation, the land use is generally agriculture. However, in time the land use may
gradually change towards increasingly urban and industrial land use, as well as in certain
cases, into recreational areas and man-made nature conservation areas (Schultz 2006).
In this contribution some characteristics of population, population growth and
urbanization will be presented. This will be followed by a summary of the opportunities
of the lowlands in Indonesia for food production as well as of certain risks that have to be
taken into account in their development and management. The contribution will conclude
with a brief future outlook and concluding remarks.
POPULATION, POPULATION GROWTH, AND URBANIZATION

Population and population growth, distinguished in three groups of countries: least
developed, emerging, and developed are presented in Figure 1 (Schultz et al. 2009;
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID 2009; United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2009).
The least developed countries are home to nearly 800 million people. In these
countries, there is rapid population growth resulting in an estimated duplication of the
population by 2050. The emerging countries - Indonesia belongs to this group - house
almost 5 billion people (74% of worlds population). They still show a significant
population growth, resulting in an estimated 30% increase in population by 2050. These
countries also show a rapid growth in the standard of living, which results in changes in
diet with the implication that more food needs to be produced than would follow from just
the increase in population. The developed countries house almost one billion people and
there is almost no population growth anymore.
Figure 1. World population and population growth (Schultz et al. 2009; United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2009).
14
Opportunities and Uniqueness of Suitable Lowland Bio-Physics
To analyse the importance of the lowlands for the food production of Indonesia,
with a focus on rice, some characteristic data have been compiled, as well as some data
for Asia and the World as a whole. These data are summarised in Table 1. With respect to
the topic of this contribution, population density with respect to geographic area and
arable land are of particular importance. It can be observed that population density of
Indonesia with respect to geographical area is in the order of magnitude of the average for
Asia and almost three times as dense as the World average. If we look at the population
density with respect to arable land we see that Indonesia has a slightly lower density than
Asia and about 1.5 times more dense than the Worlds' average.
Table 1. Population density related to geographic area and arable land
Country/
Continent
Total
area in
106 ha
Arable
land in
106 ha
Indonesia
Asia
World
192
3,180
13,600
34
572
1,540
Total
population in
millions
2010
2050
225
287
4,030
5,220
6,670
9,020
Population density
(persons km-2)
total area
arable land
2010
2050
2010
2050
117
149
662
844
127
164
705
912
49
66
433
586
Source : Schultz et al. 2009; United Nations Department of Economic And Social Affairs 2009
POPULATION GROWTH AND URBANIZATION

Population growth in the emerging countries will be concentrated in the urban areas. Most
of these areas are in the lowlands (Schultz 2008). As example of rapid urbanization in the
lowlands of Indonesia, Figure 2 shows the growth of Jakarta from 1972 to 2005. In Figure
3 the change in percentage of urban population from 1950 to 2050 is shown for Indonesia
as well as for Asia and the World. Figure 4 shows the growth of the urban, rural and total
population in Indonesia. From these figures it can be derived that the urban population has
significantly increased and will further increase in future. On the contrary the rural
population of Indonesia has had its maximum and is expected to reduce in the coming
decades.
15
Schultz
Percentage of urban
population
Figure 2. Growth of Jakarta over thirty years
80
60
40
20
0
Year
1950
1970
1990
Indonesia
2010
2030
World
Asia
2050
Figure 3. Increase in percentage of urban population in Indonesia, Asia, and the World
over 100 years
Figure 4. Growth of urban, rural, and total population in Indonesia over 100 years
16
OPPORTUNITIES OF THE INDONESIAN LOWLANDS FOR RICE

PRODUCTION
In order to maintain food self sufficiency in rice, a significant change will be required
from predominantly smallholder farming towards food production for the urban
population. This implies an increase in farm size and production of higher value crops on
land surrounding urban areas (Schultz et al. 2009).
Based on the developments as outlined above, the following challenges with
respect to food self sufficiency in rice are relevant for Indonesia (Schultz 2006; Schultz et
al. 2009):
to feed the growing urban population at affordable prices;
to significantly increase the contribution of the lowlands, especially in rice

production;
to improve standard of living and environmental conditions in lowland areas;
to develop and manage land and water in the lowlands in a sustainable way.
Indonesia avails of 33 million ha lowlands (Figure 5). It concerns 20 million ha

tidal lowlands in the coastal zone and 13 million ha non-tidal lowlands in river floodplains
and depressions. About 8 million ha of the tidal lowlands are potential for rice cultivation,
of which almost 4 million ha has already been reclaimed. Of the non-tidal lowlands, the
potential area for rice cultivation is estimated at 5 million ha, of which 2 million might
have been reclaimed. While the reclaimed lowlands are generally located on clay soils and
especially the government schemes have a rational lay out, they have good potential for
agricultural development, with a rice crop in the wet season and a second rice crop, or a
dry food crop in the dry season. It is even possible to grow three crops per year.
Lowland
Figure 5. Lowland areas in Indonesia (Rahmadi et al. 2010)
17
Schultz
The lowlands of Indonesia have indeed the potential to significantly contribute to

cope with these challenges, because of the suitability of a substantial part of these lands
for food production based on the:
potential to have 3 harvests per year, of primarily rice, but dependent on the local
conditions also in combination with other crops.
rational lay out of the fields, and the possibility of further introduction of
mechanisation and increase in farm sizes.
possibility of an effective water management infrastructure and good operation and

maintenance, with strong stakeholder participation and commitment.
possibility to use the tidal fluctuation in a significant part of the tidal lowlands for the
additional advantage that irrigation as well as drainage by gravity is possible,
especially when the tidal movement is taking place in the fresh water zone near the
mouth of a river. With respect to this the classification in four categories (A, B, C and
D) as generally applied in the tidal lowlands is very effective and useful (Figure 6)
(Suprianto et al. 2010).
Figure 6. Classification of tidal lowland areas

(WS = wet season, DS = dry season)
possibility to effectively adapt to medium and long-term changes in opportunities due

to land subsidence and/or sea level rise.
The soil conditions in the lowlands have a significant influence on their suitability
for agriculture and require different approaches. A distinction would have to be made in
sand, peat, and clay:
18
sand: will generally be suitable for urban and industrial development, but not for
agriculture.
peat: generally moderately suitable for agriculture. A major problem with thick peat
layers is that due to reclamation a subsidence of 10 - 15 cm per year may take place.
This subsidence by far exceeds the possible impacts of sea level rise (Figure 7)
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007; Rahmadi et al. 2010).
The consequence of these processes is that for reclaimed peat soils after a period of
15 to 20 years drainage by gravity will have to be replaced with drainage by
pumping. Under the climatic conditions of Indonesia, drainage by pumping is
generally not affordable for agricultural land use. Due to this the areas become
waterlogged and those who are exploiting these areas will leave. It is therefore of
major importance that such peat soils in the lowlands will not be reclaimed but be
preserved. Only those peat soils where it is known that after disappearance of the
peat, drainage by gravity will still be possible could be reclaimed. This is the basis for
the statement that out of the 20 million hectares of tidal lowlands only about 8 million
hectares are suitable for agriculture (Suprianto et al. 2010).
Figure 7. Sea level rise and subsidence of peat soil after reclamation, based on the
highest forecast of the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (2007) and
the expected subsidence and oxidation in Indonesia. For subsidence and
oxidation of peat the maximum has been set at 4.00 m, while it may be
supposed that by that time the land will be under water.
clay: generally very suitable for agriculture (Figure 8). With certain clay soils there is
the risk of development of acidity after reclamation. This will require adapted water
management measures during a certain period until the acidity has been removed
from the soil. When clay soils are properly treated the conditions of the farmers will
improve as illustrated by the Figures 8 and 9 (Joint Working Group, Ministry of
Public Works and Rijkswaterstaat 2006a).
19
Schultz
Figure 8. Rice field in the tidal lowlands in Indonesia with a yield of the first rice crop of
8 tons per ha
Figure 9. Example of housing conditions in the Indonesian lowlands just after the arrival
of the (transmigrant) farmers in the period 19751985 and nowadays about 30
years after reclamation
In order to achieve the best results in developing and managing the lowlands, it is
of importance that integrated approaches are being applied, consisting of:
Selection of suitable soils and soil treatment measures.
Agricultural measures (Figure 10): land preparation, cultivation, harvesting, post
harvest measures, marketing.
Water management: canal systems, water control structures, design, construction,
operation and maintenance.
Infrastructure development and transport.
Public facilities: schools, healthcare administration, shopping.
20
Figure 10. Mechanised harvesting and post harvest processing

This underlines the importance of adequate water management infrastructure, good
operation and maintenance, and last, but not least of stakeholder (farmer) participation
and commitment. In the tidal lowlands in Indonesia this is being, or can be established
very well with movable flapgates in the tertiary canals and flapgates, combined with
vertical sliding gates in the secondary canals (Figure 11) in combination with the
establishment of water users associations (WUA) that have a legal status (Joint Working
Group, Ministry of Public Works and Rijkwaterstaat 2006 a and b; Suprianto et al. 2010).
For the operation of the water control structures in the tertiary canals, agreement
can be relatively easily obtained among the up to 16 farmers that have their fields in the
concerned tertiary block. The problem with the water control structures in the secondary
canals is that there is generally no agreement among the about 125 farmers that have their
fields in the concerned secondary block, on the operation rule of these structures, resulting
in their inadequate performance.
21
Schultz
Figure 11. Movable flap gate in a tertiary canal and flap gate and vertical sliding gate
structure in a secondary canal
With respect to the institutional and financial aspects of water management in the
lowlands, it has to be realised that only three parties are really in charge (Figure 12)
(Schultz et al. 2005). These concern the Central Government for policy, legislation and
the construction, operation and maintenance of large water bodies, and main structures of
crucial importance; the Provincial and District authorities for the primary and secondary
canals, water control structures, and last but not least the farmers, generally for the tertiary
canals and structures and the field systems. This implies that when these parties agree on
how the systems will have to be operated and maintained, there will generally be high
returns by means of good yields per hectare. However, when there is no agreement among
these three parties, insufficient measures with respect to operation and maintenance will
be taken, systems will decay, and yields will be significantly below the achievable level.
All other parties as shown on the right side of Figure 12 are of importance, but by the end
of the day they are only contributing and the key for success is with the responsible
parties.
22
RESPONSIBLE
CONTRIBUTING
Consultants
Contractors, manufacturers
Central
Government
Policy, legislation,
National waters
District/
Province
Primary and
secondary canals
Farmers
(WUA)
Tertiary canals
and fields
Universities, schools
Research institutes
Banks, donors
NGOs, Int. org.
Farmers associations
Figure 12. Actors in water management for lowland areas
FUTURE OUTLOOK
With respect to the future outlook, there is a general understanding that food production in
the emerging countries will have to be doubled in the forthcoming 25-30 years. There is
also an understanding that 80-90% of this duplication will have to come from existing
cultivated land and only 10-20% from new land reclamation. On the other hand due to
urbanization, industrialisation, and various other processes, agricultural areas are taken
out of production which aggravates the problem. In Indonesia, for example, about 40,00050,000 ha per year of agricultural land is taken out of production due to urbanization.
With respect to the future outlook for food self sufficiency in Indonesia, the
following can be stated:
Indonesia encounters a rapid population growth and urbanization;
in the densely populated isles, agricultural areas are taken out of production;
the clay soils in the lowlands offer excellent opportunities, especially for rice
production;
modernisation of the water management systems will be required;
a development and management strategy on food self sufficiency, taking into

account, short, medium, and long-term perspectives would have to be the basis.
Due to this, the share of lowlands in food production will have to significantly
increase. Modernisation of water management systems in the lowland areas will be
required at a large-scale. In line with the required technical improvements in the water
management systems, improvements in the institutional aspects of system management
need to be realised, like increased stakeholder participation in the operation and
maintenance of the water management systems (Schultz et al. 2009). In addition to this,
23
Schultz
flood protection will increasingly be needed. The value of crops per hectare is rising and
farmers in the lowlands will not accept flooding of a significant part of their crop
anymore.
In several of the lowland schemes, medium to long-term changes may be expected
due to land subsidence and/or sea level rise. This has for example been analysed for the
Telang I Scheme in Musi Delta, South-Sumatra (Figure 13) (Rahmadi et al. 2010). For the
tidal lowlands, such changes basically imply that lands gradually change from a higher to
a lower category (Figure 6).
Figure 13. Expected changes due to subsidence and sea level rise in Telang I, Musi
Delta, South Sumatra (Rahmadi et al. 2010)
The developments as outlined above, with on the one hand the growth of the
population and rapid urbanization and on the other hand the specific physical conditions
in the (tidal) lowlands, will imply that Indonesia would need a development and
management strategy on maintaining food self sufficiency, or food security, as well as on
the role allocated to the lowlands in achieving this objective. In the development of such a
strategy, the short, medium, and long-term perspectives need to be taken into account.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In conclusion, I would like to make the following remarks:
The suitable soils in the lowlands of Indonesia have a tremendous potential for food
production, with a focus on rice;
24
First of all, existing cultivated lowlands can be improved. For new reclamations,
careful selection of areas, as well as of the integrated development approach will be of
major importance for success;
In such an approach, the specific local physical conditions have to play an important
role in order to prevent reduced benefits from generally considerable investments.
REFERENCES
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID). 2009. Synthesis report
Topic 2.3. Water and Food for ending poverty and hunger. Theme 2. Advancing
Human Development and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). 5th World
Water Forum, New Delhi, India.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Climate Change 2007:
Synthesis report, Intergovernmental Panel on climate Change Fourth Assessment
Report.
Joint Working Group, Ministry of Public Works and Rijkwaterstaat. 2006a. Technical
Guidelines on Tidal Lowland Development. Volume II: Water Management.
Joint Working Group, Ministry of Public Works and Rijkwaterstaat., 2006b. Technical
Guidelines on Tidal Lowland Development. Volume III: Operation and
Maintenance.
Rahmadi, F.X. Suryadi, R.H. Susanto, and B. Schultz. 2010. Effects of climate change
and land subsidence on water management zoning in tidal lowlands. Case study
Telang I, South Sumatra. Proceedings of the 6th Asian Regional Conference of the
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), 10-16 October 2010,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Schultz, B.. 2006. Opportunities and threats for lowland development. Concepts for water
management, flood protection, and multifunctional land-use. In: Proceedings of the
9th Inter-Regional Conference on Environment-Water. EnviroWater 2006.
Concepts for Watermanagement and Multifunctional Land-Uses in Lowlands,
Delft, the Netherlands, 17-19 May, 2006.
Schultz, Bart, C.D. Thatte, and V.K. Labhsetwar. 2005. Irrigation and drainage. Main
contributors to global food production. Irrigation and Drainage 54.3.
Schultz, B. 2008. Extreme weather conditions, drainage, flood management, and land use.
In: Proceedings of the 10th International Drainage Workshop, Helsinki, Finland
and Tallinn, Estonia, 6-11 July 2008, Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki,
Finland.
Schultz, B., H. Tardieu, and A. Vidal. 2009. Role of water management for global food
production and poverty alleviation. Irrigation and Drainage:58. Issue S1.
Supplement: Special Issue on Water for Food and Poverty Alleviation.
25
Schultz
Suprianto, H., E. Ravaie, S.G. Irianto, R.H. Susanto, B. Schultz, F.X. Suryadi, and van
den Eelaart. 2010. Land and water management in tidal lowlands. Experiences in
Telang and Saleh, South Sumatra, Irrigation and Drainage 59.3.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2009. World Population
Prospect: The 2008 revision.
26
FLOOD AND TIDAL INUNDATION IN THE CONTEXT

OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND SEA WATER LEVEL RISE
AND PROPOSED ADAPTATION MEASURES IN THE
MEKONG DELTA
To Quang Toan and Tang Duc Thang
Southern Institute of Water Resources Research, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Abstract. The Mekong Delta of Vietnam has a total area of 3.9 million hectares, of which
2.4 million ha is agriculture land. The Mekong Delta is very flat and low, an average of
the elevation is about 1 m above the mean sea level. It is considered as the main rice bowl
of Vietnam. It contributes 48% of the national food product and more than 85% of annual
exported rice product. The Mekong Delta of Vietnam is located at most downstream of
the Mekong River and it is affected by annual flood and drought. In the context of climate
change and sea water level rise, the floods and droughts may become more severe,
inundation may happen in the normal condition with the sea water level rise, this will be a
threat to sustainable agriculture development of the Mekong Delta and food security of
Vietnam. Based on the evaluated results on the change of floods and inundation
conditions in the Mekong delta and the present situation of the delta, some proposed
measures for flood and tidal inundation protection were exposed in this study with
consideration for sustainable development of the Mekong delta in the context of climate
change.
Keywords: Adaptation measure, climate change, floods, inundation, MD, Mekong delta
INTRODUCTION
The Mekong Delta of Vietnam (MDV) is located at most downstream of the Mekong
river, it has a total area of about 3.9 million ha, bordered with Cambodia in the North, and
bounded by the sea in the East and the West. Mekong Delta is very flat and low, an
average of the elevation is about 1 m above the mean sea level, it has affected by tidal
variation and seasonal salinity intrusion with an annual affected area by saline water of
about 1.7 million ha. It has affected area by annual flooding of about 1.6 million ha to 2
million ha.
Mekong delta is considered as the granary of Vietnam, the total food product was
increased from 6.3 million tons in 1985 to 22 million tons in 2010, and it contributes 48%
of the national food product and more than 85% of annual exported rice product.
Therefore, strategy to maintain sustainable agriculture development in the Mekong delta is
considered as the top priority for food security of Vietnam.
27
Toan and Thang
However, seasonal floods is considered as unavoidable natural factor, due to the

low topography, the total flooded area was accounted for only 3% of the total basin area
while the Mekong river flood flow is extremely high, maximum flow of 65,000 m3 s-1
(1939). Consideration the flood damages, the advantages of the floods and possible
negative impacts of the embankment for flood control, until now Adaptive leaving with
floods is still a popular measure. Only a few area was fully protected against floods.
The Vietnams National scenarios for sea water level rise (SLR) [1] shown that by
the end of this century (2100) the sea water level may rise up to 1m. The floods, tidal
inundation and salinity intrusion phenomenon in the Mekong delta may has much change
due to its has more than 700 km coast long and river mouths open link to the sea. In
addition, the concerns about the upstream development scenarios can alter the flow to the
Mekong Delta and affected very much to cultivation conditions. Adaptation measures
need to be considered to ensure the sustainable development condition in the Mekong
Delta.
DATA, METHODOLOGY AND EVALUATED RESULTS OF

SIMULATED SCENARIOS
Present flooding and spring tidal intrusion in the Mekong delta
The Mekong delta has an annual flooding, during the flood season the high river
flood flow, which highest by the end of September or earlier of October, cause flooding
and inundation for a large area in the Mekong delta plan. The total flood area is about 3 to
4 million ha, flood duration is about 2 to 5 months and flood depth from 0.5 m to more
than 4 m. Continues high floods in 2000 to 2002 caused a large damages to people and
properties.
The highest tidal level from 2005 occur during the spring tidal period in October to
December was much higher than the maximum water level in previous five decades
(about 20-30 cm) and cause inundation in large area in the coastal zones, cause a lot of
damages to agriculture and affect to the life of people in most cities in the Mekong delta,
e.g. Can Tho, Tan An, My Tho, Vinh Long and Long Xuyen.
National climate change and sea water level rise scenarios
Climate change is considered as the most threat to the life of people in this 21st
century. The unusual climate events like typhoons, floods and drought happen more often
in most parts of the world, the temperature is gradually extent increase and cause of sea
water level rise.
28
Flood and Tidal Inundation in the Context of Climate Change
Vietnams National climate change scenarios, in low development scenario (B1),

medium development scenario (B2) and high development scenario (A1FI), the mean
temperature may increase about 3 degree censius, rainfall may increase 5% to 10%, and
sea water level rise from 51 cm to 99 cm (Table 1). Vietnam is considered as one of the 10
most countries would seriously impact in the context of climate change, especially the
Mekong delta due to its low land plain.
Table 1. SLR in National climate change scenarios compared with the period 1980-1999
[1]
SLR (cm) by the year
Scenarios
2020
2030
2050
2070
2100
Low development (B1)
89
1113
2226
3442
5166
Medium development (B2)
89
1214
2327
3744
5975
High development (A1FI)
89
1314
2630
4553
7999
Hydraulic modelling for the Mekong delta

This study was applied the Mike 11 model to simulate the impact of upstream flow
and sea water level rise for inundation phenomenon in the Mekong delta with special
concern for the coastal zones. The application schematization for Mekong delta is given in
Figure 1.
Summary of Mike 11 application:
Staring from Kratie, covered the flood prone areas and around the Great Lake in
Cambodia;
The whole Mekong delta and a part of Saigon-Dongnai river basin;
Including more than 3,900 rivers, canals and branches with total length of 24,200 km;
More than 5,000 hydraulic works represent irrigation sluices, salinity protection
sluices, over road floods, roads;
More than 25,900 water level points and 18,500 water flow calculation points, an
average 500 m/point;
Water demands and rainfalls;
29
Toan and Thang
Inflow boundaries: at Kratie, around Great Lake, Cambodia areas and SaigonDongnai river basin;
Tidal boundaries at river mouths.
Legend
Rivers and canals

Weirs and spills
Figure 1. Hydraulic and water quality schematization application in the Mekong delta
This model application was calibrated, validated and applied in number related
studies [3,4,5,6,7 and 10]. For further detail are refer to the references.
Evaluation of simulated results on flood and tidal inundation change in the context
of climate change
Evaluation of simulated results from authors published studies [3, 4, 5, 6 and 7]
was showed that, tidal inundation in sea water level rise was very seriously, inundation
was not only happened due to the Mekong river flood but it was also happened during the
dry season in SLR condition. The most extent flooding areas were the coastal zone area,
the area along the main rivers and the low land area in the delta. The inundation area with
different depths and inundation duration was showed at Table 2 [5].
30
Table 2. Summary of inundation condition with % Mekong delta area in simulated

scenarios
No
1
2
3
Scenarios
SLR 100cm
SLR 50cm
Present 2005
% inundated area
compare with delta
area
Shallow
Deep
(<1 m)
(>1 m)
28
25
8
41
9
% inundated period
above 1m
<50% of
times
26
14
2
>50% of
times
22
3
% inundated period
above 0.5m
<50% of
times
19
27
12
>50% of
times
62
17
Remark: % area was compared with the total area the Mekong delta of Vietnam
It was find out that 69% of the Mekong delta can be flooded and inundated by SLR
of 1m, in which, inundated area with water depth above 1m accounted for 41%, more
danger than that the affected area with more than 1m depth and happen in more than 50%
of the time accounted for 22%. Inundated area with water above 0.5 m with the
occurrence above 50% of time accounted for 62% of the delta. Therefore, it can be seen
that 22% of the delta area may be severely impacted and other 40% of the delta may be
considerably impacted if there are no proper measures taken. A few areas in Cambodia
near the border may be affected in this scenario.
In SLR 0.5 m scenario, the inundated area above 0.5 m is accounted for 34% of the
delta area, in which area with inundation of more than 1 m is accounted for 9% of the
delta. The area with inundation depth of more than 1m with the occurrence above 50% of
time is accounted for 3% and the area with inundation depth above 0.5 m with the
occurrence of more than 50% of time accounted for 17% of the delta. The impact of SLR
in this scenario to Cambodia is small, may mainly due to the rise of water level on the
main river.
Evaluation of simulated results from authors published studies [6 and 7] was
showed that, in combination of a high flood from the Mekong river basin like the 2000
flood with different sea water level rise scenarios, the flood and inundation condition in
the Mekong delta would become more seriously as presented on Table 3.
As can be seen from the Table 3, the possible impact of climate change and SLR to
the Mekong delta of Vietnam is considerable high in scenario the Mekong river flood as
of 2000combination with the sea water level rise for 0.5 m and 1 m. It was evaluated that:
84% of the total area in MDV may be inundated with a water depth above 0.5 m in
SLR 0.5 m and 96% in SLR 1 m. Meanwhile, similar flood risk condition in the 2000
flood it was accounted for 50% of the delta, this mean that the shallow inundation
area would possible increase in the SLR condition with 0.5 m to 1 m, it was increased
for about 1.1 to 1.5 million ha.
31
Toan and Thang
36% of the total area in MDV may be inundated with a water depth above 1m and
prolonged for more than 1 month in SLR 0.5 m and 68% in SLR 1 min comparison
with 28% was inundated in 2000 flood. The flood area above 1m depth and prolonged
for more than 1month would increase about 0.34 million ha to 1.6 million ha in
comparison with 2000 flood.
Table 3. Change on the flooding areas incombination of Mekong river 2000 flood with
SLR scenarios
No
Comparison of flooding area in simulated

scenarios with baseline 2000
Flooding area
in baseline
2000 (ha)
Flooding
area in
simulated
scenario (ha)
Change on
flooding area in
comparison with
baseline 2000
(ha)
Shallow inundation area of above 0.5 m,

SLR 0.5m scenario compared with 2000
flood condition (flood area in 2000 flood
is 2.3 mil. ha)
2,300,000
3,390,000
+1,090,900
Shallow inundation area above0.5m, SLR

1m scenario compared with 2000 flood
2,300,000
3,774,300
+1,474,300
Flood extent above 1m and duration >1

month in SLR 0.5 m scenario compared
with 2000 flood condition (flood area is
1.1 mil. ha)
1,100,000
1,444,400
+344,400
Flood extent above 1 m and duration >

1month in SLR 1m scenario compared
with 2000 flood condition
1,100,000
2,656,800
+1,556,800
POINT OF VIEW AND POSSIBLE ADAPTATION MEASURES FOR

FLOOD AND TIDAL INUNDATION CONTROL IN THE MEKONG
DELTA IN THE CONTEXT OF CC & SLR
Point of view
To be fully aware of the government strategy for water resources development as
illustration below :
Water resources development to ensure national socio-economic and sustainable
environment development strategy to 2020 and view up to 2050, this is created a base
for sustainable agriculture development with trend to modern and high intensive
cultivation, it would contribute for economic development and improve living
condition for the local people in the MDV, to ensure the national food security and rice
export strategy, maintain national benefit and equal benefit sharing among regions and
sectors.
32
Mining water use reasonable, serve multiple purposes, unified in river basins and
irrigation systems, water resources management not be divided by administrative
boundaries. Exploitation and use of water in coupled with measures for protection
against degradation, avoiding depletion of water resources, renewable water resources
by structural and non-structural measures. Pay attention to environmental protection of
water, especially water on irrigation systems.
Increasing the safety level for people and property against disasters: hurricanes, floods,
flash floods, drought, water logging, salinization, soil erosion. Have a good plan and
appropriate measures for each specific region with proactively prevention measures,
avoiding or adapting to minimize the damage.
Management, exploitation and development of water resources to ensure the
immediate requirements and do not conflict with the needs for future development,
adaptation and reduce the negative impacts of climate change and sea rise.
Based on the above mentioned viewpoints for water resources development to
adapt with floods and sea level rise in the Mekong delta. The research team was continued
some in-depth studies for some typical case study areas with severely impact by floods or
tidal inundation. Two pilot study areas were selected, 1) a deep flooding area in South
Vam Nao, Cho Moi district; 2) coastal zone area in South Mang Thit irrigation project.
The proposed measures were introduced for each plot study in way to adapt with climate
change and sea water level rise as presented below.
A pilot study for a deep flooding area in South Vam Nao area, Cho Moi district
The South Vam Nao project area is surrounded by the Mekong river in the North,
Bassac river in the south and Vam Nao river in the Northwest, the Cai Tau Thuong river
in the Southeast, belong to Cho Moi district, An Giang province with a total natural area is
about 35,571 ha, this is the fertile lands in the Mekong Delta, has much advantages of
water conditions and a mild climate conditions are very favorable for agricultural
development. However, the project area is located in deep flooding areas in the Mekong
Delta, are affected by annual floods, causing much damage to people and property,
making difficult barrier for agricultural development.
Flood control dike system in South Vam Nao is formed from 1996 and basically
completed in 2002, is divided into 79 sub-zones that is based on topography, rivers,
canals, roads and existing natural embankments and levees. The existing dike system has
just protect the area against the small and medium floods or against the large flood in
August. Dike system formation opens a great opportunity to exploit the full potential and
advantages of this fertile land area. Agricultural production and husbandry, crops grown
33
Toan and Thang
rapidly in recent years. The South Vam Nao flood protection plan to adapt with the
Climate change and SLR shown in Figure 2, [10].
Figure 2. The South Vam Nao flood protection plan to adapt with the CC & SLR
The project area is divided into 4 zones, based on natural conditions and
administrative boundary, in which Zone 1: limited by the Ong Chuong river, South Vam
Nam and the Bassac rivers; Zone 2: limited by the Mekong river, Ong Chuong and Chung
Dung rivers; Zone 3: limited by Mekong, Bassac, Chung Dung and Cai Tau Thuong
rivers; Zone 4: this is the island in the Mekong river including the communes of Tan My,
My Hiep and Binh Phuoc Xuan; inside of each zone the there is an existing flood control
system of sub-zone with a low flood protection level, less than or equal to the 2000 flood
level.
Requirements set forth, in the context of climate change and sea level rise, need to
upgrade protection level for this deep flooding area like. To meet these goals, after some
public consultation and feedback local and provincial government, a number of flood
simulation scenarios and impact analysis were done for the project, the proposed plan for
dike system was divided into 2 levels, so call Double ring dikes:
34
Outer ring-dike: this dike lies along the perimeter line of 4 flood protection zones,
Zone 1 to Zone 4, this is a high security dike with respect for full flood protection for
its responsible zone in terms of taking into account climate change, sea water level
rise. Go along with the dike system there is irrigation and drainage sluice gates to
ensure the irrigation and drainage requirement as well as transportation in the zone;
Inside ring-dike: with some improvement of the existing ring-dike in sub-zones, to

ensure the sub-zone safety against the floods at a certain level in order to save
investment for the whole system works and avoid negative environmental issues in
the project area. Accompanied by the dredging of main canals between the sub-zones,
and intakes for the sub-zone as well as bridges for local traffic, to insure the irrigation
and drainage for each sub-zone;
The advantages of this decentralized dike system are:
The investment budget was modest;
Improvement of irrigation and local transportation development;
No major changes to the environment condition in the project area, at the early stage
of the flood season or during small flood there was only the inside ring-dike operated,
to take the advantages of flood: bring silts to fertile the soils, improving the water
environment for the area;
No major change to the local infrastructural condition the project area, as it was used
the existing ring dike in each sub-zone with proper upgrading;
Outer ring-dike is operated and regulated only in such conditions: during the flood
peak period; during a high flood; or high flood combination with sea level rise;
Simple and flexible operation;
Irrigation and drainage initiative by each sub-zone in most the time of the year.
Irrigation and drainage depend on the operation schedule of the outer ring-dike was in
a short period only, during the flood peak period of a high flood.
A Problem arising in this case is in a large flood, the outer ring-dike system is
operated (closed), the high water levels on the rivers outside protected zone inability for
gravity drainage, while the requirement for dynamics drainage in each sub-zone was
existing due to a heavy rain may occur. So if the pump water directly into the main canals
outside the sub-zones (but still inside the protected zone) the main canals lies between the
sub-zones must be designed to huge canals to accumulate the pumped water or rising the
elevation level of the inside ring-dike system as high as the outer ring-dike system. this
leads to very large increase in the investment budget. So the location of pumps in each
sub-zone should be selected in able to pump water directly to outside the project area. In
sub-zones where are difficult to meet this requirement need to merge to a larger sub-zone,
except in special cases, small sub-zone can pump water into the main canals.
35
Toan and Thang
A pilot study in coastal zone area with existing ring dike, The South Mang Thit
project
Figure 3 showing the dike system and sluice gates of the South Mang Thit
irrigation project.
Figure 3. Layout of South Mang Thit Irrigation project

The South Mang Thit irrigation project was located at the coastal zone of the
Mekong river, it was surrounded by the Ham Luong river in the North, Bassac river in the
south, East sea to the East and the Mang Thit river in the Northwest with a total area of
about 256,680 ha covering the Tra Vinh province and a part of Vinh Long province. The
irrigation project was started in 1993 and basically completed in 2004 with a large
excavation and dredging of main canals in side the area, there was a ring dike in
combination with about 20 main salinity intrusion prevention sluice gates, they are
operated automatically by tidal pressure, the disadvantage of this sluice gate is once it was
open it can not be closed until the direction of water flow changed.
Evaluation of the simulated results from authors published studies [4,5,6,7] show
that sea levels rise could increase significantly the inundated area in the Mekong delta,
especially in the shallow flood area and the coastal areas as South Mang Thit irrigation
project area. But it was also realized that there is a possibility to upgrading the existing
dike system and taking advantage of low tidal period to drain water by gravity.
Taking the advantage of the double ring dike systems planed for the South Vam
Nao project, it was assumed that a small scale dike system like the inside ring-dike was
implemented in the project area in similar criteria. In addition, the mechanism to operate
the sluice gates was improved to ensure the initiative opens and closes of sluice gates as
required and allow to maintain the water level inside the project area to a such level, e.g.
stabilized at 0.5 m.
36
Figure 4.1. SLR 30 cm,

flood extent depth
Figure 4.2. SLR 50 cm,

flood extent depth
Figure 4.3. SLR 1 m, flood

extent depth
The flood extent maps for simulated scenarios with climate change and SLR 0.3 m,
SLR 0.5 m and SLR 1m as shown in Figure 4.1 to 4.3, as can be seen from the maps the
coastal areas without dikes and control sluice gates will seriously affected by sea level
rise. In the South Mang Thit irrigation project, with improvement measures as assumed
above can reduce these impacts.
As an illustrated above, this can be seen that, there is a possibility to control the
water level to avoid the impact of SLR to extent the tidal inundation area for the coastal
zone areas in general and in the South Mang Thit irrigation project in particular if the dike
systems and the sluice gates was renovated and upgraded.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the evaluated results of impact assessment due to climate change and sea level
rise to the flood and inundation change in the Mekong delta as well as the simulated
results on appropriate measures to adapt with climate change condition, a number of
conclusions and recommendations were drawn:
Possible impacts caused by climate change and sea level rise to the Mekong Delta is
very serious, requiring the adaptation measures and plans must act promptly to
minimize the negative impacts to maintains sustainable development in the Mekong
delta;
Solutions with small dikes, for sub-zones, with low elevation of the dikes to small
floods response is necessary, while ensuring protection goals do not affect the water
quality in protected areas because the water is changed often and avoiding stagnant
water. Combined with the dynamic pump to actively drain during flood peak period
in large floods, reminded that the driving force to pump the water to out of the project
areas;
37
Toan and Thang
Depending on natural conditions, geographical characteristics and existing

infrastructure, the sub-zones should be linked to protect with a higher protection
level, outer ring-dike was required to protect of the linked zones in the high flood or
flood combined with sea level rise. Operation and management of the system will be
less complex, less investment cost;
For coastal areas and the areas along the Mekong and Bassac rivers where tidal
influence effects, the hydraulic works can be changed to ensure initiative operation
(open and closed) to reduce the impact of tidal inundation by maintaining water levels
and reduce salinity intrusion increase due to salt water from adjacent areas entering
the protected areas. Links to actively control the flood, salinity and water supply.
REFERENCES
MONRE. 2012. Vietnam National Scenarios for Climate Change.
Kim N.Q., Toan T.Q., and Thang T.D. 2009. Evaluation the hydrological change due to
the impact of upstream development scenarios in The Mekong river basin,
Hydrology and Environmental journal, Hanoi Water Resources University.
Kim N.Q., Toan T.Q., and Thang T.D. 2010. Evaluation the salinity intrusion change in
the Mekong delta due to upstream development scenarios, presented and published
on Large Dams workshop in 2010.
Toan T. Q. 2009. Evaluation the flooding condition change in Can Tho city in different
climate change scenarios, Asian Cities Climate Change resilience network.
Toan T. Q. 2010 Flood and tidal inundation change in the Mekong delta in sea water level
rise scenarios, presented and published at the 5th Mekong annual flood forum.
Hung L.M. and Toan T.Q. 2009a. 2010b. Water resources development measures
supporting to national flood security strategy in the Mekong delta in the context of
climate change, a) reported at the Strategy for National flood security: measures
and policies 5/2009, b) Water Resource Sciences and Technology journal,
Vietnam Academy for Water resources, 2010.
Thang T.D. and Toan T.Q. 2010. Orientation and water resource development measures
supporting to sustainable socio-economic development in the Mekong delta in the
context of Climate change, report in seminars Economic Forum in Mekong delta
region.
Government of Vietnam. 2009. Decision 1590/QD-TTg dated 9th Oct/2009 of the Primer
Minister to approve the Orientation strategy for water resources development in
Vietnam to 2020 and view of 2050.
MARD. 2009. Agriculture and rural development strategy during period 2011 to 2020.
Toan, T.Q. 2010. Hydrology and hydraulic calculation report, flood control system for
South Vam Nao Project.
38
4
1Lala
STRATEGY OF CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND

MITIGATION IN LOWLAND MANAGEMENT FOR
POVERTY ALLEVIATION
M. Kolopaking and 2Mohammad Iqbal
1Member
of National Research Council of Indonesia, and Head of Center for Agriculture and
Rural Development StudiesBogor Agricultural University (CARDS-IPB)
2Researcher
at Center for Agriculture and Rural Development StudiesBogor Agricultural

University (CARDS-IPB)
Abstract. Lowland Management needs to be developed as resource management actions

in addressing risks and opportunities of climate change impacts. This paper suggests
strategies for developing climate change adaptation and mitigation actions in the context
of strengthening regional development management and poverty reduction in Indonesia.
The action approach should be developed through participatory development of
productive areas which is started as small-scaled action and then upscaled to become a
development movement, involving multi-stakeholders and strengthening social resilience.
Keywords: Adaptation, climate change, mitigation, regional development, social
resilience
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Poverty alleviation will be more effective if it succeeds to build an action which
not only addresses the socio-economic issues but also deals with the conservation and
rehabilitation of natural resources (Kolopaking 2010). As implication, poverty alleviation
efforts need to be developed not only in the administrative units (province, district, subdistrict, village) but also paying attention to development of the ecosystem in a region,
e.g. watershed unit (Daerah Aliran Sungai/DAS), coastal, urban, rural, and forest areas.
Addressing climate change in the context of lowland management and poverty
alleviation should be seen not only to manage risks but also as an opportunity. By this
perspective, the management of lowland needs to find a form of climate change
adaptation and mitigation action which not only considers technical dimensions of natural
resource management but also incorporates elements of economic improvement, social
and political development.
In Indonesia, the development actions become important in the framework of
strengthening regional development. Discovering a form of climate change adaptation and
mitigation for lowland management should focus on achieving social and regional
39
Kolopaking and Iqbal
resilience rather than merely increasing agricultural production. For that reason, it is
important to formulate lowland management strategy in the context of climate change
risks and opportunity management in synergy with poverty alleviation.
Objectives
There are two objectives presented in the next description:
To propose general recommendation of adaptation and mitigation action strategy for
lowland management based on experiences in a pilot site in Indramayu Regency,
Indonesia.
To formulate procedure of integrated climate change issues into lowland management
as a part of regional development planning and poverty alleviation action.
RESEARCH METHOD
Qualitative method techniques were used to collect and analyze data in this study.
Literature studies, group discussions, and key person interviews were used to identify the
water institution system in reality, especially to answer two earlier specific questions: a)
Assessing barriers and best practices to overcome barriers, b) Identify cross-sector and
vertical coordination issues. Whereas, to answer two last specific questions by using
Focus Group Discussion (FGD), AWOT Analysis - combination between the Strength
Weak Opportunity Threat and Analytical Hierarchy Process, and Interpretative Structural
Modeling (ISM).
Group discussions activity conducted simultaneously along with the survey
techniques by multi-disciplines team to collect data and information from farmers group
and institutions in district level. Afterwards, four sub-districts case were chosen. In these
four sub districts, key person interviews were performed into local government, farmers
group leader, local agriculture extension officer, and irrigation officer to recognize main
institution while the method was also used for assessing barriers and best practices to
overcome barriers and identify cross sector and vertical coordination issues. After
performed FGD in regency level, regulation mapping from Indramayu Regency
Government was conducted to understand how the regulation worked in resource
utilization. Based on the regulation mapping, the institutional design development was
formulated. This process later derived the institutional system recommendation and
proposition for strengthening institutional cooperation.
The process of examining existing institutional condition as a system that relied on
various institution development design techniques was conducted in two steps. Firstly,
internal and external factors of water institution were identified through group
40
Strategy of Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Lowland Management
discussions. Secondly, the strategy of institutional design development was appointed

using AWOT method. Afterwards, analyzing three elements of institutional design
(requirement, goal, and achievement criterion) used the ISM method. The ISM was based
on the informants opinion related and concerned to the proposition of alternative policy
implementation. More information is provided in the Annex. The contextual relations
assessment data are containing contextual relations between sub-elements in the
requirement and the goal of institutional design policy making encompassed in Structural
Self-Interaction Matrix (SSIM) form. Then from this point, the reachability matrix table
was derived by replacing V, A, X, 0 into the scores of 1 and 0. The further step was the
calculation according to transitivity rule. Results received from the ISM analysis were
made as information about the sub-element of requirement, goal, and achievement
criterion in a hierarchy form of a sub-element over other sub-element. The sub element of
requirement, goal, and achievement criteria was stated with the level of driver power and
its affection (dependence). From each sub-element then, it was derived the requirement,
goal, and achievement criteria of institutional design system.
Analysis results displayed as directional recommendation for institutional design
development through the process of discussions using FGD. The results were afterwards
consolidated and formulated as suggestion for strengthening institutional cooperation on
adaptation in the water sector.
BEST PRACTICES AND BARRIERS IN LOWLAND MANAGEMENT

Resource Management Institutional Condition in Indramayu Regency
This sub-chapter explains the existing institutional condition in resource
management sector in Indramayu Regency. Main points found and should be noticed are:
The damage of irrigation infrastructure in Indramayu regency is very serious. It is
including water channel damage, river depletion and broken waterway.
1
Musrenbang as the multi-stakeholder forum both in village, sub-district and regency

levels is not fully worked. This forum can not properly conduct its function as the
institution which can derive local development strategy based on their representative
assessment.
There is large gap between formal regulation (government) and local (community)
institution process which is indicated that the government has not fully captured the
development required by the community.
Musrenbang: Acronym of Musyawarah Rencana Pembangunan, the forum which
discusses and derives development plan and strategy. It is usually conducted in subdistrict or village.
41
The funding and budget aspects require attention. Government of Indramayu Regency
does not have sufficient fund to support proper water management required by their
people. It happens due to the limitation of authority and also because of the
misidentification of development needs.
This study obtained, according to the experience of Indramayu Regency,
institutional adaptation system in resource management to be developed using existing
farmers group expansion. It began with the institution which was traditionally developed
by the community and then growing into the institution which has been based on formal
guidance and regulation.
Flood risk and drought management requires dynamic and well organized farmers
group because the farmers group is important institution core in management of irrigation
and other natural resource. Along the organization forming, besides having chief,
secretary and bookkeeper, it referred also an ulu-ulu 2 and technical field officer.
Technical field officer is responsible for investigating, looking after, and repairing
equipment and building that have supporting function into irrigation in flowing water to
rice fields of the farmers group member. Whereas ulu-ulu is responsible for arrangement
and ensures that irrigation water flows into correct rice field area as according to
agreement of farmers group about time schedule and amount of irrigation water.
Lesson learned from the experiences of the farmers groups observation is that the
farmers group can be well developed because of good facilitation. The process itself
requires a facilitator which possessing capability in irrigation technique, agriculture aspect
and good cooperation capability with the group leaders in order to develop social strength.
This facilitation does not have to be conducted by one person only but it can also
performed by some people in the context of cooperation. Other lessons learned on their
way to strengthen the institution of their irrigation system are can be pointed as shown
below:
farmer group requires leadership which majoring the principle of accommodating

group member aspiration. Input and information gotten from the member of group
has to be accommodated and designed as the core in group activity plan. There are
two positive points that need to be underlined in this principle, they are:
a.
Farmers group can recognize the areas and potencies which included into their
irrigation system, therefore they can exploit those potencies to occupy and
control the existing irrigation constraint.
b.
Management of production area has been adapts and recognizes natural condition
and periodic disasters (floods, drought) or cause and effect which is generated by
waterway depletion. Those conditions have been used as the starting point in
2Traditional
42
terms referred to the occupation of irrigation gatekeeper
compiling the lowland production area utilization plan. Therefore, the planning
has been covering the perspective of climate change risk and opportunity
management planning. In other word, planning of lowland system utilization
have been strived to be made considering the anticipation of disasters that is
possibly happened.
The group is supported by adequate technical capability of its member related into
irrigation aspects. Not all of the members are having the technical capability but only
some of them. From Indramayu experience, by placing them on proper position, like
as ulu-ulu and technical field officer, it is enough to provide the ability for the whole
group to implement their duty in managing water channeling at irrigation waterway
and overcomes emerging technical problems.
Other main point which then learned is that those all of dynamic organization job
management of farmer group, by placing ulu-ulu along with officer which is possessing
technical ability of irrigation and agriculture as facilitators which can communicate with
the rest of group member and knowing problems about the irrigation or agriculture
technology, and the qualification to coordinate with various stakeholders at the level of
secondary block, simply doesn't guarantee that the process can be matched into
development policy design in management level of regency government, province or even
national level. The recognition of farmer group about irrigation channel problems,
practical ways in solving agriculture problems which submitted from village level into the
branch of sectoral of local government organization simply not guaranteed to get the
proper feedback of problems way out.
Damaged Irrigation Infrastructures
As explained before, the farmers group has already strived the maximum way in
utilizing their area. But this maximum condition is actually admitted for can be more
improved. Example,the 1/3 of ricefield area which only be flown for just 5 month is not
caused by the lack of water supply. The existing rainwater contained by the embankment
is sufficient to water all of ricefield area during 9 months. But, when the water level is
getting lower at dry season, the water cannot flows into the 1/3 of rice field area because
the waterway which heading into this area is getting more and more shallow because of
waterway erosion. As a result, farmer can only cultivate in the watered area.
Member of farmer group have coped to collectively repair the aqueduct but they
are failed because this activity requires heavy equipment to dig the shallow area.
Application of aid for reparation has been addressed to related government division, but it
seems that the issue doesn't match with government development plan. Reparation is
43
conducted, but the shallow waterway is not included into repair plan so that until now the
1/3 area is still only watered during 5 month only.
On the other area, the community also has identified steps required to do dredging
of river and rehabilitation of water channels which have been more than 20 years never
been repaired.The study cover of community proposal for several activities, like:
a.
Rehabilitation and conservation upstream of Cipanas River (Upstream in Sumedang,

flow into Kandanghaurin Indramayu or Downstream) required to be normalized, and
it also have to build dam in 3 places (Tegal Putat, Cipanas 1, Muara Kedung Ketel).
b.
Cilencap River (Flow from KroyakeKandanghaur) required to be normalized, and it

have to build dam in 3 places (Kemisan Dam, Manggungan Dam, Rengas Gate)
c.
Cilalanang River (Upstream in Sumedang, flow into Kandanghaur or Downstream)

required to be normalized, and it have to build dam in 3 places (Lajem, Cayut Area,
Pedati)
d.
Beji Creek Normalization (Kandanghaur-West side of Haur Geulis), requires a

boundary between salt water and plain water.
e.
Perawan River (Flows from Kroya to Kandanghaur) requires to normalize and to

make boundary between salt water and plain water.
The Weak Function of Development Planning Policy (Musrenbang)

The issues that already identified by the community for infrastructures
rehabilitation is actually has been floored in the discussion forum in the village and the
again exposed in The Musrenbang in sub-district level. But, it seems like the issue is only
become a formulation of problem without getting any solution.
In other area in Indramayu, for supporting floods and drought control effort, the
community has formulated the plan. On their plan, they are proposed for the conduction
of reboisation and the making of embong in upstream. Also it has to conduct the dredging
of Cipanas River. Besides that, it requires the renovation and streamlining of water
channels. Actually, this is not a brand new idea and some of those efforts are having ever
been done before, but it came not optimal in the implementation. For example, reboisation
and allowance to the community to join cultivation of eucalyptus based on the pattern of
community forest in forest area has not worked well. The community is still weak and
requires facilitation, in the other side the forestry division still assessed to be more
commercializes than assisting the community and conducting natural conservation. Idea
of making embong by the community is desisted because of forest area spatial usage
rights problem. Rehabilitation into damaged water channels which has not functioned or
been depleted also conducted not in proper time and target.
44
But, as recognized by community, the infrastructure rehabilitation problem is

budgeting authority procedure. As known, budgeting allocation authority has to obey
irrigation area authority regulation. Rehabilitation of Cipanas River channel is belongs to
the province authority, and not the regency. It becomes institution problem which blocks
the implementation of flood and drought control operation scheme. Besides budgeting
demarcation, coordination between institutions at the same level in Indramayu Regency
also still have to be consider. Based on assessment, it recognized that floods control
activity from various stakeholders in Indramayu Regency is only limited in information
sharing. Only a few institutes which have been developed synergy cooperation entangling
government and non-government institution.
Gap between Planning and Implementation Development
To prevent floods, people actually done precautions. Steps taken have already been
oriented to lessening risk, like collectively heightens bank, repairs tertiary waterway or
cultivates trees around bank. But, the steps which assessed by the community is not
optimally takes effect. Floods risk management requires to be developed in broader
activity scale, starts from river dredging, streamlining of waterway comes up with
renovation of irrigation infrastructure, like damaged water gate until rehabilitation of
upstream area. But, the activity seems to be hard to conduct. As a result, the conducted
activity generally still oriented to anticipate disaster emergency impact. For example, to
anticipate water pond, community provides equipment to wade pond. Those anticipatory
initiatives of disaster emergency impact are coordinated by Tim Pengendalian Bencana
3
Alam in sub-district level. The team is selected because they are the one who controlled
the action. This team also coordinated aid and assistance of various parties in helping
floods casualties. Actions which are generally taken at the time are conducted variously,
from giving aid until doing casualty relocation.
The steps with similar orientation also conducted when facing drought. Preventing
efforts also have been conducted in parallel with effort to generate rehabilitation upstream
areaof Cipanas-Pangkalan watershed. Besides, the community has submitted ideas to
make embong or gentongan or check dam in headwaters. But, the idea is corrupted in
implementation.
From the community viewpoint, controlling floods and drought requires more than
small problems solving oriented scheme. But, the idea only designed and re-designed, and
ended as an idea without action. In the end, the community seems to be "surrendered" and
only handles action which can be done by them.
3Natural
Disaster Control Task Force
45
Ideas of preventing floods and controls drought always discussed in The

Musrenbang, start from village up to sub-district level. But the problem is, the
development proposals which are proposed to the regency government is not matched
with program or project which later on executed by government (regency, province or
national level) into this region.We can say that the proposals of preventing annually
routine floods and drought which formulated through The Musrenbang seldom basically
realized. Thereby, it can be pointed that the programs which have been applied into
villages/region inside these five sub-districts is unable yet to reach the main problem. Or
in other word, many floods and drought anticipation development programs/project which
come to the village not in proper time and target.
The assessment then finds at least three factors which causing gap between
planning and implementations of policy. First, there is problem in institutionalizing
authority arrangement which actually have mounted in legal regulation. For the
information, the legal regulation about irrigation management in Indramayu Regency is
adequately strong and properly enough. About natural resource management, the
government has released regulations about irrigation, and even has been improved three
times. Regional regulation about irrigation was firstly released at 2001, named Regional
Regulation No. 3 of Year 2001 about Irrigation. Then, this regulation is improved through
regional regulation No. 14 of Year 2003. And lately, at 2007 the Government of
Indramayu Regency releases regional regulation about Irrigation named Regional
Regulation No. 22 of Year 2007.
There are three important regulation point which strengthening its previous
version, from Regional Regulation No. 22 of Year 2007 compared to its former which is:
(a) Providing of group participation area, indicates that the existence of farmer group
isimportant in irrigation system, (b) Arrangement of P3A team-work mechanism which
can be matched with activity and execution plan of irrigation system in regency level, and
(c) specific regulation about division of management region area and specific division of
authority between National, Province, Regency and the Village Government and also the
community role through farmer group. The declaration of this regional regulation is
increasingly specifying the guidance of authority boundaries which owned by each
institution.
The Government of Indramayu Regency themselves, in this case, follows the
regulation as organizer of all irrigation block both primary and secondary which existed in
Indramayu Regency in area under 1,000 hectares. The regency government is also having
other authority about irrigation besides stipulating regional regulation, which are
development and management of both primary and secondary irrigation system,
publishing permit of water usage and water utilized company, executor of observation and
facilitation function in the case of interregional irrigation dispute in the region of
46
Indramayu, facilitation and empowerment into consumer community which joined into
farmer groups and forming commission of irrigation.
In Indramayu case, besides Regional Regulation No. 22 of Year 2007 about
Irrigation, it is also requires to paid attention into contents of Decree of Regent of
Indramayu about The Commission of Irrigation of Indramayu Regency. Things require to
be highlighted in this decree of regent are:
Element Composition of member of Commission of Irrigation of Indramayu Regency
Duties Explanation of Commission of Irrigation of Indramayu Regency
Funding source for Commission of Irrigation of Indramayu Regency activity.
Mentioned in Decree of Regent, Irrigation Commission consisted of direct related
4
stakeholders into issues of irrigation in Indramayu Regency. They are Bappeda , Regency
Government, Water Resource Division, Agriculture and Livestock Division, Ocean and
Fishery Division, Forestry and Plantation Division, PJT II Jatiluhur (Patrol Area Section),
PT Rajawali, all of sub-district government in Indramayu, all of farmer group alliance in
Indramayu and element of college and NGOs. Duties of commission of irrigation are as
recommendation giver of operation fund allocation priority, treatment and rehabilitation
and as social control receiver conducted by group of water consumer farmer into
operation execution and treatment of primary and secondary irrigation network with
activity financial source from Regional Revenue and Expenditure Budget.
Considering the regulation, there is only small opportunity for gap between
planning and development policy implementation to happen. Moreover, Irrigation
Commission of Regency Indramayu seems to be the hope for a mutual cooperative forum
for multi stakeholder in managing irrigation. This arrangement can become the backbone
for conducting steps for climate change adaptation, especially to control floods and
drought risks. Even more, Irrigation Commission of Regency Indramayu has done many
things to strengthen the institution of farmer groups. In recent two years, it has been
conducted training for all of farmer group about various thing related to irrigation
management: reinforcement of group management, irrigation channel maintaining
technique and division of water, measurement technique of requirement and availability
of water debit, division of water planning technique and basic agriculture technique. But,
due to the regional regulation which is only one year old, Irrigation Commission requires
more time to develop their institution so they can be functioned more than just reinforcing
the institution of farmer groups. This commission has to develop effective forum of multi
stakeholder cooperation in local ecological entity to build role and responsibility sharing
up to benefit sharing from irrigation institution system. Even more, the commission has to
find the way of alternative funding based on arrangement of activity that is not based on
4Badan
Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah ---Regional Development Planning Board
47
Regional Revenue and Expenditure Budget Plan, but also can utilize other source as long
as based on the principle of multi-stakeholder participative, to ensure that the future of
irrigation system development and maintenance is supported by all involving stakeholders
(hybrid finance).
Gap of legal regulation institutionalization can be indicated that in this moment,
there is another activity which is works and have been developed by the community in
regulating water utilization. This is the evidence that water utilization actually can be
related not only into formal legal regulation, but it also can be attached into traditional
norms and institution. Moreover, farmer group can congregate and arranges themselves in
water utilization or agriculture technologies development is a part of institution which has
adaptively institutionalized in the community.
Thereby, second factor causing of gap between planning and implementations of
development policy is rejection into arrangement about official institution regulation. For
example, there are questions about why the irrigation area which managed by
Government of Indramayu Regency is only below 1,000 hectares. Also there are
perspectives; the role of irrigation management which is given to the government
(province and national) causes irrigation infrastructure is not looked after well. Finally the
community has to survive to looks for the way to get water. In the end, when there are
climate change sign which generating floods and drought, hence negative impacts always
sacrifices community. Not wrong then, if the community institution which has to fulfill
their water rights showing rejection into uncontrolled growth of water pump entrepreneurs
that is not regulated well in the regional regulation.
Third factor which causing gap between development policy planning and its
implementation, is the community role which still weak in development planning
management. Assessment finds, though in development scheme concept it gives place at
participation of community, but practically the development planning process still based
on governments bureaucracy. This thing can happen because development planning is
obligated to obey the specified procedure, causing prioritizing concordance of
administration becomes more important than implementing the substance of solving
community purpose.
As a result, floods and drought which are frequently happened is responded with
routine development management. For example, at dry season when community faces
drought, the community creating their own way to fulfill water requirement through
various efforts start from "looks for water", maintain the institution of water pump
business, up to the activity (if they have to) "steals water". To fulfill water requirement of
5
the community, some kuwu (head of the village) confess that they have to pay the jeger
to watch over the water gate in upstream, or even if they have to, helping steals water.
5Local
48
term for bodyguard, traditional security officer.
Water stealing activity confessed to conduct in various ways, from blocking water way so
6
it can flow to the downstream up to forcing water from an embung owned by a private
company (government-owned corporations) in the upriver to flow. During dry season, it
also possible to happen conflict of water utilization between water pump entrepreneur
group which selling water for irrigation and State Owned Water Resource Company
which is distributing water for domestic usage and household requirements. If this
situation is left over and not well taken cared, on the long term it can ignite potential
conflict.
Based on description above, hence institutional system in climate change
adaptation in irrigation sector is as depicted in Figure 1. Following the description of this
institution system, we can describe that it is happened an adjustment of institution
(institutional adaptation) which is leading into structure and authority of group farmer and
other stakeholders in management of irrigation which is capable in controlling the climate
change risk, especially floods and drought. The process requires conflict resolution about
water utilization.
Climate Change
Land Conversion
Legal Regulation
(UU, PP, Perda)
Flood/Drought
CONFLICT
TRADITIONAL IRRIGATION
Water Availability
Rules of Representation
Water Allocation
Best Practices
Water Right
Maintenance and
Renovation
Barriers
Jurisdiction Boundary
Figure 1. Institutional System In The Context of Climate Change Adaptation in Water
6Same
with gentongan is the local term for check dam.
49
Funding Aspect and Development Proper Allocation

The main issue that requires further notification for institution adaptation in water
sector is the limitation of budgeting sharing coordination; especially for high budgeted
water sector activities such as irrigation infrastructures rehabilitation which is as
explained below, is the main problem in Indramayu. At the moment, cooperation between
most institutions is limited only in information sharing.
Meanwhile, in the vertical coordination context, the budgeting limitation also
becomes important issue that requires attention, especially between regional (province)
level and local (regency) level. But, there is hope that in the future this problem will be
solved. Especially after the ratification of Regional Regulation by Legislative Board of
The Province of West Java that is providing regulation guidance for the establishment of
Council of Water Management as multi-stakeholder forum for vertical cooperation and
budget sharing.
Other problem felt to be blocking in coordinating relationship between institutions
horizontally and vertically is the absence of well communication. This constraint often
relates due to availability limitation of financial, human and technology resource. Besides
that, government also faces difficulty because the climate change risk has not become the
part of development policy formulation. The community also still has not comprehended
the climate change issue systematically, which can be related to the control of related
disaster like floods and drought.
Best Practices and Barriers throughout the Water Institution
This study finds that on the existing local institution and institutionalization
process, there are best practices that should be noticed, which are:
1.
Voluntary facilitation program for farmers group exists and coordination among the
farmer group is already in place for managing one sub-irrigation area (<350 ha).
2.
Good responsive of local legislative body to national regulations related to water

resource management.
3.
At provincial level, climate change has been seriously considered in developing

climate risk management programs. This has been stated officially in the meeting on.
4.
On the other side, barriers that should be paid consideration are:
5.
There is no effective system in budget allocation system that ensures effective

implementation of Climate Change Adaptation or Mitigation Actions from upstream
to downstream. The issues related to this are: (i) limitation of budget allocation for
managing flood and drought risk, (ii) misallocation of funding, for example funding
50
provided for rehabilitation the irrigation system was used in appropriate target areas,
(iii) No synchronization of government programs with local needs on Climate
Change Adaptation or Mitigation.
6.
There is large gap between formal regulation (government) and local (community)
institution process. For example, government has issued formal water scheduling for
irrigating rice field, however, the structure of irrigation system does not fit well with
the location of the irrigation area, and this reduce the effectiveness of the scheduling
system and finally lead to the illegal irrigation water pumping. The increase in illegal
pumping will increase drought risk in the downstream areas.
7.
Bargaining position of community in prioritizing government program that meet with

community needs is weak.
Potential Adaptation and Mitigation Activities

Base on best practices and barriers identification, the study also found the
principles of adaptation and mitigation policy.Climate change adaptation and mitigation
action in lowland management have to be developed based on existing community
livelihood. In the context of Indramayu, it means considering the perspectives: ecological
tradition, farmers economic and social institution and also agricultural and irrigation
technology, especially participatory technology.
The study note several type of adaptation and mitigation from community which
can developed. They are development of dam/aqueduct (rain harvesting technology),
normalization of River, development and rehabilitation of Irrigation Channel and
Drainage System, application of Water Saving Technology, cropping pattern
development, Integrated Organic Agriculture Development (Biogas, Organic Fertilizer,
Integrated Pest Control), community development and institutional assistance to conduct
anticipative act toward climate risk, and rehabilitation or conservation of upstream of
water catchment area.
INSTITUTIONAL DESIGN
Developing Participatory Climate Change Adaptation Strategy in Lowland
Management
Indramayu pilot based institutional design for effective adaptation and mitigation
There are four strategies that prepared as suggestion to strengthen institutional
cooperation on lowland management. This design was aimed for management area below
51
1,000 hectares where requires sub district and inter sub-districts cooperation to put the
climate change adaptation issue in the development plan.
Strategy 1
Strategy related to the authority regulation. Lesson learned from Indramayu that the
institution adaptation development in lowland management requires support through
availability of Regional Regulation of resource management which capable to implement
the issue of climate change into development design.
Strategy 2
Strategy related to institution development. The development policy in lowland
management is related with the revitalization of values to build cooperation and collective
action and also arrangement of inter-farmers and group relation horizontally, and
partnership with other stakeholders.
Strategy 3
Strategy which is related to the second strategy: the institution adaptation and mitigation
development in lowland management requires community institution capacity building.
Strategy 4
Strategy related to multi-stakeholder process. The institution adaptation development in
lowland management requires expansion of community-based multi stakeholder
collaborative management. This thing is including activity management which more in the
form of expansion of participative action entangling multi-stakeholder, causing the
processed have to not only relies on activity management in program/project under
government bureaucracy arrangement.
Based on the evaluation, it is identified some internal factors (the strength and the
weakness) and external factors (the opportunity and the threat) as determiners of policy
strategy of resource management. Each internal and external factor which identified then
are scored by stakeholders to determine the importance of each factor.
The strength factor that could be made optimally as possible in influencing the
success of adaptation system in lowland management is the farmers recognition about
farmers group importance in resource management. This point showed that resource
management is the part of agricultural system which based on groups activity. Beside the
strength, there are also weakness requires to overcome. That is is farmers lack of fund
and authority access to maintain and repair damaged water channel apart from tertiary
level channel.
The opportunity factor is advantaging government (both national and regional)
development budget to develop and rehabilitate agriculture infrastructure and also
52
facilitating farmer institutional capacity building. Threat factors that must be paid
attention is the absence of development co-operation between irrigation territory and
inter-group in the community for irrigation management and issue of environmental
damage in the upstream area.
As explained above, the processes are deriving results of strategy alternatives that
have been chosen. These strategies are then consolidated. From this process, there are four
chosen strategies as mentioned before in the beginning of this sub-chapter (Strategy
Formulation). Those strategies require to be applied in the development policy of
mainstreaming climate change issues into development plan at regency level.
Local Based Institutional System Design
Based on the strategy formulation, then it is developed the system design that
considering local condition which is hoped to be able to synergize with institutional
development in regional and national level. There are two results, first is the analysis of
three elements, need, goal and the achievement criterion. Second, FGD output to show the
step of system design.
Results of the analysis structure requirement, goal and the achievement criterion of
the development institutional design system for the adaptation in the sector irrigation,
strengthened the conclusion that the design of this system basically was developed the
irrigation agricultural region that was continuous based in the strengthening the rural
community. Therefore, the achievement plan of goal must be designed by paying attention
to the social condition for the culture and in accordance with the characteristics of the
community's ecology not only in the village unit, but in the same ecological unit, which is
the rural region. The process of the achievement goal of having three characteristic there
are; first, to accommodate the interests of the community, second, achievements of the
agriculture development goal pushing the smoothness of investment that reinforced the
authority of the village as the lowest government and the autonomous communitarian
system. The third characteristics, we should not forget that the activity also must fill the
goal of maintaining the environment and conservation of natural resources.
Implementation Procedure
There are three main steps in implementation procedure. First, develop the
collaboration of multi stakeholders management. This process includes developing new
cooperates values and performing real collective work between parties. Second, used the
legal opportunities in managing the irrigation regulation and performing participatory lay
out area planning development to identify the phase manage area and boundaries. Third,
53
institutional capacities and farmers community reinforcement through participatory

technology used.
Collaborative multi-stakeholder management: start from community level by system
implementation
These processes require outsider as facilitator. Facilitator needs to have an
experience ascommunity worker and possessing well knowledge about government
bureaucracy procedures planning management. Activity in this step begins with
continuing FGD that have already performed when institution design was developed
before. FGD become a workshop for multi stakeholders. Workshops themes that can be
choose, such as sharing ideas and experiences to prevent and minimize flood and drought
risks. In the next step, facilitator can arrange the collective work design in workshop. Few
dialog topic that can be choose, such as area of identification, equipped the identification
stakeholder to clarify the distribution of the role in accordance with the task and function,
development planning for school of extension, finding the proper form of agriculture in
the upstream river are that gave profit for the community and functioned for rehabilitation
and conservation of natural resources and environment.
The workshop results and process was expected to be able to be aimed to the work
agenda collaboration through shared role in accordance with their respective function of
parties. Inside and in the end of workshop must be developed by multi stakeholders
commitment to carry out the real collective activity. Moreover, workshop results also
must decide the farmer of the forum for the multi stakeholder dialogue that was placed on
the agenda in the period of time that was agreed to, for example meeting every month,
three monthly, so on.
The process of dialogues in next multi stakeholder forum was hoped to develop the
values to perform collective work. Cooperation multi parties were not only built with the
framework of the coordinative work between parties inside government bureaucracies, but
also involving parties outside the bureaucracy agency (private sectors, NGOs). The
collective work principles relied on the commitment, inter-group equality and informal
relations that were hoped to build the institution become more effective and having
sustainable cooperative.
Farmers group capacity building and institutional development
The farmers group capacity building in fact has been begun when the management
and its member were motivated to take part in performance the compilation of
participatory layout. The further activity that must be performed was developing field
school of irrigation. In this form of activity, as a developing participative training,
apprentice, the equal study to see best practices in various areas, the compilation of the
54
action plan, and advocacy. The essence of activity in the framework of reinforcement
community's capacity was performed the learning social process in a productive
participatory collective action.
The capacity building needs to follow by ecosistem based agriculture and rural
areas development. The process should be continued in farmers group boundary, which
was followed by the collective work development with the other community's groups in
village level. Afterwards, this institutional development must be followed by the farmers
of collective work that combine between farmers group and other communitys group
between villages, both in the boundary of one sub district territory and supervised by the
framework of two or more sub district.
Networking development: from inter-community to regency level
One real work that must be produced from multi stakeholders collaboration
management was a real action from the farmer's group and the rural community. From
Indramayu case, one thing that must be developed is the compilation of participatory
spatial planning about irrigation area management. Based on spatial area regulation, the
community had the right to know and to be involved in maintaining the spatial plan. This
activity involved the farmer's group also the local government's apparatus, to recognize
and determine irrigation area boundaries below 1000 hectare, and reinforcing their
respective included village. The regional boundary of irrigation below 1000 hectare was
pointed in Regional Regulations No. 23 of Year 2007 about Irrigation that reconciled
current regulation which maintained this area as the area that could be managed by
Regency Government. The development of participatory spatial plan also used to identify
the rights and the farmer's access of land possession that available inside the identified
area.
Results of this stage were the participatory mapping of rural area that was united
by the watershed. Through this mapping, it was hoped that farmer group could become an
institutional organization across villages. Figure 2 depicted the sketch for area of
Community Based Institutional System Design Development in Water Sector.
55
Figure 2. Sketch area for institutional system design development

The further process of institutional development must be followed by collective
multi stakeholder work with partnership relations, both in regency boundary and in cooperation boundary between regencies. This activity was important because it will
become a media that input ideas of the climate change in the development plan into the
government's regency boundary, the province and synergized with development plan that
was developed through the level of available administrative unit in government's
bureaucracy.
Blending Finance Aspect for Implementing Institution Design
As being known before, institutional designs proposed was the mechanism of
development planning that equipped the mechanism that was done through the regulation
of the government's bureaucracy. Therefore, operate institution design need creation in
funding.
One opportunity that can be used was funding from the government. This
opportunity had the regulation that allowed this process to be developed. The
development of the co-operation multi stakeholder was mentioned in in the Regulation
Home Affair Minister RI No. 51 of Year 2007 about the Community Based Rural Area
Development that justified the development of the co-operation multi stakeholder in the
framework of the ecological unit (between the villages, sub districts or regencies) that
could be funded by blending finance. Funding can come from Government (National
Development Budget Plan, Regional Development Budget Plan and Village Development
Budget Plan), Private (Corporate Social Responsibilty Budget), Community, and other
56
institution. The interesting matter afterwards, this funding was acknowledged as the truth
made use of the source of the other legal fund (Chapter IX, Article 39). Apparently the
implementation institution design was raised to look for sources of funding apart from the
government and other parties. This is important so the process of its implementation is not
trapped back in supervised activity by the framework regulation of the government
bureaucracy.
CONCLUSION
Based on the description above, hence that for better anticipation of climate change effect
in the future, we have to do some adjustment about the program and development
planning which still developed until now. Challenges faced in doing the effort are starts
from problem of weak coordination between sectors, limitation of resource, and lack of
integrating climate change problem into compiled development plan. On the other hand,
the existing ability in overcoming climate risk is still have not adequate pointed by the
height of negativity impact generated by the case of extreme climate. Therefore some
strategic point should be underlined from this assessment are:
a. Community based multi-stakeholder process, both in horizontal and vertical level, is
absolutely has to develop and become the main principle for institutional development
in the future. This process is become important because it is hoped to generating
aspects:
The multi-stakeholder process can revitalize the spirit of collective action which is
seemed to be faded in recent condition.
The participatory multi-stakeholder process can also facilitate regulation
institutionalization into local lowland management institution. Since the multistakeholder process is involving both local and regional stakeholders, it can be used
as the forum for water irrigation problem assessment and also for recommending
and formulating exit strategy that based on the condition faced in local level.
On the next phase, the spirit of collective action can become the basis for interinstitution coordination; drive it to the synergy phase, developing cost sharing
cooperation and then lessening the coordination gap.
b. In the future, the planning compilation of climate change adaptation in lowland
management requires to consider more lesson learnt and best practices from various
places in Indonesia in order to derive more comprehend and precise strategy. The
compilation process of horizon in overcoming the existing climate risk which
synergized with the development program in the future is presented in Figure 3.
57
c. Adaptation and mitigation of climate change action should be done by combining

structural and non-structural measures. The structural measures will include the
improvement and establishment of irrigation infrastructure, water reservoir and dikes,
integrated organic farming while non-structural measures may include the utilization
of integrated spatial planning, enhancement of capacity in using climate and hydrology
information for better water resource management, and establishment of effective
climate information system and risk management systems. Effective climate
information system is defined as a system which is able to provide climate information
that is easy to understand, meet the client needs and gets into the hands of appropriate
users in a timely fashion which allowing them to use it for making appropriate
decisions.
58
Population Density Increase, Land Use

and Socio-Economic Change
Climate Change
Regional Development
Poverty Alleviation
Adaptation & Mitigation
Land Use Planning

Disaster Early Warning System, Climate
Information Utilization
Appropriate TechnologyImplementation
Integrated Organic Agriculture Development
(Biogas, Organic Fertilizer, Integrated Pest
Control)
Application for Climate Risk Control
Land Use Planning
Rehabilitation and Conservation in Forest Area
Vulnerability and Risk Assessment
etc
Collective
Action
Design
Lesson Learnt
and
Best Practices
National Policy
Formulation
Multistakeholders
Collaborative
Management
Community
Based Action
Strengthening Multi-disciplines
Cooperation
Strengthening Multi-sector
Communication and Coordination
Finance and Technology Resource
Availability
Integrating Climate Change into Regional
Development Plan
Poverty Alleviation
Advancing Education/Information
Program and Public Awareness
Integrated Programs Conduction
etc
59
Planning Perspective of Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation

into Lowland Management in Local Government and Poverty
Alliviation Policy
Project Activities
Collective Actions
Lala M. Kolopaking and Mohammad Iqbal
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Eriyatno dan F. Sofyar. 2007. Riset Kebijakan Metode Penelitian untuk Pascasarjana, IPB
Press. Bogor.
Geertz, C. 1983. Involusi Pertanian, Proses Perubahan Ekologi di Indonesia. Bhratara
Karya Aksara. Jakarta.
Hulme, M. dan N. Sheard. 1999. Climate Change Scenarios for Indonesia. Leaflet CRU
and WWF. Climatic Research Unit. UAE, Norwich, UK. (http://www.cru.uea.
ac.uk)
Indonesia Country Study on Climate Change. 1998. Vulnerability and Adaptation
Assessments of Climate Change in Indonesia. Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup.
Republik Indonesia. Jakarta.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2001. Climate Change 2001: Impacts,
Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Summary for Policymakers and Technical
Summary of the Working Group II Report. WMO-UNDP.
Koentjaraningrat. 2002. Kebudayaan, Mentalitas, dan Pembangunan. Gramedia Pustaka
Utama. Jakarta.
Kolopaking, L.M. 2010. REDD+ Capacity Building Work in Musi Rawas District, South
Sumatra, Indonesia. Bangkok: Workshop on REDD+ Strategies in Indonesia,
Cambodia and Mexico: Lessons to Develop Integrated National REDD Programs
and Inform International Policy. Conduct by CCAPs USA.
........................... 2007. Pengembangan Kawasan Perdesaan Berbasis Masyarakat. Jakarta
:Kerjasama Pusat Studi Pembangunan Pertanian dan Pedesaan dengan Direktorat
Jenderal Pemberdayaan Masyarakat dan Desa, Departemen Dalam Negeri RI.
........................... 2012. Policy Processes of Mainstreaming Climate Change in the
Institutional Strengthening of Water Resource Management in Citarum River
Basin.Bogor: Working Paper in CCROM-Bogor Agriculture University.
Murdiyarso, D. 2001. Pengembangan Kelembagaan dan Peningkatan Kapasitas dalam
Mengimplementasikan Konvensi Perubahan Iklim. Makalah pada Seminar Sehari
Peningkatan Kesiapan Indonesia dalam Implementasi Kebijakan Perubahan Iklim.
Bogor, 1 Nopember 2001.
Yin, R. 1996. Studi Kasus: Desain dan Metode. Radja Grafindo Persada, Jakarta.
Yusmin. 2000. Integrated Management of Flood and Drought in Food Crop Agriculture
dalam Land Use Change and Forest Management. Mitigation Strategy to Minimize
The Impacts of Climate Change. Indonesian Association of Agricultural
Meteorology. Bogor.
60
5
1A.
APPLICATION OF Azolla pinnata ENHANCED SOIL N,

P, K, AND RICE YIELD *)
Arivin Rivaie, 2Soni Isnaini, and 2Maryati
1IAARD
Researcher at Assessment Institute for Agricultural Technology (BPTP)-Maluku, Jl.

Chr. Soplanit. Rumah Tiga Poka-Ambon. Email: arivinrivaie@yahoo.com
2Dharma
Wacana Agricultural High School, Metro, Lampung
Abstract. Studies in other countries have proven that the application of Azolla pinnata as
a biofertilizer improved soil fertility for some agricultural crops, including lowland rice.
However, most farmers in South Lampung District, Sumatra, consider that A. pinnata
suppresses the growth of rice seedlings, so they throw it away from paddy fields by
raising irrigation water surface. To date, only little information is available on the effects
of different doses of A. pinnata application on the availability of soil nutrients and rice
yield of paddy fields in the region. A trial was conducted to determine the effects of
different doses of A. pinnata (0; 2.5; 5.0; 7.5; and 10.0 t ha-1) to the concentrations of N,
P, and K in the paddy soil, N uptake, and the rice yield. The trial was conducted on a wellirrigated paddy field. Rice seedlings of Ciherang variety had been grown on it from June
up to December 2009. The results revealed that the incorporation of A. pinnata at the dose
of 5 t ha-1 enhanced the concentrations of N, P, and K in the soils as well as the rice yield.
Furthermore, the application of 7.5 t ha-1 A. pinnata as the source of nutrients significantly
enhanced the available soil P, suggesting that it is required a fairly high P to grow A.
pinnata optimally. In addition, the application of A. pinnata of 7.5 t ha-1 also gave the
highest dry grain yield, suggesting that the application A. pinnata did not suppress the rice
yield.
Keywords: Azolla pinnata, in situ organic matter, rice yield, soil nutrients
INTRODUCTION
In order to keep paddy soil producing high yield sustainably, it is imperative to have an
adequate supply of nutrients, so the soils are able to provide satisfactorily available
nutrients to the crops (Izaurralde et al. 2001; Sahrawat 2004). Only little information is
available on the effects of different doses of A. pinnata on the availability of soil nutrients
and rice yield of paddy fields, especially derived from South Lampung, Sumatra.
Li et al. (2010) who studied the effects of long term organic amendments reported
that the application of organic amendments enhanced soil organic C and total N in paddy
soil as well as the rice yields. In rice ecosystems, A. pinnata is a great source of N. The
plant can fix N from the air (Singh and Singh 1990) and contributes N of about 60-80 kg
N-1 ha-1 season-1 to soils (Khan 1983) as well as the organic matter to the soil as a result of
the decomposition (Watanabe 1984). Studies reported that A. pinnata is commonly used
as organic fertilizer in cultivation of various crops (Lillian 2000; Pabby et al. 2003; Abd
*)
This paper is also published in Special Edition of Indonesian Soil and Agroclimate Journal
61
Rivaie et al.
El-Rasoul et al. 2004). The application of A. pinnata as a green manure on agricultural

lands can increase the availability of nutrients and soil physical properties, especially to
increase soil porosity (Singh and Singh 1990; Choudhary and Kennedy 2004; Ventura and
Watanabe 1993).
In South Lampung District, one of rice production centers in Indonesia, A. pinnata
is available extraordinarily in the paddy fields. However, normally the farmers throw it
away from paddy fields by raising irrigation water surface, in addition. In these regards,
the objectives of this study were to investigate the influence of the application of various
doses of A. pinnata to paddy fields on changes in the concentration of N, P, and K in the
soil, N uptake, and the rice yield.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiments were conducted in Kedaloman Village, South Lampung District from
June up to December 2009. Analysis results of selected chemical properties of the soil are
presented in Table 1. In this region, water is available throughout the year, hence, the trial
can also be implemented even during the dry season.
Table 1. Chemical and physical properties of the rice field soil at Kedaloman Village
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Parameter
pH-H2O
pH-KCl
C-organic
N-total
C/N ratio
Unit
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Bray-1 P
K
Ca
Mg
Na
mg kg-1
cmol kg-1
cmol kg-1
cmol kg-1
cmol kg-1
2.45
1.28
3.84
2.61
0.03
11.
12.
13.
CEC
Al
Texture: Sand
Silt
Clay
cmol kg-1
cmol kg-1
%
%
%
14.95
0.25
29.57
29.97
40.46
%
%
Value
6.50
5.41
1.29
0.20
6.45
The study observed the effect of application of various doses of A. pinnata,

namely: 0; 2.5; 5.0; 7.5; and 10.0 t ha-1. The treatments were arranged in a randomized
block design with five replicates. The soils were plowed once and then flooded.
Afterwards, A. pinnata was sown and buried by trampling and plowing for the second
time. Then the soils were flooded for 21 days. The 14-day old rice seedlings of Ciherang
62
Application of Azolla pinnata Enhanced Soil N, P, K, and Rice Yield
variety were planted with spacing of 30 cm x 30 cm (about 11,000 hill ha-1). Each plot
size was 4 x 5 m2. One day after flooded, soil and water samples were taken for measuring
their chemical properties, namely pH, C-organic (Kurmies method), N-total (Kjeldahl
method), C/N ratio, N-NH4+ (1 N KCl), available P (Bray I), while the extraction method
of 1 N NH4C2H4O2 at pH 7.0 was used to determine exchangeable K, Ca, Mg, and Na, Fe
and Mn (DTPA method), and Cation Exchange Capacity (percolation method).
Urea was given three times (1/3 portion each at planting time, 21 days after
planting, and panicle initiation time, respectively). For the treatment of A. pinnnata of 0
and 2.5 t ha-1, the rate of urea was 250 kg ha-1. The rate of urea was 200 kg ha-1 for the
application of A. pinnata of 5.0 and 7.5 t ha-1. For the application of A. pinnata of 10 t ha1
, the rate of urea was 150 kg ha-1. The SP-36 at the rate of 100 kg ha-1 was applied once at
planting time. While KCl fertilizer at the rate of 100 kg ha-1 was applied twice (1/2 at
planting time and 1/2 at 21 days after planting).
Soil samples were taken at the beginning of panicle initiation time. At the end of
the trial, it was measured N, P, and K concentrations in the soils, N uptake by plant, and
the rice yield (number of grains per panicle, 1.000 grain weight, and grain yield ha-1). Data
were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the LSD test at p = 0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Chemical Properties of A. pinnata
The results in Table 2 show that the contents of C-organic and N-total in A. pinnata
are 21.76 and 2.43%, respectively. This suggests that the application of 5.0 t ha-1 of fresh
A. pinnata to the paddy soil may give 121.5 kg N ha-1 or equivalent to 264.13 kg urea ha-1.
Table 2.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Chemical properties of A. pinnata

Parameter (Unit)
Water content (%)
pH
C (%)
N-total (%)
P-total (mg/100 g)
K (cmol kg-1)
Ca (cmol kg-1)
Mg (cmol kg-1)
Value
89.12
6.50
21.76
2.43
0.17
0.77
0.19
0.22
N, P, and K Concentrations in Soils

The application of A. pinnata did not affect the concentrations of total N,
exchangeable K, and N uptake by the rice (Table 3).
63
Rivaie et al.
Table 3. Effects of A. pinnata application on N-total, available P, and exchangable K

concentrations in soils and N uptake
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
LSD
(p<0.05)
A. pinnata
(t ha-1)
0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
N-tot
(%)
0.17 a
0.17 a
0.17 a
0.17 a
0.18 a
ns
Bray-1 P
(mg kg-1)
1.86 b
2.55 ab
1.91 b
1.68 b
3.17 a
Exchangable K
(cmol kg-1)
0.59 a
0.54 a
0.69 a
0.58 a
0.63 a
N-uptake
(g plant-1)
0.51 a
0.46 a
0.54 a
0.57 a
0.64 a
ns
ns
1.06
At the time of panicle initiation, application of A. pinnata significantly increased

the soil available P. For instance, the application of A. pinnata at the dose of 10 t ha-1
increased the soil available P by 89%, suggesting that it is needed a fairly high P to grow
A. pinnata optimally. After decomposition of A. pinnata, P compounds will be released
into paddy soil (Watanabe et al. 1980).
Yield Components and Rice Yield
The application of A. pinnata significantly increased the number of grains per
panicle and dry grain yield (Table 4).
Table 4. Effect of A. pinnata application on the number of grains per panicle, 1,000
grain weight, and grain yield
No.
A. pinnata (t ha-1)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
LSD
(p<0.05)
0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
Number of grains/
panicle
154.12 b
163.92 b
163.28 b
176.60 a
178.60 a
1,000 grain
weight
27.73 a
28.07 a
26.34 a
28.13 a
27.46 a
Grain yield
(t ha-1)
8.12 ab
7.93 b
8.68 ab
8.84 a
8.18 ab
9.50
Ns
0.9
However, there was no difference in the number of grains per panicle between the
A. pinnata application doses of 7.5 and 10.0 t ha-1. The highest grain yield was resulted
from the application of 7.5 t ha-1 of the A. pinnata. These results could be due to the
increase in N, P, and K contents, which released by the decomposed A. pinnata. This
result also confirms that there was no evidence that the use of A. pinnata as source of
organic matter for paddy soil inhibited or suppressed the rice growth as the farmers
thought. Normally, the farmers in the study area throw A. pinnata away from paddy fields
64
Application of Azolla pinnata Enhanced Soil N, P, K, and Rice Yield
by raising irrigation water surface. For organic farming practices, A. pinnata is one of the
reliable sources of N because it contains 2.43% N. It means that by giving 5 t ha-1 of A.
pinnata is equivalent to apply approximately 121.5 kg N or 264 kg urea ha-1. This amount
of urea, indeed, is very meaningful from the viewpoints of fossil fuel and foreign
exchange saving.
CONCLUSIONS
Incorporation of A. pinnata to the paddy fields at the rate of 5.0 and 7.5 t ha-1 enhanced
the soil available P, yield components, and the rice yield. In addition, there was no
evidence that the use of A. pinnata as source of organic matter for paddy soil inhibited or
suppressed the rice growth as the farmers in the study area thought.
REFERENCES
Abd El-Rasoul, S.M., Mona, H.M., Elham, A.M., and F.M. Ghazal. 2004. Cyanobacteria
and effective microorganisms (EM) as possible biofertlizers in wheat production. J.
Agric Mansoura Univ. 29(5), 2783- 2793.
Choudhury, A.T.M. and Kennedy, I.R. 2004. Prospects and potential for systems of
biological nitrogen fixation in sustainable rice production. Biofertile Soils 39, 219227.
Izaurralde, R. C., Rosenberg, N.J. and Lal, R. 2001. Mitigation of climate change by soil
carbon sequestration: Issues of science, monitoring, and degraded lands. Adv.
Agron. 70, 175.
Khan, M.M. 1983. A primer on Azolla: Production & utilization in agriculture. UPLB,
PCARRD, and SEARCA.
Lillian, K.N. 2000. The utilization of Azolla filiculoides Lam. as a biofertilizer under
dryland conditions. M.Sc. Thesis, Rhodes University.
Li Z, Ming Liu, Xiaochen Wu, Fengxiang Han, and Bi Taolin Zhang. 2010. Effects of
long-term chemical fertilization and organic amendments on dynamics of derived
from barren land in subtropical China. Soil & Till. Res. 106, 268-274.
Pabby, A., Prasanna, R., Nayak, S. and P.K. Singh. 2003. Physiological characterization
of cultured and freshly isolated endosymbionts from different species of Azolla.
Plant Physiol. Biochem. 41, 73-79.
Sahrawat, K.L. 2004. Organic matter accumulation in submerged soils. Adv. Agron. 81,
169-201.
Singh, A.L. and P.K. Singh. 1990. Intercropping of Azolla biofertilizer with rice at
different crop geometry. Trop. Agric., (Trinidad) 6, 350-354.
65
Rivaie et al.
Ventura, W. and I. Watanabe. 1993. Green Manure Production of Azolla microphylla and
Sesbania rostrata and Their Long-Term Effects on Rice Yields and Soil Fertility.
Biol. Fert. Soils 15, 241-248.
Watanabe, I., Berja, N.S., and D.C. Del Rosario. 1980. Growth of Azolla in Paddy Field
as Affected by Phosphorus Fertilizer. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 26 (2), 301-307.
Watanabe, I. 1984. Anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in flooded rice soils. In
Organic Matter and Rice. IRRI. Los Baos, Laguna, Philippines. Pp. 237-258.
66
RAISING CORN TECHNOLOGY ON PEAT LAND AT

GAMBUT MUTIARA VILLAGE, RIAU PROVINCE
Isdijanto Ar-Riza and D. Nazemi
IAARD Researchers at Indonesian Wetland Agricultural Research Institute (IWETRI). Jl Kebun

Karet, Lok Tabat Utara. Banjarbaru-South Kalimantan
Abstract. Peat lands are great potentials for agricultural lands, even though there are
many problems such as high acidity levels, deficient nutrients (such as P, K, Zn, Cu, and
Mo), low variability in maize yield, so it needs good management technologies. Peat land
is now becoming the world's attention, especially its role as a carbon sink and greenhouse
gases (GHG) emision, which is potential to raise a variety of agreements setting for
prevention efforts (moratory). Efforts to limit the exploitation of peat lands would be
difficult, because the drive needs on foodstuffs keep increasing along with population
increase, production stagnant, and the shrinking areas of fertile land that occured in a
relatively short period of time. The results showed that the application of land
management technologies and the appropriate plants, as well as management
arrangements of land preparation without land burning, amelioration, moisture, and
nutrients, was able to solve a number of problems and productivity of maize in peat/peaty
land can be still improved.
Keywords: Maize, peatland, productivity
Abstrak. Lahan gambut merupakan lahan pertanian yang cukup potensial, namun
terdapat banyak permasalahan, di antaranya tingkat kemasaman yang tinggi, kahat unsur
hara seperti P, K, Zn, Cu, dan Mo, mudah terbakar. Kondisi tersebut menjadi penyebab
keragaan hasil untuk pertanaman jagung sangat rendah. Lahan gambut saat ini
merupakan lahan yang menjadi perhatian dunia, terutama peranannya sebagai
penyimpan karbon dan sebagai pelepas gas rumah kaca (GRK) yang sangat potensial,
sehingga muncul berbagai upaya kesepakatan pengaturan (moratorium) untuk
pencegahan terjadinya degradasi yang lebih lanjut. Upaya membatasi pengusahaan
lahan gambut tentu akan sulit, karena dorongan kebutuhan bahan pangan yang semakin
meningkat seiring dengan pertambahan penduduk, pelandaian produksi dan terjadinya
penciutan areal lahan subur yang terjadi dalam kurun waktu yang relatif cepat. Hasil
penelitian menunjukkan bahwa dengan penerapan teknologi pengelolaan lahan dan
tanaman yang tepat, meliputi penyiapan lahan tanpa bakar, ameliorasi, pengaturan
kelembaban dan pengelolaan hara, sejumlah masalah bisa diatasi dan produktivitas
jagung di lahan gambut/bergambut masih bisa ditingkatkan.
Kata kunci: Lahan gambut, produktivitas, jagung
67
Ar-Riza and Nazemi
INTRODUCTION
Peatland is now a land that becomes the world's attention, especially its potential role as a
carbon sink and greenhouse gases (GHG) release. So there is an agreement setting effort
for the prevention of further degradation.
But the fact at the field level, there is a lot going on controversial because some
people, especially farmers, peat lands are agricultural land that can be managed to
increase their income. Many peatlands are already a shelter and there is also the place to
find their livelihood, such as in Gambut Mutiara village, Riau Province (Ar-Riza et al.
2010).
Peatland is land formed from organic materials that can be either under water
saturated with 12-18% organic carbon content or unsaturated with 20% organic carbon
content. (Adimihardja et al. 1999; Maas et al. 1999 and Widjaja-Adhi et al. 1992 ).
Peatlands are a potential agricultural land because of its potential is great
(approximately 10.89 million hectares) but it is generally deficient in nutrients such as P,
K, Zn, Cu and Mo, so it needs good management technology because of fragile nature and
some times very extreme (Adimihardja et al. 1999; Maas et al. 1999; Widjaja-Adhi et al.
1992; Widjaja-Adhi, 1995; Ar-Riza et al. 2003 ).
Efforts to limit peatlands exposure would be difficult, due to the growing need for
food increases with population, stagnant rice production, and the acceleration of shrinking
arable land area for the purposes of non-food economy. Conversion of arable land as a
major food producer mainly rice into other economic purposes in Java and Bali is
approximately of 35,000-50,000 hectares per year (Nasoetion and Winoto. 1995).
This paper discusses land preparation (without burning), amelioration, and
fertilization for maize based on the typology and character of soil, so it can be used as a
reference in the management of peatlands for agriculture.
METHODOLOGY
Activities in implementing cultivation technology package for maize was conducted at the
Gambut Mutiara village, District of Teluk Meranti, Pelalawan, Riau Province in 2009.
Technology preparation was based on the characteristics of the land and the results of
previous studies. The technology packages are shown in Table 1.
68
Raising Corn Technology on Peat Land Gambut
Table 1. Maize cultivation technology package on Peatland in the Gambut Mutiara

village, Teluk Meranti District, Riau Province, 2009
No.
1.
2.
3.
Component of technology
Implementation
Land preparation without land In the very thick weeds (growing meetings and high) should be cut down,
burning
about 2 weeks later the young weeds growing systemic herbicide sprayed
(4-5 l ha-1) depending on the type of herbicide.
In the weeds that grow tightly, can be directly sprayed with herbicide,
then cleared
In the areas that have Gombat layer (layer during root ferns) 15 cm
thick have peeled.
Land/grass was not burned, but small branch, peat peeling controlled
burned, and the ashes are returned to the soil (in the planting hole).
Line spacing
Mono culture: Spacing (75 cm x 20 cm, 1 plant hole-1);
Planting Mix between Palm Oil: Spacing is the same as in monoculture,
but the line is 1.5 m from the edge of the oil palm (palm oil depending on
age).
Ameliorant material giving
Dolomite 10 g planting hole-1 (0.4 t ha-1), organic fertilizer/compost 50 g
hole-1 (2 t ha-1), added ash (to taste) the burning weeds control.
4.
Planting
5.
Fertilizer
6.
Maintenance
7.
Ripening acceleration
8.
Harvest
Before planted, seeds treatment with Metalisin (Rendomil, Saromil, etc.)

1 kg/20 kg of seed for the prevention of downy mildew (Sercospora sp);
The number of seeds 1-2 seeds hole-1
Hybrid variety:
Urea (200 kg ha-1); SP-36 (200 kg ha-1); KCL 100 (kg ha-1) can be
substituted from the ashes of the burning controlled.
Urea is given 2 times (1 = 1/3 + doses of SP-36 + KCL at age 7-10 days),
2/3 of Urea next dose given at age 1 month.
Cuprum (Cu) 4 kg ha-1, can be given through seed treatment (seeds soaked
in a solution Cu for 5-8 hours), orsupplied with NPK fertilizer.
Weeding activity at 30 and 50 days after planting, depending on the
condition of the weeds growth. At the same time weeding activity also
performed on the base corn stalks by landfill, so that the roots can more
develop.
If at the age of 10 days still appear downy mildew symptoms, the affected
plants should be removed and burned.
Control of pests (caterpillars, grasshoppers), controlled with appropriate
pesticides.
In phase physiologically ripe (corn cob skin have started yellowing) upper
trunk cob can be cut/trimmed.
Harvesting is done while corn cob skin have dried at 100% (100 days,
depending on varieties).

In general, local farmers have not much familiar with the technology of farming maize in
peat soil, even though the land is a land of business, because he prefers to grow oil palm.
69
Ar-Riza and Nazemi
Based on the results of interviews with local farmers, farmers always burns the
land Preparing it for planting maize because the method is easily done. It has been
believed that without land burning, maize cultivation will not be success.
Likewise, the management of the plant is still very simple and much spaced
population. It has not been accustomed to using locally available resources (manure, ash
from burning, etc.). However, almost all the farmers have known taht Cu micro fertilizers
are visible if using in cultivation. Cu application can be improve efficacy, whereas
corncob empty (Bogang) with out Cu application. In the crude application of the
technology, the obtained maize production is still low as well as the benefits (Table 2).
Table 2. Yield (t ha-1) and the analysis of the costs and revenue of maize farmers 1
hectare of existing Gambut Mutiara Village, Teluk Meranti Sub District,
Pelalawan District, 2009
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Description
Land area (ha)
Production (ton)
Revenue (IDR)
Total cost (IDR)
- Tool production (IDR)
- Man power (IDR)
Profit (IDR)
R/C
Rainy season
Drought season
1
0.8
1,600,000
937,000
120,000
817,000
663,000
1.707
1
0.5
1,000,000
795,000
120,000
675,000
205,000
1.257
Note: Price Rp2,000 kg-1 dry shelled maize.
Based on the analysis and evaluation, the production of maize was a low due to:
(1) root systems were not solid anchor in the ground because they were burnt peat soil
structure hollow-cavity, (2) very low plant population, (3) the application of fertilizer was
very low, visible from the rest of the harvest stem diameter was very small, (4) exposed to
downy mildew, lack of knowledge on the diseases caused by the fungus (Sclerosphora
maydays).
Technology Application
Land preparation
Generally peatlands/peat has a low soil density (soil bulk density), so if the soil
surface is flat, land preparation is not required. In this land, the main problem in land
preparation is weeds. Land preparation is done by the system of without land burning, as
listed in Table 1.
70
Ameliorant management
Peatlands are generally very acid in soil reaction, so the provision of soil materials
such as lime or ash is needed very much. Lime addition can improve soil reaction increase
the availability of primary nutrients such as P and Ca, and improve fertilizer efficiency
and plant growth (Lubis et al. 1993).
In peat medium, giving ash is more effective than lime, because after the lime
dissolves, calcium and magnesium nutrients are mostly washed out and the land is back to
its initial conditions, while more ash stability (Subiksa et al. 1998).
Sources of ash are from branch plant burning. The use of plant ash as a soil
material (ameliorant) can increase soil pH, nutrient availability, and nutrients status in the
soil, because the plants ash contains nutrient elements of K, P, Ca, Mg which are required
to the plant growth (Lubbis et al. 1993; Subiksa et al. 1998).
Fertilizer in peatlands
Fertility levels of acid sulfate and peat soils are low and often indicated by of
nutrients deficiency symptoms, particularly micro elements of Cu and Zn. Without
fertilization, cultivated plants cannot result in optimal production. In this research, Cu
source was from CuSO4. The public is already known this technology, making it easier
available, while Zn is not given as because they are not available in the region.
Figure 1. Giving Cu element has very real, showed of cobs that could contain a full, so
that certainly affect the results
Nitrogen fertilizer
The analysis results of the peat soil showed that N-total was in moderate-high level
(0.3 to 1.1%) with very high C/N ratio value, and low N available to plants. In such
conditions, nitrogen fertilization increased plant growth and yield (Kanapathy and Keat,
1970).
71
Ar-Riza and Nazemi
Yield (t ha-1)
The results of previous research in other locations, N fertilization at the dosage of

90 kg N ha-1 was able to increase maize yields by 69% compared with no fertilization, and
the further results kept improving by providing a complete balanced NPK fertilizer
(Figure 2).
Figure 2. N, P, K and NPK compound fertilizers effects on maize yield in peatsoil.

(Dosages N = 90 Kg N ha-1, P = 45 kg P2O5 ha-1, K = 60 kg K2O ha-1).
Sources: Data synthesized from Masganti et al. (1996)
Phosphate fertilizer
On peat soils, P-total content is generally high as well as in Gambut Mutiara
districts but with low availability, so P fertilization in peatlands is stronglyy needed.
Fertilizer can be derived from inorganic fertilizers such as SP-36, SP-18, or natural
phosphates. Highly reactive rock phosphate has been recommended to be used as natural
phosphate (Suriadikarta et al. 1999).
Complete NPK fertilization on maize crops conducted in Gambut Mutiara Village
(Table 1) shows good performance (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Performance of maize without land burning technology

Performance of maize without land burning technology did not yet produce
optimal yield, because the plant was grown in the off-seasonwith a lot of barriers,
including quite a lot of pests. This was done because it was expected to remain as an
example of technology that will be applied by farmers on the actual growing season.
72
Table 3. Yield (t ha-1) and cost analysis and crop farm income maize land
preparation without land burning Gambut Mutiara Village, Teluk
Meranti Sub District, Pelalawan District, 2009
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Description
Land area (ha)
Production (ton)
Revenue (IDR)
Total cost (IDR)
- Tool production (IDR)
- Man power (IDR)
Profit (IDR)
R/C
Hybrid
1
5.5
11,000,000
5,849, 000
1,989,000
3,860,000
5,151,000
1.88
Local variety
1
3.5
7,000,000
5,299, 000
1,719,000
3,580,000
1,701,000
1.32
CONCLUSION
Farmer beliefs that without land burning, maize cultivation will not be success. It may be
other wise if land preparation without land burning, organic matter management,
amelioration, fertilizer, and crop management.
REFERENCES
Adimiharja, A., A. Bambang, K. Sudarman, and D.A. Suriadikarta. 1999. Perspective
development of agriculture in wetlands. Papers. Meeting of Experts and National
Workshop on Optimization of Land Utilization a Swamp resource. Jakarta,
November 23-26. Directorate General of Food Crops and Horticulture. Directorate
of Land Rehabilitation and Development. Jakarta.
Ar-Riza, I. and Sardjijo. 2003. Utilization of alternative fertilizer in cultivation palawija in
wetlands. In. Rusastro I.W., I.Ar-Riza, N. Intercession, M.B. Napu, A. Djauhari,
and Z. Karno (2003) Ed. National Seminar. Application of Technology Specific
Location In Support of Agricultural Development. Centre for Research and
Development Social Economics of Agriculture. Samarinda.
Ar-Riza, I., D. Nazemi, S. Saragih, and Y. Rina. 2010. Maize cultivation pilot project on
peat soil. Cooperative Research Report (Balittra-government) in Pelalawan.
Indonesian Swamp Land Agriculture Research Institute. Banjarbaru.
Cole, A.J., W.E. Murphy, and D.B.R. Poole. 1979. Effect of stocking rates and cobalt and
copper supplementation on the performance of bullocks on shallow peatland. Irish
Journal of Agricultural Research 18:195-209.
Lubis, A.M., Z. Abidin, and A. Wahid. 1993. Effect of ash plants against rice peat. Pros.
National Seminar on Peat II. Indonesian Peat Association and the Assessment
Institute for Agricultural Technology. Jakarta. pp., 214-218.
Kanapathy, K. and G.A. Keat. 1970. Growing maize, sorghum and tapioca on peat soils.
Proceedings of a Conference on crop diversification in Malaysia: 26-35.
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Ar-Riza and Nazemi
Maas, A., Darmanto, and B. Wignyosukarto. 2000. Completion of the water network
system to support the development of sustainable agriculture in wetlands. Papers.
National Seminar on Agricultural Research and Development in the Swamp Land.
Cipayung 25 to 27 July 2000. Soil and Agro-climate Research Center, Bogor.
Nasoetion, L.I and J. Winoto. 1995. Agricultural land conversion issues and their impact
on sustainability food self-sufficiency. Papers. In the workshop competition
utilization of land and water resources: Its Impact on the Sustainability of Food
Self-Sufficiency, Cipayung, Bogor, 31 October - 2 November 1995.
Okruszko, H. 1984. Agricultural utilization of peatlands. Proceedings of the 7th
International Peat Congress, Dublin 4:451-454.
Soil Survey Staff. 2010. Key to Soil Taxonomy. Eleventh Edition. USDA-NRCS. 388 pp.
Subiksa, I G.M., Sulaeman, and I P.G. Widjaja-Adhi. 1998. Benchmarking influence
ameliorant materials to increase productivity peatlands. 119-132 In. Invite K. et al.,
(ed) Proceedings of the Discussion Meeting and Communication Research Soil and
Agro-climate. Soil and Agro-climate Research Center, Bogor.
Suriadikarta, D.A., M. You, and A. Adimihardja. 1999. Completion of reclamation and
development of systems to support sustainable development of the water system in
the swampy land agriculture. National Seminar paper on Agricultural Research and
Development in the Swamp Land. Cipayung, 25-27 July 2000. Center for research
and development of food crops. Bogor.
Widjaja-Adhi, I P.G., K. Nugroho, D. Ardhi S., and S. Karama. 1992. Swamp land
resources. Potential Limitations and Utilization. In S. Partohardjono and M. Syam
(Eds.) 1992. Integrated Agricultural Development of Tidal swamp and
Monotonous swampy land. Cisarua 0.3 to 4 March 1992.
Widjaja-Adhi, I P.G. 1995. Management of land and water resources development in
wetlands for sustainable and environmentally friendly farming. Paper presented at
the Training of Trainers for Agricultural Development in Tidal Areas, 26-30 June
1995, South Sumatra.
74
CARBON AND METHANE EMISSIONS AT ACID

SULPHATE SOIL OF TIDAL SWAMPLAND
Nurita, M. Alwi, and Y. Raihana
IAARD Researchers at Indonesian Wetland Agriculture Research Institute (IWETRI). Jl Kebun

Karet, Lok Tabat Utara. Banjarbaru-South Kalimantan
Abstract. Rice field played an important role in producing carbon dioxide (CO2) and
methane (CH4) emissions because it was one of the largest sources of emissions as a result
of organic matter decomposition by anaerobic (waterlogged) conditions. The research was
conducted at Karang Indah Village, Barito Kuala Regency, South Kalimantan Province at
growing season of 2011. The land was classified as potentially acid sulfate soil of tidal
swampland B type. Activities undertaken included surveys, direct observation and soil
and gas analysis at vegetative and generative phases. The results showed that carbon
dioxide emission at vegetative phase was 20,228 t ha-1 CO2 and at generative phase was
3,616 t ha-1 CO2 so for one planting season was 23,844 t ha-1 CO2. While methane
emission at vegetative phase was 0.563 t ha-1 CH4 and at generative phase was 0.133 t ha-1
CH4 resulting in 0.696 t ha-1 CH4 for one planting season. Soil porosity was the most
important factor which affected carbon dioxide emissions, while soil organic matter at
vegetative phase and soil Fe solubility at generative phase were the most important
factors, which affected methane emissions.
Keywords: Acid sulfate soil, carbon dioxide, emissions, methane, rice field, tidal
swampland
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture development faces fastly shrinking fertile agricultural land due to changes of
land function to other purposes. Attempt to overcome this problem, development of
agriculture towards the utilization of marginal land like a tidal marsh land of acid sulfate
soils (as many as 6.7 million ha) is one of reasonable alternatives (Widjaja-Adhi and
Alihamsyah 1998). Potential tidal swampland is so large so that it could be used to
support programs to increase food security and agribusiness that are the main program of
agriculture sector. Tidal swampland with acid sulfate soils is developed into productive
farmland aiming to sustain food self sufficiency, production diversification , boost income
and employment, as well as development of agribusiness and region (Abdurachman and
Ananto 2000).
Agricultural activities, mainly at rice fields are often blamed as the main cause of
global warming because they contribute to greenhouse gases emission such as carbon and
methane emissions. Tidal swampland that will be reclaimed and developed as paddy land
impacts on greenhouse gas emissions that can damage ozone layer thus it may accelerate
75
Nurita et al.
global warming. Earth's temperature rising globally is driven by increasing greenhouse

gases (GHG) in atmosphere, such as CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, and SF6 which are
produced from a variety of human activities and natural processes. Contributions to global
warming from the biggest to the lowest are CO2 by 61%, CH4 by 15%, CFC by 12%, N2O
by 4%, and other sources amounting to 8% (Barchia 2006).
Greenhouse gas emissions that happen in agricultural sector are discharge of
nitrogen gas (N2O) from fertilizer, manure, tillage, decomposition, and combustion. While
methane emissions occur from decaying organic matter at anaerobic condition. In its early
life, plant will absorp gas known as carbon or carbon biomass. However, when plants
undergo change of generations or die it will produce litter (trash) then decompose into
carbon gas. Activities that result in land cover change activities of land-use management
(crop management) in agricultural areas will produce or release carbon gases into the air.
Carbonstock in the soil is released into the atmosphere to cause global warming.
Therefore, GHG emissions need to be evaluated in the form of carbondioxide and
methane at acid sulfate soil, which is dominated by rice plants on maintained landscaping
of surjan system.
Methane emissions were influenced by many factors, among others: (1) soil type,
(2) water management, (3) soil temperature, (4) plant variety, (5) plants, (6) fertilization,
and (7) the growing season (Yagi and Minami, 1990; Yagi et al. 1990; Kimura et al.
1991; Neue and Roger, 1993). In addition, the greenhouse gas emissions of paddy fields
were also affected by oxidation and reduction processes. Methane emissions were higher
at paddy (or reduction) fields rather than dry conditions, because the methane gas was
produced by a group of obligate anaerobic bacterium called Archaebacteria having
primitive cell structure. The first cellulose metabolism by bacteria acetogenic was
overhauled to produce secondary outcomes such as formic acid, acetic acid, CO2, and H2.
Methanogenic bacteria could convert CO2, CO, H2, formic acid, acetic acid, methanol, and
methylamine to methane (Cicerone and Oremland 1988).
The purpose of this study was to evaluate carbon and methane emissions from one
rice-planting season in tidal swamplands of acid sulfate soil arranged by surjan systems
(orange-rice pattern). In addition, the relationship between soil chemical properties with
carbondioxide and methane emissions was also observed.
METHODOLOGY
This research is a descriptive study to depict amount of carbondioxide and methane
emissions resulting from one rice-planting season at acid sulfate soil of tidal swampland
arranged by surjan systems (orange-rice pattern).
76
Carbon and Methane Emission at Acid Sulphate Soil
The experiment site was Karang Indah Village, Mandastana Sub District, Barito
Kuala District, and South Kalimantan Province at growing season of 2011. The land was
belonged to potential acid sulfate soil areas of tidal swampland type B (overflow land with
water at high tide) with flat to gentle slopes (0-2%) and elevation of land ranged between
1-3 m above sea level. Soil samples were taken at a depth of 0-20 cm from surjan rice
fields that were planted with local varieties of rice managed traditionally (slash, trowel,
roll, and flip) every year. The doses of lime, urea, and, SP-36 commonly given by farmers
were: 0.5 t, 100 kg, and 50 kg ha-1, respectively. Carbon and methane emissions measured
in the field using chamber gauges on vegetative and generative phases of the rice plant.
Sampling GHGs (CO2 and CH4) were conducted during vegetative and generative
phases. Gas sampling was collected by using a chamber size of 50 cm x 50 cm x 100 cm,
which covered 4 rice hills. The time interval used fo sampling was the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th,
15th minute.
GHG emissions were directly measured from acid sulfate soil with closed (?)
chamber method. The technique was adopted from IAEA (1993). Gas samples were taken
using 10 ml syringe and then analyzed by a micro type CP 4900 GC with TCD (thermal
conductivity detector) detector. Area of the analyzed gas samples (CO2 and CH4) will
come out simultaneously. Flux calculation at each treatment used the following equation
adopted from IAEA (1993).
273.2
Bm Csp V
x x
x
E=
A T + 273.2
Vm
t
E = emission CO2/CH4 (mg m-2 day-1)
V = chamber volume (m3)
A = area of chamber (m2)
T = average air temperature inside the chamber (oC)
Csp/t = rate of change of the CH4 and CO2 concentrations (ppm min-1)
Bm = gas molecular weight of CH4 and CO2 at standard condition
Vm = volume of gas at STP (standard temperature and pressure) conditions is
22.41 liter on 23oK

Carbon and Methane Emissions
77
Nurita et al.
Karang Indah village, Mandastana District is one of rice field areas. It was arranged
with Surjan system, where rice was planted on sunken bed and orange on rise bed. Rice
fields play important role in contributing amount of methane emissions because it is one
of the largest emission sources as a result of organic material decomposition under an
anaerobic condition. Generally tidal swampland contains a lot of organic material so that
reductive conditions (flooded) may high potential in the formation of methane. As
reported by Wihardjaka (2005), this organic matter stimulated production of methane
through a series of processes that ends with formation of carbondioxide and methane. The
result of measurements of carbondioxide and methane emissions at rice fields is presented
in Table 1.
Table 1 shows that carbon emissions of Siam Pangling rice variety at maximum
vegetative growth and generative phases were 20,228 CO2 and 3,616 CO2 t ha-1,
respectively. So total carbon emission in one planting season was 23,844 CO2 t ha-1.
While methane emissions at maximum vegetative growth and generative phase were
0.563 and 0.133 t ha-1, so the emission in one cropping season was 0.696 t CO2 ha-1.
Carbon emission at vegetative phase was higher than that at generative phase. This
might be caused by high decomposition activity of organic material that produced carbon
gases. Carbon dioxide gas was released into atmosphere through abulision process (air
bubbles due to changes in osmotic) (Setyanto et al. 2007). Metanotrop bacteria existing in
rice field were microorganisms that could use methane as part of metabolism process for
later converting into carbon dioxide (Setyanto 2008a). In addition, environmental factors
also influenced amount of carbon dioxide measured, at which time gas sampling in the
morning, rice plants took carbon dioxide from air or environment surrounding rice plants,
where both derived from rice plant respiration and plantation surrounding areas such as
citrus is in ridges.
Table 1. Carbon dioxide and methane emissions from rice fields at acid ulfate soils of
tidal swampland
Karang Indah Village
Parameter
-1
Emission of CO2(t ha )
Emission of CH4(t ha-1)
Vegetative
20,228
0.563
Generative
3,616
0.133
One planting season

23,844
0.696
Methane emission at vegetative growth phase was greater than that at generative
phase. As reported by Setyanto et al. (2007) that high methane was produced during
vegetative growth, especially at maximum tiller, and tended to go down next generative
phase. The decrease was caused by use of plant photosynthate at the process leading to
formation of flowers womb, and also root exudates in soil were low in the generative
78
phase. The lower content of root exudates was the higher inhibition of methanogenesis
process so that flux of methane was down. Root exudates are organic compounds
consisting of sugars, amino acids, and organic acids as constituent materials immediately
available for methanogenic bacteria. In the flooded condition, methane emission is higher
than that in dry condition (Kimura et al. 1991; Wihardjaka 2005).
From evaluation of GHG emissions above, amount of methane emission from rice
field of 6 experimental sites was very high exceeding standard value of methane emission
which is still allowed by the IPPC from paddy soil of 160 kg ha-1 season-1 (Anonymous
2011). The high methane emission in the experiment sites was caused by high
accumulation of plant biomass as a result from local rice variety, which had been grown in
longer period. Management of organic material usually done when planting local varieties
under waterlogged resulted in anaerobic decomposition, which ended with the formation
of carbon dioxide and methane (Setyanto 2008c). According Setyanto et al. (2007), rice
varieties also played an important role in determining amount of methane gas emissions,
in which results showed that rice varieties varied in release of methane into atmosphere
and it was affected by physiological and morphological condition.
Farmers planted local varieties (Siam Pangling) in the experiment site, which had
longer maturity and different capabilities with shorter maturity varieties in removing root
exudates in soil. Setyanto et al. (2007) stated that the formation of root exudate closely
related to root biomass, where the more the formation of root biomass was the more
formation of methane. Addition in aerenkima diameter and number of tiller of a rice
variety affected the release of methane. The number of tiller increased density and number
of vessels that transport capacity of methane from aerenkima became enormous (Aulakh
et al. 2005 in Setyanto 2008a.). Air space on vessels aerenkima leaves, stems, and roots of
local rice caused waterlogged soil gas exchange took place quickly. These vessels act was
as a chimney of methane emissions into atmosphere (Setyanto 2008a).
Soil Physical Properties
Analysis results of several soil physical properties taken from the experiment sites
are presented in Table 2. The results showed that soil texture was classified as clay. Soil
temperature played an important role in controlling nutrient solubility, activity of soil
microorganisms, and the decomposition of organic matter. It was also important in
producing and dismantling methane by soil microorganisms (methanogenic and
metanotrop bacteria). Soil temperature at generative phase was higher than that at
vegetative phase, where at generative phase, drying occured so that soil temperature
increased. It could be seen from water table data, which was lower at generative phase
79
Nurita et al.
(Table 2). In dry conditions, low soil moisture and high solar radiation intensity would
increase soil temperature.
Table 2. Analysis results on soil physical properties of paddy rice fields of acid sulfate
soil of tidal swampland
No.
1.
2.
Parameter
Sampling time
Vegetative
Generative
Soil texture
Sand (%)
Dust (%)
Clay (%)
Soil texture class
7.63
36.64
55.73
Clay
10.72
28.50
60.78
Clay
Soil temperature ( C)
25.55
28.2
3.
Ground water level (cm)
15.00
-5.00
4.
Total soil porosity (%)
69.09
5.
WV (g.cm-3)
0.74
2.45
6.
-3
PD (g.cm )
Note: Criteria of scaling by Indonesian Soil Research Institute (2005)

(-) = Sampling could not be taken because of looding condition
Soil porosity was percentage of total soil pore space from soil volume. Pore space
was volume of soil occupied by air and water (Foth 1995). The calculation of percentage
of soil pore at generative phase showed that total soil porosity in this phase was 69.09%.
High porosity rate was influenced by application of organic matter from rice straw
returned to the soil at traditional system of land management (trowel, spin, flip, and
spread) by local farmers. Sutanto in Idris (2010) stated that the difference in pore percent
was influenced by organic matter. The addition of organic matter in the form of returning
straw will increase the total soil pore and ground will lose volume (Wiskandar 2002). This
is in line with the ability of land to pass water and air.
Table 2 also shows that BD (bulk density) and particle density (PD) are 0.74 and
2.45 g cm-3. Agus et al. (2006) stated that bulk density was influenced by soil
management. Density directly related to the weight of volume of soil. Soils with high
organic matter content generally had low bulk density or low in weight of volume. Soil
with a high total pore space, such as clay, tends to have low weight of volume (Grossman
and Reinsch 2002).
Soil Chemical Properties
Analysis results on some soil chemical properties are presented in Table 3. This
Table shows that soil pH H2O values at both growth phases of rice plants are 4.20 and
80
4.11 and classified as very acid. Electrical conductivity (EC) at the second phase of rice
growth and relatively very low 0.08 and 0.11 respectively. EC observation indicated that
salt condition at the sites was still lower than the limit rate of EC which could disrupt
plant growth. UN-FAO (2005) stated that at the rate of EC below 2 dS.m-1, the effect of
salinity was negligible for rice plants growth.
Table 3. Analysis results on soil chemical properties of paddy rice field at acid sulfate
soil of tidal swampland
Growing phase
No.
Parameter
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
pH H2O
EC (d.S.m-1)
Total-N(%)
Org-C(%)
C/N ratio
Available P2O5 (mg kg -1)
Available-K (cmol (+) kg-1)
CEC(cmol (+) kg-1)
Exchangeable-Fe (mg kg -1)
Redox potential (mV)
Vegetative
4.20 (very acid)
0.08 (very low)
0.26 (medium)
3.55 (high)
13.65 (medium)
5.04 (low)
0.08 (very low)
32.33 (high)
1,760.08
219.5
Generative
4.11 (very acid)
0.11 (very low)
0.20 (low)
2.73 (medium)
13.65 (medium)
6.66 (low)
0.30 (low)
26.25 (high)
2,272.23
298.50
Note: Criteria of scaling by Indonesian Soil Research Institute (2005)
Soil total-N was 0.26% at vegetative and 0.20% at generative phases. Soil org-C
content at vegetative phase was relatively high (3.55%) and at generative phase became
relatively moderate (2.73%). Soil C/N at the second phase was same, namely 13.65. The
value of soil C/N indicated decomposition level of organic matter. Hakim et al. (1986)
stated that the rate of decomposition of organic material further demonstrated by high soil
C/N was low, whereas low soil C/N showed a high decomposition up yet or just starting.
The analysis results of soil chemical properties also show that soil P contents at
both growth phases are low i.e.: 5.04 and 6.66 mg kg-1 P2O5, respectively. Factors
affecting availability of soil P for plants were soil pH. Winarso and Setiawati (2003)
stated that soil P concentration was closely related to soil pH. The higher soil pH causes
the more P availability in the soil. Soil available potassium content at vegetative phase
was very low (0.08) while that in generative phase was low (0.30 cmol(+)kg-1). The
condition was caused by addition of potassium from decomposition of organic matter at
generative phase.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) was a soil chemical property that was closely
related to level of soil fertility. Table 3 shows that soil CEC values at both phases were
equal, i.e 32.33 and 26.25 cmol(+)kg-1 (relatively high) . High CEC was allegedly due to
81
Nurita et al.
further decomposition of organic matter indicated by the C/N value was low.
Hardjowigeno (2003) stated that soil CEC depended on soil organic matter content and
number of base cations in soil solution.
Soil Fe solubility at vegetative phase was 1,760.08 mg kg-1 and a increased at
generative phase to become 2,272.23 mg kg-1. While soil redox potential during vegetative
phase was 219.5 mV and increased at generative phase to become 298.5 mV. Higher soil
redox potential at generative phase associated with organic matter content, soil moisture,
and soil pH. Reddy and Delaune (2008) stated that soil redox potential was influenced by
several factors, among others: (1) surface of groundwater associated with entry of oxygen
into the soil, (2) organic materials, (3) temperature, and (4) soil pH.
Relationship between Soil Physical and Chemical Properties with Carbon Dioxide
and Methane Emissions
Relations of soil physical and chemical natures of the CO2 and CH4 emissions of
rice plants at research sites (Karang Indah village) are presented in Table 4.
Table 4 shows that at generative phase all soil physical properties affected carbon
dioxide emissions with strong correlation coeficients (r) for soil porosity, soil PD, and soil
BD. The r values were 0.92, -0.90, and -0.85, respectively. The smallest value of
correlation coeficient was for soil temperature (r = 0.50). While methane emissions were
more affected by soil BD (r = -99). Soil chemical property having the most powerful
effect on carbon emissions at both vegetative and generative phases was soil C/N ratio (r
values of -0.80 and 0.79, respectively. Methane emission at vegetative phase was more
influenced by soil organic-C (r = 0.84) and at generative phase was more affected by soil
Fe (r = 0.76).
Soil porosity was resultant of soil PD, BD, and temperature, meaning the greater
the soil porosity, then the lower soil PD, the lower soil BD, and soil temperatures would
be higher which stimulated activity of soil micro-organisms. The greater the soil porosity
meant the better soil air circulation and root activity, and aerobic microorganism activities
would be higher, so that the carbon dioxide would be produced more and more.
82
Table 4. Relationship between soil properties with carbon dioxide and methane
emissions from paddy rice field at acid sulfate soil of tidal swampland
Emission
CO2
No.
Soil properties
Vegetative
2
1.
2.
3
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Soil temperature
BD
PD
Porosity
pH H2O
Total-N
Org-C
C/N ratio.
Available P2O5
Available-K
CEC
Available-Fe
Redox potential
EC
R
1.46%
50.64%
58.97%
16.65%
64.10%
21.98%
1.13%
17.20%
6.92%
1.86%
0.01%
R
0.12
-0.71
-0.77
0.41
-0.80
-0.47
-0.11
-0.42
0.26
0.14
-0.02
CH4
Generative
2
R
24.48%
72.08%
81.31%
84.90%
0.54%
27.6%
41.65%
52.50%
33.39%
61.99%
18.89%
0.92%
31.55%
6.52%
r
0.50
-0.85
-0.90
0.92
0.07
-0.52
0.64
0.79
0.58
-0.73
-0.44
0.09
0.56
0.26
Vegetative
2
R
42.55%
5.60%
66.27%
70.83%
2.10%
13.34%
37.07%
43.53%
4.29%
5.87%
0.84%
r
0.65
-0.24
0.81
0.84
0.46
-0.37
-0.61
0.66
0.21
0.24
0.09
Generative
2
R
52.33%
56.13%
32.12%
49.97%
46.66%
3.14%
4.74%
33.50%
65.82%
0.84%
59.04%
56.99%
59.87%
4.75%
R
0.72
-0.59
-0.99
0.31
0.68
0.18
0.22
0.58
0.81
-0.09
-0.77
0.76
-0.77
-0.22
Note :(-) = Sampling could not be taken because of flood
Methane emissions were closely related to soil organic matter content and Fe2+
solubility. This suggested that methane emissions were greatly affected by soil redox
potential. High organic matter content at vegetative phase would trigger reductive
conditions and increase activity of methanogenic bacteria, and resulted in increasing
methane emissions. In contrast to generative phase generally soil was dry resulting in
oxidative conditions. At acid sulfate soil in oxidative conditions, concentration of Fe3+
was increased by oxidation of pyrite. Therefore in this phase, soil Fe3+ solubility greatly
affected soil pH and activity of methanogenic bacteria.
CONCLUSION
1.
Carbon dioxide emission during one planting season from paddy rice field at acid
sulfate soil of tidal swampland was 23,844 t ha-1 while methane emission was 0.696 t
ha-1.
2.
Soil porosity was the most important factor which affected carbon dioxide emissions,
while soil organic matter at vegetative phase and soil Fe solubility at generative phase
were the most important factor which affected methane emissions.
83
Nurita et al.
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86
MINERALISATION OF RECLAIMED PEATS FOR

AGRICULTURE: EFFECTS OF LIME AND NITROGEN
APPLICATIONS
Akhmad R. Saidy
Faculty of Agriculture, Lambung Mangkurat University, Banjarbaru-Indonesia.

Email: asaidy@unlam.ac.id.
Abstract. Liming and nitrogen fertilizer application are common management practice
used to achieve optimum production in reclaimed peats for agriculture. The effects of lime
and nitrogen additions on carbon mineralisation have been widely studied, but the results
are highly varied. These inconsistencies are thought to have been attributed to differences
in the quality of substrates in the soils used in those studies. To test whether the effect of
lime and nitrogen additions on carbon mineralisation of peats depends on peat substrate
quality, two tropical peats varying in carbon chemical structure as determined by the
solid-state 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) were incubated in the laboratory
experiment for 35 days. Carbon mineralisation in peat of high C/N ratio increased with
nitrogen addition, but decreased in peat of low C/N ratio. Liming stimulated carbon
mineralisation in both peats but the response was greater in peat of high C/N ratio than
that of low C/N ratio. Results of this study demonstrate that liming and nitrogen fertilizer
application influence carbon mineralisation of peats with the degree of carbon
mineralisation varied with the substrate quality of peats.
Keywords: Carbon mineralisation, substrate quality, C/N ratio, alkyl C, O-alkyl C
Abstrak. Pengapuran and aplikasi pupuk nitrogen pada tanah gambut yang telah
direklamasi dilakukan untuk mencapai produksi yang optimum. Pengaruh pengapuran
dan pemupukan nitrogen terhadap mineralisasi karbon sudah banyak dilakukan, akan
tetapi hasil yang diperoleh masih sangat bervariasi. Ketidak-konsistenan hasil penelitian
ini diduga disebabkan perbedaan kualitas substrat pada tanah yang digunakan dalam
penelitian. Untuk menguji apakah pengaruh pengapuran dan pemupukan nitrogen
terhadap mineralisasi karbon ditentukan oleh kualitas substrat pada gambut, dua gambut
dari daerah tropik dengan komposisi kimia yang berbeda yang ditetapkan dengan solidsate 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) diinkubasi selama 35 hari pada suatu
percobaan inkubasi di laboratorium. Mineralisasi karbon pada gambut dengan C/N rasio
yang tinggi meningkat dengan perlakuan pemupukan nitrogen, tetapi menurun pada
gambut dengan C/N rasio yang rendah. Pengapuran meningkatkan mineralisasi karbon
pada ke dua gambut dengan jumlah karbon yang termineralisasi lebih besar pada gambut
dengan C/N rasio yang tinggi dibanding dengan gambut dengan C/N rasio yang rendah.
Hasil penelitian ini memperlihatkan bahwa pengapuran dan pemupukan mempengaruhi
mineralisasi karbon pada gambut dengan jumlah karbon yang termineralisasi bervariasi
berdasarkan kualitas substrat gambut.
Kata kunci: Mineralisasi karbon, kualitas substrat, C/N rasio, C-alkil, C-O-alkil
87
Saidy
INTRODUCTION
Peatlands in Indonesia cover from 16.8 to 27.0 million ha (Page and Banks 2007),
representing about 5% of global world peatlands and 50% of tropical peatlands in the
world (Hooijer et al. 2010). Due to pressure for land, a large part of natural Indonesian
tropical peatlands has been and is presently being reclaimed for agricultural purposes
(MacKinnon et al. 1996). The common practices associated with the reclamation of
peatlands for agriculture in Indonesia include nitrogen fertilizer and lime applications
(Andriesse 1997). Lime is added to the peatlands to neutralise the acidifying effect of the
fertilizer and specifically the natural acidity of peat soils in order to achieve optimum pH
for plant growth. Moreover, nitrogen fertilizer has been applied to peat soils with the
primary aim of improving nitrogen status, which may negatively impact on the
productivity of peatland ecosystems.
The effects of nitrogen fertilizer and lime applications on emission of CO2 from
soils have been widely studied, but the results are highly diverse. Previous studies have
shown that liming acidic soils increased carbon mineralisation (Fuentes et al. 2006;
Geissen and Brummer 1999) and dissolved organic carbon (Curtin et al. 1998; Motavalli
et al. 1995). However, several studies have indicated that no differences in dissolved
organic carbon and carbon mineralisation between limed and unlimed plots (Borken and
Brumme 1997). Results of nitrogen fertilizer experiments in mineral soils and peatlands
showed that the addition of supplementary N can enhance microbial activity (Allison et al.
2009; Bradley et al. 2000; Corbeels et al. 1999; Lund et al. 2009). However, suppressed
microbial activity with nitrogen addition was noted in other experiments (Allison et al.
2008; Keller et al. 2005). Hence, the relative contribution of nitrogen fertilizer and lime
applications on the carbon mineralisation of peatlands remains uncertain.
These inconsistencies have been attributed to differences in type of nitrogen
fertilizer used time scale of the studies. Another factor that may contribute to the
inconsistency is differences in the quality of substrates in the soils used in those studies
(Henriksen and Breland 1999; Vance and Chapin 2001). The objective of this study was
to determine changes in C mineralisation of reclaimed peats in response to nitrogen
addition when added singly or in combination with lime. To test whether these effects
varied with the quality of substrates, two tropical peats varying in carbon chemical
structure as determined by the solid-state 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) were
used.
88
Mineralisation of Reclaimed Peats for Agriculture

Peat Sampling and Characteristics
The samples used for this study were collected from two sites, Pulau Damar, PD-9
(2o25 S, 116o46 E) and Gambut, G-7 (03o15 S, 114o42 E), on peat soil in the Barito
Basin, Indonesia. For several decades, peats in this area have been used for agricultural
purposes. At both sites, peats were sampled from the top 20 cm using a cylindrical core
(10 cm diameter). Peat samples were collected from the 0-20 cm layer at each site using a
cylindrical core (10 cm diameter) at 5 locations and combined to give a single composite
sample.
Degrees of decomposition of peat (rubbed fibre content, the von Post scale and
phyrophosphate index) were determined by the method of Parent and Caron (1993). Subsamples of each peat were oven-dried at 70oC for dry-soil determination. Oven-dried peats
were then milled to pass a 2-mm sieve prior to physical and chemical analyses. A portion
of each sample was ashed to quantify the total ash content, while total carbon and nitrogen
were determined by combustion on a Leco CN2000 analyser. The particle density of peat
was determined by the method of Blake and Hartge (1996), and the pH was determined in
water (vol Soil:vol Water = 3:50) using a glass electrode (Karam 1993).
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy of Peats
The chemical nature of the carbon present in each peat was quantified using solidstate 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. A conventional crosspolarisation pulse sequence (Wilson 1987) was used with a 1000 s contact time. The
NMR spectra were divided into seven chemical shift regions according to the chemical
types of carbon as follows: 0-45 ppm (alkyl C), 45-60 ppm (N-alkyl/methoxyl C), 60-95
ppm (O-alkyl C), 95-110 ppm (di-O-alkyl C), 110-145 ppm (aromatic C), 145-165 ppm
(phenolic C), and 165-215 ppm (amide/carboxyl C). The total signal intensity and the
proportion contributed by each type of C were determined by integration of the spectral
region and corrected for the presence of first order spinning sidebands.
Incubation Procedure
An appropriate mass of each peat was placed into a 130-mL container (diameter
5.0-cm). In limed-treated samples, 110-mg CaO was added homogeneously to the peat,
and 13-mg KNO3 was applied to the peat in N-treated samples. The amounts of lime and
nitrogen applied to the peats were equivalent to the common liming and N fertilizer
practices of 10 Mg CaCO3 and 92 kg N ha-1 year-1 in agricultural peatlands in Indonesia,
89
Saidy
respectively. The mass of peat placed into the container was calculated in order to obtain
the same bulk density as that measured in the field after compacting the peat in each
container to a depth of 2.0 cm. Distilled water was added drop-wise using a fine jet pipette
to obtain 50, 60, 70, and 80% WFPS. Carbon mineralisation of peats was monitored using
a Servomex 1450 infrared gas analyser (Servomex UK).
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis of experimental data was accomplished by analysis of variance
(ANOVA) using a completely randomised factorial design using the package GenStat 12th
Edition (Payne 2008). The data were checked for normal distribution with the ShapiroWilk test. In the case of significance in ANOVAs, means were compared by the least
significant difference (LSD) multiple comparison procedure at P<0.05.

Chemical and Physical Properties of Peat
The two peats used in this study varied widely in physical and chemical
characteristics, probably due to difference in the extent of decomposition. G-7 was the
least decomposed peat (fibric) and PD-9 was moderately decomposed peat (hemic) based
on the von Posts and rubbed fibre content data (McKinzie 1974; Parent and Caron 1993).
The most obvious difference in the physical and chemical properties of the two peats was
bulk density, carbon contents and C/N ratio. Details of selected physical and chemical
characteristics of soils are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Physical and chemical characteristics of the peats.
Soil characteristics
Degree of decomposition
Von Posts index
Rubbed fibre content (%)
Pyrophospate index
Ash content (g ash.kg-1 soil)
Bulk density (Mg.m-3)
Particle density (Mg.m-3)
pH (H2O)
pH (0.01 M CaCl2)
Carbon (g C. kg-1 soil)
Nitrogen (g N. kg-1 soil)
C/N ratio
90
Sample
G-7
PD-9
H2
42
25
24
0.16
1.31
3.5
2.7
729
13
56.1
H5
22
77
211
0.24
1.64
3.9
3.4
274
14
19.6
Carbon Chemistry of Peat

Chemical shift region 0-45 ppm of PD-9 was higher than that of G-7. The chemical
shift region between 0 and 45 ppm comprises signal intensity of alkyl carbon, i. e. in fatty
acids and paraffinic structures. The G-7 peat had higher proportion of O-alkyl C compared
to the PD-9 peat (Table 2), suggesting the presence of a higher proportion of carbohydrate
in G-7 than in PD-9. The chemical shift for di-O-alkyl C (95-110 ppm) of both peats was
dominated by signal at 104 ppm, suggesting at least a portion of the carbohydrate carbon
existed as polysaccharides. Difference in the substrate quality for both peats is also
revealed by higher ratio of alkyl C to O-alkyl C from the 13C CP/MAS NMR data for PD9 than G-7. The decrease in the proportion of O-alkyl C and increase in the proportion of
alkyl C as decomposition proceeded suggests that the ratio of alkyl C to O-alkyl C may
provide a sensitive index of the extent of decomposition (Baldock et al. 1997; Webster et
al. 2000).
Table 2. Relative carbon distribution (%) in different regions of chemical shift (ppm)
and ratios of alkyl C to O-alkyl C calculated from the 13C NMR spectra
Chemical shift region
(ppm)
0 45
45 60
60 95
95 110
110 145
145 165
165 190
190 215
Chemical assignment
Alkyl
N-Alkyl/Methoxyl
O-Alkyl
Di-O-Alkyl
Aromatic
Phenolic
Amide/Carboxyl
Ketone
Alkyl/O-Alkyl
Peat Samples
G-7
25
7
21
8
22
9
6
2
1.2
PD-9
39
7
16
5
18
6
7
2
2.4
Carbon Mineralisation
Carbon mineralisation of peat G-7 treated with lime, nitrogen fertilizer and
combined lime with nitrogen fertilizer varied between 735 to 879 g CO2-C g-1 peat
during 35-day incubation (Figure 1). These rates were 8-29% higher than the CO2
production of peat in the control treatment. Unlike G-7, the CO2 production of the control
and nitrogen-treated peats in PD-9 decreased from 820 to 804 g CO2-C g-1 peat over the
incubation period (Figure 1). No changes in C mineralisation in PD-9 were observed when
nitrogen was applied in conjunction with the lime. Both G-7 and PD-9 had similar
nitrogen contents, but the carbon content of G-7 was much higher than that of PD-9.
Consequently, addition of supplementary nitrogen to G-7 enhanced C mineralisation,
consistent with the generalised concept of increasing C mineralisation with decreasing
91
Saidy
C/N ratio. Results indicated that liming alone only increased C mineralisation to a small
extent. However, when lime was added in combination with nitrogen, the CO2 production
increased significantly, indicating that G-7 was a nitrogen-limited peat.
Figure 1. Carbon mineralisation of peat during the 35-day incubation period as

influenced by interaction of lime and nitrogen additions. L0, without lime
amendment; L1, with lime amendment; N0, without nitrogen amendment; N1,
with nitrogen amendment. Bars indicate mean standard error (n=3). Similar
letters above columns indicate no statistical difference between the treatments
based on the LSD test at P<0.05
In contrast to the G-7 peat, data on cumulative C mineralisation suggested that the
carbon mineralisation in the PD-9 peat was suppressed by nitrogen addition (Figure 1).
This finding is in agreement with previous studies (Aerts and Toet 1997; Amador and
Jones 1993). The suppressions of soil respiration observed by these authors were
attributed to changes in soil pH. All of these authors used ammonium salts to supply
nitrogen. In general, ammonium addition to soils results in a reduction of the pH due to
nitrification of the supplied ammonium. Generally, decreases in pH result in decreased
microbial activity. In this experiment, potassium nitrate was used for nitrogen supply in
order to minimise the pH effect. No reduction in pH was observed in nitrogen-treated peat
of G-7 or PD-9 (Figure 2). Therefore, a different mechanism must account for the
suppression of C mineralisation when N was added to PD-9. Carbon availability to
microbes may be reduced by condensation of humus with added nitrogen (Nohrstedt et al.
1989). Fungal ligninolytic activity may be suppressed by nitrogen addition (Keyser et al.
1978). As easily decomposable material such as polysaccharides are embedded in the
lignin matrix (Fog 1988); therefore, when lignin degradation is retarded, these easily
utilisable polysaccharides may not become available to the microbial community
(Thirukkumaran and Parkinson 2000).
92
Figure 2. Effect of liming and nitrogen addition on pH after 35 days incubation period.
L0, without lime amendment; L1, with lime amendment; N0, without nitrogen
amendment; N1, with nitrogen amendment. Bars indicate mean standard error
(n=3). Similar letters above columns indicate no statistical difference between
the treatments based on the LSD test at P<0.05
It appears that microorganisms in the PD-9 are carbon limited (Fig. 1). This
assumption appears to be reasonable given that the 13C CP/MAS NMR spectra of both
peats revealed that the PD-9 had a lower proportion of O-alkyl C compared with the G-7
(Table 2). Previous studies show that carbon mineralisation was related to the proportion
of O-alkyl C estimated from 13C NMR (Parfitt and Salt 2001; Webster et al. 1997). This
finding is consistent with hypotheses based on the concept of microbial C versus N
limitation. Carbon mineralisation generally responded most strongly to nitrogen addition
when organic carbon was abundant and in soils characterised by high C/N ratio, such as
found for peat G-1 (Table 1). However, in soils with relatively low C/N ratio, such as
found in peat PD-9 (Table 1) addition of nitrogen did not increase carbon mineralisation,
as organic carbon was limited. The effect of nitrogen addition on carbon mineralisation
with the extent of mineralisation dependent on C/N ratio has also been observed in other
studies (Mary et al. 1996; Vance and Chapin 2001).
Lime application enhanced C mineralisation rates in both peats, but the response of
carbon mineralisation to liming was greater in G-7 than in PD-9. Liming on G-7 and PD-9
resulted in 15% and 3% higher cumulative C mineralisation, respectively, than peats
without liming (Figure 1). The different response of CO2 production to liming in the G-7
and PD-9 peats suggested that the carbon mineralisation in the two peats was controlled
by different factors. Generally, lime application to acidic soils increased soil pH (Nilsson
et al. 2001; Wanner et al. 1994). In this experiment, the pH of limed PD-9 and G-7 peats
was 1.2 units and 0.9 units higher than unlimed peats (Figure 2), suggesting that the
different response of carbon mineralisation to liming of the two peats may be related to
the extent of pH alteration. The increased C mineralisation may have been due to the
proliferation of microbial species already present in the peats that were relatively inactive
before liming. The greater response of C mineralisation in G-7 to liming than in PD-9 was
also probably due to differences in substrate quality and bioavailability that may change
93
Saidy
after liming. This may be expected since PD-9 was a more decomposed peat than G-7
(Table 1). The limed PD-9 probably consisted of less bioavailable carbon compounds and
the microorganisms may therefore have been more carbon limited than in the G-7, which
is consistent with lower ratio of alkyl C to O-alkyl C in G-7 than that in PD-9 (Table 2).
This result is in accordance with that observed by Andersson and Nilsson (2001) who
showed that increased soil respiration following lime application was higher in less
decomposed compared to that in more decomposed organic matter.
CONCLUSIONS
Nitrogen addition to the peat influences carbon mineralisation; the effect varied with
substrate quality of peats. The presence of nitrogen in peat of high C/N ratio stimulated
carbon mineralisation, whereas carbon mineralisation in the peat of low C/N ratio
decreased with nitrogen addition. Liming increased carbon mineralisation in both tropical
peats with the extent the increase being dependent on the substrate quality of peat.
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96
CONTRIBUTION OF ENDOPHYTIC MICROBES IN

INCREASING THE PADDY GROWTH AND
CONTROLLING SHEATH BLIGHT DISEASES AT
TRANSPLANTING STAGE ON TIDAL SWAMPS *)
Ismed Setya Budi, Mariana, Ismed Fachruzi, and Fachrur Rozy
Lecturer, Faculty of Agriculture, Lambung Mangkurat University. Jl. A. Yani Po Box 1028.
Banjarbaru-South Kalimantan. Phone: +6281933753340. Email: isb_unlam@yahoo.co.id
Abstract. Tidal swamps are mostly cultivated with local paddy varieties and one of the
plant diseases that are very crucial in transplanting stage (taradak, ampak, and lacak) is
soil borne pathogen. The research was conducted on tidal swamps type B in Barito Kuala,
South Kalimantan. It was M & M arranged in split plot design with the combination of
endophytic microbe and transplanting stage application time as the treatments. Endophytic
microbes formulation consisted of Trichoderma viride PS-2.1, Nonpathogenic Fusarium
PS-1.5, and Pseudomonas fluorescens PS-4.8. Combination application of endophytic
microbes and transplanting stage on tidal swamps could decrease the disease intensity of
sheath blight, as about 49.39 to 93.25%. Endophyte could also be able to stimulate the
plant growth that was indicated by the addition of plant height around 2.05 to 24.00 cm,
the addition of rice grain weight as 0.7 to 9.3 g 1,000 grains-1, and the addition of seed
weight as about 0.3-1.2 kg. The result of soil analysis before and after applications the
endophyte showed that there was an increase in soil fertility with the element addition of
N, P, K, and pH.
Keywords: Endophyte, rice sheath blight, tidal swamps
INTRODUCTION
Sheath blight is one of the most important diseases that attacks paddy cultivated in tidal
swamps of South Kalimantan. In the field, diseases intensity always increases because of
the difficulty to control them under flooded condition (Budi and Mariana 2009). So, it
takes a certain control method, which is more space effective, efficient, and safe to the
environment.
Thus, the use of specific biological agents should be done immediately because of
consumer demand on synthetic chemicals free products. On biological control, R. solani
can be parasitized by mycoparasites such as Gliocladium spp., Trichoderma spp., and
Verticillium biguttatum Gams (Van den Boogert 1996). The fungus V. biguttatum is a
mycoparasite with biological activity against the important soil borne pathogen.
*)
97
Budi et al.
According to Howell and Stipanovic (1995), the growth of R. solani on the cotton
plant can be controlled by seed treatment using Gliocladium virens. Antagonists, of
nonpathogenic fusarium strains, which are isolated from supressif soil, have a capability
to reduce the disruption caused by fusarium wilt in some plants (Nel et al. 2006). While
the bacterium Pseudomonas capacia, P. fluorescens, and P. gladio are also able to control
the growth of P. solanacearum causing wilt on tomato. Other bacteria such as Bacillus
mesentericus, B. megaterium, B. mycoides, and Erwinia sp. also act as biological control
of wilt disease in several plants (Hartman et al. 1992).
The use of specific biological agents that have had a coevolution will be able to
stimulate the development of harmful plant rhizosphere microorganisms (von Alten et al.
1993), and this can always be isolated more than one kind of antagonist (Budi and
Mariana 2009). Therefore, it is needed to select the best combination of antagonists that
can be better protecting plants against various pathogen disorders.

This experiment was carried out on tidal swamplands of B type of Karang Indah Village,
Barito Kuala District, and South Kalimantan Province during dry session 2009/2010. The
experiment employed split plot design to determine the effects of treatments and the
differences between treatments were tested using DMRT at 5% level.
Isolation and Mass Production of Endophytic Agents
Plant samples were taken from healthy plants on the infested area of paddy.
Isolation of endophyte was done on the stem of plants and the rhizosphere zone. Isolation
was based on Homby methods (Fokkema et al. 1959) and continued with dilution plate
method (10-4 to 10-6). Each isolate of Pseudomonas fluorescens group was then tested
according to Dhingra & Sinclair method (1995).
Inhibition Ability and Sinergism Test of Endophytic Fungi and Rhizosphere Bacteria
Against R. solani on In Vitro Condition
Tests were carried out on a potato dextrose agar (PDA) in a petri dish by growing
isolates that existed in pairs, then performed measurements to see the growth inhibition by
using the formula of Fokhema (Fokhema et al. 1959):
98
Contribution of Endophytic Microbes in Increasing the Paddy Growth
I = (r1 -r2) (r1) -1x100

description:
I is the percentage of inhibition
r1 is the radius of A colony that grows in the opposite direction to B
r2 is the radius of A colony that grows in the direction of B
Isolates that have the ability to inhibit the growth of pathogens in pairs test were
then performed to determine the best combination of paire disolates.
In-Vivo Test of Endophytic Hitting Ability on Sheath Blight Disease
In-vivo test was conducted in field experiment (split plot design). Endophytic
inoculation performed straw at one month before seedling. While the application of
antagonists was conducted on soil one week before transplanting stage and also at the time
of planting by soaking seeds for 24 hours at 10-4 per ml spore suspension. Observations
were carried out three weeks later in transplanting stage (local terms are: taradak, ampak,
and lacak) by counting the number of plants with wilt or sheath blight symptoms and
measuring plant height, seed and grain weights. Effect of differences between treatments
was determined using DMRT at 5% level.

Effect on Disease Intensity and Plant Height
The results of analysis variance showed that there were significant treatment
effects as shown in the Table 1 and Figure 1, i.e. disease intensity and plant height. In the
taradak stage, treatment effect of T. viride + P. fluorescens, T. viride + FNP, FNP + P.
fluorescens, T. viride + FNP + P. fluorescens was not significantly different to the disease
intensity, but there was a significant difference on plant height. The treatment giving the
best effect on plant height was T. viride + FNP.
In the ampak stage, there were no different effects to diseases intensity between T.
viride + P. fluorescens and FNP + P. fluorescens. However, they had effect differences
with T. viride + FNP and T. viride + FNP + P. fluorescens. While the T. viride + FNP and
T. viride + FNP + P. fluorescens had a different effect. At ampak stage, there were no
different influences between T. viride + P. fluorescens and FNP + P. fluorescens on
disease intensity. However, they were different effects with T. viride + FNP and T. viride
+ FNP + P. fluorescens.
While the T. viride + FNP and T. viride + FNP + P. fluorescens showed a different
effect. The best treatment suppressing the disease intensity was FNP + P. fluorescens
99
Budi et al.
(smallest intensity, 7.28%). Effect of treatment on the ampak stage to plant height showed
differences between T. viride + FNP + P. fluorescens and T. viridae + P. fluorescens. T.
viridae + FNP. Treatment of T. viride + FNP + P. fluorescens gave higest effect on plant
height (53.40 cm).
On the lacak stage, T. viride + P. fluorescens treatment showed the lowest disease
intensity. This treatment had no effect differences with FNP + P. fluorescens and T. viride
+ FNP + P. fluorescens, but they had effect difference with T. viride + FNP. At T. viride +
P. fluorescens treatments performed smallest effect on disease intensity (5.00%). There
was no significantly difference between T. viride + FNP and T. viride + FNP + P.
Fluorescens treatments, but the both had significantly differences with others. T. viride +
FNP and T. viride + FNP + P. fluorescens performed best effect on plant height (75.74
and 72.29 cm).
Table 1. Effects of treatment on disease intensity and plant height on three transplanting
stages
Treatments
Taradak
Symptom
Plant
Inten- Reducheight
sity
tion
29.50 c
0.00
18.25 a
a
8.73
70.41
24.15 b
Transplanting stage on tidal swamps

Ampak
Lacak
Symptom
Symptom
Plant
ReducInten- Reducheight
Intensity
tion
sity
tion
d
a
46,00
0.00
37.20
75.12 c
0.00
10,40 a
77.39
44.17 b
5.00 a
93.34
Plant
height
Control
45.57 a
T. viride + P.
64.15 b
fluorescens
T. viride + FNP 11.36 a 51.32
29.74 c
18.42 b
60.00
46.12 b 21.18 b
71.81
75.74 c
FNP + P.
9.28 a
68.54 21.40 ab
7,28 a
84.17
50.72 bc 10.00 a
86.69
50.12 ab
fluorescens
T. viride + FNP 10.10 a 65.76
25.29 b 23,28 c
49.39
53.40 c
6.47 a
91.39
72.29 c
+ P. fluorescens
** Within column, means values followed by different letters are significantly different (P<0.01; LSD test).
In general, all three phases of the reduction in disease intensity ranged between
49.39 and 93.34%, while the addition of plant height ranged between 2.05 and 24.00 cm
(Guetsky et al. 2001). Two biocontrol agents, Pichia guilermondii and Bacillus mycoides,
were tested separately and together for suppression of Botrytis cinerea on strawberry
leaves. The biocontrol agents significantly inhibited spore germination, lesion formation,
and lesion development. The mixture of B. mycoides and P. guilermondii suppressed B.
cinerea effectively (80 to 99.8% control). Thus, application of both biocontrol agents
resulted in better suppression of B. cinerea, and also reduced the variability of disease
control. Application of more than one biocontrol agents is suggested as a reliable means
of reducing the variability and increasing the reliability of biological control.
The effects of treatment were to decrease disease intensity and to increase plant
height. The microbes had the capability to induce plant resistance to disease; therefore
they produced chemicals that triggered plant defence response. Yedida et al. (1999)
reported that Trichoderma penetrates epidermis and outer cortex strengthens it. This was
100
due to deposition of newly formed barriers. These typical host reactions were found
beyond the sites of potential fungal penetration. Wall apposition contained large amounts
of callose and infiltrations of cellulose. The wall-bound chitin in Trichoderma hyphae was
preserved, even when the hyphae had undergone substansial disorganization. Biochemical
analyses revealed that inoculation with Trichoderma initiated increased peroxidase and
chitinase activities within 48 and 72 hours, respectively. Nonpathogenic fusarium can
induce systemic resistance in plant when invade host plant species before the pathogen
(Kaur et al. 2010).
Figure 1. The disease intensity and plant height after application at transplanting stage
Other mechanisms in the control of plant pathogens by antagonistic microbes are
parasitism, antibiosis, and competition of site and nutrients. Trichoderma spp. can
compete with other microorganism for key exudates from seed that stimulate germination
of propagules of plant pathogenic fungi in soil (Harman et al. 2004).
It has been known that some microbes such as Trichoderma spp. and P.
fluorescens can promote plant growth. Shanmugalah et al. (2009) reported that
Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens were able to promote cotton plant
growth such as root length, shoot length, fresh weight, dry weight, and vigour index. In
this research, the microbes promoted plant height, grain and seed weights, however, in
grain and seed weights, there were just some treatments significantly different to control
(Table 2).
Fuchs et al. (1997), Nonpathogenic Fusarium oxysporum strain Fo47 controls the
incidence of Fusarium wilt. Four bioassays in which a strain of the pathogen F.
oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici and Fo47 were not in direct contact and were developed to
evaluate whether Fo47 could induce resistance to Fusarium wilt in tomato plants.
Inoculation with Fo47 increased chitinase, b-1, 3-glucanase, and b-1, 4-glucosidase
activities in plants, confirming the ability of Fo47 to induce resistance in tomato. Microbe
nonpathogenic strain of F. oxysporum can induce resistance to Fusarium wilt in tomato
plants.
101
Budi et al.
As shown in Table 2 and Figure 2, the best combination treatment to reduce

disease intensity and increase plant height is T4P1 (smallest intensity of 10.8% and plant
height of 172.2 cm). While the best treatment for the increased weight of grain is T4P4 (the
heaviest of 30.2 g 1,000 grain-1) and to increase the seed weight is T4P1 (the heaviest of
3.6 g/1,000 seed). In general, increased grain and seed weights, each ranging between 0.7
and 9.3 g 1,000 grains-1, and between 0.3 and 1.2 g.
Table 2. Effect of treatment on diseases intensity, plant height, grain weight, and seed
weight on tidal swamp type B
Treatmen
K
T1
T2
T3
T4
P1
P2
P3
P1
P2
P3
P1
P2
P3
P1
P2
P3
Diseases intensity
(%)
62.4 d
19.2 b
28.1 bc
21.2 bc
20.3 bc
22.7 bc
18.7 bc
20.5 bc
23.3 bc
13.4 ab
10.8 a
17.5 b
12.4 a
Plant height
(cm)
125.7 a
160.8 bc
157.6 bc
159.0 bc
162.6 c
158.4 bc
165.5 c
167.5 c
159.9 bc
167.3 c
172.2 d
168.9 c
169.5 c
Grain weight
(g)
20.9 ab
23.7 b
21.8 ab
22.9 ab
22.8 ab
22.1 ab
27.5 bc
21.6 ab
19.9 a
23.6 b
28.4 bc
27.3 bc
30.2 c
Seed weight (kg)

2.4 a
2.6 ab
2.8 b
2.8 b
3.0 bc
2.7 ab
3.2 c
2.8 b
2.4 a
3.0 bc
3.6 d
2.7 ab
3.1 c
Mean values followed by the different letters are significantly different from each other (P<0.05) according
DMRT
T1
= Combination T. viride PS-2.1 and P. fluorescens PS-4.8
T2
= Combination T. viride PS-2.1 and FNP PS-1.5
T3
= Combination FNPPS-1.5 and P. fluorescens PS-4.8
T4
= Combination T. viride PS-2.1 and FNP PS-1.5 and P. fluorescens PS-4.8
P1
= Application endophytic at straw one month before planting
P2
= Application by soaking seeds for 24 hours before planting
P3
= Combination P1 + P2
K
= Control
Figure 2. Effect of treatment on disease intensity, plant height, grain and seed weights
102
Effect of Microbes on Soil Nutrients and Soil pH

The microbe enhances nutrient and pH soil as shown in Table 3 dan Figure 3. This
occurs because the fungi and bacteria as decomposers of organic material. Thus, the
organic material decompose into compost so that enrich the soil and available to plants.
Thus, the organic material decompose into compost so that enrich the soil and nutrients
are available to plants. In addition, microbe and organic composting material change soil
pH becomes more alkaline so the nutrients become available to plants. This finding is in
agreement with Yan et al. (1996) who found increases in soil pH with glucose addition
due to the decarboxylation of functional groups and aminization of nitrogen compounds.
This contributes to plant growth.
The combined activity was due to the summation of biocontrol mechanisms of both
agents. The modes of action of the biocontrol agents were elucidated and the relative
quantitative contribution of each mechanism to suppression of Botrytis cinerea was
estimated using multiple regressions with dummy variables. The improvement in control
efficacy achieved by introducing one or more mechanisms at a time was calculated.
Pichia guilermondii competed with Botrytis cinerea for glucose, sucrose, adenine,
histidine, and folic acid (Guetsky et al. 2002).
Table 3. Effect of microbes on soil nutrient and pH
Soil nutrient analysis
Treatment
N
Before treatment
P
K
pH
After treatment
P
K
pH
Control
0.546
0.021
0.352
3.97
0.533
0.020
0.366
5.72
T. viride PS-2.1 + P.
fluorescens PS-4.8
0.546
0.021
0.352
3.97
0.956
0.026
0.485
7.50
T. viride PS-2.1 + FNP PS1.5
0.546
0.021
0.352
3.97
0.984
0.024
0.383
7.39
FNPPS-1.5 + P. fluorescens
PS-4.8
0.546
0.021
0.352
3.97
0.979
0.036
0.399
7.60
T. viride PS-2.1 + FNPPS-1.5

+P. fluorescens PS-4.8
0.546
0.021
0.352
3.97
1.002
0.023
0.457
7.42
Table 3 and Figure 3 show that treatments to elevate the content of N, P, and K.
The increase in N after treatment ranged from 0.410 (T. viride + P. fluorescens) and 0.456
(T. viride + FNP + P. fluorescens). While the increase in Pranged was between 0.002 (T.
viride + FNP + P. fluorescens) and 0.015 (FNP + P.fluorescens). At K, the increase
ranged from 0.383 (T. viride + FNP) and 0.485 (T. viride +FNP+ P. fluorescens). For pH,
the increase ranged from3.42 (T. viride + FNP) and 3.63 (P. fluorescens + FNP). So, does
an increasedue to treatment, but not the best hikes on just one treatment.
103
Budi et al.
Paddy residues can be a source of organic material for the growth of rice plants in
the field. Residues contains a high cellulose and decomposition process takes time, but
with the activity of the microbial decomposition of running fast. Decomposition into
mono sacchari decompounds, CO2, and other organic acids (Rao 1994)
Soil acidity and pH affects the availability of nutrients, because in general the acid
soils nutrients less available, at neutral pH of nutrients available to plants. While the tidal
swamps on South Kalimantan in general is acidic. So this treatment helps increase the
acidity of the soil to be neutral. In general, availability of nutrients can help increase plant
resistance to disease and plant growth. According to Harman (2006), Trichoderma sp.
pasplant symbionts capable of being able to control some of the root and leaf disease
resistance mechanisms affected and directly attacking pathogens and changing the
composition of microflora roots.
Figure 3. The results of chemical analysis of soil before and after formulation
applications in tidal swamps
Contribution of pH available to plants on tidal swamps in South Kalimantan in
general is acidic and availability of nutrients can help increase plant resistance to disease
and plant growth. Maurhofer et al. (1998), of salicylic acid induces systemic acquired
resistance in tobacco. pchA and pchB, which encode for the biosynthesis of salicylic acid
in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. These constructs were introduced into two root-colonizing
strains of P. fluorescens and significantly improved its ability to induce systemic
resistance in tobacco against tobacco necrosis virus. Lewis et al. (1998), Trichoderma spp.
and Gliocladium virens to produce achlamydospores actively growing hyphae of the
biocontrol fungi within a 2- to 3-day period under no special aseptic conditions. G. virens
and T. hamatum applied to soilless mix at a rate of 1.5% (wt/wt) reduced damping-off of
eggplant caused by Rhizoctonia solani. The inhibition of pathogen spread significantly
reduced the post emergence damping-off of cucumber, eggplant, and pepper seedlings.
104
Trichoderma effect on plants, and the presence of local and systemic resistance
affected. These fungi colonize the root epidermi sand outer cortex and secrete bioactive
molecules that cause the formation of cell walls from Trichoderma thalus. At the same
time, the plant transcript to meandproteome changes, so will spur resistance of plants,
increasing plant growth and increase nutrient absorption (Harman 2006).
CONCLUSION
Application of microbes used in this study shows that they have a good effect, which
reduces the intensity of the sheat blight disease, stimulated plant height, grain weight, and
seed weight. Microbes also have the effect of soil fertility, which is made of N, P, and K
increased and available to plants. In addition the research also showed that an increase in
soil pH. However, there is no single best combination for each parameter measured. Thus,
this treatment can be applied to tidal swamp rice field by considering the best treatments.
This result combination isolate has important practical implications for biocontrol of
paddy on tidal swamps diseases under commercial.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of
National Education for financial support through the Competitive Grant on 2009-2010.
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Environ, Microbiol. Vol. 65. No. 3. Pp 1061-1070.
Von Alten, H., A. Lindemann, and F. Schnbeck. 1993. Stimulation of vesicular
arbuscular mycorrhiza by fungicides or rhizosphere bacteria.
106
10
1Arifin
1IAARD
DOES RICE STRAW APPLICATION REDUCE IRON

CONCENTRATION AND INCREASE RICE YIELD IN ACID
SULPHATE SOIL
Fahmi and 2Muhrizal Sarwani
Researcher at Indonesian Wetland Research Institute (IWETRI), Jl. Kebun Karet, Lok
Email: fahmi.nbl@gmail.com
2IAARD Researcher at Indonesian Center for Agricultural Land Resources Research and
Development (ICALRD). Jl. Tentara Pelajar No. 12 Cimanggu. Bogor
Abstract. About 6.7 million ha of acid sulphate soil (ASS) is found in Indonesia. Based
on its extent, ASS becomes potential for new agricultural areas to meet the growing food
needs. ASS has very low pH and contains iron (Fe2+) concentration in toxic levels for
plants growth. Many technologies have been developed to improve ASS productivity,
such as application of organic matter (OM). In general, organic matter from rice straw
(RS) may improve soil fertility and increase rice yield. On the other hand, many
researchers stated that RS application impacted negatively on soil fertility. Based on these
facts, it is necessary to review the effect of RS application on iron concentration and rice
yield at ASS. Fresh RS application increased Fe2+ concentration of the soil therefore rice
straw applied to ASS must be in decomposed condition. Organic acids containing in
decomposed RS may chelate the iron and lead to increase leaching of iron. In addition RS
application to rice field must be followed with water management and utilization of
tollerant rice variety.
Keywords: Acid sulphate soil, iron, rice straw, rice yield
INTRODUCTION
About 6.7 milion ha of acid sulphate soil (ASS) is found in Indonesia. Based on its extent,
ASS becomes potential for new agricultural areas to meet the growing food needs. Acid
sulphate soil have very low pH, low phosphorus (P) availability, and iron (Fe2+)
concentration in toxic level for plants. Many technologies have been developed to
improve ASS productivity. A technology such as application of organic matter (OM) has
proven to be used by farmers in a sustainable and environmentally friendly. Many
researchers have stated that OM application in the form of rice straw (RS) may increase
soil fertility and rice production, because RS contains 0.5-2.0% nitrogen (N), 0.07-0.1%
Phosphorus (P), and 0.4-1.7% potassium (K) (Dobermann and Firehurst 2000; Fahmi et
al. 2009).
Large concentration of Fe in the soil solution may be toxic to rice growth, and the
critical concentration of Fe2+ toxicity is > 500 mg kg-1 in the soil (Audebert 2006). Large
concentration of Fe2+ in the ASS may be depressed with application of OM. Some
107
Fahmi and Sarwani
references, however, stated that organic matter had a great role in increasing Fe
concentration in soil (Gao et al. 2004; Duckworth et al. 2009). In other side, organic
matter may contain organic compounds such as humic and fulvic acids that are able to
bind toxic elements, such as; iron, copper, manganese, etc. in the soil so their activities
may decrease (Tan 2003).Organic matter application may have a negative impact to soil
fertility. This condition occurs due to low quality and excessive application dossage of
OM. Fresh RS application increased Fe2+ concentration, decreased soil pH, and P
availability (Kongchum 2005; Reddy dan DeLaune 2008; Fahmi et al. 2009). This meant
that OM might retard plant growth indirectly. Fahmi et al. (2009) reported that negative or
positive impact from OM application depended on the type or properties of the OM,
environmental conditions, and soil properties. Rice straw is commonly the main source of
OM in rice field. According to Jumberi et al. (2007) about 4-5 t ha-1 of RS was harvested
in a growing season. Rice straw could be a source of nutrients for plants and act as a
chelating agent for toxic elements, but it also lead soil in reducted condition, and Fe2+
concentration might increase under reduction condition. Flooding could alleviate the
constraint acidity but increased Fe2+ concentration in soil solution (Dent 1986). Therefore
Fe2+ concentration in the soil is dependent on OM decomposition stage.
Based on those facts, it is necessary to review the effect of rice straw application
on iron concentration and rice growth in acid sulphate soil. This paper was aimed to
discuss the effect of fresh rice straw application on iron concentration in soil solution and
rice production on acid sulphate soils.
Iron Concentration in Acid Sulphate Soil
To optimize rice plant growth at ASS cultived by farmers commonly applies OM
such as RS and weeds straw. The RS application may increase soil fertility and rice
production due to RS contained 0.5-2.0% N, 0.07-0.1% P, and 0.4-1.7% K. In addition
organic compounds in OM are able to bind toxic elements in the soil (Dobermann and
Firehurst 2000; Tan 2003; Fahmi et al. 2009). On the contrary, RS application to the ASS
increases Fe2+ concentration in soil solution (Figure 1 and 2). Fe2+ concentration in soil
applied with RS and chicken manure (CM) which was observed for 27 weeks after
planting (WAP) showed that Fe2+ concentration in soil with RS application was higher
than that with CM. This condition was dependent on OM condition. Higher C/N content
in RS than in CM caused the soil become more reductive. Application of fresh RS tends to
stimulate reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+ as illustrated in reaction below (Breemen dan Buurman,
2002; Kyuma 2004):
FeOOH + 2 H+ + CH2O Fe2+ + 7/4H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + 8 Fe3+ + 2 H2O 2 CO2 + 8 Fe2+ + 8 H+
108
Does Rice Straw Application Reduce Iron Concentration
Soil organic matter was an energy source for iron reduction bacteria (Reddy and
Delaune 2008). The higher OM contains in the soil the higher the concentration of Fe2+
resulted from the reduction process. Early stage of RS decomposition process in flooded
soil produces organic compounds which act as electron acceptors in a redox reaction.
According to Tadano and Yoshida (1978), acetic acid was dominan organic acid produced
in the early stage of decomposition proceses, and according to Kyuma (2004) oxidation of
acetic acid was simultaneously reduction of Fe3+.
Figure 1. The effect of RS and chicken manure (CM) application on Fe2+ concentration in
ASS for 27 WAP (Jumberi et al. 2007)
Instead, the decomposition of SOM tended to lead decrease of Fe2+ concentration
in soil. This condition caused chelatization process of Fe by OM more dominant than
reduction process of Fe by OM. The quality and quantity of OM in soil also fairly
determines the solubility of Fe in soil solution. Soil organic matter had indirect effect to
Fe2+ concentration in soil through a plant. Presence of raw organic material leaded plant
suffered toxicity by organic acid, thus affecting the ability of these plants to oxidize Fe2+
around the roots (IRRI 2003).
Iron Leached from Rice Cultivation after Rice Straw Application at ASS
Rice straw application increased leaching of Fe through increasing of Fe solubility
and mobility. High solubility of elements in soil would cause them to be easily lost
through leaching and surface flow (Banach et al. 2009). Figure 3 shows a correlation of
Fe2+ concentration in soil solution and in leachate due to RS application. Application of
RS increased leaching of Fe where 0.07-0.42% of Fe2+ in the soil was leached out or equal
to 2-5 times higher than without fresh RS application, which was only 0.03-0.14% (Fahmi
et al. 2012). Increasing concentration of Fe2+ in the leachate with application of fresh RS
was considered to be related to increased Fe2+ solubility and mobility. The presence of
OM in the soil increased the mobility and solubility of Fe through reduction reaction
(Kongchum 2005; Fuss et al. 2011) and chelation (Karlsson and Persson 2010). Reducted
109
Fahmi and Sarwani
form of Fe (Fe2+) was more mobile than the oxidized form (Fe3+), which facilitates its
leaching from the soil (Tan 2008). These facts showed that application of RS had a great
role in increasing the leaching of Fe2+ and Fe2+ concentration in soil solution.
Figure 2. The effect of continuous application of RS on Fe2+ concentration in soil during

the last five years (Fahmi et al. 2009)
Figure3. Relationship between Fe2+ concentration in leachate and in the soil affected by
RS application (Fahmi et al. 2012).
Iron Concentration in Rice Plant Tissue after Rice Straw Application at ASS
Acid sulphate soil contains Fe2+ in large concentration. Adaptive varity of rice
grown on the soils has a specific physiological mechanism for well growth. One of the
mechanisms was uptaking Fe2+ in huge concentration and then localizing the Fe2+ in a
plant tissue (Jean-Francois et al. 2006) such as in oldest leaf for rice plant (Doberman and
Firehouse 2000). Kongchum (2006) found an increase of Fe concentration in plant tissue
along with increasing RS application rate (Figure 4). This condition related with increased
Fe2+ concentration in soil solution due to reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+ which was stimulated
110
by RS application. Large concentration of Fe2+ in soil solution may increase Fe2+ uptake
by rice eventhough Fe2+ might be toxic to rice plant if its concentration > 500 mg Fe2+ kg-1
in the soil (Audebert 2006).
Figure 4. Iron concentration in plant tissue at several dosages of RS application at ASS

(Kongchum 2006)
Rice Dry Grain Yield Obtained from RS Application at ASS
Figure 5. Average dry grain yield obtained in ASS after RS application in many rates for
3 years observation (Jumberi et al. 2007)
Acid sulphate soil has Fe2+ concentration in toxic levels for plants growth. Large
concentration of Fe2+ in the ASS might be depressed with application of OM such as RS,
but low quality of OM sources might increase Fe2+ concentration, decrease soil pH and P
availability (Kongchum 2005; Reddy and DeLaune 2008; Fahmi et al. 2009). Rice straw
should be in more decomposed condition. Its application must be done carefully and
followed with proper land management such as land arrangement, water management, and
utilization of adaptive rice variety (Figure 6).
Application of decomposed RS may decrease Fe2+ solubility through chelatization
proceses and decrease acetic acid concentration produced during decomposition proceses
of RS. Low Fe2+ concentration in soil solution due to RS application may improve plant
growth and then increase rice yield. Land arrangement can increase and make easier plant
maintenance, while water management can improve soil quality through nutrient
111
Fahmi and Sarwani
enrichment, leaching of Fe, and improvement of crop environmental conditions such as

soil pH.
Figure 6. Dry grain yield from Margasari and Batanghari rice varities obtained at ASS
after RS application (Jumbri et al. 2007)
CONCLUSION
Fresh RS application increased iron concentration at ASS so that RS application to ASS
must be in decomposed condition. Organic acids contained in decomposed RS may
chelate iron and lead to increase iron leaching. Application of decomposed RS improved
plant growth and increased rice yield. In addition, application of RS must be followed
with proper water management and utilization of tolerant rice variety.
REFERENCES
Audebert, A. 2006. Rice yield gap due to iron toxicity in West Africa. In; A. Audebert,
L.T. Narteh, P. Kiepe, D. Millar, and B. Beks. (Eds.), Iron Toxicity in Rice-Based
Systems in West Africa. West Africa Rice Center (WARDA). Cotonou, Benin. pp.
18-33.
Banach, A.M., K. Banach, E.J.W. Visser, Z. Stepniewska, A.J.M. Smits, J.G.M. Roelofs,
and L.P.M. Lamers. 2009. Effects of summer flooding on floodplain
biogeochemistry in Poland; implications for increased flooding frequency.
Biogeochem 92:247-262.
Breemen, N.V. dan P. Buurman. 2002. Soil Formation, 2nd edition. Kluwer Academic
Publisher. Dordrecht. USA. 404 p.
Dent, D.L. 1986. Acid Sulphate Soils. A baseline for research and development. Publ. No.
39. ILRI. Wageningen, The Netherlands.
112
Dobermann, A. and T. Fairhurst. 2000. Rice; Nutrient Disorders and Nutrient

Management. IRRI. Makati City, The Phillippines. P 191.
Duckworth, O.W., S.J.M. Holmstrom, J. Pena, dan G. Sposito. 2009. Biogeochemistry of
iron oxidation in circumneutral freshwater habitat. Chemical Geology. 260;149158.
Fahmi, A., B. Radjagukguk, and B.H. Purwanto. 2009. Kelarutan fosfat dan ferro pada
tanah sulfat masam yang diberi bahan organik jerami padi. J Tanah Trop
14(2):119-125. (In Indonesia).
Fahmi, A., B. Radjagukguk, and B.H. Purwanto. 2012. The leaching of iron and loss of
phosphate in acid sulphate soil due to rice straw and phosphate fertilizer
application. J Tanah Trop 17(1):19-24.
Fuss, C.B., C.T. Dirscoll, C.E. Johnson, R.J. Petras, and T.J. Fahey. 2011. Dynamics of
oxidized and reduced iron in a nothern hardwood forest. Biogeochemistry 104:103119.
Gao, S., K.K. Tanji, S.C. Scardaci, and A.T. Chow. 2002. Comparison of redox indicators
in a paddy soil during rice-growing season. Soil Science Society of America
Journal. 66:805-817.
Jean-Francois, B., F. Cellier, and F. Geymard. 2006. Ferrintis and iron accumulation in
plant tissues. In L.L. Barton and J. Abadia. (Eds.). Iron Nutrition In Plants and
Rhizospheric Microorganisms. Springer. Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Pp. 341-357.
Jumberi, A., A. Fahmi, and A. Susilawati. 2007. Potensi pengelolaan jerami dan
penggunaan varietas unggul adaptif sebagai komponen teknologi peningkatan
produktivitas tanah sulfat masam. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Sumber Daya Lahan
Pertanian. Bogor, 14-15 September 2006. Balai Besar Litbang Sumberdaya Lahan
Pertanian. Badan Litbang Pertanian. Pp. 305-314 (In Indonesia).
IRRI. 2003. Rice Doctor. http;//www.knowledgebank.irri.org/Rice Doctor/Fact_Sheets/
Deficiencies Toxicities.
Karlsson, T. and P. Persson. 2010. Coordination chemistry and hydrolysis of Fe(III) in a
peat humic acid studied by X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Geochim Cosmochim
Ac 74: 30-40.
Kongchum, M. 2005. Effect of Plant Residue and Water Management Practices on Soil
Redox Chemistry, Methane Emission, and Rice Productivity. A Disertation.
Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University.USA.
Kyuma, K. 2004. Paddy Soil Science. Kyoto University Press and Trans Pacific Press.
Melbourne. Australia. 279 p.
Reddy, K.R. and R.D. Delaune. 2008. The Biogeochemistry of Wetlands: Science and
Applications. CRC Press. New York, USA. 779 p.
Tadano, T. and T. Yoshida. 1978. Chemical changes in submerged soils and their effect
on rice growth. In. Soils and Rice. IRRI. Los Banos, The Philippines. Pp 399-420.
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Tan, K.H. 2003. Humic Matter in the Soil and the Environment; Principles and
Controversies. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York. USA. 359 p.
Tan, K.H. 2008. Soils in the Humid Tropic and Monsoon Region of Indonesia. CRC
Press, Taylor and Francis Group. 557 p.
114
11
1Wahida
1IAARD
EMISSIONS OF METHANE AND CARBON DIOXIDE AT

MANAGEMENT OF ORGANIC MATTER ON ACID
SULPHATE SOIL UNDER LABORATORY
EXPERIMENT *)
Annisa, 2A. Maas, 2B. Purwanto, and 2J. Widada
Researcher at Indonesian Wetland Research Institute (IWETRI), Jl. Kebun Karet, Lok
Faculty of Agriculture, University Gadjah Mada. Yogyakarta
Abstract. Rice straw, purun (Eleocharis dulcis), and cattle manure are a local organic
matter commonly used by farmers at acid sulphate soil. Composting is the most common
way to decay organic matter and proven to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This
laboratory experiment aimed to determine amount of CH4 and CO2 emissions which were
released from various managements of local organic matter at acid sulphate soils. There
were two types of acid sulphate soil samples used in this experiment, i.e. natural (uncultivated) and cultivated soils. This experiment used factorial design with two factors.
The first factor was kind of organic matter, i.e. without organic matter (control), fresh rice
straw, fresh purun, fresh cattle manure, composted rice straw composted purun and
composted cattle manure, whereas the second factor was the management of organic
matter :placing on soil surface (no tillage) and mixing with soil (tillage). The results
showed that application of composted cattle manure with ratio C/N 20.81 effectively
reduced methane and carbondioxide emissions. Methane and carbondioxide fluxes level
positively correlated with org-C content as shown with R2=0.769 and R2=0.814,
respectively. The methane and carbondioxide fluxes ranged from 0.216 to 0.003 kg of
CH4 kg-1d1 and 6.305 to 1.228 kg of CO2 kg-1 d-1at both soils. Amount of methane formed
due to decomposition showed a negative correlation with soil Eh value.
Keywords: Methane emission, carbondioxide emission, soil Eh, organic matter, acid
sulphate soil
INTRODUCTION
Organic matter management in acid sulphate soil was important because it could retain
reductive condition in order to limit pyrite oxidation. Pyrite oxidation affected soil pH to
become acid and increased toxic elements, particularly Fe3+ (ferri iron). One of
recommendations to manage acid sulphate soil for sustainable agriculture was flooding.
Banjarese farmers in undertaking land preparation including organic matter management
use traditional manner to make a flooding condition known astrowelturn-behind-the
scattering system (tajak-puntal-balik-hambur).
*)
115
Annisa et al.
Flooding rice fields promote anaerobic fermentation of carbon sources supplied by

rice plant and other incorporated organic substrates, and result methane emission
(Wihardjaka et al. 2012). The CO2 flux decreased while CH4 flux increased after flooding
rice paddy fields (Miyata et al. 2000). Emission of carbondioxide was influenced by soil
temperature, moisture content, C/N ratio, pH and oxygen levels, and physical structure of
organic material (Philippe et al. 2011).
Rice straw, purun (Eleocharis dulcis), and cattle manure were local organic matter
and effectively used as ameliorant in acid sulphate soil (Muhrizal et al. 1993).
Composting was the most common way to decay organic matter and proven to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. Wihardjaka et al. (2011) studied addition of already composted
rice straw to rice fields did not give higher emissions than addition of fresh rice straw.
Decomposition of organic matter at anaerobic conditions produces methane
emissions. At the first phase, microorganisms will simplify polymers (polysaccharides,
proteins) into monomers (such as amino acids, fatty acids, and monosaccharide) and
mineralize the monomer to produce CO2 or a combination of CO2 and CH4 (Megonigal et
al. 2004). Methane was produced from rice fields based on interaction processes in the
soil involving rice plant and microorganisms (Wihardjaka et al. 2012). According to Hou
et al. (2000), methane was produced by methanogenic bacteria during anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter in waterlogged soil.
Redox potential (Eh) was the aeration parameter characterising intensity of soil
redox transformations. The intensity of reduction processes in submerged soils depended
upon content and nature of organic matter (OM), ability of microflora to decompose this
OM, and availability and nature of electron acceptors (Pierre Roger, 2001). The Eh of rice
field soils rich in active Fe and organic matter might reach lower than -200 mV in less
than 2 weeks to produce methane emission (Neueand Roger 1994). Methane emission
occurred below a soil specific redox potential point, and the emission rates were inversely
related to soil redox potentials. The critical redox potential for CH4 production was
estimated about -170 mV (US paddy soil), -150 mV (Chinese paddy soil), -215 mV
(Belgian maize soil), and -195 mV (Belgian wheat soil) (Yu et al. 2001).
Information about methane and carbondioxide emissions from organic matter
decomposition in tidal swampland was relatively limited. This research aimed to study
emissions of methane and carbondioxide from organic matter decomposition in acid
sulphate soil.

Experimental Design
116
Emission of Methane and Carbon Dioxide at Management of Organic Matter
The experiment was conducted in the Soil and Plant laboratory of Indonesian
Wetland Agriculture Research Institute (IWETRI) Banjarbaru, South Kalimantan from
April to June 2012. Acid sulphate soil samples were taken from Tanjung Harapan Village,
Alalak Sub District, Barito Kuala Regency, South Kalimantan (03o 10S; 114o 36E).
There were two types of acid sulphate soil samples used in this experiment, i.e.
natural (uncultivated) and cultivated soils. The experiment was arranged in two factorial
randomized block design with three replications. The first factor was organic matter
application consisting of seven treatments, namely: without organic matter (control);
incorporation of 20 t ha-1 fresh rice straw, incorporation of 20 t ha-1 fresh purun
(Eleocharis dulcis), incorporation of 20 t ha-1 fresh cattle manure, incorporation of 20 t ha-1
composted rice straw, incorporation of 20 t ha-1 composted purun, incorporation of 20 t
ha-1 composted cattle manure. The second factor was management of organic materials
that consisted of two treatments, namely place on soil surface (no tillage) and mixed with
soil (tillage).
Experimental Procedure
The soil samples were directly taken from field using PVC pot (10 cm in diameter
and 35 cm high) in order to be able to measure greenhouse gas emissions (Figure 1). The
top part was covered to prevent gas exchange during gas sampling periods. The bottom
part had a hole (diameter of 1 cm) for water drainage during decomposition periods.
Organic matter was put into the PVC pot and then flooded. Leached water was performed
every 2 weeks, while gas samples were taken periodically every week using a syringe.
Methane and carbondioxide concentrations in the syringe were immediately determined
using Varian 4900 Gas Chromatograph (GC) with a flame ionization detector and helium
as carrier gas. While Soil redox-potential (Eh) was measured using field electrode.
Emissions of methane and carbondioxide were calculated using the equation below :
E=Kx.
Vhs
Wm
273.2
_____
_____
___________
Vm
273.2 + T
E = CH4/CO2 flux (kg ha-1)
Statistical analyses were performed using SAS software for Windows ver. 9.0
where Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was used to observe the differences among
treatments.
117
Annisa et al.
Thermometer
Syringe
35 cm
35 cm
Soil + OM
Fountain
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of laboratory experiment

Relevant soil chemical properties of the soil samples used in this study are
presented in Table 1. pH values of both soils with different cultivation were low, i.e. 4.01
for site 1 (uncultivated) and 5.12 for site 2 (cultivated). This was consistent with the high
amounts of SO42- and Fe2+ (ferro) in both sites with a value of 2082.8 mg kg-1 SO42-,
1005.0 mg kg-1 Fe2+ (site 1) and 1026,2 mg kg-1 SO42-, 673,55 mg kg-1 Fe2+ (site 2).
Exchangeable Al at both soils were very high, especially at site 1. At the site 2, the
exchangeable Al was lower than those of site 1, but it was still high compared to normal
soils. Amount of organic carbon at both soils was very high with values 8.53% for site 1
and 9.50% for site 2.
118
Table 1. Soil chemical properties of both Acid Sulphate Soil (0-20 cm) used in laboratory
experiment
Parameter
pH (H2O)
Total C (%)
Total N (%)
EC (S cm-1)
Fe2+ (mg kg-1)
SO42- (mg kg-1)
Exch. Al (cmol(+)kg-1)
BD (g cm-3)
Site 1
(natural/low cultivated)
4.01
8.53
0.27
115.5
1005
2082,8
9,60
0.78
Site 2
(intensively cultivated)
5.12
9.50
0.28
31.3
673,5
1026,2
4,10
0,67
Criteria
Very acid
Very high
Very high
Low
Very high
Very high
Medium
Very high
BD = bulk density, EC = electrical conductivity
Chemical Composition of Organic Matter

Table 2 showed chemical composition of the organic materials used in this
experiment. Composted cattle manure was similar composition with composted purun and
composted rice straw, i.e. high C but low C/N ratio. On the other hand, fresh purun, fresh
rice straw and fresh cattle manure had low C but high C/N ratio. Composted of straw was
high in K content but low in P content and moderate Fe content. However, the Fe content
in composted straw was high but composted purun had exceptionally high Fe content.
While composted of cattle manure had low in Fe content but high in P content.
Table 2. Chemical compositionof organic matter used in laboratory experiment
Fresh rice
straw
N (%)
0.546
C (%)
50.62
Ratio of C/N
92.71
K (%)
0.899
P (%)
0.093
Fe(%)
0.228
Parameter
Fresh
purun
0.714
47.13
66.01
0.689
0.197
1.385
Fresh cattle
manure
0.910
33.13
36.47
0.432
0.114
0.278
Composted
rice straw
1.456
41.15
28.26
1.390
0.214
0.707
Composted Composted
purun
cattle manure
1.288
1.582
41.20
32.93
31.99
20.81
1.131
0.588
0.207
0.590
3.409
0.549
Methane and Carbondioxide Fluxes

Methane Flux
Figure 2 showed methane flux pattern from decomposition of organic matter at
both acid sulphate soils. Low methane flux occurred at application of composted cattle
manure because ratio C/N was low and contrary, high methane flux occured at application
of fresh rice straw. According to Pierre Roger (2001), methane emission decreased when
C content and C/N ratio of the incorporated material decreased. A high C/N, as in rice
119
Annisa et al.
straw, usually corresponds to an organic material rich in labile C and thus easily usable by
microflora. Emission of methane related to amount of organic carbon and ratio C/N. CH4
emission was positively correlated with the org-C content as shown at Figure 3 (R2 =
0.769).
Figure 2. Methane flux patterns from organic matter application at both acid sulphate soils
Figure 3. Relationship between CH4 emission versus org-C content
120
Methane emissions also correlated to C inputs and cycling in cypress swamps

(Harriss and Sebacher, 1981; Wang et al. 1996). Composting organic matter was the most
common way to decay organic matter and proven to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Wihardjaka et al. (2012) studied application of composted rice straw with low C/N ratio
resulting lower methane emission than at high C/N ratio of fresh rice straw incorporation.
Under anaerobic conditions decomposition could take place through methanogenic
bacteria to produce CO2 and CH4 (Rosa et al. 2004), according to the reaction of
C6H12O63CO2 + 3 CH4. The main reason for production of CO2 and CH4 was therefore
the decomposition of organic matter by microbial activities (Abril et al. 2005). Bacteria
that decompose organic material into CH4 thrived in such flooded, oxygen-starved soils.
Figure 4. Cumulative methane fluxes from organic matter application with combination
of organic material management at both uncultivated and cultivated soils
Methane flux increased at four week incubation then decreased gradually at above
four week incubation, except at treatments of fresh rice straw with mixed at site 1 at six
week incubation still increased then decreased at 8 weeks incubation. The cumulative
methane fluxes of organic matter treatments were in the order of composted cattle manure
< without organic matter < fresh cattle manure < composted purun < composted rice straw
< fresh purun < fresh rice straw. The order of cumulative methane fluxes from treatments
of organic material management was placing on soil surface < mixed with soil. The high
cumulative methane fluxes occurred at fresh rice straw treatment combination with
organic material management with placing on soil surface (no tillage) at cultivated acid
sulphate soil (site 2) (Figure 3). Cultivated soil areas (rice fields) were generally better in
terms of type of CH4 source those of uncultivated soil (Pierre Roger 2001).
121
Annisa et al.
Carbondioxide Flux
The peaks carbondioxide flux occurred at 2 weeks incubation. After the second
weeks of incubation, CO2 production decreased (Figure 5). Any prolonged incubation
(above two weeks) would have reduced easily available organic C substrate. The CO2
fluxes decreased and CH4 increased after flooding rice paddy soil (Miyata et al. 2000).
The adaptation of the microorganisms over two weeks to more heavily decomposable
organic matter resulted in an increase of CO2 emission. At without organic matter
treatment, carbondioxide flux was lower than those of another organic matter treatments.
The high carbondioxide flux occurred at fresh rice straw because of high carbon organic
content. The results clearly indicated the influence of org-C content on CO2 emission,
where CO2 emission positively correlated with org-C content as shown with R2=0.814
(Figure 6).
Figure 5. Carbondioxide flux patterns from organic matter application combination of

organic material management at both soils
122
Figure 6. Relationship between CO2 emission and org-C content

Cumulative carbondioxide flux of organic matter treatments were in order of
without organic matter < composted cattle manure < fresh cattle manure < composted
purun < composted ricestraw < fresh purun < fresh rice straw. The order of cumulative
carbondioxide fluxes from management organic material treatments was placing on soil
surface < mixing with soil (site 1) (Figure 7). The mixing organic matter changed
environment for micro-organisms and distributed organic carbon so that affected CO2
flux. According to Curtin et al. (2000), the lower CO2 flux under no-tillage than under
conventional tillage could be attributed to slower decomposition of crop residues on soil
surface of no tillage soil than those of incorporated soil by tillage.
Figure 7. Cumulative carbondioxide fluxes from organic matter application combination

with organic material management at both uncultivated and cultivated soils
123
Annisa et al.
Methane Versus Soil Redox Potential

One of the most important thing to influence rate of methane emission is redox
potential (Eh). Under anaerobic conditions, redox potential systematically dropped during
incubation of flooded soils. The low redox potential (<-150 mV) occurred at application
of fresh purun and fresh rice straw. Application of composted organic matter could
increase redox potential (Figure 8). The high redox potential occurred from treatment of
composted cattle manure because the intensity of reduction processes in submerged soils
depended upon the content and nature of organic matter (OM).
Figure 8. Redox potential from organic matter application at both uncultivated and
cultivated soils
The value of redox potential was corresponding to methane emission. Complete
mineralisation of organic matter at anaerobic environments where sulphate and nitrate
concentrations in low content occured through methanogenic fermentation, which
produced CH4 and CO2. Methanogenesis process required strict anaerobiosis and low
oxydo-reduction potentials (Eh < -150 mV) conditions. The amount of methane formed
due to decomposition showed a negative correlation with Eh value atmost of studied soils
(Figure 9).
124
125
Annisa et al.
Figure 9. Correlation between cumulative of CH4 emission and redox potential at both
uncultivated and cultivated soils
CONCLUSIONS
1.
Application of composted cattle manure with low C/N ratio resulted in lower methane
and carbondioxide emission than those of fresh rice straw with high C/ N ratio.
2.
Application of composted cattle manure, composted purun and composted rice straw
effectively reduced methane and carbondioxide emission. Methane and carbondioxide
fluxes ranged from 0.216 to 0.003 kg of CH4 kg1 d1 and 6.305 to 1.228 kg of CO2
kg1 d1 at both acid sulphate soils, respectively.
3.
The amount of methane formed due to decomposition showed a negative correlation

with soil Eh value.
REFERENCES
Abril, G., Gurin, F., Richard, S., Delmas, R., Galy-Lacaux, C., Tremblay, A., Varfalvy,
L., Gosse, P., Santos, M.A., and B. Matvienko. 2005. Carbon dioxide and methane
emissions and the carbon budget of a 10-year old tropical reservoir (Petit Saut,
French Guiana). Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 19.
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Bremer, D.J., Ham J.M., Owensby C.E., and A.K. Knapp. 1998. Responses of soil
respiration to clipping and grazing in a tallgrass prairie. J Environ Qual 27:15391548.
Curtin, D., H. Wang. F. Selles, B.G. McConkey, and C.A. Campbell. 2000. Tillage effects
on carbon fluxes in continuous wheat and fallow-wheat rotations. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J. 64:2080-2086.
F.X. Philippe, M. Laitat , J. Wavreille, N. Bartiaux-Thill, B. Nicks, and J.F. Cabaraux.
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depends on floor type. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 140:498-505.
J.L. Pierre Roger. 2001. Production, oxidation, emission and consumption of methane by
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Jia, B.R., Zhou G.S.,Wang F.Y.,Wang Y.H., and E.S. Weng. 2007. Effects of grazing on
soil respiration of Leymus Chinensis steppe. Climatic Change 82:211-223.
Jiang, C.M., Yu G.R., Fang H.J., Cao G.M., and Y.N. Li. 2010. Short-term effect of
increasing nitrogen deposition on CO2, CH4, and N2O fluxes in an alpine meadow
on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China. Atmos Environ 24:2920-2926.
Megonigal, J.P., M.E. Hines, and P.T. Visscher. 2004. Anaerobic Metabolism: Linkages
to Trace Gases and Aerobic Processes. Pp 317-424 In Schlesinger, W.H. (Ed).
Biogeochemistry. Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford, UK.
Minami, K. 1995. The effect of nitrogen fertilizer use and other practices on methane
emission from flooded rice. Fert. Res.40: 71-84.
Miyata, A., Leuning, R., Denmead, O.T., Kim, J., and Y. Harazono. 2000. Carbon
dioxideand methane fluxes from an intermittently flooded paddy field. Agric.
Forest Meteorol. 102, 287-303.
Neue, H.U. and P.A. Roger. 1994. Potential of methane emission in major rice ecologies.
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York.
Rosa, L.P., Santos, M.A., Matvienko, B., Santos, E.O., and E. Sikar. 2004. Greenhouse
Gas Emissions from Hydroelectric Reservoirs in Tropical Regions. Climatic
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Wang, Z., D. Zeng, and W.H. Patrick JR. 1996. Methane Emissions From Natural
Wetlands. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 42:143-161.
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Wihardjaka, A., S. Djalal Tandjung, B. Hendro Sunarminto, and E. Sugiharto. 2012.

Methane emission from direct seeded rice under the influences. Indonesian Journal
of Agricultural Science 13(1):1-11.
Yagi, K. and K. Minami. 1990. Effect of organic matter application on methane emission
from some Japanese paddy fields. SoilSci. Plant Nutr. 36:599-610.
Yu, K.W., Z,P. Wang, A. Vermoesen, W.H. Patrick Jr., and O. Van Cleemput. 2001.
Nitrous oxide and methane emissions from different soil suspensions effect of soil
redox status. Biol. Fertil. Soils, 34:25-30.
128
12
PERFORMANCES OF SOME RICE VARIETIES ON ACID

SULPHATE SOILS
1,2Andi
Wijaya, 2Yakup Parto, 3Imelda Marpaung, and 2Siti Nurul Aidil Fitri
2Faculty
of Agriculture Sriwijaya University
1Researcher at Research Center for Sub-optimal Lands (PUR-PLSO). Sriwijaya University.

Palembang-South Sumatra. (andiwijayadani@yahoo.com)
3South
Sumatra Assesment Institute for Agricultural Technology
Abstract. Cultivation of rice on acid sulphate soils of tidal swamp has lead to severelyreduced rice yields. The aim of this research was to evaluate performance of some rice
varieties on soil acid sulphate of tidal swamp. Thirty-five rice varieties were observed
using randomized completely block design (RCBD) with two replications. The observed
varieties were 1) Batang Hari/BTH, 2) Bone/BNE, 3) Ciliwung/CLG, 4) Ciherang/CHR,
5) Banyuasin/BYN, 6) Inpara 3/IP3, 7) Inpara 4/IP4, 8) IR 42/IR42, 9) Jakaria/JKR, 10)
Kuning/KNG, 11) Mendawak/MDK, 12) Padang/PDG, 13) Payak Ocan/PYO, 14) Payak
Selimbuk/PYS, 15) Pelita Rampak/PLT, 16) Petek/PTK, 17) Putih Olak/PTO, 18)
Rutti/RTI, 19) Samba Mahsuri-Sub1/SMB, 20) Sawah Beling/SWB, 21) Sawah
Rimbo/SWR, 22) Sei Lalan/SLN, 23) Senia/SNI, 24) Siputih/SPT, 25) Siam/SIM, 26)
Uffa/UFA, 27) Padi Merah/PDM, 28) Padi Kuning Pendek/PKP, 29) Serumpun/SRP, 30)
Inpari/IPR, 31) Cempo Siam/CPS, 32) Cekow/CKW, 33) Korea 79/KOR, 34) FR
13A/FR13, and 35) Pegagan/PGN. The soil was fertilized with urea, SP-36, and KCl with
dosages of 200, 150, 100 kg/ha, respectively. The result showed that most local varieties
had a better performance than the introduced ones on sulphate acid soil condition. BNE,
IP4, IR 42, PLT, PYS, SLN, SMB varieties had higher yields and better vegetative
growths than the others.
Keywords: Rice, varieties, acid sulphate soil
INTRODUCTION
Food crops sub sector in Indonesia has a big challenge mainly increasing food demand
especially in rice along with population increase (about 1.49% per year; Indonesian
Central Bureau Statistic 2011). On the other hand, rice production is limited. It cannot be
equal to the population increase. Indonesian Central Bureau Statistic reported that in 2009
rice production was 64.33 million tons unhulled rice and was 4 million tons higher than in
2008. In 2010 the rice production was 64.33 million tons so there was only 3.7%
increasing production from 2009, where in 2009 the production was 68.71 million tons.
This increasing was caused by extensivification rather than intensification. The possibility
of extensive rice field in irrigation areas such as in Java island is very low so
extensification of rice field in tidal swamp has a big role for increasing of rice production.
There is 20 million hectares of tidal swamp area in Indonesia (Bappenas 2007).
129
Wijaya et al.
Unfortunately, the wider spread of the tidal swamp areas is not followed by optimum
productivity so that the role of the tidal swamp is still low. By average, productivity of
tidal swamp is only 3.5 ton of unhulled rice per hectare (Moeljoparwiro 2002), and it is
still below than one of irrigated areas in Java (8-9 t ha-1 season-1) with 2-3 times croping
seasons per year.
The low productivity of acid sulphate soil in tidal swamp is closely correlated to its
characteristics, i.e low fertility, flooding, and the low infrastructures condition.
Commonly, the low productivity of the rice lands in the Scheme is mainly due to
excessive drainage and oxidation of pyrite-rich subsoil. The ensuring strong acidity of the
soil directly affects the rice plant as a result of aluminum and iron toxicities and indirectly
decreases the availability of P and other nutrients. Besides the depth of the sulfuric
horizon or sulfidic materials, other factors affecting the productivity of rice are water
availability, the occurrence of salinity, and the frequency and duration of flooding (Dent
1986). When pyrite is oxidized, soil pH decreases. Djayusman et al. (2001) reported that
high pyrite content suppressed the productivity.
For growing rice in acid sulphate soils, the important adverse factors are toxicities
of iron and aluminum, and nutrient deficiencies, which lead to low yields and often crop
failure to be harvested. Sulfaquepts have a sulfuric horizon within 50 cm, an extremely
low pH (below 3.5), and high concentrations of Al3+, Fe2+, and SO2-. Where the sulfuric
horizon occurs deeper than 50 cm, the soil is less toxic and food crops production is better
than on Sulfaquepts. Earlier studies (Nhung et al. 1966; Dent 1986) stated that the soil
must be improved first by leaching of water-soluble acid and, next, by liming and
fertilization. Application of lime after preliminary leaching raises soil pH and leads to
decrease the concentrations of iron and aluminum in the soil solution.
In other way to minimize the negative effect of acid sulphate soil of tidals wamp
on rice cultivation is cultivation of tolerant verities. This method is more practical and
cheaper than modification of water and soil conditions. In Vietnam, improvement of rice
tolerant to acid sulphate soils has also been obtained (Nguyen et al. 2001; Pham and Do
2000). The local varieties are usually used as important breeding materials. Wijaya (2004)
and Granado et al. (2001) argued that the local varieties in breeding program for many
crops are optimal step for overcoming the marginal environment. The local germplasms
have high adaptation to marginal environment but they do not produce high yield even
they are grown under optimal environment. The local rice varieties are selected by farmer
because of high adaptation capacity and taste preference. However, the local varieties lost
due to replacement by introduced varieties, which are making the rice gene pool much
narrower.
Rice breeding program for tidal swamp areas is addressed to develop rice varieties
which can adapt with the problems which limiting factor for rice growth in this ecosystem
130
Performance of Some Rice Varieties on Acid Sulphate Soils
(Hairmansis et al. 2008). Some important treats are required for rice to adapt with tidal
land condition, which is different with irrigated lowland rice. Rice varieties for tidal land
are generally tall and grow rapidly, have strong culms and medium growth duration, and
tolerant to abiotic stresses such as soil acidity and salinity (Harahap and Silitonga, 1998).
The objective of this study was to evaluate performance of some rice varieties especially
local varieties on acid sulphate tidal swamp soil.

The rice varieties collected from some locations are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. The selected varieties which were evaluated at the experiment site.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
Varieties
Banyuasin
Batang Hari
Bone
Cekow
Cempo Siam
Ciherang
Ciliwung
FR A13
Inpara 3
Inpara 4
IR 42
Jakaria
Koneng
Korea
Mendak
Padang
Padi Kuning Pendek
Padi Merah
Payak Ocan
Payak Selimbuk
Pegagan
Pelita Rampak
Petek
Putih Olak
Ruti
Samba Masuri-Subi
Sawah Beling
Sawo Rimbo
Sei Lelan
Senia
Serumpun
Si Putih
Siam
Uffa
Code
BYN
BTH
BNE
CKW
CPS
CHR
CLG
FR13
IP3
IP4
IR42
JKR
KNG
KOR
MDK
PDG
PKP
PDM
PYO
PYS
PGN
PLT
PTK
PTO
RTI
SMB
SWB
SWR
SLN
SNI
SRP
SPT
SIM
UFA
Source
BBP Padi
BBP Padi
Dr. Rujito Agus Suwignyo
BBP Padi
Sang Hyang Seri
BBP Padi
BBP Padi
BBP Padi
BBP Padi
Sang Hyang Seri
South Sumatra Tidal Swamp
BBP Padi
South Sumatra Lowland Swamp
BBP Padi
131
Wijaya et al.
The rice seeds were broadcasted on the seedbed for 20 days. Seedbed consisted of
top soil, sand, and organic manure. The 20 days rice seedling was replanted in 5 kg plastic
pot containing acid sulphate soil of tidal swamp. The soil was collected from tidal swamp
areas in Telang Banyuasin Regency. The soil has been classified as sulphate soil with low
pH and at the dry season, part of the soil has dark brown spots like iron corrosion. The
experiment used Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with two replications and
each variety was sampled for 5 plants. The observed parameters were plant height, tiller
number, flowering and harvest times, percentage of empty seed, and yield per plant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Soil chemical analysis in Table 2 show that the soil was characterized by very low pH
(3.12), high organic content and very low P content. Those soil characters are matched to
the criteria of acid sulphate soil of tidal swamp. According to Djayusman et al. (2001), the
handicaps of sulphate tidal swamp soil are extremely low pH (below 3.5) and high
concentrations of Al3+, Fe2+, and SO2-. If the sulfuric horizon deeper than 50 cm, the soil is
less toxic and crop production is better than on Sulfaquepts.
Table 2. Soil chemical properties of the site experiment
Kind of analysis
pH H20 (1:1)
pH KCl
C-organic
N-Total
P-Bray
K-dd
Na
Ca
Mg
CEC (Cation Exchange Capacity)
Al-dd
H-dd
Unit
%
%
mg g-1
cmol kg-1
cmol kg-1
cmol kg-1
cmol kg-1
cmol kg-1
cmol kg-1
cmol kg-1
Result
3.12
2.86
3.31
0.27
2.40
0.64
0.44
0.65
0.13
17.40
6.24
1.36
Criteria (LPT Bogor, 1983)

Highly acidic
Highly acidic
High
Medium
Very low
High
Medium
High
Low
Medium
Low
Evaluation on flowering time showed that the mean value is 81.38 days (Figure 1).
This flowering time is later than introduced varieties, which have flowering day in 56 to
65 days. It was because the observed varieties were mostly of local varieties. IRRI (1996)
reported that the disadvantage of local varieties is longer in flowering and harvesting
times compared to introduce varieties. This problem causes difficulty to arrange rice
intensification. The later flowering time also causes later harvest time. The harvest times
of 34 varieties are shown in Figure 2.
132
Flowering Time (day)
120
100
80
60
40
20
UFA
SWR
SRP
SWB
SNI
SPT
SNI
SLN
SMB
SMB
RTI
SIM
PYS
PTO
PYO
PLT
PTK
PKP
PGN
PDG
PDM
KOR
MDK
JKR
KNG
IP4
IR42
IP3
FR13
CLG
CPS
CHR
CKW
BTH
BYN
BNE
Varieties
Figure 1. Flowering time of 34 rice varieties
180
Harvest Time (day)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
UFA
SWR
SRP
SWB
SPT
SLN
SIM
RTI
PYS
PTO
PYO
PTK
PLT
PKP
PGN
PDG
PDM
KOR
MDK
JKR
KNG
IR42
IP4
IP3
FR13
CLG
CPS
CHR
CKW
BYN
BTH
BNE
Varieties
Figure 2. Harvesting time of 34 rice varieties

The averaged value of plant height was showed that the plant high is 59.66 cm. The
highest plant height is 76.70 cm (Figure 3), and it is below standard compared to the
Indonesian Varieties Description. According to Suprihatno et al. (2009), the plant height
of Indonesian introduced varieties is about 90 to 120 cm. It is expected that the observed
varieties had been grown in non-optimal condition. The same phenomenon has been
shown in tiller number characteristics (Figure 4).
.
90
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
UFA
SWR
SRP
SWB
SNI
SPT
SLN
SMB
SIM
RTI
PYS
PTO
PYO
PTK
PLT
PKP
PGN
PDG
PDM
KOR
MDK
JKR
KNG
IR42
IP4
IP3
FR13
CLG
CPS
CHR
CKW
BYN
BTH
BNE
Plant High (cm)
80
Varieties
Figure 3. Plant height of 34 observed rice varieties
133
Wijaya et al.
45
40
Tiller Number
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
UFA
SWR
SRP
SWB
SNI
SPT
SLN
SMB
RTI
SIM
PYS
PTO
PYO
PLT
PTK
PKP
PGN
PDG
PDM
KOR
MDK
JKR
KNG
IP4
IR42
IP3
FR13
CLG
CPS
CHR
CKW
BTH
BYN
BNE
Varieties
Figure 4. Tiller number per plant derived from 34 varieties

The result of tiller number showed the average value of 10.75 tillers per plant. It is
significantly lower than the tiller number of Indonesian rice varieties. Suprihatno (2009)
reported that the tiller number of Indonesia varieties is 20-35 tillers. Result of plant height
and tiller number strongly suggested that the observed rice was grown in non-optimal
condition. The visual performance of some observed rice plants showed toxicity
symptom, such as yellowing leaf and undeveloped tillers (Figure 5). According to
Djayusman et al. (2001) the handicaps of tidal swamp sulphate soil are extremely low pH
(below 3.5) and high concentrations of Al3+, Fe2+, and SO2-. The high concentration of
those elements is toxic to plants growth.
Figure 5. Some rice varieties grown on acid sulphate tidal swamp soil shows yellowing
leaf and undeveloped tiller
134
This study proved that the local varieties showed better performances than the
introduced varieties when grown in sub optimal condition, such as acid sulphate soil. The
rice varieties, which produced more than 15 grams grain per plant, were local varieties
(Figure 6). The highest yield was produced by PLT varieties.
Yield per plant (g)
25
20
15
10
5
UFA
SWR
SRP
SWB
SNI
SPT
SLN
SMB
RTI
SIM
PYS
PTO
PYO
PLT
PTK
PKP
PGN
PDG
PDM
KOR
MDK
JKR
KNG
IP4
IR42
IP3
FR13
CLG
CPS
CHR
CKW
BTH
BYN
BNE
Varieties
Figure 6. Yield per plant of 34 rice varieties
UFA
SWR
SRP
SWB
SNI
SPT
SLN
SMB
SIM
RTI
PYS
PYO
PTO
PTK
PLT
PKP
PGN
PDM
PDG
MDK
KNG
KOR
JKR
IR42
IP4
IP3
FR13
CPS
CLG
CHR
CKW
BYN
BTH
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
BNE
Percentage of empty grain (%)
Even though the introduced varieties produced higher tiller number but lower yield
than local varieties, because of higher percentage of empty grain (Figure 7). For example,
IR 42 has 43 tillers with 50% empty grain. It is contrast to PLT with 15 tillers and only
18% empty grain, and produced higher yield than IR 42. This information proves that
local varieties are more tolerant to acid sulphate soil than the introduced varieties. The
result indicated that most local varieties had better performances than the introduced
varieties on sulphate acid tidal swamp condition. BNE, IP4, IR 42, PLT, PYS, SLN, SMB
varieties have a higher yield and better vegetative growth than the others.
Varieties
Figure 7. Percentage of empty grain from the 34 varities
135
Wijaya et al.
CONCLUSION
The result indicated that mostlocal varieties had a better performance than elite varieties
on sulphate acid tidal swamp condition. BNE, IP4, IR 42, PLT, PYS, SLN, SMB varieties
had a higher yield and better vegetative growth than the others.
REFERENCES
Dent, D. 1986. Acid sulphate soils-a baseline for research and development. International
Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement Publication No. 39,82-83,
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Djayusman, M., I.W. Suastika, dan Y. Soelaeman. 2001. Refleksi pengalaman dalam
pengembangan sistem usaha pertanian di lahan pasang surut, Pulau Rimau.
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Surut Sumatera Selatan. Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian, Pusat
Penelitian dan Pengembangan Tanah dan Agroklimat. Bogor, Juni 2001.
Granado S., R. von Bothmer, and S. Ceccarelli. 2001. Genetic diversity of barley: Use of
locally adapted germplasm to enhance yield and yield stability of barley in dry
areas. In: Cooper H.D. Spillane C. and Hodgkin T. (eds.). Broadening the genetics
base of crop production. IPG/FAO. 351-371.
Hairmansis, A., B. Kustianto, Supartopo, dan Suwarno. 2008. Pemuliaan padi rawa
pasang surut dan lebak. hlm. 319-328. Dalam A.K. Makarim, B. Suprihatno, Z.
Zaini, A. Widjono, I.N. Widiarta, Hermanto, dan H. Kasim (Eds.). Inovasi
Teknologi Tanaman Pangan, Buku 2. Penelitian dan Pengembangan Padi. Pusat
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Harahap, Z. dan T.S. Silitonga. 1998. Perbaikan varietas padi. hlm. 335-361. Dalam M.
Ismunadji, M. Syam, dan Yuswadi (Eds.). Padi, Buku 2. Pusat Penelitian dan
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IRRI. 1996. Standard Evaluation System for Rice (SES). IRRI, Los Banos, the Philippines
Nhung, Mai Thi My, and F.N. Ponnamperuma. 1966. Effect of calcium carbonate,
manganese dioxide, ferric hydroxide, and prolonged flooding on chemical and
electrochemical changes and growth of rice in a flooded acid sulphate soil. Soil
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Nguyen Trong Luong, Vuong Dinh Tuan, and Pham Van Ro. 2001. Results of the
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Suprihatno B., A.A. Daradjat, Satoto, S.E. Baehaki, I.N. Widiarta, A. Setyono, S.D.
Indrasari, O.S. Lesmana, dan H. Sembiring. 2006. Deskripsi Varietas Padi. Balai
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136
PESTS AT FRESH SWAMP AND TIDAL LOWLAND OF

SOUTH SUMATRA
13
1Khodijah, 2,3Siti
and
4Tumarlan
Herlinda, 2Chandra Irsan, 2Yulia Pujiastuti, 2,3Rosdah Thalib,

Thamrin
1Postgraduate Student of Agricultural Science, College of Agriculture, Sriwijaya University.

Palembang-South Sumatra
2Department of Plant Pests and Diseases, College of Agriculture, Sriwijaya University

Palembang-South Sumatra. Corresponding author: Telp. +62711580663, Fax. +62711580276;
sitiherlinda@unsri.ac.id, sitiherlinda@drn.go.id
3Researcher
at Research Center for Sub-optimal Lands (PUR-PLSO). Sriwijaya University.

4Assessment
Intistute for Agricultural Technology. Palembang-South Sumatra
Abstract. Potential fresh swamp and tidal lowland areas in South Sumatra are about
379,450 and 129,062 ha, and generally used to cultivate paddy with low productivity level
due to pests attack. This research aimed to take stocktaking pest species attacking paddy
in fresh swamp and tidal lowland of South Sumatra. The survey was carried out in January
up to July 2012 in paddy production centers of fresh swamp (Gandus, Pemulutan,
Mariyana, and Rambutan) and tidal lowland (Mulya Sari, Telang Karya, Telang Rejo,
Srikaton Damai, Saleh Mulya, Makarti Jaya, Tirta Mulya, and Tirta Kencana) areas of
South Sumatra. The results of the survey showed that there were found 13 paddy pest
species: yellow rice borer (Scirpophaga incertulas), leaffolder (Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis), brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens), whitebacked planthopper (Sogatella
furcifera), zig-zag winged leafhopper (Recilia dorsalis), rice green leafhopper
(Nephotettix sp.), rice gundhi bug (Leptocoriza acuta), sourthern green stink bug (Nezara
viridula), grasshopper (Valanga nigricornis), oriental mole cricket (Gryllotalpa sp.), and
black bug (Scotinophara sp.). The rice field rat (Rattus argentiventer) was found only in
paddy on tidal lowland. In this rice season, the rice field rat population outbreaks occured
in May 2012, where the outbreaks usually occured in July. The golden apple snail
(Pomacea canaliculata) attacked the paddy only in fresh swamp. The golden apple snail
was found only during vegetative stage when paddy field was flooded and it disappeared
when the field was drained t.
Keywords: Pest, paddy, fresh swamp, tidal lowland, South Sumatra
INTRODUCTION
Efforts had been conducted in order to increase rice production such as through crop area
expantion and optimization of suboptimal land. Suboptimal lands such as fresh swamp
and tidal lowland are currently becoming focus for increasing rice production in Indonesia
(Ritung and Hidayat 2007). Fresh swamp and tidal lowland areas at South Sumatra
137
Khodijah et al.
potential for rice and other food crops productions were 379,450 and 129,062 ha,
respectively (Dinas PU Sumsel 2010). Current utilization of tidal lowland was twice
planting per year for rice and once planting per year for rice in case of fresh swamp.
Constraints for increasing the production in fresh swamp and tidal lowland are low
fertility and high acidity of the soils, pests and diseases attack (Djoko et al. 2000). The
common main pest for rice on swamp area is rice field rat (Thamrin and Asikin 2004;
Syam et al. 2007). In addition, other pests attacking rice crop, which had been reported for
other swamp areas such as in Jambi (Prayudi and Handoko 2001; Wilyus et al. 2012),
Kalimantan are rice stem weevil and planthopper (Thamrin and Asikin 2004). The basic
information related to pests species which attack rice crop is needed in order to conduct
proper control over the rice crop pests in South Sumatra. This research aimed to take
stocktaking pest species attacking paddy in fresh swamp and tidal lowland of South
Sumatra.

Inventory of Rice Pests
The survey had been done at rice production centers in fresh swamp and tidal
lowland areas of South Sumatra. They were Rambutan, Gandus, Pemulutan, Maryana,
Mulya Sari, Telang Sari, Telang Karya, Telang Rejo, Srikaton Damai, Saleh Mulya,
Makarti Jaya, Tirta Mulya, and Tirta Kencana villages. The objective of this survey was to
inventory pest species that attacked rice crop. This survey was done using visual method
or direct observation on the attacked crops by low mobility insects and document by using
camera, whereas actively flying insects were collected by using insect dragnet based on
the method of Herlinda et al. (2008). Pitfall traps installation was conducted for soilinhabiting pest insects, which contained 4% formaline, based on the method of Herlinda et
al. (2004) and Khodijah et al. (2012). Canopy-dwelling insects were collected by using
insect dragnet. Pitfall traps were installed on soil surface for 48 hours period. The trapped
pest insects trapped by dragnet were preserved within vial bottles containing 70% alcohol
solution, whereas those from pitfall were sorted, sieved with 1 mm screen, rinsed with
sterile water, and put into vial bottles containing of 70% alcohol solution. They
subsequently were identified in laboratory under the microscope to determine their
individual numbers. Pests other than insects such as rice field rats were caught by using
wire trap, whereas apple golden snail was directly collected and documented with camera.
138
Pests at Fresh Swamp and Tidal Lowland of South Sumatra
Data Analysis
Data of pest insects species and other pests were decriptively analyzed and
presented in forms of tables and figures.

Pest insects attacking rice crop on fresh swamp and tidal lowland areas of South Sumatra
were yellow rice borer, leaffolder, case worm, brown planthopper, whitebacked
planthopper, zig-zag winged leafhopper, rice green leafhopper, rice gundhi bug, sourthern
green stink bug, grasshopper, oriental mole cricket, and black bug (Table 1 and Figure 1).
In addition, golden apple snail was found on fresh swamp area but not on tidal lowland
area. On the other hand, rice field rat was found abundantly only in tidal lowland area and
none in fresh swamp area.
Table 1. Insects species attacking rice crop on fresh swamp and tidal lowland areas of
South Sumatra
Class
Common name
Species
Insecta
Yellow rice borer

Leaffolder
Brown planthopper
Whitebacked planthopper
Zig-zag winged
leafhopper
Rice green leafhopper
Rice
gundhi bug
Sourthern green stink bug
Scirpophaga incertulas
Nymphula depunctalis
Nilaparvata lugens
Mammalia
Gastropoda
Grasshopper
Oriental mole cricket
Black bug
Rice field rat
Golden apple snail
Sogatella furcifera
Recilia dorsalis
Nephotettix sp.
Leptocoriza acuta
Nezara viridula
Valanga nigricornis
Gryllotalpa sp.
Scotinophara sp.
Rattus argentiventer
Pomacea canaliculata
Fresh
swamp
+
+
+
+
+
Tidal
lowland
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+ found, - not found
The yellow rice borer attacked rice crop during vegetative phase (stem borer) and
generative phase (stalk borer). Stem borer symptoms were characterized by the death of
rice crop tillering, whereas stalk borer symptoms were indicated by empty rice grain and
upright tiller, which was empty and had white color. This empty tiller was due to nutrient
deficiency, which was consumed by larvae of rice borer within inner part of rice stem.
139
Khodijah et al.
Leaffolder insect was attacking rice crop through leaf folding, consuming the leaf
tissue and left over parts of thin and white leaf epidermis only. This pest was abundantly
found on tidal lowland area but was rarely found on fresh swamp area. Population of this
leaffolder pest occurred during vegetative phase of rice crop. Case worm pests were
mostly found at tidal lowland area of Makarti Jaya, Tirta Mulya, and Tirta Kencana
Villages.
Brown planthopper, whitebacked planthopper, and rice green leafhopper were
found on rice crop at fresh swamp and tidal lowland areas with very low population level.
This phenomenon was significantly different than population of brown planthopper,
whitebacked planthopper, and rice green leafhopper found in Cianjur, West Java.
According to Herlinda et al. (2004), the population of these three insects species was high
for rice crop in Cianjur. Brown hopper and whitebacked hopper were found on rice crop,
whereas rice green hopper was found at rice crop.
Rice gundhi bug was mostly found at milking phase. This pest attacked rice grain
by absorbing the rice grain content. The black bug and sourthern green stinkbug also
absorbed the rice grain content resulting in empty rice grain. In addition, the rice gundhi,
black and sourthern green stink bugs resulted in spotted color change of hulled rice.
Grasshopper was insect pest with low population and found either on fresh swamp
or tidal lowland areas, whereas oriental mole cricket had high population on tidal lowland
area but low population on fresh swamp area. Grasshopper could be found all long season,
however, it only attacked the leave parts with insignificant economic losses. Attacking
symptoms produced by oriental mole cricket were similar to those of rice borer. Rice crop
attacked by oriental mole cricket would result in broken stem, followed by brown color,
and plant death.
Population of rice field rats on tidal lowland started increasing from April 2012
and attained its peak in the middle and end of May 2012. Rice field rats attacked rice crop
during night time and were capable to cause more than one hectare of parched rice crop in
a night. Rice field rat attacked in the last May 2012 had left about 200 ha of parched rice
crop at Telang area, especially at Telang Sari and Mulya Sari Villages. Rice field rat
attacked the rice plants during filling out phase (60 days after planting). Rice field rat
attacked the crop by cutting the base of rice stem and eating the rice grain. The attacked
rice crop would be collapsed due to stems that were scattered above the rice field.
Golden apple snails at fresh swamp started attacking rice crop within 10 to 40 days
after planting. Peak population of golden apple snail occurred within 20 to 30 days after
planting and disappeared 40 days after planting. Symptom of golden apple snail attack
was the collapse of rice stem because golden apple snail ate the base of rice stem. The left
over of rice stem as well as leaves were floating on water surface. Golden apple snail
140
prefered young rice crop during vegetative phase and its population was higher if rice
field was flooded with water.
141
Khodijah et al.
142
Figure 1. The paddy pest species at fresh swamp and tidal lowland of South Sumatra: (a)
yellow rice borer, (b) leaffolder, (c) brown planthopper, (d) whitebacked
planthopper, (e) zig-zag winged leafhopper, (f) rice green leafhopper, (g) rice
gundhi bug, (h) sourthern green stink bug, (i) grasshopper, (j) oriental mole
cricket, (k) black bug, (l) field rat, (m) and field rat
CONCLUSION
There were 13 paddy pest species found in tidal lowland and fresh swamp areas of South
Sumatra. They were yellow rice borer (Scirpophaga incertulas), leaffolder
(Cnaphalocrocis medinalis), brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens), whitebacked
planthopper (Sogatella furcifera), zigzag winged leafhopper (Recilia dorsalis), rice green
leafhopper (Nephotettix sp.), rice gundhi bug (Leptocoriza acuta), sourthern green stink
bug (Nezara viridula), grasshopper (Valanga nigricornis), oriental mole cricket
(Gryllotalpa sp.), and black bug (Scotinophara sp.). The rice field rat (Rattus
argentiventer) was found in paddy of tidal lowland, but it was not found in paddy of fresh
swamp. The rice field rat population in this rice season increased and occured outbreaks in
May 2012, the outbreaks usually occured in July but now occured early in May. The
paddy in fresh swamp suffered from attacking of the golden apple snail (Pomacea
canaliculata) but this pest didnt attack paddy in tidal lowland. The golden apple snail
was only found on vegetative stage during flooding period and disappeared when the
paddy field was drained.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support of this research was provided by research incentif for national
innovation system, Ministry for Research and Technology (Ristek), Republic of
Indonesia, Fiscal Year 2012 with Contract Number: 1.55/SEK/IRS/PPK/I/2012, 16th
January 2012.
143
Khodijah et al.
REFERENCES
Dinas PU Sumsel. 2010. Pengembangan daerah rawa Sumatera Selatan. www.pu.go.id/
satminkal/ditsda/data %.20bukusda/sumsel.pdf.
Djoko S, Damarjati, I B. Ismail, dan T. Alihamsyah. 2000. Pengembangan pertanian
berkelanjutan di lahan rawa untuk mendukung ketahanan pangan dan
pengembangan agribisnis: Konsepsi dan strategi pengembangannya. Dalam
Prosiding Seminar Nasional Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian di Lahan
Rawa. Pusat Litbang Tanaman Pangan. Badan Litbang Pertanian, Jakarta. (In
Indonesian).
Herlinda, S., A. Rauf, S. Sosromarsono, U. Kartosuwondo, Siswadi, dan P. Hidayat. 2004.
Artropoda musuh alami penghuni ekosistem persawahan di daerah Cianjur, Jawa
Barat. J. Entomol. Indon. 1(1):9-15. (In Indonesian).
Herlinda, S., Waluyo, S.P., Estuningsih, dan C. Irsan. 2008. Perbandingan
keanekaragaman spesies dan kelimpahan arthropoda predator penghuni tanah di
sawah lebak yang diaplikasi dan tanpa aplikasi insektisida. J. Entomol. Indon.
5(2):96-107. (In Indonesian).
Khodijah, S. Herlinda, C. Irsan, Y. Pujiastuti, dan R. Thalib. 2012. Artropoda predator
penghuni ekosistem persawahan lebak dan pasang surut Sumatera Selatan. Jurnal
Lahan Suboptimal 1(1):57-63. (In Indonesian).
Prayudi, B. dan S. Handoko. 2001. Pengendalian OPT utama padi berdasarkan strategi
PHT di lahan rawa pasang surut Provinsi Jambi. Prosiding Seminar Nasional PLTT
dan Hasil-hasil Penelitian/Pengkajian Teknologi Pertanian Spesifik Lokasi, Jambi
2001. (In Indonesian).
Ritung, S. dan A. Hidayat. 2007. Prospek Perluasan Lahan untuk Padi Sawah dan Padi
Gogo di Indonesia. Jurnal Sumberdaya Lahan (4):25-38. (In Indonesian).
Syam, M., Suparyono, Hermanto, dan D.S. Wuryandari. 2007. Masalah Lapang Hama
Penyakit Hara pada Padi. Ed. 3. Puslitbangtan. Bogor. 78 hal. (In Indonesian).
Thamrin, M. dan S. Asikin. 2004. Populasi serangga musuh alami pada lingkungan iklim
mikro di lahan pasang surut. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Entomologi dalam
Perubahan Lingkungan Sosial. Bogor, 5 Oktober 2004. 413-418. (In Indonesian).
Wilyus, S. Herlinda, C. Irsan, dan Y. Pujiastuti. 2012. Potensi parasitoid telur penggerek
batang padi kuning Scirpophaga incertulas Walker pada berbagai tipologi lahan di
Provinsi Jambi. J. HPT Tropika 12(1):56-63. (In Indonesian).
144
14
1,2Nuni
POTENTIAL OF INDIGENOUS PHOSPHATE

SOLUBILIZING BACTERIA FROM FRESH-WATER
INCEPTISOLS TO INCREASE SOLUBLE P *)
Gofar, 1,3Hary Widjayanti, and 1,4Ni Luh Putu Sri Ratmini
1Researcher at Research Center for Sub-optimal Lands, Sriwijaya University. Jl. Padang Selasa.
Palembang-South Sumatra. Phone/fax: 0711352879; Email: pur-plso@unsri.ac.id
(Corresponding author email: nigofar@yahoo.co.id)
2Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Sriwijaya University. Palembang-South

Sumatra
3Department
4South
of Biology, Faculty of MIPA, Sriwijaya University. Palembang-South Sumatra
Sumatera Assesment Institute for Agricultural Technology. Jl. Kol H. Barlian No. 83 Km.
6. Palembang-South Sumatra. Email: bptp-sumsel@litbang.deptan.go.id
Abstract. This research was done to obtain phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB)
indigenous from fresh-water Inceptisols that were highly capable of dissolving soil P. The
research consisted of two sub-experiments. Sub-experiment I was to isolate the indigenous
PSB from rhizosphere of rice, corn, and beans that were grown on fresh-water Inceptisols.
Sub-experiment II was to study the ability of isolated PSB to dissolving soil saturated with
AlPO4 with a dossages of 0, 10, and 20 g of AlPO4. Isolation and count of the bacterial
population obtained were PSB population of 3.06-50.27x106 cfu g-1 soil and 5 isolates able
to form clear zones on the Pikovskayas medium. In soil saturated with 10 and 20 g AlPO4
kg-1, the best isolate increasing the P availability was I1. The total P increases were
significantly correlated with the increases of available P. P concentration in the soil as an
indication of phosphate solubilization capacity. The increases of soil pH value were
significantly correlated with the increases of soluble P. In the acid soils, PSB blocked P
sorption by binding elements and reducing the toxicity of Al3+ and Fe3+ on plants.
Keywords: Fresh water, Inceptisols, PSB, soluble P
INTRODUCTION
Phosphorus (P) element is a major growth-limiting nutrient and referred as master key
element in crop production (Saxena and Sharma 2003). Unlike the case for nitrogen, there
is no large atmospheric source that can be made biologically available (Ezawa et al.
2002). The soluble forms of phosphorus, when applied to soil as phosphate fertilizers, are
rendered insoluble by undergoing chemical fixation. However, more than 80% of the
added P becomes immobile in acid soils and unavailable for plant uptake because of the
strong fixation into unavailable complexes (Hilda and Fraga 2000).
*)
145
Gofar et al.
The poor availability of the nutrient may influence plant quality and yield. Root
development, stalk and stem strength, flower and seed formation, crop maturity and
production, N-fixation in legumes, crop quality, and resistance to plant diseases are the
attributes associated with phosphorus nutrition. The availability of phosphate element to
plant depends mainly on the concentration of the inorganic forms (orthophosphates,
H2PO4- and H2PO42- ions) in the soil and it is about 0.2% of the plant dry weight
(Schachtman et al. 1998). Therefore, the maintenance of a suitable P concentration in the
soil solution is very essential for increasing the production of agricultural crops.
Inorganic forms of P are solubilized by a group of heterotrophic microorganisms
excreting organic acids that dissolve phosphate minerals and/or chelate cationic partners
of the P ions (He et al. 2002). Release of P by Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB)
from insoluble and fixed adsorbed forms is an import aspect regarding P availability in
soils. Microorganisms enhance the P availability to plants by mineralizing organic P in
soil and by solubilizing precipitated phosphate (Chen et al. 2006; Kang et al. 2002). In
acid soil such as lowland soils, soil P precipitated and adsorbed by Fe and Al oxides is
likely to become bio-available by PSB through their organic acid production and acid
phosphatase secretion. Exploitation of indigenous PSB through biofertilization has
enormous potential for making use of ever increasing fixed P in acid soil. Although PSB
indigenous occur in soil, usually their numbers are not high enough to compete with other
bacteria commonly established in the rhizosphere. This research was done to obtain
phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) indigenous from inland swamp soils that highly
capable of dissolving soil P.

The soil samples were collected from the rhizosphere of rice, Zea mays, and soybean
plants from different location of lowland soils in South Sumatra. A composit soil sample
was also prepared from the collected soils. To avoid contamination, sampling tools were
sterilized using alcohol (70% v/v) prior to sampling. The soil samples were kept in a
cooler box and transferred into a refrigerator unless directly characterized.
Current experiment consisted of two sub-experiments. Sub-experiment I was meant
to obtain indigenous PSB isolated from each soil sample. Sub-experiment II was to
investigate the ability of PSB isolated in the sub-experiment I in correcting P availability
of soil. The research was conducted from February to August 2012, at the Laboratory of
Soil Chemistry, Biology, and Fertility of Soil Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture,
Sriwijaya University, Indralaya, South Sumatra.
PSB were isolated using modified Pikovskayas agar medium. Instead of using
Ca3(PO4)2, current experiment used Al-P as a source of P in the growth medium to get
146
Potential of Indigenous Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria
PSB isolat, which were well adapted to high solubility of Al in the tested soils. Prior to
isolation, soils were sieved (1.00 mm aperture) to separate debris. The soils (10 g) were
transferred into a 250-mL Erlenmeyer containing 90 mL of sterilized physiological
solution (8.5 g NaCl L-1 H2O) to obtain 10-1 soil suspension. The suspension was shaken
reciprocally for 20 minutes, and 1 mL of the suspension was pipetted into test tubes
containing 9 mL of sterilized physiological solution to obtain 10-2 soil suspension. These
steps were repeated up to 10-6 dillution level.
PSB were isolated by transferring 1 mL of soil suspension into sterilized petri
dishes containing sterilized Pikovskayas medium (10 mL per petridish). The petridish
was then swirled to homogenize the soil suspension and the growth medium, and
incubated in an incubator for 4 days at 30oC. PSB colony was characterized by clear zones
on the medium. Only petridishes resulting 30-300 colonies were included in the colony
counting.
Sub-experiment II consisted of 2 stages. The first stages were to propagate 4 isolate
of PSB from sub-experiment I. Propagation was carried out in liquid Pikovskayas
medium (109 cells of PSB isolate mL-1). The tested soils were saturated with 0, 10, and 20
g AlPO4 kg-1. The P-saturated soils (1 kg) were transferred into plastic container. The soils
were then inoculated with 4 isolates of PSB from sub-experiment I. Ten milliliter of PSB
isolate (109cfu kg-1) was pipetted into the soils. The soils were incubated at 30oC for four
weeks.
Measurement
Measurements were made on population density of PSB, pH, C-organic, N-total,
and availability of P from sub-experiment I and available-P and P-total at 1, 2, 3 and 4
weeks after incubation from sub-experiment II.
Statistical Analysis
Data were analyzed by analysis of variance for significant difference (P<0.05) and
least significant differences (LSD) test at P < 0.05 was used to separate treatment means
for all properties. Relationships among variables (available P with P-total and pH) were
analyzed using regression and correlation analysis.

In the present study, soil samples were taken from 9 different sites of inland swamps in
South Sumatra. Soil samples 1 to 4 were taken from rice rhizosphere locations different in
ages and varieties. The ages of IR64 rice variety of locations 1, 2, and 3 were 4, 10, and 8
weeks, respectively, and the age of local varieties of location 4 was 8 weeks. Soil sample
147
Gofar et al.
5, 6, and 7 were taken from rhizosphere locations of hybridcorn of 8 weeks old and sweet
corn of 4 and 6 weeks old. Soil sample 9 was taken from rhizosphere location of soybean
with 6 of weeks of age. The analysis results of soil pH, C-organic, total-N, available P,
and PSB population are presented in Table 1.
In general, the soils used in this experiment can be categorized as low to medium
fertility soils. These properties were show by high soil acidity (soil pH from 3.59 to 5.17)
and medium to very low contents of C-organic, N-total, and CEC. PSB population in the
soil surrounding crop rhizosfer of rice, maize, and soybean ranged from 3.06 to 50.27 cfu
g-1. Usually, one gram of fertile soil contains 101 to 1010 bacteria, and their live weight
may exceed 2,000 kg ha-1 (Baudoin et al. 2002). Even though the soil samples in this
study were very acid and low to medium fertility, but they contained enough PSB
population as a source of isolates.
Table 1. Some soil chemical properties and PSB population of each site
8
Site location
pH
Desa Pemulutan, Kab. Ogan

Ilir
Desa Pulau Gemantung 1,
Kab. OKI
Kab. OKI
Kab. OKI
Kelurahan Timbangan, Kab.
Ogan Ilir
Desa Lubuk Dalam Kab
OKI
Desa Lubuk Dalam, Kab
OKI
Desa Indralaya, Kab.Ogan
Ilir
Desa Indralaya, Kab.Ogan
Ilir
3.99
Corganic
(g kg-1)
1.10
3.98
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
N-total
(g kg-1)
AvailableP (mg kg-1)
0.24
20.55
PSB
population
(cfu g-1)
22.87 x 106
2.57
0.28
43.50
45.30 x 106
5.17
1.59
0.16
16.05
50.27 x 106
4.47
1.67
0.17
13.05
43.07 x 106
4.25
1.92
0.34
85.96
21.00 x 106
3.59
1.51
0.15
37.65
45.02 x 106
4.12
0.91
0.10
50.25
35.39 x 106
4.90
1.73
0.32
70.05
3.06 x 106
4.20
1.38
0.50
84.00
3.34 x 106
Acid soils of South Sumatra has been reported to have indigenous PSB population
from 1 to 2 x 106cfu g-1 in Ultisols (Sabaruddin 2004) and 108cfu g-1 in Inceptisols (Gofar
et al. 2007). Population of PSB depends on different soil properties (physical and
chemical properties, organic matter, and P contents) and cultivation activities (Kim et al.
1998).
Phosphate solubilizing efficiency study was carried out by performing an
experiment of halozone formation around the bacterial colony when incubated for 7 and
14 days at 30oC on Pikovskayas agar media. The bacterium that possessing the ability to
solubilize phosphate formed a clear zone around them. The halozone formation test
148
revealed that five bacteria (I1, I2, I3, I4, and I5) had the ability to solubilize phosphate or
as PSB.
Amounts of available P in the three saturated P soils are presented in Figure 1 (0 g
AlPO4 kg-1), Figure 2 (10 g AlPO4 kg-1), and Figure 3 (20 g AlPO4 kg-1), respectively. Psaturated soil significantly affected available P every week, but PSB-isolate affected
available P at 2 and 3 weeks incubation periods. In the soil unsaturated with P (0 g AlPO4
kg-1), application of 5 PSB isolates enhanced P availability along with increasing
incubation period. If the soil saturated with P, available P decreased in the incubation
period of four weeks.
Figure 1. Changes in available P in the soil unsaturated with P (0 g AlPO4 kg-1)
Incubation periods (weeks)
Figure 2. Changes in available P in the soil saturated with P (10 g AlPO4 kg-1)
149
Gofar et al.
Incubation periods (weeks)
Figure 3. Changes in available P in the soil saturated with P (20 g AlPO4 kg-1)
At P saturated soils, P availability was highest in each incubation period due to
isolate I1 and I4. In soils saturated with 10 and 20 g AlPO4 kg-1, the best isolate that
increased the availability of P was I1.
Phosphorus solubilizing is carried out by a large number of saprophytic bacteria on
sparingly soluble soil phosphates, mainly by chelation-mediated mechanisms (Whitelaw
2000). Inorganic P is solubilized by the action of organic and inorganic acids secreted by
PSB in which hydroxyl and carboxyl groups of acids chelate cations (Al, Fe, Ca) and
decrease the pH in basic soils (Stevenson 2005). Solubilization of Fe and Al occurs via
proton released a long with PSB by decreasing the negative charge of adsorbing surfaces
to facilitate the sorption of negatively charged P ions. Released proton can also decrease P
sorption upon acidification, which increases H2PO4- in relation to HPO42- having higher
affinity to reactive soil surfaces (Whitelaw 2000). Carboxylic acids mainly solubilize Al-P
and Fe-P through direct dissolution of mineral phosphate as a result of anion exchange of
PO43- by acid anion or by chelation of both Fe and Al ions associated with phosphate.
Carboxylic anions replace phosphate from sorption complexes by ligand exchange and
chelate both Fe and Al ions associated with phosphate, releasing phosphate available for
plant uptake after transformation (Khan et al. 2009). Although high buffering capacity of
soil reduces the effectiveness of PSB in releasing P from bound phosphates, however,
enhancing microbial activity through PSB inoculants may contribute considerably in plant
uptake.
Figure 4 shows relationship between the total-P and available P in the tested soils.
It clearly shows that the increases of total P were significantly correlated with the
increases of available P. Total-P is the sum of all P elements in the soil, both organic and
inorganic, available or unavailable. In acidic soils, equilibrium between available P and
150
occluded P to be disrupted so that the time, available P will decline due to Al-P formation
(Havlin et al. 1999). Inorganic forms of P are solubilized by a group of heterotrophic
bacteria excreting organic acids that dissolve chelate cationic partners of the P ions
directly and release P into solution. Babenko et al. (1984) have isolated and grouped
phosphate-solubilizing bacteria into four different types, according to kinetics and rate of
P accumulation. These groups range from a linear increase of P concentration along with
the growth of the culture, to oscillating behavior with variations in the soluble P levels
giving rise to several peaks and troughs of P concentration. This last type of kinetic
behavior has also been observed. These changes in P concentration could be a
consequence of P precipitation of organic metabolites and/or the formation of organic-P
compounds with secreted organic acids, which are subsequently used as an energy or
nutrient source, this event being repeated several times in the culture. An alternative
explanation could be the difference in the rate of P release and uptake. When the rate of
uptake is higher than that of solubilization, a decrease of P concentration in the medium
could be observed. When the uptake rate decreases (for instance as a consequence of
decreasing growth or entry into stationary phase), the P level in the medium increases
again. More probably, a combination of two or more phenomena could be involved in this
behavior. Thus, the P concentration in the culture both as indication of phosphate
solubilization capacity should be viewed with caution and a kinetic study of this
parameter would offer a more reliable picture of cellular behavior toward P (Hilda and
Fraga 2000).
Figure 5 shows the relationship between soil pH and available P. The increases of
soil pH were significantly correlated with the increases of soluble P. This suggests that the
increase in pH from 3.9 to 4.4 increased the activity of PSB so that the availability of P
also increased. In the acid soils, PSB blocked P sorption by binding elements and reducing
the toxicity of Al3+ and Fe3+on plants. Cerezine et al. (2001) considered that even though
the concentration of soluble phosphates related to pH, it was not related to titratable
acidity, which confirms that the solubilizing ability is not related to organic production but
to the nature of the organic products.
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Gofar et al.
Avaiable P (mg kg-1)
500
y = 380.1x + 49.21
R = 0.292
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Total P (%)
Figure 4.
Relationship between available P and total-P in fresh water Inceptisols
Figure 5. Relationship between pH and available P in soil inoculated with PSB
CONCLUSIONS
In soil saturated with 10 and 20 g AlPO4 kg-1, the best isolate increasing the availability of
P was I1. The increases of total P were significantly correlated with the increases of
available P. P concentration in the soil was as an indication of phosphate solubilization
capacity. The increases of soil pH were significantly correlated with the increases of
soluble P. In the acid soils, PSB blocked P sorption by binding elements and reducing the
toxicity of Al3+ and Fe3+ on plants.
152
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Research and Technology, Republic of
Indonesia that provided funding for the implementation of this research, with contract
number of 1.55/SEK/IRS/PPK/I/2011.
REFERENCES
Babenko, Y.S., G. Tyrygina, E.F. Grigoryev, L.M. Dolgikh, and T.I. Borisova. 1984.
Biological activity and physiology biochemical properties of bacteria dissolving
phosphates. Microbiology. 53:533539.
Baudoin, E., E. Benizri, and A. Guckert. 2002. Impact of growth stages on the bacterial
community structure along maize roots as determined by metabolic and genetic
fingerprinting. Appl. Soil Ecol. 19(2): 135-145.
Chen, Y.P., P.D. Rekha, A.B. Arunshen, W.A. Lai, and C.C. Young. 2006. Phosphate
solubilizing bacteria from subtropical soil and their tricalcium phosphate
solubilizing abilities. Sppl. Soil Ecol. 34(1): 33-41.
Ezawa, T., S.E. Smith, and F.A. Smith. 2002. P metabolism and transport in AM fungi.
Plant Soil 244: 221-230.
Gofar, N., M.A. Diha, and A. Napoleon. 2007. Keragaman mikroba tanah pada lahan
budidaya daerah lebak. J. Akta Agrosia Edisi Khusus no 1: 5-10.
Havlin, J.L., J.D. Beaton, S.L. Tisdale, and W.L. Nelson. 1999. Soil Fertility and
Fertilizers: An introduction to nutrient management. 6th Ed. Prentice Hall, New
Jersey.
He, Z.L., M. Bian, and J. Zhu. 2002. Screening and identification of microorganisms
capable of utilizing phosphate absorbed by goethite. Comm. Soil Sci. Plant Anal.
33: 647-663.
Hilda, R. and R. Fraga. 2000. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria and their role in plant
growth promotion. Biotech. Adv. 17: 319-339.
Khan, A., G. Jilani, M.S. Akhtar, and M.S. Naqvi. 2009. Phoshorus solubilizing bacteria:
Occurrence, mechanisms, and their role in crop production. J. Agric. Biol. Sci.
1(1): 48-58.
Khan, K.S. and R.G. Joergensen. 2009. Changes in microbial biomass and P fractions in
biogenic household waste compost amended with inorganic P fertilizers. Bioresour.
Technol.100: 303-309.
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Kang, S.C., C.G. Hat, T.G. Lee, and D.K. Maheshwari. 2002. Solubilization of insoluble
inorganic phosphates by a soil-inhabiting fungus Fomitopsis sp. PS 102. Curr. Sci.
82: 439-442.
Kim, K.Y., D. Jordan, and A. McDonald. 1998. Effect of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria
and vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae on tomato growth and soil microbial activity.
Bio. Fert. Soils 26: 79-87.
Sabaruddin. 2004. Indigenous P-solubilizing response on liming following fire on Acacia
mangium plantation. J. Trop. Soils. 10 (1): 55-62.
Schachtman, D.P., J.R. Reid, and S.M. Ayling. 1998. Phosphorus uptake by plants: From
soil to cell. PI Phy, 116: 447-453.
Stevenson, F.J. 2005. Cycles of soil: Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur,
Micronutrients. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Saxena, J. and V. Sharma. 2003. Phosphate solubilizing activity of microbes and their role
as biofertilizer. Advances in Microbiology, Scientific Publ. Jodhpur, India, p. 5973.
Whitelaw, M.A. 2000. Growth promotion of plants inoculated with phosphate solubilizing
fungi. Adv. Agron. 69: 99-151.
154
15
1,2*)Siti
and
PREDATORY ARTHROPODS ON FRESH SWAMP

PADDY FIELD APPLIED WITH MYCOINSECTICIDE
AND SYNTHETIC INSECTICIDE
Herlinda, 1David Afriansyah Putra, 1Chandra Irsan, 1Yulia Pujiastuti,

Thalib
1Rosdah
1Department
of Plant Pests and Diseases, College of Agriculture, Sriwijaya University.

Palembang-South Sumatra.
2Researcher at Research Center for Sub-optimal Lands (PUR-PLSO). Sriwijaya University.

*)Corresponding
author: Telp. +62711580663, Fax. +62711580276, Email:

sitiherlinda@unsri.ac.id, sitiherlinda@drn.go.id
Abstract. This research was carried out on paddy field of fresh swamp in Musi Banyuasin
from July up to Desember 2011. The objective of this research was to compare the
abundance and species number of the predatory-arthropods inhabiting paddy fields
applied with mycoinsecticide and synthetic insecticide. The canopy-inhabiting and soildwelling predatory arthropods were sampled using net and pitfall traps, respectively. The
predatory arthropods found were predatory insect and spiders. The canopy-inhabiting
arthropods found were Coccinelidae, Tetragnatidae, and Oxyopidae, and the soil-dwelling
arthropods found were Carabidae, Formicidae, Labiidae, and Lycosidae. Results indicated
that the arthropods inhabiting paddy field applied with mycoinsecticide had the higher
abundance and species number compared to the field applied with synthetic insecticide.
The population of pest insects found on the paddy field applied with mycoinsecticide was
lower than that applied with the synthetic insecticide. The most important pest insect
found on paddy field of fresh swamp in Musi Banyuasin was the rice gundhi bug
(Leptocoriza acuta) and the most dominant predatory-arthropods found were Pardosa
pseudoannulata and Pheropsophus occipitalis.
Keywords: Predatory Arthropods, Paddy, Fresh Swamp, Mycoinsecticide
Abstrak. Penelitian ini dilakukan di pertanaman padi lebak di Kabupaten Musi Banyuasin
dari bulan Juli hingga Desember 2011. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk membandingkan
kelimpahan dan jumlah spesies artropoda predator yang menghuni pertanaman padi yang
diaplikasikan mikoinsektisida dan insektisida sintetik. Contoh artropoda predator
penghuni tajuk dan permukaan tanah masing-masing diambil menggunakan jaring
serangga dan lubang jebakan. Artropoda predator yang ditemukan didominasi oleh
serangga dan laba-laba. Artropoda penghuni tajuk yang ditemukan adalah Coccinelidae,
Tetragnatidae, dan Oxyopidae, sedangkan artropoda predator penghuni tanah yang
ditemukan adalah Carabidae, Formicidae, Labiidae, dan Lycosidae. Hasil penelitian
menunjukkan bahwa artropoda penghuni pertanaman padi yang diaplikasikan
mikoinsektisida memiliki kelimpahan dan jumlah spesies lebih tinggi dibandingkan
dengan lahan yang diaplikasikan insektisida sintetik. Kerapatan populasi serangga hama
yang ditemukan pada tanaman padi yang diaplikasikan dengan mikoinsektisida lebih
rendah dari pada lahan yang diaplikasikan insektisida sintetik. Serangga hama yang
155
Herlinda et al.
paling dominan menyerang serangga hama padi lebak di Kabupaten Musi banyuasin
adalah walang sangit (Leptocoriza acuta). Artropoda predator yang paling dominan
ditemukan adalah Pardosa pseudoannulata dan Pheropsophus occipitalis.
Kata Kunci: Artropoda predator, padi, lebak, mikoinsektisida
INTRODUCTION
There is a constraint from attack of interferer organisms such as pests in rice crop
cultivation. The dominant pests found in rice crop consisted of rice stem borer (Wilyus et
al. 2012), brown planthopper, rice green leafhopper, and rice gundhi bug (Tandiabang et
al. 2001; IRRI 2003). Population of these pests is controlled by their natural predator,
especially arthropod predator.
Predatory arthropod in rice field is generally in abundant quantity and has high
species diversity. Predatory arthropod in optimal soil of rice field land such as in Cianjur,
West Java, was available in abundant quantity either from insects group or spider group.
The dominant predatory insect was from Coleoptera, especially of Staphylinidae and
Carabidae families, whereas dominant predatory spider was from Lycosidae (Herlinda et
al. 2004). Predatory arthropods which living in fresh swamp and tidal lowland of South
Sumatra were also dominated by Staphylinidae, Carabidae, and Lycosidae (Khodijah et
al. 2012). It had been reported that these predatory arthropods are capable of controlling
important insect pest population that attack rice crop (Herlinda et al. 2004).
The abundance of these predatory arthropods is high if synthetic insecticide is not
applied on rice crop. Application of entomopathogen fungus is currently used as substitute
for synthetic insecticide (Herlinda et al. 2008). Entomopathogen fungi such as Beauveria
bassiana and Metharizium anisopliae had proven to be capable of controlling planthopper
(Herlinda et al. 2008a), rice gundhi bug (Herlinda et al. 2008b), leaf worm (Herlinda
2010; Herlinda et al. 2010), cabbage bug (Herlinda et al. 2006), and cabbage caterpillar of
Plutella xylostella (Herlinda et al. 2005a, b). Application of entomopathogen fungus to
control rice pests should be studied in relation to its impact on predatory arthropod
community. The objective of this research was to compare the abundance and species
number of the predatory-arthropods inhabiting paddy fields by application of
mycoinsecticide and synthetic insecticide.
156
Predatory Arthropods on Paddy Field of Fresh Swamp

Observation of Predatory Insects Dwelling Soil
This research was carried out on paddy or rice field of fresh swamp in Musi
Banyuasin from July up to December 2011. Sampling of predatory arthropod, which
inhabited soil surface, was done by using pitfall traps based on the method of Herlinda et
al. (2004). Pitfall trap was made from plastic glass having volume of 250 mL. This glass
was filled with 70 mL of 4% formaline solution and was placed on soil surface at rice
field ridge. Twelve pitfall traps located at rice field ridge were installed at each location.
The traps were installed for 48 hours and started from 18.00 West Indonesian Time
(WIB). The glass was then uplifted and the trapped insects were put into vial bottle
containing 70% alcohol solution. The vials were equipped with date and sampling
location labels and were subsequently carried into laboratory. Trap installation was started
when rice crops were at period of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 weeks after planting (WAP).
The collected arthropods were identified under microscope and the individual
numbers of arthropods were calculated at Entomology Laboratory, Plant Pest and Disease
Department, College of Agriculture, Sriwijaya University, Indralaya. Identification of
insects and spiders was based on their morphological characteristics. Insects identification
was done by using reference book written by Barrion and Litsinger (1994). Spiders
identification was done by using reference book written by Barrion and Litsinger (1995).
Data were recorded and descriptively analyzed as well as presented in form of tables.
Observation of Predatory Arthropod Inhabiting Canopy
Arthropods inhabiting at canopy were observed by using the method of Herlinda et
al. (2004). Sampling of canopy-inhabiting arthropod was done by using insects dragnet.
Anthropod sampling was done with 20 swings per location at 06.00-07.00 West
Indonesian Time (WIB). Anthropod samplings were done when rice crop was at periods
of 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 WAP. The trapped arthropods were sorted and put into plastic bags
(1 kg size) that had already been filled with 70% alcohol solution. Subsequently,
arthropods were identified under the microscope and their individual numbers were
calculated at laboratory. Data were recorded and descriptively analyzed as well as
presented in form of tables.
Observation of Important Pest Insects on Rice Fields
Observation of important pest insects (all species of planthoppers and bugs as well
as stem borers) was started when rice crop was at periods of 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 WAP.
Observation was done by counting insects population directly on sample crops (50 rice
157
Herlinda et al.
clumps) per plot. Data were recorded and descriptively analyzed as well as presented in
form of tables the trapped insects were identified in laboratory. These insects were
grouped according to their types and calculation was done to determine their numbers.

During vegetative phase (4 and 6 WAP) of rice, species numbers of predatory arthropod,
which inhabited the soil surface of rice field, tended to be higher with application of
mycoinsecticide than that of synthetic insecticide. Abundance of predatory arthropod was
also higher with application of mycoinsecticide than that of synthetic insecticide (Table
1). This trend still occurred when rice crop was at period of 8 WAP (Table 2), but the
species numbers and abundance of predatory arthropod when rice crop was at period of 10
WAP were relatively similar between rice fields received application of mycoinsecticide
and synthetic insecticide. Similarity of this predatory arthropod was due to its abundance
peak occurring when rice crop was at period of 10 WAP that might result in species flow
amongst plots.
Table 1. Species numbers and abundance of soil-dwelling predatory arthropods on rice
crop at vegetative phase applied with mycoinsecticide and synthetic insecticide
Class, Order, Family
Insecta
Coleoptera
Carabidae
Hymenoptera
Formicidae
Demaptera
Labiidae
Arachinida
Lycosidae
Total
Rice at 4 WAP
Synthetic
Mycoinsecticide
insecticide
JS
JI
JS
JI
Rice at 6 WAP
Synthetic
Mycoinsecticide
insecticide
JS
JI
JS
JI
11
19
10
20
11
1
7
6
26
1
4
8
20
1
6
10
49
1
5
6
27
JS = Species Numbers; JI = Individual Numbers
For rice crop heading and immediately before harvest phases (12 and 14 WAP),
species numbers and abundance of predatory arthropod, which dwelled the soil surface,
was back into initial trend, i.e. higher with application of mycoinsecticide than that of
synthetic insecticide (Table 3). This trend indicated that mycoinsecticide application had
no deterioration impact on species numbers and abundance of predatory arthropod that
dwelled the soil surface. On the contrary, the predators prefered plots having
mycoinsecticide application than that of synthetic insecticide. According to Herlinda et al.
(2008c) synthetic insecticide application on rice field killed not only the pest and the
predatory arthropod, but also the neutral insects (organic matter decomposer or consumer)
158
at soil surface as alternative prey for predatory arthropods. Predatory arthropod could
survive for all season if their preys were available. The unavailablity of pest insects as
prey after harvest could be substituted by alternative preys such as the above mentioned
neutral insects
crop at early generative phase applied with mycoinsecticide and synthetic
insecticide
Insecta
Coleoptera
Carabidae
Hymenoptera
Formicidae
Demaptera
Labiidae
Arachinida
Lycosidae
Total
Rice at 8 WAP
Synthetic
Mycoinsecticide
insecticide
JI
JS
JI
JS
Rice at 10 WAP
Mycoinsecticid
Synthetic
e
insecticide
JI
JS
JI
JI
45
27
57
51
22
26
26
41
1
11
22
89
1
8
6
59
1
9
17
100
1
11
7
99

crop at harvesting phase applied with mycoinsecticide and synthetic insecticide
Rice at 12 WAP
Synthetic
Class, Order, Family Mycoinsecticide
insecticide
JS
JI
JS
JI
Insecta
Coleoptera
Carabidae
3
25
2
16
Hymenoptera
Formicidae
2
24
3
13
Demaptera
Labiidae
0
0
0
0
Arachinida
Lycosidae
1
10
1
6
Total
6
59
6
35
Rice at 14 WAP
Synthetic
Mycoinsecticide
insecticide
JS
JI
JS
JI
15
13
1
5
6
34
1
4
5
19
Species numbers of predatory arthropod which inhabited rice canopy (at vegetative
phase within period of 4 and 6 WAP) were similar between plots having mycoinsecticide
and synthetic insecticide applications (Table 4). However, species numbers of predatory
arthropod tended to be higher at plot having mycoinsecticide application than that of
synthetic insecticide application, when the rice was at 8 WAP. There was again equal
159
Herlinda et al.
arthropod abundance at plots having mycoinsecticide and synthetic insecticide

applications (Table 5) when rice was at 10 WAP. The last observation (rice age at 12
WAP) showed that predatory arthropod abundance was higher at plot having
mycoinsecticide application than that of synthetic insecticide application (Table 6).
Compared to soil dwelling, arthropod inhabiting canopy had not shown higher trend at
mycoinsecticide plot, however, it showed similarity in species numbers and predatory
abundance with plot having synthetic insecticide application. This was due to the fact that
mobility of predatory arthropod inhabiting canopy was higher than soil dwelling one so
that the application of mycoinsecticide and synthetic insecticide was not as effective as for
soil dwelling predatory arthropod.
Table 4. Species numbers and abundance of canopy-inhabiting predatory arthropods on
rice crop at vegetative phase applied with mycoinsecticide and synthetic
insecticide
Insecta
Coleoptera
Coccinelidae
Arachnida
Tetragnatidae
Oxyopidae
Total
Rice at 4 WAP
Synthetic
Mycoinsecticide
insecticide
JS
JI
JS
JI
Rice at 6 WAP
Synthetic
Mycoinsecticide
insecticide
JS
JI
JS
JI
20
21
1
1
3
9
1
11
1
0
2
10
0
14
1
0
3
18
0
38
1
0
3
13
0
34
Important pest species attacking rice crop at fresh swamp area having application
of mycoinsecticide and synthetic insecticide consisted of rice green leafhopper, other
planthoppers, rice gundhi bug, rice stem borer, and sourthern green stink bug. Pest insects
population at plot with mycoinsecticide application was lower than that with synthetic
insecticide application (Table 7). Population of these important pest insects was tend to
increase according to increase of rice crop ages and the peak population occurred at 10
WAP, during the filling and tillering phases. Immediately before harvesting (14 WAP),
pest insects population was drastically dropped.
160

rice crop at early generative phase applied with mycoinsecticide and synthetic
insecticide
Insecta
Coleoptera
Coccinelidae
Arachnida
Tetragnatidae
Oxyopidae
Total
Rice at 8 WAP
Synthetic
Mycoinsecticide
insecticide
JS
JI
JS
JI
Rice at 10 WAP
Synthetic
Mycoinsecticide
insecticide
JS
JI
JS
JI
15
22
30
2
0
3
25
0
40
2
0
3
15
0
21
3
0
4
38
0
60
3
0
4
35
0
65

rice crop at 12 WAP applied with mycoinsecticide and synthetic insecticide
Insecta
Coleoptera
Coccinelidae
Arachnida
Tetragnatidae
Oxyopidae
Total
Mycoinsecticide
JS
JI
Synthetic insecticide
JS
JI
12
3
0
4
18
0
30
3
0
4
12
0
17
161
Herlinda et al.
Table 7. Insect pest species found on rice with application of mycoinsecticide and
synthetic insecticide (numbers/50 plants)
Rice-age
(weeks)
Wh
Wl
Ws
Pb
Kh
Total
Wh
Wl
Ws
Pb
Kh
Total
4
8
10
0
10
9
14
12
9
0
0
12
0
0
9
0
0
0
14
22
39
0
17
9
20
25
15
0
0
31
0
0
8
0
0
0
20
42
63
12
14
0
0
0
0
13
9
8
0
12
0
33
9
0
0
0
0
19
7
6
0
8
0
33
7
Total
19
35
34
17
12
117
26
60
57
14
165
Rata-rata
3.8
6.8
3.4
2.4
5.2
12
11.4
2.8
1.6
Wh = rice green leafhopper; Wl = other planthoppers; Ws= rice gundhi bug; Pb = rice stem borer; Kh =
sourthern green stink bug
The highest pest insects population was during the paddy filling and tillering
phases because these phases were prefered by pest insects. Rice crop at the filling and
tillering phases generally contained nutrients or primary subtances that were mostly
prefered by pest insects and in addition, plant tissues were softer due to high water content
within them. Immediately before rice harvesting, rice crop tissues became hard and
difficult to be cut or absorbed by pest insects. Rice grains immediately before harvesting
were hard and difficult to be pierced by rice gundhi bug.
CONCLUSION
The canopy-inhabiting arthropods found were Coccinelidae, Tetragnatidae, and
Oxyopidae, and the soil-dwelling arthropods found were Carabidae, Formicidae,
Labiidae, and Lycosidae. The results indicated that the arthropods inhabiting paddy field
applied with mycoinsecticide had higher abundance and species number compared to the
field applied with synthetic insecticide. The population of pest insects found on the paddy
field applied with mycoinsecticide was lower than that on the field applied with synthetic
insecticide. The most important pest insect found on paddy field of fresh swamp in Musi
Banyuasin was the rice gundhi bug (Leptocoriza acuta) and the most dominant predatoryarthropods found were Pardosa pseudoannulata and Pheropsophus occipitalis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by community extension service through science and technology
program for community (IbM), Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of
National Education with contract number of 057/UN9.3.2/PM/2011, 28th March 2011.
162
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Khodijah, Herlinda S, Irsan C, Pujiastuti Y, Thalib R. 2012. Artropoda predator penghuni

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164
16
1Yunan
PRELIMINARY STUDY OF WATER AVAILABILITY

RELATED TO IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE (CASE
STUDY: TANJUNG API-API PORT AREA, BANYUASIN
VALLEY)
Hamdani, 2Budhi Setiawan, 2Dwi Setyawan, and 2Azhar. K. Affandi
1Doctoral
Candidate of Environmental Program, Sriwijaya University. Jln. Padang Selasa no.

524 Palembang-South Sumatra.Email: yunanhamdani@ymail.com
2Doctor
of Environmental Doctoral Program, Sriwijaya University and Advisor Commission
Abstract. Climate change as impact of global warming could exacerbate the decline in
environmental quality as a result of drought risk, water reduced availability and flooding.
To determine the raw water quality conditions that can be used for clean water on site
research conducted sampling at five locations in the region Banyuasin Valley. The
locations are port of Tanjung Api-Api, Sungsang Village Banyuasin District II, Karang
Anyar village, Sritiga village of Muara Telang District Sritiga Telang, and Canal Sebalik.
Banyuasin Valley is a supporting region of Port Tanjung Api-api. It is one of the most
vulnerable areas in Southeast Asia. Methods in this study consisted of three stages
namely: 1) Inventory data, sampling time at the lowest tide, average tide and the highest
tide.2) Analysis sampling test, sampling laboratory test performed to determine levels of
salinity electrical conductivity and turbidity, develop meso level (regional level) of
vulnerability assessment to micro level (local/cities level) and provide information about
vulnerability level of community at Banyuasin Valley. 3) Results and discussion. The test
results in laboratory, field measurements, and calculations of water volume and water
needs concluded that the site Canal Sebalik could meet water needs for the population and
industry in the region.
Keyword: Water availability, climate change, vulnerability, lowland
INTRODUCTION
South Sumatra Province is an area particularly vulnerable to climate change to sea-level
rise, extreme waves, ocean currents, rising temperature, increased frequency of extreme
events such as El-nino and La nina, changes in rainfall. Precipitation, sea level rise, and
extreme waves cause flood, inundation, erosion and deposition, and salt water intrusion,
and impact on water resources, agriculture and forestry, health, and infrastructure (KRAPI
South Sumatra, Bappenas, GIZ 2012).
Sea level rise is likely to cause salt water intrusion into surface waters and coastal
aquifers, advance of saltwater into estuaries and coastal river systems, more extensive
coastal inundation, higher levels of sea flooding, increases in the landward reach of sea
waves and storm surges and new or accelerated coastal erosion. These consequences are
expected to be overwhelmingly negative and particularly serious in deltas and small
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Hamdani et al.
islands. Climate change and climate variability are also expected to impact agriculture,
largely through a decline in soil and water quality.
Climate change is defined as long process and contains high complexity that very
unpredictable, although using strictly mitigation. From Freeman et al. (2001), climate
change is forecasted to bring gradual changes in weather patterns and changes in the
variability of extreme events to broad geographic regions. Climate change may increase
the risk of structural damage to buildings, especially due to strong wind, flood associated
with more intense tropical cyclone and storms.
The IPCC has outlined representative examples of projected infrastructure impacts
of extreme climate phenomena (IPCC 2001a). Identifying the impact of climate change on
infrastructure as distinct from other influences on our need to maintain, repair, and replace
infrastructure, benefits from explicit attention to a conceptual model for impact
assessment.
As awareness to climate change, Bappenas (Republic of Indonesia) with GIZ
(Deutsche Gesellschaftfuer Internationale Zusammenarbeit) have been doing vulnerability
assessment in macro level (national). This assessment is developed to meso level
(regional) by Suroso et al. (2012) in South Sumatra Province (see Figure 1).
Macro Level
Source: Abdurahman and Setiawan (2010)
Meso Level
Source: Suroso et al (2012)
Figure 1. Vulnerability Assessment in Indonesia

In the district of Banyuasin, the program has been planned for development of deep
sea port in the TanjungApi-api. As supporting region, Tanjung Api-api District covers
most of the areas in Banyuasin II, Tanjung Lago, and Muara Telang Districts. The area is
bordered by the supporters of protected forest and river water Telang Banyuasin to the
north and west, Telang River to the east, and Canal Sebalik (PU) in the south. Overall the
area is about 12,282 hectares.
166
Preliminary Study of Water Availability Related to Impact
The aim of this study was to determine raw water quality conditions that can be
used for clean water and developing meso level (regional level) of vulnerability
assessment to micro level (local/cities level) and provide information about vulnerability
level of community at Banyuasin Valley.
MATERIALS AND METHOD

The research was conducted from April 2011 to June 2012. Samples of raw water were
taken at five locations and laboratory test was done to know turbidity, salinity, and
conductivity the waters. The five locations of raw water sampling were: 1) River Estuary
District Banyuasin Pier Tanjung Api-api, 2) Telang river estuary District near the
Sungsang village, 3) Sritiga village area, 4) Karang Anyar District, 5) Canal Sebalik
District (see fig 2).
Questionairs were distributed in order to find out data on people condition at
Banyusin Valley. As many as 253 respondents were randomly selected from comunity of
3 villages: Tanjung Lago, Muara Telang, and Banyuasin II. to make a vulnerability map.
The assessment at Banyuasin Valley, the vulnerability is determined by the vulnerability
index resulting from the parameters/indicators owned by the elements that have the
potential risk to the impacts of climate change. In this study, the type of vulnerability
focused on the conditions and circumstances that existed throughout the Tanjung Lago to
Sungsang villages. Vulnerability indicators used in the assessment were the condition of
the home, number of occupants, water consumption, and monthly income of existing
residents. The region was overlayed to land use at the sites. The vulnerability indices were
classified into three classes, namely low vulnerability, moderate vulnerability, and high
vulnerability. Direct observation was done to find out data for hazard measurement by sea
level rise.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Determination of Quality Water
Laboratory test results showed that water conductivity in a village was in the range
of 65.8 to 108.9 S cm-1. Permenkes. No. 907/2002 sets maximum conductivity of 300 S
cm-1 so it can be concluded that the water conductivity in Canal Sebalik village meets
quality requirements. The measurement results on salinity or the amount of dissolved salt
content of six samples from Canal Sebalik were 6.31 mg l-1 (the smallest value) and 191.7
mg l-1 (the largest value), which were below the threshold value of 500 mg l-1.
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Hamdani et al.
From the analysis description of some parameters in the test, it can be concluded
that the water from canal sebalik distrct was used as a source of raw water to be processed
into clean water.
4
1
1
1
Figure 2. Map of research location
Hazard Assessment of Climate Change

The components of coastal flooding hazards caused by the combination of sea
level rise, storm surges, and La-Nina phenomenon at maximum tide were divided into six
scenarios (see Table 2). The study concluded that the oceanographic scientific basis of sea
level rised to around 13.5 6.15 cm in 2030 relative to current conditions (greenhouse gas
emission scenarios are moderate-SRESa1b). Sea level rise is complete sea level
variability, which occurs both periodically (once tide a day with riding around 3.3 m) and
incidentally (result of the increase in La-Nina phenomenon) which can lead to an increase
of 15 cm to sea level occurring once in 1-3 years. In the future, La-Nina phenomenon is
predicted to often occur for long period that can result in increasingly high waves. The
storm surge of the South China Sea with a height of about 20 cm can occur 3 times a year.
(The Risk Assessment on Climate Change Adaptation in South Sumatra, 2012). From the
calculation of measurement results obtained, high tide water level maximum (HHWL) is
190 cm and the mean high water tide - average (MHWL) is 140 cm (Figure 3 and 4)
168
Figure 3. Measurement at research study
Figure 4. Result of Tide calculation

Basis results of scientific studies and oceanographic measurements on the tides
hazard scenarios were formulated by the hazard elements presented in Table 1.
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Hamdani et al.
Table 1. Element of hazard at research location

Element of Hazard
Tide (MHWL)
Tide (HHWL)
Maximum Wave
Significant Wave
Sea Level Rise
La Nina
Surges
Flooding
Hazard code
SRES A1B Projection

2010 (cm)
2030 (cm)
140
190
31.1
38.4
0
15
20
100
140
190
31.1
38.4
13.5+6.1
15
20
100
1a
1b
2a
2b
3
4
5
6
Table 2. Scenario of Hazard

Scenario
Scenario 1a (Existing)
Scenario 1b (Extreme)
Scenario 2a (Extreme + La-Nina)
Scenario 2b (Extreme + Surge)
Scenario 3 (Extreme + La-Nina +
Surge)
Scenario 4 (Ekxtreme + La-Nina +
Flood)
Cummulative
1a + 2a + 3
1b + 2b +3
1b + 2b + 4 + 3
1b + 2b + 5 + 3
1b + 2b + 4 + 5 + 3
1b + 2b + 4 +6 + 3
Sres A1b Projection

2010 (cm)
2030 (cm)
171.1
184.6
228.4
241.9
243.4
256.9
248.4
261.9
263.4
276.9
343.4
356.9
Calculation of hazard assessment was done by following a script as compiled in

Table 2 for baseline conditions (in 2010) and projection condition (year 2030). The
elevation of sea level was the 0 m mean sea level so in this study the map of inundation
scenarios was simulated using DEM with inundation at an elevation of 0 m above sea
level at the height of immersion scenarios 1a 171.1 cm for 2010 and scenario inundation
at an elevation of 0 m above sea level with altitude 356.9 cm for projection condition at
2030.
Projection hazard (hazard) is more focused on the rise of sea level (sea level rise),
which has been projected in accordance with the Global Circulation Model (IPCC AR-4).
The projection used to use IPCC SRES (Special Report on Emission Scenarios) A1B. In
this study, the danger in assuming projected rainfall remains. Visually can not see a
significant difference between the scenario projection hazard of climate change, this is
due to changes in sea level (sea level rise) that occurred 0.6 - 0.8 cm year-1.
170
Figure 5. Hazard Map for scenario 1a at 2010 (Baseline condition)
Figure 6. Hazard Map for scenario 4 at 2030 (Projection condition)

Based on calculations it was known that in scenario 1a hazard of sea level rise in
2010 at the height of tide (baseline condition) the flooded area is 1.06% or 130.19 ha area
and the area that is not inundated (no hazard) of 98.94% or 12,151.81 hectares. In scenario
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Hamdani et al.
1b to scenario 3 using tidal height in 2010 and 2030, the area of the danger posed by
rising sea level is 566.20 ha (4.61%) and the area that is not inundated (no hazard) is
11715.80 ha (95.39%), while in scenario 4 using tidal height in 2030 (projection
condition) the area of danger from sea level rise is equal to 1845.98 ha (15.03%) and the
area that is not flooded 10436.02 ha (84.97%) of the total area Banyuasin Valley region.
Vulnerability Assessment
The total vulnerability results from parameter of vulnerability at the Map
Calculation and Slicing using ILWIS GIS applications. Based on the results of the
calculations using ILWIS GIS applications that generate vulnerability maps in total with
the level of vulnerability information. On the vulnerability map (Fig 7) it is known that the
Banyuasin Valley district at the sites did not reach a high level of vulnerability. The low
vulnerability index is 0.18 and the moderate vulnerability is 0.52.
Figure 7. Total vulnerability map at Banyuasin Valley
CONCLUSION AND REMARK

From the test result of water quality at research study the location is still possible to take
raw water for clean water at canal Sebalik and must be kept from impact of climate
change. From preliminary study at Banyuasin Valley, hazard and vulnerability at baseline
condition is still in safe condition and the need to restructure the space for future
development to keep from impact of climate change.
172
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17
PUGAM: A SPECIFIC FERTILIZER FOR PEAT LAND TO

REDUCE CARBON EMISSION AND IMPROVE SOIL
PRODUCTIVITY
I G.M. Subiksa
IAARD Researcher at Indonesian Soil Research Institute, Jl. Tentara Pelajar No. 12 Cimanggu.
Bogor
Abstract. Peat land in Indonesia covers about 14 M ha and about 6 M ha was considered
suitable for agriculture. When peat land was drained for agriculture purposes, organic
matter will be decomposed to emit CO2 gas, which contributes to global warming. Due to
low fertility status, agricultural practices on peat land need have external nutrients input.
However, fertilizing peat land to provide nutrient needed by plant generally increases
microbial activity and at the end increases CO2 emission. Paradox situation faced by
farmer should be coped trough technology application by using low carbon emission
fertilizer called Pugam. Pugam is phosphate base fertilizer enriched with polyvalent
cations and micronutrients needed by plant. Pugam worked trough three processes
namely: providing nutrients to improve plant growth; stabilizing organic substance and
neutralizing toxic phenolic acids; and establishing free positive charges from polyvalent
cations. Effectiveness of Pugam had been tested both in green house and peat land in the
field. Testing results revealed that Pugam very significantly increased plant growth of
both corn and rice. In the same time Pugam decreased CO2 emission by 4758%. The
same trend also showed by field-testing where Pugam significantly increased growth and
yield of corn and decreased CO2 emission by 2030%. Laboratory test showed that Pugam
application on hemic peat decreased P leaching from the pot very significantly. The
prospectus of Pugam will be able to cope the problem of peatland utilization for
agriculture.
Keyword: Pugam, peat land, CO2 emission, low productivity, phosphate, micronutrient
INTRODUCTION
In the last decade, peat land has become global issues because it has been considered as
source of green house gas (GHG) emission, which has contributed to global warming.
Peat land has huge terestrial carbon stock, which has been sunk in thousand years. Page et
al. (2002) reported that carbon age in 810 m peat depth in Central Kalimantan is about
13,00026,000 years old based on carbon dating. Wahyunto et al. (2004) reported that
carbon stock on Indonesian Peat land was about 37 Gt within 20.97 M ha area. The
average of carbon stock per ha varied in range beetwen 4543,095 t ha-1. If peat forest
converted to agricultural purposes, carbon accumulated in thousand years will be emit
CO2 and increase air CO2 concentration. Peat forest conversion and peat fire have shared
the most national GHG emission in Indonesia. Therefore, efforts to reduce CO2 emission
from peat land will be able reduce national GHG emission significantly.
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Subiksa
Table 1. Area and below ground carbon stock of peat land in the main islands of
Indonesia (Wahyunto et al. 2004).
Island
Sumatera
Kalimantan
Papua
Total
Area
(M ha)
7.20
5.77
8.00
20.97
C stock
(M ton)
22,283
11,275
3,623
37,081
C stock
(t ha-1)
3,095
1,954
454
Under natural condition, peat land was a carbon sink, since peat thickness
increased about 23 mm annually (Rieley et al. 2008). However, when peat land
converted to utilization by developing drainage canal, therefore, organic matter will be
decomposed and emit CO2 substantially which contributes to global warming. Carbon
emission from peatland was in line with ground water depth or drainage depth. Hooijer et
al. (2006) showed that oil palm plantation with 60 cm drainage depth would be emitting
as high as 55 t CO2 ha-1 annulally, and then peat thickness will be decreased. From annual
crops, CO2 emission rate was about 1819 t ha-1 annually.
Figure 1. The average of annual CO2 emissions estimated from peat forest conversion to
various agricultural land uses (time average was based on 25 years crop cycle)
Peat land belongs not only to marginal land but also fragile ecosystem due to lack
of nutrient and susceptive to land degradation, if peat forest is converted to agricultural
land. An appropriate planning should be done that consists of land suitability,
environmental and economic aspects before the development of peat forest into
agriculture. Generally, peat land productivity is very low due to physical and chemical
constraints. Tropical peat in general is composed of woody peat rich in lignin. Lignin
degradation under anaerobic condition will produce humic substances and phenolic acids,
which are toxic to plant (Kononova 1968). Phenolic acids in excessive concentration will
176
PUGAM: A Specific Fertilizer for Peat Land
inhibite root development and nutrient uptake, so that plant is stunted, clorotic, and finally
dead (Stevenson 1994; Rachim 1995).
Peat inherently contains low both macro and micronutrients. Therefore it needs
external input to improve plant growth. Phosphate is one of important inputs that should
be provided. However, P sorption by peat is usually very low due to low positive charge,
so that P is easily leached out. This is the cause of very low efficiency in P fertilization on
peat land. Improvement of P fertilization efficiency could be done by applying ameliorant
rich in polyvalent cations. Polyvalent cations serve as center of coordination bonding and
develop new positive charge that can improve P sorption capacity. Several research results
also showed that ameliorant rich in polyvalent cations can reduce concentration of toxic
phenolic acids (Rachim 1995; Sabiham et al. 1997; Salampak 1999). Therefore, materials
rich in polyvalent cations can potentially be used for peat amelioration and fertilization
with low carbon emissions.
PUGAM, a Phosphate Base Fertilizer
Pugam is specially formulated for peat lands that have problems with low
productivity and P sorption, and high carbon emissions. Low productivity of the peat land
is due to inherently low nutrient status, very acidic reaction, and content of organic acids
toxic to plants. P sorption of peat is very low due to lack of positive chargehence P
fertilization efficiency is very low. Meanwhile, the high carbon emissions caused by peat
under aerobic conditions undergo decomposition by microbial activity.
Pugam is phosphate-base fertilizer that is enriched with micro nutrient, so it has
multiple complementary functions. Pugam contains slow released phosphate and basic
cations needed by plants. Phosphate ranged between 13-15% P2O5, Calcium 26-29% CaO
and Magnesium and about 8% MgO. As a source of nutrients, Pugam could provide
macro nutrients such as P, Ca, Mg, and Si, and micro elements such as Cu, Zn, and B.
Pugam can also reduce soil acidity because of containing basic materials, so that the plant
roots can grow better.
Pugam enriched with materials rich in polyvalent cations, which serve as the
central coordination complex compounds. Polyvalent cations are metal cations, such as Fe
and Al, which have a triple positive charge. The function of polyvalent cations in the
process of complex substance formation is to bind several organic substances becoming
more stable compounds and less toxic to plants. Polyvalent cations tend to form bonds
polidentat, which occupies 2 or more organic ligands (Bohn et al. 1979). Every cation of
Fe or Al at most can bind 6 organic ligands. The positive charges of polyvalent cation that
are not occupied by organic ligands, will serve as new site sorption that can adsorb
phosphate anions. P sorption on that new site sorption will prevent P anion from easily
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Subiksa
leach out. Polyvalent cations in Pugam have several functions such as: 1) Neutralize
phenolic organic acids that are toxic to plants, 2) Reduce carbon emissions due to peat
becomes more stable and less prone to decomposition; 3) Improve efficiency of P
fertilizer trough developing new positive charges that can adsorb P from fertilization.
Prospect of Pugam used as nutrients source and ameliorant in farming peat land is
very possible because Pugam is made of waste or by product of steel industry and low
cost grade C of phosphate rock. Slag, a waste of steel industry, contains iron, calcium, and
magnesium oxides, and silicate and this material is available abundantly in Indonesia.
Meanwhile grade C phosphate rock is also rich in sesquioxide and can be obtained by low
cost. Therefore Pugam can also be produced with low cost and environmentally friendly.
THE ROLE OF PUGAM IN SUSTAINABLE PEATLAND

MANAGEMENT
Pugam Effect on Carbon Emissions
Efficacy test of Pugam in suppressing carbon emission had been carried out in
green house and in the field. The result showed that the application of Pugam on hemic
peat decreased CO2 emission by 47-58% in green house. Meanwhile direct application of
Pugam in the field at South Kalimantan reduced CO2 emission as much as 29.7% and CH4
emission by 51.6%. Demplot activity of Pugam in Central Kalimantan showed that Pugam
decreased CO2 emission by 20.2-22.3%. In peat land of Jambi, Pugam application
decreased CO2 emission by 41.6%.
Figure 2. Effect of Pugam treatment on flux of CO2 on hemic peat soil in green house
As mentioned above, the roles of Pugam in reducing carbon emissions was by
provision of polyvalent cations functioning as core of complex substance. Formation of
complex substance from organic ligans, both of alifatic and aromatic, would prevent
further decomposing process by microbial activities. Complex substance formation would
178
reduce CO2 emissions compared to untreated peat. Decomposition process was one of the
ways to cause peat losses and subsidences that threaten sustainability of agriculture on
peatland.
Tabel 2. Comparison of several ameliorant treatment effects on CO2 and CH4 emissions
on peatland in South Kalimantan
Treatment
Control
Husk ash
Manure
Pugam A
Pugam T
Mineral soil
CO2
Emissions (t ha-1
Reduced (%)
season-1)
20.6
18.6
14.3
14.4
19.2
15.8
9.4
30.4
29.7
6.5
23.2
CH4
Emissions (kg
Reduced (%)
ha-1 season-1)
620.9
289.8
294.6
300.4
272.7
373.1
53.3
52.5
51.6
56.1
39.9
Pugam Effect on Nutrient Leaching

Peat is considered to have very low positive charge, therefore, sorption capacity of
negatively charged nutrients such as phosphate, sulphate, and nitrate is also very low.
Most of these anions will remain in soil solution and prone to leach out from the root
zone. Phosphate fertilization on peat land should be done more frequently with lower rate
to avoid nutrient leaching. Subiksa et al. (2011) reported that Pugam could reduce
phosphate leaching significantly compared to using conventional NPK fertilizer (Fig. 3).
Figure 3. Concentration of several nutrients of water taken from pot base after 21 days
Pugam and other treatment application.
Phosphate anions (PO43-, HPO42-, H2PO4-) concentration in water taken from pot
base was very high in the conventional NPK treatment, meanwhile phosphate
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Subiksa
concentration in Pugam treatment (with same P rate) was much lower. The similar trend
was also observed 7 for other anion such as sulphate and nitrate. There were several
possible reasons for this phenomenon namely: 1) Pugam was slow released P source and
2) Pugam developed new positively charge site on polyvalent cation so that phosphate
anion sorption capacity increased. Thus, Pugam application on peat would improve the
efficiency of P fertilizer use and reduce P loss trough leaching process and in the same
time increase P uptake by plant.
Figure 4. Crops response of Pugam treatment on peat soil expressed by biomass dry
matter.
Pugam Effect on Plant Growth
Pugam serves not only as fertilizer but also as ameliorant for soil condition and
plant growth improvement. As fertilizer, Pugam provides macronutrient such as P, Ca,
Mg, and Si, and micro nutrient such as Cu, Zn, B, Fe, and Mn for optimum plant growth.
These entire nutrients are absolutely lack on peat soil, thus it should be added as fertilizer.
As ameliorant, Pugam is able to neutralize or at least reduce phenolic acid concentration
and improve soil acidity
Subiksa et al. (2010) reported that Pugam treatment on peat soil increased corn
growth very significantly. It was likely due to better root development because of
improvement of soil condition. It presumed that concentration of toxic organic compound
has declined, thus corn root can grow better. Meanwhile corn with conventional NPK
(with same rate of P) fertilizer showed stunted growth and severely nutrient deficiency
symptom.
Pugam A showed the best growth performance among 5 Pugam formula. Crop
performance with Pugam A showed no deficiency symptom; meanwhile the others
180
showed slight Mg deficiency. Pugam A with doses of 320, 640, and 960 kg ha-1 increased
plant height by 126, 170, and 177% and biomass dry matter weight increased 17, 35, and
29 folds compared to conventional fertilizers treatment.
Field verification test of Pugam effectiveness on peat land had been carried out in 4
provinces in Sumatera and Kalimantan. The results revealed that Pugam effectively
increased corn, paddy, rubber, and palm oil growth. Trial in Jambi showed that Pugam
increased yield of dry shelled corn by 281% compared to control treatment. Trial in South
Kalimantan showed that Pugam increased rice yield by about 38-50% compared to
control. These results suggested that ameliorant had very important role in improving soil
condition so that plant roots could grow better.
Figure 4. Effect of Pugam on yield of corn shelled grain on Jambi peat land
Trial effect of Pugam on estate crop in Riau peat lands showed that Pugam
increased growth of leaf frond, leaf canopy, number of fruits bunch and harvested fruits
bunch (Table 3). There was no fruit bunch harvested in control treatment due to failure of
pollination. Trial in Central Kalimantan showed that Pugam treatment 2 kg tree-1 on
rubber tree crop increased stem diameter and width of leaf canopy significantly compared
to control treatment.
Tabel 3. Effect of Pugam and other ameliorants on several parameters of oil palm on
Riau peat land in 7 consecutive months
Treatment
Control
Pugam-A
Pugam-T
Chickens Manure
EmptyFB Compost
Cumulative
addition of leaf
frond
15.63
22.00
16.50
19.75
11.00
Addition of leaf
canopy (cm)
62.4
61.5
89.8
84.4
77.5
Number of
fruits bunch
5.54
8.82
7.34
5.41
7.15
Harvested
fruit bunch
(kg)
0
25.31
23.60
23.73
22.15
181
Subiksa
REFERENCES
Agus, F. dan I G.M. Subiksa. 2008. Lahan Gambut: Potensi untuk Pertanian dan Aspek
Lingkungan. Balai Penelitian Tanah dan Word Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF),
Bogor.
Bohn, H.L., B.L. MacNeal, and G.A. O'Connor, 1979. Soil Chemistry. A Wiley Interscience Publication. John Wiley and Son.
Hooijer, A., M. Silvius, , H. Wsten, and S. Page. 2006. PEAT-CO2, Assessment of CO2
emissions from drained peatlands in SE Asia. Delft Hydraulics report Q3943
(2006).
Kononova, M.M. 1968. Transformation of organic matter and their relation to soil
fertility. Sov. Soil. Sci. 8:1047-1056.
Mario, M.D. 2002. Peningkatan produktivitas dan stabilitas tanah gambut dengan
pemberian tanah mineral yang diperkaya oleh bahan berkadar besi tinggi. Disertasi
Program Pascasarjana, Institut Pertanian Bogor.
Page, S.E., F. Siegert, J.O. Rieley Boehm, A. Jaya, and S.H. Limin. 2002. The amount of
carbon released from peat and forest fire in Indonesia during 1997. Nature, 420:
61-65.
Rachim, A. 1995. Penggunaan kation-kation polivalen dalam kaitannya dengan
ketersediaan fosfat untuk meningkatkan produksi jagung pada tanah gambut.
Disertasi. Program Pascasarjana, Institut Pertanian Bogor.
Rieley, J.O., R.A.J. Wust, J. Jauhiainen, S.E. Page, H. Wosten, A. Hooijer, F. Siegert,
S.H. Limin, H. Vasander, and M. Stahlhut. 2008. Tropical Peat Lands: Carbon
stores, carbon gas emissions, and contribution to climate change processes. Pp 148182 in M. Strack (Ed) Peat Lands and Climate Change. International Peat Society,
Vapandenkatu 12, 40100 Jyvaskyla, Finland.
Sabiham, S., T.B. Prasetyo, and S. Dohong, 1997. Phenolic acid in Indonesian peat. In:
Rieley and Page (Eds.). pp. 289-292. Biodiversity and sustainability of tropical
peat and peatland. Samara Publishing Ltd. Cardigan. UK.
Salampak. 1999. Peningkatan produktivitas tanah gambut yang disawahkan dengan
pemberian bahan amelioran tanah mineral berkadar besi tinggi. Disertasi Program
Pascasarjana, Institut Pertanian Bogor.
Stevenson, F.J. 1994. Humus Chemistry. Genesis, Composition, and Reactions. John
Wiley and Sons. Inc. New York. 443 p.
Wahyunto, S. Ritung, and H. Subagjo. 2003. Map of peat land distribution area and
carbon content in Sumatera. Wetland International Indonesia Program and Wildlife
Habitat Canada (WHC).
Wahyunto, S. Ritung, Suparto, H. and Subagjo. 2004. Map of peat land distribution area
and carbon content in Kalimantan. Wetland International Indonesia Program and
Wildlife Habitat Canada (WHC).
Wahyunto and H. Subagjo. 2007. Map of peat land distribution area and carbon content in
Papua. Wetland International Indonesia Program and Wildlife Habitat Canada
(WHC).
182
18
*)Yoyo
RICE FARMING SYSTEMS IN SOUTH SUMATRA TIDAL

SWAMP AREAS: PROBLEMS AND FEED BACKS BASED
ON FARMERS POINT OF VIEWS
Soelaeman, Maswar, and Umi Haryati
IAARD Researchers at Indonesian Soil Research Institute, Jl. Tentara Pelajar No. 12. CimangguBogor.
*)Author contact: yoyo_soelaeman@yahoo.com
Abstract. Tidal swamp area in the Southern of Sumatra is a source of rice production to
support the national rice self-sufficiency. However, the rice yields achieved by farmers are
relatively lower compared to the potential yield gained in research. To identify the
problems faced by the farmers, farmers interviews and workshop have been conducted at
the study sites located in Delta Telang, Sugihan Kanan, Karang Agung Ilir, and Pulau
Rimau in April 1999. The results showed that improvement of land, water, and farm
managements in cooperator farmers areas increased rice yield from 2 to 3.43-3.96 t ha-1
and farmers profits by 55.4%. The profits of cooperator farmers increased in following
year to 69.6%. Diffusion process of technologies also increased the profits of noncooperator farmers between 12.2-29.5%. Eventhough the improvement of rice farming
management in tidal swamp areas has shown a significant increase in yields and farmers
incomes, however, to develop the recommended technology to the wider areas still faces
some problems on the aspects of land and water management, farm management,
marketing, farmers institution, assistance from extension workers, and the availability of
equipment and agricultural machinery.
Keywords: Rice, tidal swamp management, problems, farmers feed back
INTRODUCTION
The agricultural sector plays a significant role in Indonesian economic development.
During the last two decades, the government has placed a major effort on agricultural
development, especially in increasing rice production. Experiences showed that the
instability of rice supply affected not only the economic but also the political aspects of
the country. Therefore, the production and supply of rice play a central role in food policy.
One of potential areas for agricultural expansion is tidal swamp area outside Java.
There is about 39 million ha of swampland in Indonesia located mainly in Sumatra,
Kalimantan, and Irian Jaya islands (Noorsyamsi and Sarwani 1989). About 20.1 million
ha the area is affected by tides, and about five million ha of is considered potential for
agricultural production (Widjaja-Adhi et al.1992).
The tidal swamp areas in the South Sumatra covered about 961,000 ha (Ananto et
al. 2000). The land reclaimed for agricultural food crops was 34.3% (329,987 ha) and has
183
Yoyo Soelaeman et al.
been inhabited by 73,500 households of transmigrants. Widjaja-Adhi et al. (1990)

suggested that the tidal swamplands are marginal and fragile lands. However, the lands
can be developed for productive agricultural lands.
Tidal swamplands have unique characteristics in which they are influenced by
water movement because of the sea tides. The water depths in the tidal swamplands are
controlled by the tides, as well as by rainfall. Based on the prevailing water levels in the
fields, tidal swamp lands in South Sumatra can be classified into four types i.e. types A,
B, C, and D (Noorsyamsi et al. 1984; Widjaja-Adhi et al. 1992; Widjaya-Adhi and
Karama, 1994). Type A swamplands are directly affected by sea tides and the lands are
always flooded during spring and neap tides. Near the rivers, water depth fluctuates by as
much as 2.5 meters within 24 hours during the spring tide. Type B swamplands are
directly influenced by the sea tide and they are flooded only during the spring tide. Type
C swamplands are never flooded because they are influenced indirectly by the sea tide.
Tides indirectly affect these lands with water infiltration through the soil, however, water
levels are affected more strongly by rainfall than by the tides. Furthermore, the groundwater table is shallower than 50 cm from the land surface. Type D swamplands are not
affected by sea tides at all. No water infiltration occurs through the soil. The ground-water
table is deeper than 50 cm from the land surface.
A major environmental issue with tidal swamplands is the highly complex nature
of soil characteristics and the uncontrolled hydrology regime. Tidal swamplands are
characterized by high soil acidity (low soil pH), and the availability of pyrite, aluminum,
and iron which therefore may pose acidity problems.
In the development of Indonesian agriculture especially rice, the tidal swamp areas
in South Sumatra were increasingly strategic (Budianto 2000) eventhough the rice
productivity was relatively low, average yield between 1-2 t ha-1 achieved by farmers.
Although it has been cultivated by transmigrants for 17-20 years, the yield of food crops
did not significantly improve farmers welfare.
Agricultural research in tidal swamp areas has been conducted by the Indonesian Agency
for Agricultural Research and Development (IAARD) through various programs with
satisfactory results. If the land was properly managed, in the sense that all the technical
problems can be solved by the right science and technology (Ananto et al. 1999), the tidal
swamp areas in South Sumatra can contribute to regional and national food security.
Through some research conducted under the South Sumatra Tidal Swamp Agricultural
Farming Systems and Development Project (Proyek Pengembangan Sistem Usaha
Pertanian Lahan Pasang Surut Sumatera Selatan-P2SLPS2), the rice yield in the rainy
season increased to 3.43-3.96 t ha-1, even in some locations it reached 4-6 t ha-1.
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Rice Farming Systems in South Sumatra Tidal Swamp Areas
Budianto (2000) suggested that to develope technology package, despite many

problems and challenges, both technical and social-economic aspects, marketing and
institutional aspects. To find out the farmers opinions on the rice farming systems
introduced by P2SLPS2 in the tidal swamp areas in South Sumatra, it was required a
careful understanding on rice farming systems, problems, and feedbacks through
interviews and workshops/discussion with farmers. Farmers response and problems on
implementation of improve rice farming systems introduced by IAARD can be used as a
base for improvement on rice farming systems in the future. The feedback to all parties
involved in the development of agricultural productivity in the tidal swamp areas that was
mentioned by farmers should be taken into consideration to improve farmers welfares.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In the rainy season of 1997/98, P2SLPS2 carried out some improvements of land and
water management in the South Sumatra tidal swamp areas using 32-64 ha for rice
cultivation. Improvements were initiated from water management in macro water canals
(primary, secondary, and quarter canals), and followed by application of farming
technologies including micro level canals, crop improvement, and empowerment of
institutional support.
The areas have land tipology of potential soil, potential acid sulphate soil, actual
acid sulphate soil, and peat/peaty soil. Although there were four different types of
swamplands, this research only focussed on types A and B. The type A lands were always
flooded by high and neap spring tides and were managed as wetland rice areas, while the
lands with type B were flooded by spring tide and were managed as wetland rice areas
under surjan systems. Field activities in the rainy season of 1998/1999 and 1999/2000
were focused on improvement of agricultural technology and empowerment of farmers or
farmers groups.
To find out the farmers opinion on the rice farming appearances and issues in
South Sumatra tidal swamp areas, non-formal interviews and farmers workshop were
conducted in the areas of Delta Telang, Sugihan Kiri, Pulau Rimau, Karang Agung
Tengah, and Karang Agung Ilir. Farmers workshop was focussed on three important
aspects of rice farming in tidal swamp areas, namely: a) Land and water management, b)
Farm management, and c) Marketing and rural/farmer institution. The selection of topics
was based on the research results and direct observation to the field, that the rice yield in
tidal swamp areas is strongly influenced by land and water managements, farming
technolgy, marketing, and institutional support.
Farmers workshop was attended by village officials, KUD administrators, the
owners of production facilities (hand tractor and rice milling units/RMU), and the Institute
185
of Agricultural Extension. Some issues raised in this workshop were confirmed to the
relevant officers to obtaine ternative solutions and alternative plans needed to be followed
up in the next season.

The Performance of Rice Farming Systems in Cooperator and Non-cooperator
Farmers
To achieve ecologically sustainable agriculture in tidal swamplands, the farming
systems should follow appropriate management practices, which accommodate the
specific environmental conditions of these areas. This also follows the selection of
suitable crops varieties and species. Most of the adopted crops here were based on rice
monocropping with only one harvest per year.
The rice yield potential in tidal swamp areas in South Sumatra is determined by the
success of land and water managements, crop cultivation, marketing, and institutional
support. Ananto et al. (1999) suggested that there are two factors determined the rice yield
in tidal swamplands: the natural and technical factors. If the technical factor is limited or
less, so the natural factors are more dominant to determine the rice yield.
Based on the evaluation of rice farming in the rainy season of 1997/1998,
1998/1999, and 1999/2000 (Table 1), the average rice yield of cooperator farmers was
higher than the yield obtained by non-cooperator farmers.
Table 1 indicated that the increase of rice yield in each year was due to the
technical barrier factors such as water management (both at macro and micro levels) while
cultural practices were solved. Improvement of rice farming system in cooperator farmers
gave higher yield and benefits compared to non-cooperator farmers. The research results
showed that improvement of rice farming systems in tidal swamp areas in the rainy season
of 1997/1998 led to increase the profits of cooperator farmers by 55.4% from the profits
obtained by non-cooperator farmers. The profit of cooperator farmers in the rainy season
of 1998/1999 and 1999/2000 was 69.6 and 52.2% higher than that of non-cooperator
farmers. Profitability of non-cooperator farmers in the wet season of 1999/2000 also
increased between 12.2-29.5% because of diffusion process of technology by cooperator
farmers through the exchange of information and non-formal field trip among farmers.
Herdt and Capule (1983) suggested that the increase in yield and profit of non-cooperator
farmers was due to neighbourhood effects, where the cooperator farmers in-directly
demonstrated the recommended technologies of land and water management, and farming
management which were gradually followed by the farmers in the sourounding areas.
186
Table 1. Analysis of rice farming systems in South Sumatra tidal swamp areas
Rainy Season of
1997/1998
Parameters
Rainy Season of
1998/1999
Rainy Season of 1999/2000
Cooperator
Farmers
Noncooperator
Farmers
Cooperator
Farmers
Noncooperator
Farmers
-Production
Material (IDR)
383,837
271,224
482,349
395,143
953,123
-Labor (IDR)
434,734
483,225
598,976
452,277
1,004,877
893,427
Total Input (IDR)
818,571
754,449
1,881,325
847,420
1,758,000
1,351,000
3,43
2.65
3,840
2,660
3,960
2,810
1,764,049
1,362,895
2,035,200
1,409,800
3,723,000
2,641,822
945,478
608,447
953,875
562,380
1,965,000
1,290,822
2.16
1.81
1.89
1.66
2.12
1.96
Cooperator
Farmers
Noncooperator
Farmers
Production Inputs
Yield (t/ha)
Yield Value (IDR)
Profit (IDR)
Gross B/C
457,573
The technology introduced to cooperator farmers/farmer groups to be implemented

or not implemented by them in the next season were determined by internal and external
factors, such as the availability of capitals, production inputs as well as climatic
conditions. Farmers decision-making was determined by their orientation in farming and
their courage to bear the risk. Therefore, farmers are partners of researchers and extension
workers who they can evaluate directly the variability of technical and socio-economic
technology that has been introduced, in which the problems occurred should be consulted
to researchers and extension workers to improve and develope rice farming systems in
tidal swamp areas.
Farmers Problems, Alternative Solution, and Feedbacks
Based on the farmers workshop, it can be concluded that improvement of rice
farming management in tidal swamp areas showed a significant increase in yield and
farmers income. Technical problems which limiting rice yields in tidal swamplands can
be eliminated because of more intensive guidance of the project. When the project ended,
the sustainability application of recommendation technologies by farmers should be
anticipated. The problems that were collected from farmers workshop are inputs for all
relevant agencies responsible in the development of tidal swamp areas.
Farmers' issues raised in the workshop were as follows:
187
Land and Water Management

In tidal swampl and ecosystems, water management is considered as one of the key
aspects of a stable and sustainable production (Noorsyamsi and Sarwani 1989;
Partohardjono 1993). Geographically, swampland is located close to the sea or a large
river and poorly drained. Anwarhan (1981) suggests that the construction of canal systems
for drainage is the first part of reclaiming tidal swampland.
Frequent flooding often occurs through out the year in the lower land especially at
the time of spring tide (highest level of tides) accompanied with high rainfall. The water
level in the tidal swampland rises as the rainy season starts usually in October and reaches
its maximum in January or February. Subsequently, it declines in March or April and
remains stagnant until June. The water table drops when the dry season arrives
(Noorsyamsi and Hidayat 1974; Van Wijk 1951).
The lower land is a gathering place of water that contains toxic
elements/compounds to plants such as ferrous iron (Fe2+). A major environmental issue
with tidal swamplands is the highly complex nature of soil characteristics and the
uncontrolled hydrology regime. Tidal swamplands are characterized by high soil acidity
(low soil pH), and the availability of pyrite, aluminium, and iron, which therefore may
pose acidity problems. As a result, the water and soil pHs become very acidic to disturb
the rice growth and become stunted and even death as a results of water which can not be
moved out from the farming areas. All of the problems due to the macro level canals
(secondary, tertiary or water supply canals/village canal and the controlled drainage
canals) were shallowed by soil siltation and lack of maintenance. Based on the experience
of some farmers through trial and error, they have learned that long stagnant water in their
farm land must be removed because the water contains toxic element for plants to cause a
decrease in rice yield of.
Although the micro level canals (on-farm/micro water management) were better
laid out, but the water entrance and exit were affected by macro canals condition under
maintenance to the Regional Irrigation Office. Improvements and routine maintainance of
macro canals will encourage farmers to maintain the micro-canals so that the flooding and
plant poisoning can be eliminated.
Some specific cases were found in Pulau Rimau that was dredging soil sediments
on tertiary canals. It caused excessive dry conditions of soil, oxidation of pyrite, and
increased soil acidity so that the plants were poisoned and pest of orong-orong increased.
In Karang Agung Tengah and Ilir, there was found out a conflict of interest on water
among farmers, due to differences of cultivated crops (corn and wetland rice). Both cases
occurred in the absence of good planning of crops cultivation in accordance to the needs
188
of plant. In addition, the kind of commodity to be cultivated in each planting season can
be planned in group meetings guidanced by extension worker.
Guidance, Assistance, and Counseling by Extension Workers
A farmer group is the group of farmers formed on the basis of mutual interest and
solidarity to face environmental conditions (social, economic, resource, and harmony) and
led by a chairman/leader. Farmer group is also as an organization that can be used as a
medium of learning by doing in cooperation among farmers. The farmer group can solve
some together problems, such as to fulfil the needs of agricultural inputs, technical
production, and marketing, which were guided and assisted by extension worker.
However, many farmers/farmer groups felt that the intensity of guidance, assistance, and
counseling by the extension workers is very less frequent. Many farmers have difficulty to
find extension worker to conduct counseling in tidal swamplands. The extension workers
are generally preoccupied with their routine tasks, or they are completing other activities
in other locations. They complain to too broad territory with limited transportation
support.
Lack of understanding of farmers to the importance of proper land and water
management, so that the rice yield was low. Water Users Associations (Perkumpulan
Petani Pemakai Air/P3A) and farmer group are weakly organized. The extension workers
must do more intensive coaching and counseling to farmers. In case of water management
in tidal swamp areas, the extension worker should work closser to the farmers/farmer
groups through demonstrating water flape gates maintenance and operation using locally
available materials. It is hoped that strengthening the P3A and involving the farmers in
operation and maintenance (OM) could be made more sustainable for the future. All
parties involved in tidal swamp development should find ways to improve the
involvement of extension workers and local government in the development, operation,
and maintenance of water management to get higher rice productivity in the tidal swamps
areas.
Farm Managements
Farmers cultivate their land in each season and it was determined by the decisions
of each individual farmer. Land preparation as part of land management should be
conducted very carefully, so that the pyritic layer is not exposed to cause oxidation of the
soil.
Generally, farmers prepared the land during the rainy season from November/
December until February the following year using rental hand tractor. All farmers stated
189
that the amount of tractor was limited, so that the soil tillage should be done in rotation
and then planting time is not simultaneous. When there is no possibility for mechanized
land preparation by hand-tractor, the farmers will do the land preparation manually. That
means land preparation will mainly concentrate on burning and/or slashing the weeds or
using herbicides. This land preparation way will be carried out with no or only little soil
tillage. Seedlings planting will be done by making a hole with a stick and planting the
seedling in the hole. Without tractor use, the planting periode is quite extended, takes a
long time, and results in more attacks of rats and other pests. It is a generally known fact
that planting rice over a large area in a short time strongly reduces the hazards of pest
attacks.
Most farmers usually cultivate their land as much as once a year in the rainy season
for wetland rice. The land is generally fallow in the dry season, due to labor shortages,
high rat pests, and farmers worry of crop failure. This is quite understandable since they
are risk a verse and mostly constrained by limited available funds for their farming. Like
most farmers in less developed countries, they only produce their crops at a subsistence
level.
Farmers suggested that to cultivate the land in the dry season, it needs togetherness
and cohesiveness among farmers. The lands with A and B flood tide types can be used for
rice-rice cropping patterns and minimum or zerro tillage can be conducted in the second
season. The land with C flood tide type can be used for rice-crops/palawija cropping
patterns and in D type for crops-crops cropping pattern. Cultivating land in tidal swamp
areas much needed togetherness and cohesiveness among farmers so that threat can be
controlled and eradicate jointly (gropyokan) supported by toxic feeding, fogging, and
environmental sanitation. Harvest processing can be done by using the existing processing
equipment at each location (pedal and power threshers) although their number is still
limited.
There are various crops (upland crops and wetland rice) cultivated by farmers in
Karang Agung Tengah and Karang Agung Ilir, so there is a conflict of interest of water
use for their plants. To avoid these problems required meeting of farmer groupson a
regular basis to discuss the technologies of farming, it also addresses to the planning of
commodities to be planted.
Farmers in type A area usually harvest their rice in early July to mid August, while
in type B harvesting begins in mid July and continues until the end of August or early
September. The difference is that the farmers in type A need to plant the rice earlier than
those in type B, to avoid the salt intrusion during the generative period of the plant.
Mostly transmigrant farmers use a grass-knife (arit) to harvest their crops. The main
190
benefit of using the arit is that farmer and his wife can harvest one ha rice in 10 days.
Alternatively, it can be threshed with a threshing machine. In addition, the percentage of
crops loss is bigger than with the traditional practices. Although this method resolves the
labour shortage but the number was still limited.
The use of Banyuasin and Sei Lalan rice varieties (high yielding varieties)
increased rice yields, however, the farmers still faced some following problems:
a.
The good quality rice seed was unavailable because the crop cannot be processed
directly due to lack of labor. Banyuasin and Sei Lalan varieties were very easy to
grow in the field.
b.
Late disbursement of fertilzers and other production inputs in farming credit (Kredit
usahatani/KUT) and the types and amounts of farm credit received by farmers did not
comply with the proposal on Definitive Planning of Farmers Activity/RDKK.
c.
Some farmers did not get input production from KUT because they were not
members of Village Cooperative Unit (KUD) or the farmers who still have arrears of
KUT of previous year, borrowing money from the RMU owner with payments back
after the rice harvest was very detrimental to farmers.
d.
Farmers did not know the benefits of KCl fertilization
e.
High fertilizer prices those were unsuitable with the rice prices at harvest time.
Based on the problems coming up in farmers workshop, there were some

alternatives to solve and get some feed backs for the relevant agencies, as follows:
a.
Selection of rice seeds before harvest as a source of seeds for the next season.
b.
Banyuasin and Sei Lalan varieties are very easy to grow in the field. They make the
local or traditional rice varieties are most suitable for planting. However, local
varieties do not have a potential yield higher than 2 t ha-1 of dry husked rice. It is a
very important feed back for the rice breeders in the Rice Research Institute to
investigate it more deeply.
c.
KUT program is an effort to empower small farmers, so that delays in the

disbursement and different type and amount production inputs proposed in RDKK
affect the success of rice farming in tidal swamplands. This is a feedback for KUD
and Provincial and District of Agriculture Offices.
d.
Farmers should be as members of Village Cooperative Unit/KUD because they get

benefits from cooperatives.
e.
Fertilizers that were used to the plants have different functions. It must be used
according to the needs of the plant. The response of plant to fertilizers should be
191
explained to farmers by extension workers, so that the farmers understand and

appreciate of the function and farmers can make decisions in doing fertilization.
f.
Farmers need counseling, assistance, and guidance from extension workers related to
the dosage, kind, time and method of fertilization. The use of alternative fertilizers
that are widely offered tofarmers in tidal swamplands needs to be investigated.
Cultivation technical issues and solutions related to rice cultivation found out in the
workshop were:
a.
Planting time is not simultaneously because soil tillage was done in rotation so that
the rice varieties vary. Soil tillage should be done in rotation based on water
management boundary, so the time of planting can be more uniformly.
b.
Weeds growth was relatively rapid whereas the labor availability was limited. The
use of herbicides should be adjusted according to the type of weeds. There are
necessary needs of guidances from extension workers (PPL and PHP).
c.
The use of fertilizers is relatively low due to late of disbursement of KUT. This
problem is as a feed back for the local government at pronvicial and district levels.
d.
The rice damage by rodents was relatively high. Rat pest control planning should be
done regularly and simultaneously on each farmer groups. To realize these, the
activities could be organized by the village leader or community leader.
Marketing and Institutional

Marketing and institutional play important role to improve rice production in tidal
swamp areas. The problems rised in farmers workshop were:
a.
High fluctuations of rice/husked rice prices, especially in harvest time. The rice prices
fall drastically in harvest time that was inconsistent with the price of production
inputs, such as pesticides and fertilizers.
b.
Formal economic institutions such as Village Cooperatives Unit have not been able to
act as stabilizers of rice price.
c.
Formal service agencies such as extension workers have not been much helping
farmers to overcome the problems of marketing and farmer institution.
d.
The owner of Rice Milling Unit/RMU can help farmers to overcome the shortage of
capital for rice farming, but the payment system is detrimental to farmers.
e.
Farmer groups meeting were only conducted if there were programs/projects to be

implemented in farmers location.
192
Some experiences in agricultural research and development in South Sumatra tidal

swamp areas showed that fluctuation of rice prices due to relatively low quality of rice,
which was characterized by non-uniformity in color (called batik rice) and high
percentage of broken rice. The harvested plants were stacked at the field for relatively
long time because of unavailable labors for processing. Ananto et al. (2000) suggested
that the quality of rice from tidal swamp areas typically entering the traditional market
was low and only bought by low-income consumers.
To anticipate the decrease of rice prices, it can teoritically be solved by delaying
the time of sale until the prices increase, but farmers must pay back the loan to KUT or
RMU owners immediately. Marketing and rice prices problems cannot be solved at the
farm level. There needs awareness of policy makers and other relevant agencies relating to
the welfare improvement of farmers in tidal swamp areas.
Equipmentand Agricultural Machinery
Use of hand tracktor is one way to solve the problem of limited manpower in the
tidal swamp areas. Without tractor use, the planting period is quite extended, because the
manual preparation takes long time. It means planting by farmers as a group in tertiary
unit is distributed over quite a long time, resulting in more attacks of rats and other pests.
The ripening process of soil requires flushing and leaching at the beginning of the
rainy season. The best method for leaching is deep mechanical plowing (20-30 cm depth)
at the beginning of the wet season, sun drying of the clods, followed by leaching/flushing
using rainwater and/or tidal irrigation water. When there is no soil tillage it will increase
the hazard for toxic componen in the rice plant. When the soil becomes ripe and the
shallow pyrite layers have been oxidized and leached out, the mechanical land preparation
(tillage) will promote the formation of plow layer. A plow layer will extent the period a
water layer that can be maintained on the field. This condition will encourage farmers to
grow a second crop at the end of the rainy season.
The problems faced by farmers from the workshop were:
a.
The number of tractors and power threshers were still lacking.
b.
Drying machines (box dryers), which are available in some areas, have not been
assembled and operated. It can be operated to help farmers in rice prossesing
especially during the rainy season.
c.
IAARD recommends the use of a manually operated row seeder to be more effective
for weeding, pest control, harvesting, etc., but most farmers still use the broad-cast
system.
193
Hand tractors are very helpful in solving manpower limitations. The number of
tractors in the Delta Telang and Delta Upang was sufficient. It should be settings based on
tertiary water management unit to make the time of planting more uniform. In other areas,
such as Pulau Rimau, Karang Agung Tengah and Ilir, and Sugihan Kanan, the number of
tractors was rared so that it was necessary to add by credit scheme or rental services from
specific companies or other regions.
The bad management during the post-harvest period in the wet season will cause
the farmers receive a low price for their crop. Further the low rice price for their poorly
managed post-harvest crop does not encourage the farmers to grow the second crops.
Drying of the husked rice using a flatbed drier with a blower and burner (box-drier) will
greatly improve the quality of the dried rice and will increase rice price and the farmer's
will receive a good price of rice.
CONCLUSION
Improvement of rice farming systems in tidal swamp areas in South Sumatra using high
yielding varieties of Banyuasin and Sei Lalan, proper management of macro and micro
level canals increased rice yield of cooperator farmers from 2 to 3.43-3.96 t ha-1 and also
increased farmers profits by 55.4%.
In the second and third years, the farmers profit increased to 69.6 and 52.2%,
respectively. The profit of non-cooperator farmers also increased between 12.2-29.5% due
to diffusion process of technologies. Even though the improvement of rice farming
management in tidal swamp areas has shown a significant increase in yield and farmers
incomes, there were still some problems that need to solve. The problems were in land
and water management; guidance, assistance and counseling of extension warkers, farm
management, marketing, farmer institutional and agricultural machinery and equipments.
The problems arised from farmer interviews and farmer workshop should take into
consideration by researchers, extension workers, and related agencies involved in tidal
swamps area development.
REFERENCES
Ananto, E.E., H. Subagyo, I.G. Ismail, U. Kusnadi, T. Alihamsyah, R. Thahir, Hermanto,
dan D.K.S. Swastika. 1998. Prospek Pengembangan Sistem Usaha Pertanian
Modern di Lahan Pasang Surut Sumatera Selatan. Proyek Pengembangan Sistem
Usaha Pertanian Lahan Pasang Surut Sumatera Selatan. Badan Penelitian dan
Pengembangan Pertanian. Jakarta
194
Ananto, E.E., A. Supriyo, Soentoro, Hermanto, Y. Soelaeman, I.W. Suastika, dan B.

Nuryanto. 2000. Pengembangan Usaha Pertanian Lahan Pasang Surut Sumatera
Selatan Mendukung Keamanan Pangan dan Pengembangan Agribisnis. Proyek
Pengembangan Sistem Usaha Pertanian Lahan Pasang Surut Sumatera Selatan.
Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian. Jakarta
Anwarhan, H. 1981. Food crops research in tidal swamp areas. Indonesian Agricultural
Research Development Journal No. 3.
Budianto, J. 2000. Kebijakan Operasional Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian Lahan
Rawa Mendukung Peningkatan Ketahanan Pangan dan Pengembangan Agribisnis,
p: 1-21, Buku I in E.E. Ananto et al (eds). Prosiding Seminar Nasional Penelitian
dan Pengembangan Pertanian di Lahan Rawa. Cipayung, 25-27 Juli 2000. Pusat
Penelitian dan Pengembangan Tanaman Pangan. Bogor.
Noorsyamsi, H. and Hidayat, O. O. 1974. The tidal swamp rice in South Kalimantan.
Contributions Central Research Institute Agricultural Bogor No. 10, p: 18.
Noorsyamsi, H., H. Anwarhan, S. Soelaiman, and H.M. Beachell. 1984. Rice cultivation
in the tidal swamps of Kalimantan. In Workshop in Research Priorities in Tidal
Swamp Rice (W.H. Smith and G.S. Argosino, eds.), pp. 17-28. International Rice
Research Institute, Los Banos, the Philippines.
Noorsyamsi, H. and M. Sarwani. 1989. Management of tidal swampland for food crops:
Southern Kalimantan experience. Indonesian Agency for Agricultural Research
and Development 11, p: 18-24.
Partohardjono, S. 1993. Integrated Farming Systems Research and Development on
Reclaimed Swampland in Indonesia. In Technical Pre-Seminar on Lowlands
Development and Management, pp. 1-18. Ministry of Public Works, Directorate
General of Water Resources Development and JICA, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Widjaja-Adhi, I.P.G., K. Nugroho, S.D. Ardi, and S. Karama. 1992. Sumberdaya lahan
rawa: Potensi, keterbatasan, dan pemanfaatan. In Pengembangan Terpadu
Pertanian Lahan Rawa Pasang Surut dan Lebak S. Partohardjono and M. Syam,
eds., pp. 19-37. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Tanaman Pangan, Badan
Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian, Departemen Pertanian, Cisarua,
Indonesia.
Widjaya-Adhi, I.P.G. and Karama, S. 1994. Development of coastal plains in Indonesia:
Research needs and related priorites. Indonesian Agency for Agricultural Research
and Development 16, p: 37-47
195
Van Wijk, C.L. 1951. Soil survey of the tidal swamps of South Borneo in connection with
the agricultural possibilities. General Agricultural Research Station Bogor,
Indonesia No. 123, 49 p.
196
19
SAMPLE PREPARATION FOR PEAT MATERIAL

ANALYSIS
Masganti
Riau Assessment Institute for Agricultural Technology
Abstract. Sample preparation is an important step in analysis of chemical properties of

peat material. Hydrophobicity is one important properties, because this trait can lead to
reduce accuracy of the analysis. Water in peat material is easy to loss by heating. Long
time drying or heating peat material during preparation can cause the peat material to be
hydrophobic, therefore reactivity to water or extractant solution become low. That
condition makes seriously problem in analyzing soil chemical properties, because less or
no reaction between extractant solution and solid peat material produces inaccurate or less
accurate analysis results. The purpose of this paper was to talk about duration of drying
peat material become hydrophobic at: (a) drying under room temperature and (b) heating
in the oven at 50oC. Duration of peat material preparation by drying at room temperature
was suggested less than 36 hours long, while drying it using oven at 50oC should not
longer than 5 hours.
INTRODUCTION
Soil analysis is important step in determining strategy of land development. In
laboratorium, soil analysis starts from preparation of soil samples. Proper preparation of
soil samples for chemical analysis was one important step to obtain actual quality of the
soil (Tan 1996). Method of soil sample preparation, which is inaccurate, causes deviation
in the analysis values of soil chemical properties, thus causing error in determining
strategies of land management, particularly with regard to determination of type and
amount of fertilizer needed. This situation leads to low efficiency and effectiveness of
fertilization (Masganti 2003), so the maximum level of crop productivity was not
achieved. Masganti et al. (2001) and Masganti (2005; 2006) reported that peat material
analyzed under hydrophilic condition has chemical properties in contrast with peat
material analyzed under hydrophobic condition.
Hydrophobic is one of the peat soil properties closely related to moisture content.
Hydrophobic was a condition in which soil surface presents a weak binding energy with
water or a condition of the soil surface on which a water drop did not spread (Valat et al.
1991; Louis et al. 1998). Presence of aromatic hydrocarbon covering peat colloid is
believed to result in low water holding capacity of the peat material. In the hydrophilic
condition, the peat soil had a high capability to absorb water so that when analyzed led to
contact with the extracting solution could take place intensively (Masganti 2005; 2006).
197
Masganti
Water in peat material was easy to lose through heating (Kwak et al. 1986; Valat et
al. 1991; Von Wadruszka 1998). Drying in soil preparation causes peat material to
become hydrophobic (Masganti et al. 2001; Masganti 2005; 2006). In the preparation of
peat material, drying or heating for a long time can cause the peat material to be
hydrophobic.
Under hydrophobic condition, reactivity of the peat material to water or extractant
solution was low. That condition makes serious problem in analysizing soil chemical
properties. Less or no reaction between extractant solution and solid peat material
produced not accurate or inaccurate analysis results of soil chemical properties (Masganti
et al. 2001; Masganti 2005; 2006).
The purpose of this paper was to provide information about the condition of peat
material becomes hydrophobic in sample preparation process if (a) dried at room
temperature and (b) heated in an oven at 50oC.
METHOD OF PEAT SAMPLE PREPARATION

Drying at Room Temperature
Drying of peat material in room temperature reduces its water content. This was
understandable because the water bound by peat material was easily lost due to heating
(Von Wandruszka 1998). In addition, drying also leads to differences in the decrease rate
in water content of peat material. In this study the drying of peat material was performed
at room temperature of 25-27oC with 75-80% relative humidity (Table 1).
Table 1. Effect of drying duration at room temperature on water content of peat material
Soil Laboratory, Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah
Mada University, 2001)
Duration of drying time
hours
6
12
18
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
Water Content
Sapric Peat
Fibric Peat
.. %
262
210
168
134
103
76
53#
50
46
44
Note : # = water content of peat material to become hydrophobic
198
487
367
272
193
128
71#
65
60
54
46
Sample Preparation for Peat Material Analysis
Drying of the peat material at room temperature led to appear hydrophobicity.

Sapric peat material became hydrophobic after 60 hours drying with a water content of
53%, while fibric peat material became hydrophobic after 48 hours drying with a water
content of 71%. Based on these results, this study suggested that drying peat material at
room temperature for 48 hours (fibric peat) or for 60 hours (sapric peat). Thus, through
preparation of peat material, drying could be performed at room temperature for 36 hours.
Peat material heating in oven at 50oC
Table 2 showes that water contents of peat material heated in oven at 50oC to
become hydrophobic were 42% for sapric after d 480 minutes and 61% for fibric after 360
minutes. These numbers showed that if peat material was heated, hydrophobicity of fibric
peat material appeared earlier than that of sapric one. More decomposed peat material
contained more colloids (Stevenson 1994; Tan 1994), so the water was bound more
strongly. This condition was caused only by longer heating which could cause damage to
structure of the bond between water and solid peat material, while the damage of water
bound by chemicals had not occurred at a new beginning (Valat et al. 1991; Stevenson
1994).
Physically, the peat material becomes hydrophobic when wetted with water does
not absorb water or appears to be wet, and the peat material will float when put in water.
Before reaching the hydrophobic condition, heating causes decline rate of peat
material to hold water increases until it reaches its peak during hydrophobic. After the
peat material becoming hydrophobic, the reduction rate in holding water decreased and
relatively constant (Notohadiprawiro 2000).
According to Kwak et al. (1986), about 40-70% water in peat material was bound
by van der Waals attraction, and 10-15% bound by chemical binding. The water bound by
the van der Waals attraction was easy to lose by heating, while the water bound by
chemical binding needed more energy to lose (Von Wandruszka 1998).
More water losses led to changes in the molecular colloid structure of peat
material. This condition caused the colloids to interact to form a new more stable structure
(Valat et al. 1991). The structural changes were not reversible and had a low affinity to
moisture.
The appearance of hydrophobicity of more decomposed peat material at lower
water levels also related to higher levels of ash content (Valat et al. 1991; Sabiham 2000).
Peat material with a high ash content had more minerals content, so that more water was
bound by chemical binding. Thus for the same drying duration, water loss at fibric peat
material was higher than that at sapric peat material, although water holding capacity of
199
Masganti
fibric peat material was higher than sapric peat material (Andriesse 1988; Pohan et al.
1991; Nugroho and Widodo 2001).
Water reduction velocity of fibric peat material was higher than that of sapric peat
material (Table 2). This was due to fibric peat material contained higher cellulose and
hemicellulose than sapric peat material did (Valat et al. 1991; Stevenson 1994; Sabiham
2001). Cellulose and hemicellulose are hydrophilic and identified as organic components,
which were easier to change by heating (Tan 1997). Drying of peat material for a long
time destroys structure of both components, so reduces water holding capacity of the peat
material.
Table 2. Water content of peat material after heating in oven temperature of 50oC (Soil
Laboratory, Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada
University, 2002)
Stage of peat
decompostion
Drying duration (minutes)
Symbol
Water content (%)
Sapric
270
360
480
540
SL1
SL2
SL3
SL4
155
79
42#
34
Fibric
90
210
360
420
FL1
FL2
FL3
FL4
320
153
61#
46
Note : # = water content of peat material to become hydrophobic
Differences in rate of peat water loss also related to content of humic and fulvic
acids in peat material. According to Valat et al. (1991), Vermer (1996), and Masganti
(2003), sapric peat material contained higher humic acid than fibric peat material did, but
lower in fulvic acid. Heating caused the fulvic acid changes faster or easier because of a
lower molecular weight (Stevenson 1994; Spark et al. 1997; Tan 1997).
The decrease rate in water content of fibric peat material was faster than that of
sapric peat material by heating and also related to the contents of total acidity, carboxylic,
and OH-phenolic in peat material (Harris et al. 1998; Sabiham 2000). Changes in those
chemical properties of peat material caused by heating were higher in fibric peat material
than those in sapric peat material. Higher changes in chemical properties henced faster
decreases in water content. Thus the appearance of hydrophobicity closely related to
velocity of reducing these chemical properties of the peat material.
In order to keep peat material remains in the hydrophilic condition, it is suggested
that preparation of peat material by heating in oven at 50oC should not longer than 300
minutes or 5 hours.
200
Sample Preparation for Peat Material Analysis
CONCLUSION
Preparation of peat material both at room temperature and in oven at 50oC caused the peat
material became hydrophobic.
Duration preparation of peat samples by drying at room temperature was suggested
at a maximum of 36 hours. When the preparation through heating in oven at 50oC, the
duration should not longer than 5 hours.
REFERENCES
Andriesse, J.P. 1988. Nature and Management of Tropical Peat Soils. Soil Resources,
Management & Conservation Cervice. FAO Land and Water Development
Division. FAO, Rome. 165 p.
Haris, A., D. Herudjito, S. Sabiham, and S.H. Adimidjaja. 1998. Physico-chemical
properties of peat material in relation to irreversible drying process (in Indonesia)
Kalimantan Agrikultura 5(2) : 91-99.
Kwak, J.T.C., A.L. Ayub, and J.D. Sheppard. 1986. The role of colloid science in peat
dewatering : principle and dewatering studies. Peat and Water. pp. 95-118.
Louis, W.D., C.J. Ritsema, K. Oostindie, and O.H. Boersma. 1998. Effects of drying
temperature on the severity of soil water repellency. Soil Science 163(10) : 780796.
Masganti, T. Notohadikusumo, A. Maas, and B. Radjagukguk. 2001. Hydrophobicity and
its impact on chemical properties of peat. In Rieley, J.O. and S.E. Page (Eds.).
Jakarta Symposium Proceeding on Peatlands for People: Natural Resources
Functions and Sustainable Management. pp: 109-113.
Masganti. 2003. The Study on Increasing Effort of Phosphate Supplying Capacity in
Oligotrophic Peat (in Indonesia). PhD. Thesis. Gadjah Mada University,
Yogyakarta. 355 p.
Masganti. 2005. Hydrophobicity and result of chemical analysis of peat material (in
Indonesia). Jurnal Tanah dan Air 6(2): 69-74.
Masganti. 2006. Sample preparation and hydrophobicity of peat material. Tropical
Peatlands 6(6):10-14.
Notohadiprawiro, T. 2000. Soil and Environment (in Indonesia). Center for Land
Resources Studies, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta. 187 p.
Nugroho, K. and B. Widodo. 2001. The effect of dry-wet condition to peat soil physical
characteristic of different degree of decomposition. In Rieley, J.O. and S.E. Page
(Eds.). Jakarta Symposium Proceeding on Peatlands for People: Natural Resources
Functions and Sustainable Management. Pp: 94-102.
201
Masganti
Pohan, A., S. Soekodarmodjo, and B.D. Kertonegoro. 1991. Research on Physical Aspect
of Peat Material Relation to Irreversible Process (in Indonesia). Research Report.
Pascasarjana Programe, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta. 28 p.
Sabiham, S. 2000. Critical moisture content of Central Kalimantan peat in relation to
irreversible process (in Indonesia). J. Tanah Trop. 6(11):21-30.
Sabiham, S. 2001. Stability Condition and Processes of Destabilization of the Indonesian
Tropical Peats. Directorate Generale of Higher Education, Ministry of National
Education. 63 p.
Spark, K.M., J.D. Wells, and B.B. Johnson. 1997. The interaction of humic acid with
heavy metals. Aus. J. Soil Res. 35(1) : 89-101.
Stevenson, F.J. 1994. Humus Chemistry : genesis, composition and reaction. Second
Edition. John Willey & Sons Inc., New York. 496 p.
Tan, K.H. 1994. Environmental Soil Science. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. 304 p.
Tan, K.H. 1996. Soil Sampling, Preparation, and Analysis. Marcel Dekker Inc., New
York. 408 p.
Tan, K.H. 1997. Soil mineral degradation by organic matter (in Indonesia). In Huang,
P.M. and M. Schnitzer (Eds.). Interaction Between Soil Mineral and Organic and
Mycroba (in Indonesia). Transleted by, D.H. Goenadi. First Edition. Gadjah Mada
University Press, Yogyakarta. pp.: 1-31.
Valat, B., C. Jouany, and L.M. Riviere. 1991. Characterization of the wetting properties of
air-dried peats and composts. Soil Science 152 (2) : 100-107.
Vermer, R. 1996. Interaction Between Humic Acid and Hematite and their Effects on
Metal Ion Speciation. Phd. Thesis, Landbouw Universiteit, Wageningen. 199 p.
Von Wandruszka, R. 1998. The micellar model humic acid: evidence from pyrene
flouresence measurement. Soil Sci. 163(12): 921-930.
202
20
TECHNICAL APPROACH OF EROSION AND

SEDIMENTATION ON CANAL (CASE STUDY IN
DELTA TELANG I, BANYUASIN, SOUTH
SUMATRA PROVINCE)
Achmad Syarifudin, 2Momon Sodik Imanudin, 3Arie S Moerwanto, 3Muhammad

Yazid, and 3FX Suryadi
1
Doctoral Student of Environmetal Science, Sriwijaya University, Jl. Padang Selasa No 524.
Syarifachmad6080@yahoo.co.id
2
Promoters
Co-Promoter
Abstract. Dynamics of the water level in the swamp area in both tertiary and in the
channels is strongly influenced by several conditions, among others: the amount of
rainfall, land hydrotopography, potential flood tide, the potential for drainage, water
management network conditions, and operation of the waterworks building. Those
components must be evaluated and analyzed to support the plant water needs. In the
channel itself it is needed direct observations in the field in order to get accurate
observational data. But this way takes time, effort, and considerable expense. Therefore
the use of computer models to predict and evaluate the performance of the network is an
appropriate solution. This study examined the existing condition and SDU SPD channels
on the secondary block of P8-13S Telang I swamps by analyzing sediment cohesiveness
in the channel, cross-sectional survey, and profile measurements of longitudinal channels
as well as observations of water level in the channel for 2 times in 24 hours. The results
showed that the erosion occurring on cross section roads of SPD P0 (at the beginning line)
was 5,001.5 m3. On the P38 segment (middle line) and P76 segment (end line), the
erosions were 3,444) and 3228 m3. Cumulatively, the erosion on the channel SPD
amounted to 126,713.5 m3. SDU channel sedimentation occurring at P0 segment (initial
line) was 582.2 m3. On P36 segment (middle line) scale sedimentation was 915.5 m3 and
on the segment P74 (end line), the sedimentation value was 1,088.5 m3. Cumulatively, the
amount of sediment in the channel SDU P8-13S was 34,184.7 m3.
Keywords: Canal in wetlands, dynamics of water level, erosion, and sedimentation
Abstrak. Dinamika muka air di daerah rawa baik di petak tersier maupun di saluran
sangat dipengaruhi oleh beberapa kondisi, antara lain: jumlah curah hujan,
hidrotopografi lahan, potensi luapan air pasang, potensi drainase, kondisi jaringan tata
air, dan operasi bangunan tata air. Untuk itu seluruh komponen tersebut harus dievaluasi
dan di analisis untuk mendukung upaya pemenuhan kebutuhan air tanaman. Di
salurannya sendiri diperlukan data pengamatan secara langsung di lapangan agar di
dapat data pengamatan yang akurat. Namun cara seperti ini memerlukan waktu, tenaga
dan biaya yang cukup besar. Oleh karena itu penggunaan model komputer untuk
menduga dan mengevaluasi kinerja jaringan merupakan suatu solusi yang tepat.
203
Achmad Syarifudin et al.
Penelitian ini mengkaji kondisi eksisting saluran SPD dan SDU pada blok sekunder P813S daerah rawa Telang I dengan melakukan analisis kohesivitas sedimen di saluran,
survei pengukuran profil potongan melintang dan memanjang saluran serta pengamatan
tinggi muka air di saluran selama 2 kali 24 jam. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa
erosi yang terjadi potongan melintang SPD pada ruas P0 (di awal saluran) sebesar
5.001,5 m3. Pada ruas P38 (tengah saluran), erosi yang terjadi sebesar 3.444 m3 dan
pada ruas P76 (ujung saluran), terjadi erosi sebesar 3.228 m3. Secara kumulatif, erosi
yang terjadi pada saluran SPD adalah sebesar 126.713,5 m3. Sedimentasi saluran SDU
yang terjadi pada ruas P0 (awal saluran) sebesar 582,2 m3. Pada ruas P36 (tengah
saluran) besaran sedimentasinya adalah 915,5 m3 dan pada ruas P74 (ujung saluran),
nilai sedimentasinya adalah 1.088,5 m3. Secara kumulatif, besarnya sedimentasi pada
saluran SDU P8-13S adalah sebesar 34.184,7 m3.
Kata kunci: Saluran di daerah rawa, dinamika muka air, erosi dan sedimentasi
INTRODUCTION
Tidal marsh areas are generally areas that have relatively flat topography, situated at the
river mouth near the beach, and naturally formed and also influenced by tides on a
periodic basis. Characteristic of the tidal marsh area is very unique when compared to the
technical irrigation area because water supply availability of tidal marshes is always of
high and low tides of the seawater. The land has unique properties that are acidic, pyrite
and peat contents, and salt-water intrusion during dry season.
Based on the data collected by the Directorate General of Coastal Wetlands and
Water Resources in 2006, through studies of inventory data swampland west and the east,
the conclusion that the total area of wetlands that have been reclaimed 1.8 million ha are
included 0.8 million ha of wetlands are abandoned or unused land. Abandoned land is
caused by many things including water system existing network of sub-optimal in
providing its function in water management, because the flow system are not appropriate.
Canal conditions and the water was too old buildings are not rehabilitated, and so are not
optimal in terms of canal maintenance. In terms of maintenance of the canal, one of which
is necessary to increase the water system through a network of channels associated with
the maintenance of stability of the channel itself. This problem concerns related to issues
other than technical, field conditions, the network infrastructure is still weak institutions
manage the field level.
For that, we need a way out so that all problems can be solved in a comprehensive
manner. Besides, it should be understood also that the construction of a system of water /
water in the tidal marshes today are mostly located on the first stage, which was at the
completion of construction of the network only. While the construction of support
facilities (waterworks) is still not widely applied. Control of water levels in wetlands
reclamation process is a key process that must be done properly and correctly. In this
connection, swamp reclamation should use the concept of "shallow-intensive drainage"
204
Technical Approach of Erosion and Sedimentation on Canal
(Skaggs 1982; Skaggs 1991; Susanto 1996) and not "intensive-deep drainage". These two
concepts should be combined with control of the disposal and containment of water
(Susanto 2002; Imanudin 2010).
However, according to Suryadi (1998), reclamation of tidal marsh when associated
with water management and design criteria can be done with two approaches, namely the
minimum reclamation (minimum disturbance), and total reclamation (maximum
disturbance). For the conditions in Indonesia, minimum disturbance approach is still the
best (Imanudin and Susanto 2004).
The dynamics of water in a swamp area in both tertiary and in the canal influenced
by several conditions, among others: the amount of rainfall, hydro-topography land, the
potential flood tide, the potential for drainage, water system network conditions, and
operation of water system construction. Therefore all components must be evaluated and
analyzed to support the water needs of plants. Required data in its own channel of direct
observations in the field to the observational data can be accurate. But this way takes time,
effort and considerable expense.
Therefore the use of computer models to predict and evaluate the performance of
the network is an appropriate solution. Meanwhile, to evaluate the condition of the water
system network in the capacity of the supply and disposal has developed a computer
model of DUFLOW (Suryadi 1996). DUFLOW the model simulation results can provide
practical recommendations in terms of improving the network and operating system of
water management (Suryadi and Schultz 2001; Imanudin and Susanto 2003; Suryadi et al.
2010).
This study will use one-dimensional SOBEK software. SOBEK simulation
program can also be used to: 1). Support program decision-making on a wide river, such
as the Watershed or controlling the flow of the water gate; 2). Predicted daily water levels
along the river; 3). Calculation of water level rise to levee safety check; 4). Calculation of
saltwater intrusion in the dry season period;
In connection with the above problems, it needs to be a study in addition to
evaluating the performance of the existing drainage system in the control of water levels.
In tidal marsh areas also need to canal stability analysis in an effort to support the
operation and maintenance of the canal. The use of computer models have been tested and
developed as it can save time, effort and money. However, the calibration process needs
to be done to get good results with other words that the results of the modeling is almost
equal to the results of field measurements (Suryadi 2010).
205

Description of Research Areas Delta Telang I was in the swamps of South
Sumatra, which also reclaimed following the generation of second-generation design of
double-grid layout (Rib System) along with Telang II, Delta Saleh and Sugihan. (Bogor
Agriculture Institute (IPB 1976). The next design for the open channel system is prepared
by the Institute of Technology Bandung (ITB). The system consists of the main canal
(also used for navigation), secondary canals and tertiary canals. (Figure 1. Map of study
site).
Research
Location
Figure 1. Map of Research Sites (BPSDA, 2010)

By Geographic Region Telang I located at 020 29' to 020 48' S and 1040 30' to
1040 52' longitude. In general, Telang I located in the north bordering the Strait of
Bangka, South of the river adjacent to the contrary, to the east and west of the Musi river
bordered by Telang I (Figure 2).
206
Figure 2. Network map tidal marsh reclamation Delta Telang I (Mega Citra Consultants,
1994)
In hydrological, Telang I region is an area which is surrounded by tidal rivers. The
eastern region bordering the Musi river, west of the river adjacent to Telang, South of the
Bangka Strait and north of the river adjacent to the contrary. Figure 3 shows the layout of
the block in the secondary and tertiary Telang I. Hydrology of the block is determined by
the condition of the adjacent canal, the water status in each canal, the operation of the
door, the influence of tidal and climatic conditions such as rainfall and evapo-transpiration
(Susanto 1998)
207
115
4410 m 434
m
m
LU
2
homeyardan
LU
1
S
D
U
S
P
D
S
D
U
Economi
c Zone
75 75
m m
115
4340 m 441
m
LUm
1
LU 2
S
P
Tertiary
Dcanals
12
5
m
Green
belt
S
D
U
5
0
m
16 x
231.25
m=
3700 m
5
0
m
125 m
Figure 3.
S
P
Layout
D
PILOT MONITORING SCHEME,

INDONESIA-BELANDA
S
P
D
2 Secondary blocks
434
Lm
U
1
Tertiary
canal
441
LU
m
2
Tertiary block
P6 Telang I
Secondary and Tertiary
Block
S
P
the blocks in the secondary and tertiary

D blocks of Telang I (Land and
Water Management Research Centre 2004); (Sartika 2009)
Climate
Climate in Telang I was the tropical rain, hot and humid throughout the year with
maximum temperatures between 29-32 C, minimum temperature of 21-22 C and
humidity between 84-89%. Wet months (rainfall over 200 mm per month) occurred
during the period November-April and dry month on average in August (rainfall less than
100 mm per month). The annual rainfall averages about 2,400 mm. According to the
classification Oldeman, agro-climate is the C-1, with 5 to 6 months of consecutive wet
(rainfall over 200 mm) and 0-1 dry months (rainfall less than 100 mm) (Sartika 2009).
Rainfall
This area is free of tropical storms although local storms can cause damage.
Climate and rainfall supports a variety of plants (Euroconsult 1996). Figure 4 shows the
annual rainfall Telang I and Figure 5. shows the monthly rainfall and ET of Telang I,
respectively.
208

Annual Rainfall 1985-2005
4,000.00
3,500.00
Rainfall (mm)
3,000.00
2,500.00
2,000.00
1,500.00
1,000.00
500.00
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
1986
1985
Year
Figure 4. Annual rainfall of 1985-2005 Telang I (Rainfall Stations of Kenten 2008);

(Sartika 2009)
Rainfall Evapotranspiration Potential (REP)
1996 - 2007
400
350
REP (mm)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Evapotranspiration
Rainfall
Figure 5. Monthly rainfall and ET Potential Telang I 1996-2005 (Rainfall Station Kenten
2008); (Sartika 2009)
Existing Canal Condition
Visually, the current canal is still not doing maintenance on a regular basis. It can
be seen that although the canal has been done "dredging" or digging, but cliff erosion and
the grass so it is possible to keep the canal erosion and sedimentation and soil erosion at
the base of the cliff/erosion on the side of the canal.
209
Similarly, in the study sites in P8-13s is not enough water available gate structure
(flap-gate), although it is still available but it is simple and technically there is need for
improvement. This is due to the gate structure tertiary blocks is built upon public
participation and without the construction of adequate technical guidance from the local
government.
Figure 6. Secondary canal and flap gate in P8-13S Telang I, 2012

Operation and Maintenance Problems of irrigation networks in tidal marshes is a function
of soil, water, climate, water system (network), floodgates building, human resources,
institutions, farmers, and the means of production. Therefore, the initial step in this
research is to identify existing conditions and all relevant variables of each component
that will be analyzed and studied in relation to one another in order to obtain a stable canal
forms to support Operations and Maintenance activities in certain areas. Sources of data
obtained from the main physical data, and land environment by conducting field surveys
and secondary data by the method of desk study.
In the implementation, Operation and Maintenance activities are divided into two,
namely the Operation and Maintenance activities, and in particular to the implementation
of the rules of operation of activities whose purpose to appropriate water management for
crop needs. Implementation of Operation and Maintenance must be performed
simultaneously with monitoring. Monitoring will provide information needed to control
and if necessary change the rules and Operations and Maintenance. In addition,
monitoring can provide information for planning long-term development in the regions
concerned.
Erosion on cross section SPD P.0 (at the beginning) was about 5,001.5 m3. On P.38
segment (middle), the erosion was 3,444 m3 and P.76 (end) erosion was 3,228 m3.
210
Cumulatively, the erosion on the channel SPD amounted to 126,713.5 m3. SDU channel
sedimentation occurring at P.0 segment (initial line) was about 582.2 m3. On P.36 (middle
line) sedimentation was 915.5 m3 and the segment P.74 (end line), the sedimentation
value was 1,088.5 m3. Cumulatively, the amount of sediment in the channel SDU P8-13S
is 34,184.7 m3.
CONCLUSION
This study shows that to achieve the desired objectives in the development of Operation
and Maintenance in the reclamation of tidal marsh, it is necessary to step-by-step
activities, which must be done to each other in an integrated manner.
Results of investigations in the field of erosion and sedimentation are cumulative
values of each channel. Cumulatively, the erosion on the channel SPD amounted to
126,713.5 m3 and the amount of sediment in the channel SDU P8-13S is 34,184.7 m3.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research was supported by the government of South Sumatra province and especially
I thank to my promoter and co-promoters that helped and permitted me profusely, so this
paper can be presented in these seminar.
REFERENCES
Anwar, S. 2009. Water Resources Management. PT. Mediatama Sapta Karya, PU
Foundation Publisher. Jakarta, Indonesia.
Attfield, R. 2003. Environmental Ethics, Polity Press. Cambridge, UK.
Ali, ML., Suryadi, FX., and Schultz, B. 2002. Water Management Objectives and Their
Realization in Tidal Lowland Areas in Bangladesh and Indonesia. Proceedings of
the 18th Congress and 53rd IEC Meeting of ICID. Montreal Canada.
Boissevain, W., and Ceelen, J. Expansion of Irrigation Service Fee in Indonesia, In
Proceedings of the 15th Congress of ICID. 1993. The Hague.
B.E. van den Bosch, Hoeveenars J., and C. Brower. Canals Water Resources,
Development and Management Service Land and Water Development Devision
FAO. 1993. Rome, Italy.
Caruso, B.S. Modeling Metals Transport and sediment / Water Interactions in a Mining
impacted Mountain Stream, Journal of the American Water Resources Association,
40 (6), 2004:1603-1615.
Cornish, G., Bosworth, B., Perry, C., and Burke, J. Water Charging in Irrigated
Agriculture. FAO 2004. Rome Italy.
211
Eelaart ALJ, van den. Land units and water management zones in tidal lowlands of
Indonesia. 1997. Netherlands.
Euroconsult. PT. Biec International, PT. Trans Intra Asia, Telang and Saleh Agricultural
Development Project, Drainage Development Component, O & M Manual. 1996.
The Republic of Indonesia, Ministry of public works, Directorate General of Water
Resources Development.
Eelaart, ALJ, van den. Potential, phased Develoment And Water Management In Tidal
Lands. 1991, SWAMPS II (IBRD) Report, Indonesia.
GP Van De Ven. Man-Made History of Water Management and Land Reclamation in the
Netherlands Low Lands. 2004. Stichting Matrijs, Utrecht, Netherlands.
Hofwegen, P.J.M., Proceedings of the 3rd Netherlands National ICID Day: Financial
Aspects of Water Management An Overview. 2007. Delft Netherlands.
Hartoyo Suprianto, Sumarjo Gatot Irianto, Robiyanto H. Susanto, FX BartSchult, and
Suryadi. Potential and constrains of water management measures for tidal lowlands
in South Sumatra. Case study in a pilot Telang I area. Proceedings of the 9th InterRegional conference on water environmental. Enviro water, Concept for Water
Management and multifunctional land uses in lowlands. 2006. Delft, The
Netherlands.
H. Susanto , Robiyanto. Water management technologies on tidal wetlands in Indonesia in
a multidimensional perspective, Papers in the National seminar "The role and
prospects of development of wetlands in national development". 2006. Jakarta,
Indonesia.
Harsono, Eddy. Prospect of the development of swamp areas in Indonesia, 60 Years of the
Department of public works. 2005. Jakarta, Indonesia.
Huppert, W., Sevendsen, M., and Vermillon, DL. Governing Maintenance Provision in
Irrigation. 2001. Gesellschaft fur Technische Detsche Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)
GmbH.
212
21
THE IMPROVEMENT OF IDLE PEATLAND

PRODUCTIVITY FOR PADDY THROUGH ORGANIC
AMELIORATION *)
Eni Maftuah, Linda Indrayati, and Mukhlis
Researchers of IAARD at Indonesian Wetland Research Institute, Jl. Kebun Karet, Loktabat,
Banjarbaru South Kalimantan.
Email: eni_balittra@yahoo.com
Abstract. The utilization ameliorant is absolutely necessary in the management of idle

peatlands. In this case study, the main constraint of idle peatland was very acid soil
reaction or pH value, and very low availability of Nitrogen (N), Phosphate (P), and
Potassium (K). Objective of this study was to determine the effect of several ameliorant
formulas to increase plant growth and productivitity of idle peat land to paddy. Research
was conducted in the greenhouse of IWETRI in May to September 2011. The soils for this
pots experiment were taken from ex-peat fire at the Kalampangan village, Palangkaraya,
Central Kalimantan. The treatment consisted of two factors: 1) types of ameliorant
formulas (formula 1, 2, 3); and 2 four levels of ameliorant dosages (5, 10, 15, 20 t ha-1).
Ameliorant composition consisted of (1) 7.69% chicken manure+15.58% agricultural
weeds + 76.73% purun tikus grass (Eleochoris dulcis), (2) 33.33% chicken
manure+66.67% agricultural weeds, (3) 9.09% chicken manure+90.91% purun tikus grass
(Eleochoris dulcis). The experiment was arranged in a factorially complete randomized
block design, with 3 replications. Observations on soil parameters included pH and EC
values periodically (at 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 weeks), plant height (at 2, 4, and 6 weeks), and
crop production. The dosages of ameliorant application showed no significant effects on
soil pH. There was an increase in soil pH from weeks 2nd to 6th, and then it decreased
from -8th week until harvest. EC values showed fluctuations at each observation period.
The increase occurred at 4th and 8th weeks. The height of paddy showed no significant
differences in type of ameliorant treatment, but in dosages of ameliorant. Ameliorant
application of 20 t ha-1 gave higher plant heigh than those of 15 and 10 t ha-1. There was
interaction between the type of ameliorant and dosage of application to crop production.
The highest rice production was performed by the ameliorant formula of 9.09% chicken
manure+90.91% purun tikus at 20 t ha-1dosage.
Keywords: Idle peat land, organic ameliorant formula, paddy
INTRODUCTION
Peatland has an important role in Indonesias agricultural development. Peatland is
important land resource for livelihood, economic development, and terrestrial carbon
(Wahyunto et al 2010). However, agricultural development in peatland must be done
carefully by applying proper management techniques, because it know as a fragile land,
*)
213
Maftu ah et al.
that has a several biophysical problems as well as socio-economic constraints for its
development. Miss management of peat land often causes idle lands. It is because on the
peat that opened the longer will decrease the quality of the land, so abandoned by farmers
(bongkor). Besides the improper land management, the idle peat land also due to the
occurrence of fires that alter the natural condition of the peat is hydrophilic to
hydrophobic. In addition it is also due to the characteristics of the natural peat lands that
have low fertility rates and the number of inhibiting factors for conduct as productive
agricultural land from being used by farmers. Socioeconomic factors, especially the
availability of capital and labor also contributed to the occurrence of idle peat lands. One
or combinations of the following properties are indicators of land degradation are:
decreased ability to hold water, increasing of soil acidity, and the decrease in total organic
carbon (TOC) and total N (Anshari 2010).
The idle peat land management needs serious attention in order to prevent further
land degradation. Idle peat lands are vulnerable to fire because in top layer general is
hydrophobic. The utilization of idle peat by concerning is needed to study its
characteristics and resources potency.
Characterization of idle peat land is necessary to know the constraints faced in its
management. Idle peat land has decreased quality such as; acidity, low nutrient content,
and hydrophobic layer that caused by excessive drainage and fires. Ameliorant substances
can act as a supplier of nutrients, and improve plant growth environment to increase,
nutrient availability, preventing the loss of nutrient elements through leaching.
Idle peat land rehabilitation can be approached with water management and
ameliorant utilization such as organic fertilizer and agricultural lime (Supriyo and
Maftu'ah 2009). Improving the productivity of idle peat land is necessary to adopt the
farmer local wisdom who succes in managing ameliorant. The selection of ameliorant
considered local resourses potency such as availability and the effectiveness of
substances. Ameliorant formula is still needed to increase the efficiency and effectively of
ameliorant for functioning it as ameliorantive and nutrients supplies. Ameliorant material
can be derived from organic materials that are readily available in the environment around
us. But still needed ameliorant material formulation to improve the efficiency and
affectivity of ameliorant is that in addition to functioning as ameliorant improve the
environment as well as a provider of nutrients.
The objective of this research was to study the effect of utilization of several
ameliorant formulas to increase growth and production of rice on idle peat land.
214
The Improvement of Idle Peatland Productivity for Paddy
MATERIAL AND METHODS

The experiment was conducted in greenhouse of IWETRI (Indonesian Wetland
Agriculture Research Institute) Banjarbaru. The study was conducted from May to
September 2011. The soil was taken from degraded peat lands at Kalampangan village,
Central Kalimantan. Selected peat land was degraded due to peat fires in 2007. Some
properties of the soil were very low soil reaction (pH value approximately 3.53); 52.02%
organic C; 0.10 mS cm-1 EC; very low available N (11.67 mg kg-1), available P (6.25 mg
kg-1); low available K, Ca, and Mg (0.22, 3.72, and 1.62 cmol(+) kg-1), , and hydrophobic
peat at the upper layer of 0-5 cm.
Ameliorant consisted of: agricultural weeds, chicken manure, and purun tikus
(Eleocharis dulcis) with nutrient composition as presented in Table 1. Agricultural weed
was a mixture of weeds of the site dominated by grinting grass (Cynodon dactylon), little
wedusan grass (Agerathum conyzoides), and kentangan (Borreria latifolia). Purun tikus
(Eleocharis dulcis) is a specific grass in tidal swamplands.
Table 1. Chemical substances of the ameliorants
Ameliorant
Chicken
manure
Agricultural
weeds
Purun tikus
grass
C/N
Ca
Mg
Na
Fe
KA
pH
....................................................................... % .............................................................................
31.93
1.64
0.64
1.26
19.49 5.30
2.32
1.15
1.80
10.56
7.17
44.86
0.94
0.25
1.02
47.66
0.91
0.26
1.02
0.04
20.02
4.45
44.48
1.18
0.08
0.99
37.82
0.85
0.19
0.99
0.16
16.11
4.12
The research was arranged in a factorially randomized complete block design with
2 factors: 1) three ameliorant formulas (A1, A2, and A3); and 2) four ameliorant dosages
(5, 10, 15, and 20 t ha-1). All treatments were applied with NPK fertilizer: 45 kg N, 60 kg
P2O5, and 50 kg K2O per hectare (equivalent to 200 g urea, 278 g SP36, and 240 g KCl
per plot) and dolomite of 1 t ha-1.
The compositions of some ameliorant materials were formulated in accordance
with the treatment for A1, A2, A3 (Table 2).
215
Maftu ah et al.
Table 2. Ameliorant formula

Ameliorant
A1
A2
A3
Chicken manure
7.69
33.33
9.09
Compositions (%)
Agricultural weed
15.58
66.67
-
Purun tikus grass

76.73
90.91
Rice variety used was Margasari. Initially, the seeds were germinated for 21 days
and then planted in pot experiment. Observations were made on paddy growth at 1, 2, 4,
6, 8 weeks after planting (WAP). The parameter observed were.: plant height, number of
tiller, yield components, and paddy yield. Periodic observations were conducted on soil
pH and EC.
Data analysis was performed to determine the effect of independent variables on
dependent variables by using the analysis of variance at 5 and 1% confidence levels.
Differences between treatments for each parameter were analyzed using DMRT test
(Duncan's Multiple Range Test) with a confidence level of 5%. Relationship between the
variables was tested with correlation. Regression equation was used to determine the
contribution influences between dependent and independent variables (Gomez and Gomez
1995). The data were analyzed using Minitab software for windows.

Soil pH and EC
Type and dosage of ameliorant showed no interaction to the soil pH at each
observation period. Periodic soil pH values at the beginning of observation showed no
differences in either the type or dosage of ameliorant. The difference was visible only at
the age of 6 weeks after planting (Figure 1). Dosage ameliorant showed no significant
effect on soil pH, but the types of ameliorant showed the difference. Soil pH increased at
2-6 WAP, and then decreased at week -8 to harvest.
216
Figure 1. The changing of soil pH on treatment of ameliorant type (a) and dosage (b)
This condition explained that until sixth week there was no balance insoil solution,
peat released H+ into the soil solution due to the high buffer soil acidity that derived from
organic acids. According Suryanto (1994), exchange reaction between Ca2+ and phenolic
groups released H+ so that soil acidity.
As well as the soil pH, there was no interaction between type and ameliorant
dosage on EC. Fluctuations of EC in each period of observation explained at Figure 2.
Increased EC occurred at 4 and 8 WAP. EC reached peak at 8 WAP, and decreased at the
end of the observation. The decline was thought to be related to the binding reaction some
nutrients by organic acids as well as by other ions and nutrients immobilization by
microorganisms.
217
Maftu ah et al.
Figure 2. The changing of soil EC on treatment ameliorant type (a) and dosage (b)
The changing of soil EC might be related with changes in pH. Increased pH would
increase the activity of soil organisms that produce organic acids in peat. Increased
organic acids would increase the negative charge that could adsorb several cations that
present in the soil solution, and therefore contributed to EC. As reported by Proctor (2003)
that the changingof cations consentration in the soil solution was influenced by the
interaction of ions with the peat functional groups active.
The changing of soil EC might be related the reduction and oxidation of soil
conditions. In the waterlogged conditions, the solubility of the salts was relatively stable
so that EC value was relatively stable too. This was due to slow decomposition process
consequently resulting no different amount between acid anions and base cations (Supriyo
2006). In dry conditions, oxidation process accelerated faster decomposition of organic
matter, finally releasing the dissolved simple elements. Masganti (2003) reported that the
longer of drying condition would increase the EC value in linear.
Paddy Growth
Plant height at formula ameliorant had no significantly different, but significantly
different at ameliorant dosage. Dosage of 20 t ha-1 gave the highest effect on plant height,
followed by a dosage of 15 t ha-1 and 10 t ha-1 (Figure 3). Increased dosage of ameliorant
gave significant plant height at each observation period.
218
Figure 3. Effect of ameliorant type (a) and doses (b) on height plant
Type of ameliorant affected the number of tillers (Figure 4). A3 formula gave the
highest number of tillers compared with A1 and A2. The combination of chicken manure
with purun tikus, increased nutrient availability and reduced the presence of organic acids,
by fixation of ion Fe that a lot donated by purun tikus. On peat soils in Jambi and Central
Kalimantan, there were five i derivated phenolic acids namely ferulic acid, sinapat, pkumarat, vanilat, siringat and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (Sabiham 1997; Mario and Sabiham
(2002). The phenolic acids have a direct influence on the biochemistry and physiology of
plants, and the availability of nutrients in the soil.
Figure 4. Effect of type (a) and dosage ameliorant (b) on the paddy growth
219
Maftu ah et al.
Increased dosage ameliorant of 5 t ha-1 to 20 t ha-1 showed a positive effect on the

growth of rice. Plant growth at ameliorant doses between of 5 to 15 t ha-1 was significant,
contrary at doses of 15-20 t ha-1. Increased dosage of organic ameliorant would increase
the number of hydrophilic functional groups as well as NPK nutrients. So that it
improvedthe properties of idle peatland (Maftu'ah 2012). Amelioration on idle peat land
could be approximated by applying ameliorant substances such as organic fertilizer
(manure) with a dosage of 4.9 t ha-1 combined with agricultural lime at 5.9 t ha-1 (Supriyo
and Maftu'ah 2009).
Interaction between type of ameliorant with dosage to all components of yield and
yield is on Table 3. On A1 treatment (7.69% chicken manure+15.58% agricultural
weed+76.73% of purun tikus), increased ameliorant dose of 5 t ha-1 to 10 t ha-1
significantly increased the number of panicles per hill, but the increase in the dosage of 10
to 20 t ha-1 was not significantly different. In A2 treatment (33.33% chicken manure + 66,
67% of agricultural weeds) increase ameliorant dosage of 5 t ha-1 to 10 t ha-1 and 15 t ha-1
significantly increased the number of panicles, but an increase of 15 t ha-1 to 20 t ha-1
actually reduce the number of panicles. In A3 treatment (9.09% chicken manure +
91.91% purun tikus) increased dose ameliorant of 5 t ha-1 to 10 t ha-1 significantly
increased the number of panicles, but increasing the dose from 10 to 15 t ha-1 was not
significantly different, and an increase in the dose of 15 t ha-1 to 20 t ha-1 significantly
increased the number of panicles.
Table 3. Effect of treatment interaction on paddy production per hill

Treatments
A1D1
A1D2
A1D3
A1D4
A2D1
A2D2
A2D3
A2D4
A3D1
A3D2
A3D3
A3D4
Number of
panicle
4.0 a
6.2 b
7.0 b
7.4 b
3.3 a
5.8 b
10.0 c
6.0 b
4.7 a
6.3 b
6.7 b
10.0 c
Number of filled
grain
26.3 b
51.0 cd
51.0 cd
50.0 cd
33.3 b
34.3 b
44.3 c
9.3 a
38.7 b
67.7 d
70.7 d
62.7 d
Presentation grain
content (%)
32.48 b
69.21 de
63.67 d
61.98 d
47.28c
62.54 d
71.59 e
21.06 a
62.49 d
76.76 e
70.46 de
83.86 e
Grain weight (g)

4.6 a
7.6 a
10.3 b
10.2 b
6.3 a
6.7 ab
11.2 bc
9.9b
4.9 a
7.3 ab
10.4 b
16.2 c
Description of; A1 = 7.69% chicken manure + 15.58% agricultural weeds + 76.73% purun tikus, A2 = 33.33%
chicken manure + 66, 67% of agricultural weeds, A3 = 9.09% chicken manure + 91.91%
purun tikus, D1 = 5 t /ha, D2 = 10 t / ha, D3 = 15 t / ha, D4 = 20 t ha-1. Numbers followed by
the same letter in the same column indicates no significant difference based DMRT = 5%.
220
The highest grain yield was obtained on A3 formula (9.09% chicken

manure+91.91% purun tikus) with dosege 20 t ha-1. It followed by the A2 (33.33%
chicken manure + 66.67% of agricultural weeds) at a dose of 15 t ha-1 (D3) that was not
significantly different from A3 (9.09% chicken manure + 91.91% purun tikus) at doses of
15 t ha-1 (D3), A1 (7.69% chicken manure + 15.58% agricultural weed + 76.73% of purun
tikus) at doses of 15 t ha-1 and A1 at a dose of 20 t ha-1.
Application A3 formula (9.09% chicken manure + 91.91% purun tikus) at dosege
20 t ha-1 gave higher in grain yield as 16.2 g pot-1. A3 formula could donate Fe ions that
derived from purun tikus, which has role in the formation of complexes with organic
acids, so that reduced the negative influence of organic acids. As reported by Suastika et
al. (2006), ameliorant application iron-contained minerals able to increase the paddy yield
in peatlands from 0.78 g pot-1 (control) to 13.85 g pot-1. Ameliorant containing polyvalent
cations real able to increase plant height, number of tillers, root weight, mass weight, root
length and weight of grain and reduced the percentage of empty grain (Kurniawan and
Widodo 2009).
CONCLUSIONS
The dosage of ameliorant showed no significant effect on soil pH. Soil pH increased at
second untill sixth weeks, then it decreased at eigth week until harvest. EC values showed
fluctuations at each observation period. The peak value was reached at weeks 4 and 8. The
height of paddy showed no significant differences on treatment of ameliorant type, but on
dosages of amelioration. Ameliorant application of 20 t ha-1 gave the highest plant height,
followed by dosages of 15 and 10 t ha-1. There was interaction between the type of
ameliorant and dosage to crop production. The highest rice production was obtained on
the ameliorant formula of 9.09% chicken manure + 90.91% purun tikus at 20 t ha-1
dosage.
REFERENCES
Anshari, G.Z. 2010. A preliminary assessment of peat degradation in West Kalimantan.
Biogeosciences Discuss. 7;3503-3520.
Gomez, K.A. and A.A. Gomez. 1995. Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research.
Second Edition. Sjamsuddin dan J.S. Baharsjah (translator). University of
Indonesia.
Kurniawan, Y. dan Widodo. 2009. Performance of four local varieties of rice through
giving ameliorant Ultisol, rice husk ash, and dolomite in peatlands. Jurnal Akta.
Vol. 12. No. 1. 45-50.
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Maftuah, E. 2012. Amelioration of Degraded Peatlands and The Effect on Production of

Sweet Corn. Dissertation. Postgraduate Program. UGM. Yogyakarta.
Mario, M.D. dan S. Sabiham. 2002. The use of mineral soils enriched by material that
high Fe as ameliorant in increasing the production and stability of the peat. Jurnal
Agroteksos 2(1): 35-45.
Masganti, 2003. Study of effort to improve the supply of phosphate in peat oligotrofik.
Dissertation. Post Graduated Program. University of Gadjah Mada. Yogyakarta.
350pp.
Proctor, M.C.F. 2003. Malham tam moss: The surface water chemistry of an
ombrotrophic bog. Field Studies. 10:553-578.
Sabiham, S. 1997. Use of Selected Cations for Controlling Toxic phenolic acids in peat.
J.Il. Pert. 7(1):1-7.
Suastika, I.W., S. Sabiham, and D. Ardi. 2006. Effect of mixing mineral soil containing
pyrite in the peat soil on the growth and yield of rice. Jurnal Ilmu-ilmu Pertanian
Indonesia. Vol. 8. No. 2. Hal. 99-109.
Suryanto. 1994. Improvement of the P nutrient status of tropical ombrogenous peat soils
from Pontianak, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Phd Thesis. Universiteit Gent. 216
halaman.
Supriyo, A. dan E. Maftu'ah 2009. Rehabilitation Technology of Idle Peatland for Rice
Cultivation. Jurnal Tanah dan Lingkungan. IX(1).
Supriyo, A. 2006. Impacts of Flooding, Leaching, and Ameliorant to Chemical Properties
and Yield of Rice (Pangkoh Case Study, Central Kalimantan). Dissertation.
Postgraduated Program. UGM. Yogyakarta.
Wahyunto, W. Supriatna, and F. Agus. 2010. Land use change and recommendation for
sustainable development of peatland for agriculture. Case study at Kubu Raya and
Pontianak Districts, West Kalimantan. Indonesian Journal of Agricultural Science
I. 1 (1), 32-40.
222
22
IDENTIFICATION OF LOWLAND IRRIGATION

CONDITION ON IRRIGATION NETWORK KRUENG
ACEH AND KRUENG JREU IN ACEH BESAR
Deddy Erfandi
IAARD Researcher at Indonesian Soil Research Institute,JL. Tentara Pelajar 12, Cimanggu.
Bogor. Email: deddyerfandi@yahoo.co.id
Abstract. Earthquake and tsunami on December 24, 2004 had caused many damages to
infrastructure, including agricultural facilities. Damages on the agricultural infrastructures
have an impact on crops productivity, especially rice fields. To identify the condition of
the paddy field irrigation infrastructure, field observations had been carried out. Survey
locations are on irrigation network (IN) of Krueng Aceh and Krueng Jreu in Aceh Besar.
Infrastructures observed were irrigation and drainage systems, and the channels direct to
paddy fields. Observation was also made on soil properties from multiple locations.
Observation results informed that there were three conditions of Krueng Aceh IN areas:
good (about 3,283 ha or 50%), moderate (about 657 ha or10%), and somewhat poor
(about 2,626 ha or 40%). In additon, irrigation conditions in the Krueng Jreu IN were: still
in good condition (about 1,890 ha or 60%), moderate (315 ha or 10%), somewhat poor
(about 945 ha or 30%). Reduced irrigation condition can cause by damaging to upstream
area, changes in vegetation density in the hills/mountains up stream. While in the down
stream irrigation is reduced due to damage to irrigation infrastructure. This is caused by
human and natural influences such as house hold garbage, and earthquakes. Direct human
influence resulted inseveral things, among others: 1) the accumulation of garbage,
especially drainage and water gates, and 2) loss/destruction of the water gate. Effect of
human nature directly and indirectly include: 1) the building is old, 2) flood, 3)
sedimentation, and 4) the growth of weed sand algae in water bodies.
Keywords: Lowland, infrastructure, Krueng Aceh, Krueng Jreu, Aceh Besar
Abstrak. Gempa dan tsunami 24 Desember 2004 telah menyebabkan banyak kerusakan
infrastruktur, termasuk infrastruktur pertanian. Kerusakan infrastruktur pertanian
berdampak pada produktivitas tanaman, khususnya padi sawah. Untuk mengidentifikasi
kondisi bidang infrastruktur irigasi sawah telah dilakukan observasi lapangan. Lokasi
Survei Infrastruktur berada di jaringan irigasi (DI) Krueng Aceh dan Krueng Jreu di
Aceh Besar. Infrastruktur yang diamati adalah sistem irigasi, drainase, dan saluran yang
langsung ke sawah dan juga sifat-sifat tanah dari beberapa lokasi. Hasil observasi,
daerah irigasi (DI) Krueng Aceh memiliki sekitar 3.283 ha (50%) saluran irigasi dalam
kondisi baik, 657 ha (10%) kondisi sedang, dan 2.626 ha (40%) dengan kondisi kurang
baik. Sedangkan DI Krueng Jreu memiliki sekitar 1.890 ha (60%) dari daerah irigasi
masih dalam kondisi baik, 315 ha (10%) dalam kondisi sedang, dan 945 ha (30%) dalam
kondisi kurang baik. Kondisi saluran dan air irigasi yang jelek dapat disebabkan
kerusakan ke daerah hulu, akibat berkurangnya kerapatan vegetasi di
perbukitan/pegunungan hulu. Sementara di hilir air irigasi berkurang akibat rusaknya
223
Erfandi
infrastruktur irigasi. Hal ini disebabkan oleh pengaruh manusia dan alam seperti sampah
rumah tangga, dan gempa bumi. Pengaruh manusia secara langsung menghasilkan
beberapa hal, antara lain: 1) akumulasi sampah, terutama drainase dan pintu air, dan 2)
kerugian/kerusakan pintu air. Pengaruh sifat manusia secara tidak langsung meliputi: 1)
bangunan tua, 2) banjir, 3) sedimentasi, dan 4) pertumbuhan gulma dan alga dalam
badan air.
Kata kunci: Padi sawah, infrastruktur, Krueng Aceh, Krueng Jreu, Aceh Besar
INTRODUCTION
Tsunami occurrence in December 2004, Aceh Province has a lot of infrastructure damage
non-agricultural and agricultural fields. Agriculture include loss off farm land due to sea
water permanently sub merged, damage to farm land by erosion, increased salinity
(salinity) of land and destruction of irrigation and drainage systems. With the destruction
of irrigation systems lead to disruption of the system of production and marketing of
agricultural products.
NAD Province, with a total area of 5.5 million ha has irrigated fields (technical,
semi-technical, villages, rain, tides, andvalley) area of 336,017 has pread across the length
and north west coast area of 156,458 ha and in the east coast area of 179,559 ha. Rice
fields with technical and semi-technical irrigation has a 139,139 ha, is generally found
successively in Pidie, North Aceh, and Aceh Besar, N agan Raya, Bireun, West Aceh and
East Aceh. There rain fed area of 127,090 ha, 70,190 ha of which are on the east coast, the
remaining area of 56,900 ha located on the west coast and north (Central Bureau of
Statistics 2003).
Irrigation and drainage infrastructure is essential in supporting the farming system
of paddy rice and soybeans in particular in Aceh Besar district. Of infrastructure damaged
by the earth quake and tsunami cause drice and soybean productivity decline. Poor
drainage on rice cultivation can cause flooding, heavy rainfall event. Flooding and excess
water causes the plant is damaged and lost crops. Conversely, if rainfall decreases, there
will be droughts; water shortages as a result field (Schmidt and Fergusson 1951;
Thornthwaite and Mather 1957; Oldeman 1975)
This paper discusses the condition of irrigating rice fields after the tsunamiaffected. It aims to identify the barrier sand irrigation infrastructure area barrier to
increasing the productivity of rice and soybeans. Besides, it is expected to be a guideline
for increasing productivity of rice plants for planner sand policy makers Aceh Besar
district.
224
Identification of Lowland Irrigation Condition
METHODOLOGY
Location Observation
Observations identification irrigation network (IN) conducted in Aceh Besar
district. Irrigated area observed is Krueng Aceh, and Krueng Jreuin Aceh Besar district.
Limit observation coordinates are 95o.15'. 0-96o46 '10" East Longitude and 5o40'03"-5o10
'30" South Latitude (Bakosurtanal 1978).
The area includes the location of observation and trial demonstration plots that
have been determined by the survey team BPTP NAD. Site names and coordinates are
listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Site and coordinate observations in Aceh Besar District
No.
1.
2.
Site location
Empetring
Naga Umbang
Object
Trial dan Demo
Demo
Coordinate
N 5o 28 40,1 ; E 95o 20 46,5
N 5o 28 8,9 ; E 95o 15 41,3
Research Method
In observing infrastructure irrigation network (IN) based on the area IN managed
by the Central Government (Balai Wilayah sungai Sumatera I 2007). Observations IN
carried from upstream/dam to secondary, splitter/tap channel and channels to rice field. To
determine the constraints faced by paddy fields is away of seeing and judging from the
condition of the infrastructure IN such as channels of sluices and water supply. This
observation is based on the damage assessment procedures issued by the Department of
Public Works (Balai Wilayah Sungai Sumatera I 2007). IN observation area and
functional area are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Irrigation area of observation areas in Aceh Besar district
No
Irrigation Network
Functional area (ha)
Krueng Jreu
3,150
Krueng Aceh
6,566
Sumber: Peta Ihktisar DI, PU Pengairan, 2006

Infrastructure Irrigation
225
Erfandi
Irrigating rice fields in Aceh Besar Districtis generally influenced by large

irrigation areas are IN KruengAceh and IN Krueng Jreu (Figure 1). But not all can be
irrigated paddy field well; this is because the water flow is obstructed. These barriers
mainly because many paddy fields converted into the building, so the building closed
channels in the region such as IN Krueng Jeu and Krueng Aceh down stream. Besides, the
region is densely populated, so many household rubbish seen on channel
primary/secondary.
Krueng Aceh irrigation area is located in the eastern capital of Aceh, Banda Aceh.
Broad functional owned IN Krueng Aceh is 6,566 ha. Approximately 3,283 ha (50%) of
the irrigation area in good condition. While the 657 ha (10%) of paddy fields with
irrigation conditions were and 2,626 ha (40%) of paddy fields with less irrigation
conditions. Areas with good infrastructure condition located in the upstream area and
irrigated areas north are included in Kota Cot Glue, Seulimum, Indrapuri, Montasik, and
Kutabaro Sub District. The area with the condition of the infrastructure being located next
to the central southern irrigation areas precisely in Indrapuri and Kota Cot Glue Sub
District. While the damaged infrastructure found in Baitussalam, Darussalam, Krueng
Baronajaya, Kuta Alam, Kuta Baro, and Montasik of north, Syiahkuala, and Ulee Kareng
Sub District.
Figure 1. Map of rice field irrigated conditions

IN Krueng Jreu located in the west of Aceh Besar District and has an area of 3,150
ha functional. Approximately 1,890 ha (60%) of the irrigation is still in good condition.
While the 315 ha (10%) of paddy fields with moderat irrigation conditions and 945 ha
226
(30%) in less irrigation conditions. Areas with good infrastructure condition located in the
upper and northern irrigation areas are included in Indrapuri, Kuta Malaka, Montasik, and
Suka Makmur Sub District. The area with the condition of moderat infrastructure in Darul
Kamal, Darul Imarah, Simpang Tiga, and Suka Makmur Sub District. While the damaged
infrastructure found in Baiturrahman, Banda Raya, Darul Kamal, Darul Imarah, Ingin
Jaya, Jaya Baru, Kuta Raja, Lueng Bata, Meuraxa, Simpang Tiga, and Suka Makmur Sub
District.
Many irrigation channels damaged causing less effective in its use (Figure 2). The
water will be reduced through leaks found on a wall or baseline. Besides paddy irrigation
channels leading to stunted due divider doors that fail due to soil deposition on the door.
Based on information from residents, trash and sediment conditions in the channels and
sluice gates will be repaired for mutual cooperation during the growing season arrives and
the water all otments coming a head. This has led to inefficiencies caused by the inability
of farmers to control trash and sedimentation outside watering schedule, especially if it
rains. Trash potentially because material damage boost that cantie up the flood gates and
building permanent damage lines, resulting in flooding may occur if the current planting
season arrives, because it coincides with the rainy season. Potential for planting rice three
times the area is very high, now cropping paddy farmers generally twice.
227
Erfandi
Figures 2. Infrastructure conditions

Soil Constraints
Empetring, this location is the path of Krueng Jreu irrigation, but because it is the
tip of the channel, the water coming into the field very little. Watering the land is assisted
by rainfall, so the existing cropping pattern is rice-soy. The condition has the texture of
clay soil with organic C and N low to moderate, and a neutral pH H2O. While classified as
very high P2O5 and K2O are moderate, high CEC and basesaturation (BS) as very high.
This land is very intensivein its management. Rice plants grown in the rainy season
and early dry season soybean. But the land is still relatively poor nutrient, because organic
matter was not put to good use.
Naga Umbang, this location is a rain-fed areas, so the water needs of plants
obtained from rainfall. There are sources of water that can be obtained from the dam.
However, the water quality is bad. The water has been contaminated with seawater and
have EC > 5 dS m-1, evenmore than 9 dS m-1 when the current drought. Unlike Empetring,
Dragon Umbang has a sandy texture with as lightly acidic pH H2O until neutral, organic C
and N are very low.
Land is nutrient-poor, because less intensive management. Farmers find it difficult
to manage the land. Constraints faced by this area are water that only depends on rainfall.
While the river water has been contaminated with seawater. It is important to address with
organic matter management.
228
Table 3. Chemical analysis of soil data in site location

Site Location
Empetring
Naga
Umbang
pH
N
%
6,8
6,6
0,41-1,46
0,36-1,22
0,03-0,11
0,03-0,10
P2O5
Mg/100g
91-126
7-28
K2O
CEC
cmol(+)/kg
23-40
2-6
23-38
5-11
BS
%
65-98
>100
CONCLUSIONS
1.
The condition of irrigation infrastructure in most irrigation network in Aceh Besar

district has relatively good conditionon the upstream.
2.
Some farmerson several irrigation networks complained, due to the decrease of

discharge. This is expected due to changes in the density of vegetation in the
hills/mountains upstream.
3.
In the down stream, irrigation infrastructure began much damage. This is caused by
the influence of humans and nature. Such as; accumulation of garbage, especially in
channel sand sluices, and loss/destructions luice. Effect of human indirectly and
nature directly, among others: the building is worn, flooding, sedimentation, and the
growth of weeds and algae in water bodies.
4.
Water user organizations (P3A), needs to be switched back one very village.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our thanks go to ACIAR are funding this research. Thank you also to Setiari Marwanto
and Irhas who helped field observation, data collection and discussion.
REFERENCES
Badan Pusat Statistik. 2003. Statistik Indonesia. http://www.bps.go.id.
Balai Wilayah Sungai Sumatera I. 2007. Peta ikhtisar daerah irigasi.
Bakosurtanal. 1978. Peta RBI hardcopy dan softcopy.
Oldeman JR. 1975. An agro-climatic map of Java. Bogor. C. R. J. Agr. Bogor. Contr.
Centr. Res. Inst. of Agric. Bogor. No.16/1975.
Schmidt FH, and Fergusson JGA. 1951. Rainfall types based on wet and dry period ratios
for Indonesia with Western New Guinea. Djawatan Meteorologi & Geofisika.
Jakarta.
229
Erfandi
Thornthwaite CW, and Mather JR. 1957. Instructions and Tables for Computing Potential
Evapotranspiration and The Water Balanced. Publ. in Climatol. Vol.X No.3.
Centerton, New Jersey. pp.185-311.
230
23
1Popi
OPTIMAL WATER SHARING FOR SUSTAINABLE

WATER RESOURCE UTILIZATION BY APPLYING
INTERMITTENT IRRIGATION AND SRI IN PADDY
FIELD: CASE STUDY OF CICATIH-CIMANDIRI
WATERSHED, WEST JAVA
Rejekiningrum and 2Budi I. Setiawan
1Reasearcher of IAARD at Indonesian Agroclimate and Hydrology Research Institute, Jl

Tentara Pelajar No. 1A, Cimanggu-Bogor. Email: popirejeki@yahoo.com
2Department
of Agricultural Engineering, Bogor Agricultural University.

Email: budindra@ipb.ac.id; http://budindra.staff.ipb.ac.id.
Abstract. The objective of irrigation development was to increase rice production by

intensifying cropping season from one to two or even three times a year. However, later
on complexity has arisen as rice demand increases while trend of agricultural land
conversion is unavoidably faster, and in the other side, water availability has been
fluctuating in a manner that is more difficult to handle since it is also linking to climate
change phenomenon. Nowadays, effective water management in agriculture is even more
crucial not only for supplying in a right volume and time but also making sure that water
is readily available for other daily necessities. This paper gives a highlight of water
management in agricultures currently conducted in Indonesia, and proposes a throughout
optimum solutions based on a concept of optimum water sharing to find a robust
agricultural water management for sustainable development of rice production. The water
sharing could give certainty to all water users that for a long period of time water would
be available even though rice cultivated in two seasons by gradually applying SRI paddy
fields in combination with intermittent irrigation.
Keywords: Agriculture, rice, intermittent irrigation, climate change, optimal water
sharing
Abstrak. Tujuan dari pengembangan irigasi adalah untuk meningkatkan produksi padi
dengan mengintensifkan musim tanam dari satu sampai dua atau bahkan tiga kali
setahun. Namun hal tersebut kemudian memunculkan kondisi yang kompleks dengan
meningkatnya permintaan beras sementara tren konversi lahan pertanian tanpa bisa
dihindari menjadi lebih cepat, dan di sisi lain, ketersediaan air berfluktuasi dan sulit
dikendalikan karena juga berhubungan dengan fenomena perubahan iklim.Saat ini,
pengelolaan air yang efektif di bidang pertanian menjadi lebih penting tidak hanya untuk
mensuplai air dalam volume dan waktu yang tepat tetapi untuk memastikan bahwa air
tersedia untuk kebutuhan sehari-hari lainnya.Makalah ini memberikan gambaran tentang
pengelolaan air di bidang pertanian saat ini yang dilaksanakan di Indonesia, dan
menawarkan seluruh solusi optimum berdasarkan konsep pembagian air yang optimal
untuk mendapatkan pengelolaan air pertanian yang kuat dalam mendukung
pembangunan berkelanjutan.Pembagian air dapat memberikan kepastian untuk semua
pengguna air dalam jangka waktu yang panjang bahwa air akan tersedia meskipun padi
231
Rejekiningrum and Setiawan
dibudidayakan di dua musim secara bertahap dengan menerapkan SRI di lahan sawah
dikombinasikan dengan irigasi berselang.
Kata kunci: Pertanian, padi, irigasi berselang, perubahan iklim, pembagian air yang
optimal
INTRODUCTION
To date, agricultural water management in Indonesia has been developed since the ancient
times merely for rice cultivation. As reported by Hasan et al. (2010), the East Indian
Company VOC in the early 1700s initiated the irrigation scheme with canalization
projects mainly to expand rice paddy fields in the country. The Dutch Colonial
Government then established a Public Works Department in 1854, which was then
becoming the sole authority to develop irrigation in the country. To note, the Brantas
River Dam was the first modern water reservoir completed in 1920, which is still
functioning until these days. When the Japanese authorized the country, planted areas of
paddy fields doubled and reached 3.3 million hectares resulting in rice surplus.
In the early years of national development (1960s-1990s), numerous constructions
of dams and diverted weirs were the main civil works in developing modern irrigation
mostly with financial supports from international donors. These times the irrigation
development aimed to increase rice production by intensifying cropping season from one
to two times or even more in a year. Later on complexity has arisen as a demand for rice
increases with population while trend of agricultural land conversion is unavoidably
faster, and in the other side, water availability has become uncertain that might link to
climate change phenomenon. The present government anticipates the situation, which
among other effort is to expand irrigated paddy fields outside Java Island. At present time,
the irrigated paddy fields amounts to 7.5 million hectares but only 11% of it receives fresh
water for reservoirs whilst the rest gets diverted water from river weirs (Hasan et al.
2010).
Nowadays, effective water management in agriculture is even more crucial not
only for supplying water in a right volume and time but also make sure that water resource
is readily available for other daily necessities of the stake holders. In the studied location,
for example, the available water resource is mainly shared by four categories, such as 1)
the environments, 2) domestics, 3) agricultures, 4) industries including drinking water
industries, which use the water as the raw material. With the expansion of population and
economic development and with realizing the limitation of water resource, then
agriculture has to minimize its use of water but at the same time has to increase its yield,
or it ought to increase the so-called water productivity. Accordingly, agriculture has to
find an effective way to reduce water use in order not to jeopardize yield. Recently,
intermittent irrigation is a promising option to reduce the water use that has wide attention
232
Optimal Water Sharing for Sustainable Water Resource Utilization
worldwide (Dong 1999; Massey 2009; Setiawan et al. 2011). When it is applied to SRI
Paddy Fields water productivity increased significantly (Uphoff and Kassam 2011; Hasan
and Sato 2007; Lin et al. 2011; Setiawan et al. 2011). In consequence, in this study it was
taken into account in trying to minimize water use in the rice production.
This paper describes a concept to optimize the use of water resource to be shared
by stakeholders for multipurpose activities, which a main focus was to find a reasonable
proportion of water use for a long period. We conducted a case study in Cicatih-Cimandiri
watershed in Sukabumi, West-Java.
CONCEPTUAL APPROACH
In this study, we define water sharing as a utilization scheme of water resource by water
users in a watershed. A watershed is a water catchment area that collects rainwater, and
part of the water flow on the soil surface, which then it concentrates into a river and/or
reservoirs and the part of the water may enter into the deeper layers of the soil and occupy
aquifers. As for maintaining healthy environment, a reasonable quantity of the water
resource should be conserved in the watershed.
Available Water Resources
Based on the water balance equation in the watershed, the apparently available
water resource is as follows:
Eq. 1:
Where S is water storage in the soil profile, R is rainfall, ETa is the actual
evapotranspiration, Q is surface runoff or river discharge, is correction factor, and t is
time. In order to conserve the water in the soil surface then the gradient of water storage is
to minimize in such a way, so the equation becomes:
Eq. 2:
The following equation expresses the apparently available water:
Eq. 3:
Where, QAW is the available water resource and Qmn is a recorded minimum
river discharge in a period under consideration.
233
In this study, based on the priority water users comprise four categories, which are:
1) Domestics; 2) Agricultures; 3) General Industries; and 4) Water Industries. The general
industry uses the water as supporting material whilst the water industry uses the water as
raw material.
Available Water Supply
Since water for domestics is prerequisite then the available water supply
distributed to the other water users becomes:
Eq. 4:
Where, superscripts S and D indicate supply and demand, respectively, and
subscripts T and P indicate Total and Population, respectively. The total available water
supply delivered to the three activities should meet the following equation:
Eq. 5:
Where, subscripts AG, GI and WI indicate Agriculture, General Industry and
Water Industry, respectively.
Water Demand for Domestics
Daily water need for domestics varies with place, human age and activity in the
range of 80-185 liter/capita (BAPPENAS 2006). Redjekiningrum (2011) used its averaged
value 144 liter/capita to calculate daily water demand of the population in the studied
location. Furthermore, Redjekiningrum (2011) estimated population using the following
Verhults model:
Eq. 6:
Where, P is population, subscripts and o indicate infinity and initial,
respectively, is a fitted parameter, and t is time. The following equation calculates the
domestic water demand:
Eq. 7:
234
Water Demand for Agricultures

Water demand for agriculture or in this case is paddy field represented by the
following yield function (Allen, et.al., 1990):
Eq. 8:
Where, Y and ET are Yield and evapotranspiration, respectively; is water-yield
sensitivity coefficient; and subscripts a and m indicate actual and maximum values,
respectively. The water-yield sensitivity coefficient shows different values for different
water management. Setiawan et al. (2011) reports the real value varied with water
management but in a small range with its averaged value is about 1.285. The following
equation can represent water demand of agriculture:
Eq. 9:
Where, is water losses in percentage, i and ni are index and number of planting
seasons in a year. Irrigation water losses from tertiary canal to the paddy field varied in a
wide range depending on types of climates, canal, water management, etc. In the studied
area, water loss is intermediate about 35% mainly due to evaporation, seepage and deep
percolation.
Water Demand for General Industries
General industry consists of small, medium and big industries each of which has
different water demand. Water demand for each industry could be obtained from
secondary data and its trends in the future can be estimated in example using an
extrapolation model. The following equation calculates water demand for general industry
in the studied location:
Eq. 10:
Where, j and nj are index and number of industry (nj=3).
Water Demand for Water Industries
Water industries that use the water as raw material mainly tap clean water springs.
These will reduce river discharge since naturally the spring water flow into the river in the
downstream. Water demand for each water industry could be obtained from secondary
data and its trends in the future can be estimated in example using an extrapolation model.
235
The following equation calculates water demand for general industry in the studied
location:
Eq. 11:
Where, k and nk are index and number of water industry.
Optimal Water Sharing
The first priority of the optimal water sharing is to allocate a reasonable quantity of
water to produce sufficient food or rice for the population with less water. This means to
apply more efficient water management. The second priority is to allocate supporting for
the general industries, and the third priority is to allocate water as raw material to water
industries. The following equation expresses a system of linear equations that used to find
the optimal allocation of the water:
Objective Function:
Eq. 12:
Where, is absolute error and TOL is error tolerance.
Constraint Functions:
Eq. 13:
Eq. 14:
Eq. 15:
Eq. 16:
Eq. 17:
Eq. 18:
Eq. 19:
Where, A is the area of paddy fields. Subscript mn indicates the minimum water
demand. Subscripts CF is for a conventional paddy field with Continuous Flooding, IT is
for a conventional paddy field with Intermittent Irrigation, and SF is for SRI paddy field
with Shallow Flooding, and is proportional coefficients, or changing parameters that
need to determine through an optimization process.
236
A Brief of Description of The Watershed

Geographics
The geographic location of Cicatih-Cimandiri Watershed is E: 106o398106o5730 and S:6o4254-7o0043. The watershed has five sub-watersheds with the
total area is 52,979 ha. The elevation varies from 200 to 3000 m from the sea level. The
land slope varies and about 68% of the land is mostly flat (0-20%).
There are 15 administrative districts within the watershed. Figure 2 shows 6 subwatersheds along with the river networks in the watershed. As presented in Table 1, the
total area of the watershed is about 53 thousand hectares.
Figure 1. Districts (15) in Cicatih-Cimandiri Watershed of Sukabumi Regency

Table 1 Sub-watersheds and
their areas
Figure 2 Sub-watersheds (5) and river networks
237
Table 2. Land uses and their changes with time
Table 3. Parameters of the

Yield Function
(Eq. 8)
Climates and Hydrology

Based on Mann-Kendal method, rainfall and Evapotranspiration have shown
significant decrease during the period of 1990-2008 (Redjekiningrum 2011), which
effected to the decrease of water discharge and water storage in the soil layers. During this
period, water balance have shown negative gradient of water storage.
Figure 3 shows daily accumulation of rainfall and potential evapotranspiration that
is averaged in the period 2000-2008. In the average, the watershed has an annual excess of
water amounted to 1500 mm, which means having abundant water resources. The both
accumulative values show the fifth degree of polynomial curves. Rainfall season may
begin in the middle of August and last until March of the next year. It also means that
drier season begin from March up to the middle of August.
238
Figure 3. Accumulative rainfall and

evapotranspiration
Figure 4. Rainfall, evapotranspiration

and river discharge
Figure 4 shows rainfall, evapotranspiration and river discharge, and their trends
such as estimated by Eq. 6. Rainfall has has been decreasing whilst evapotranspiration is
on the contrary. In the consequences, river discharge has shown a sharp decrease.
Figure 5 Population and its rate
Figure 6. The area of paddy fields and its

rate.
Population
Figure 5 shows population and its increasing rate and their projection estimated by
Eq. 6. Population is still increasing but its rate is decreasing with time. After leveling off
in the future, population would reach 1 million.
239
Paddy Fields
Figure 6 shows the area of paddy fields and its rate and their projection estimated
by Verhults model. The area of paddy field is decreasing and after leveling off in the
future, it would reach 14.2 thousand hectares.
Water Demands and Availability
Water Demands
Figure 7 (left) shows the minimum rice demand by the population in order to attain
self-sufficient based on the annual consumption of 132 kg/capita. Divided by the area of
paddy such such as described in Figure 6, Figure 7 also shows the expected productivity
or yield with increase with time due to the increase of population and the decrease of the
area of paddy fields. Initially, the expected productivity is 5.87 t ha-1 and then it reaches
7.16 t ha-1 in 2020. These values are higher than commonly attained in the range of 5.98
ton/ha to 6.47 t ha-1. Thus, it is clear that to attain self-sufficient a second cultivation is
necessary or applying proper techniques to improve land and water productivities.
Figure 7 (right) shows water demand (calculated with Eq. 8) for paddy fields with
different available techniques. The first one is a conventional paddy field applying
Continuous Flooding (CF), the second one is a conventional paddy field with Intermittent
Irrigation (IT) and the third one is the System of Rice Intensification with Shallow
Flooding (SRI-SF). Setiawan et al. (2011) and Gardjito (2011) reported data and
parameters of the Eq. 8as summarized in Table 3. It is clear that SRI-SF gives the higher
results in term of water productivity followed successively IT and CF.
Figure 7. Rice demand and expected land productivity (left), and agricultural water
demand (right).
240
Figure 8 shows water demands for paddy fields, the environments, domestics,
general industries and water industries. Water allocated for the environments are to
maintain spring water, ground water and minimum river discharge. Redjekiningrum
(2011) has reported the availability of surface water, spring water and ground water by
means of data inventory and simulated using Tank Model (Setiawan et al. 2003; Setiawan
et al. 2007). The water demands for paddy field and the environments are extremely
higher than those for the domestics, general industries and water industries. It seems that
future water demands of those three items cannot hamper agricultural water demands. On
the contrary, excessive uses of water for agricultures may threaten the others. In this
regards, applying a proper water management in the agricultural side is becoming very
important.
Figure 8. Overall Water Demands
Water Availability
Figure 9 shows available water resources from rainwater minus evapotranspiration,
water spring, ground water and surface water. R-ETP decreases gradually because of the
fact that the rainfall has depleted whilst potential evaporation has become higher during
2000-2008 (see Figure 2).
241
Figure 9. Available Water Resources

Figure 10 shows the available water resource and water demands for three different
water managements, such as the conventional paddy field with continuous flooding, the
conventional paddy field with intermittent irrigation and the System of Rice
Intensification with applying shallow flooding. Since the paddy field with continuous
flooding consumes the largest water then its gap with the available water declines sharply
and both lines would have met around and beyond 2009. It is then advisable started from
2009 to apply other methods of irrigation, which are more water efficient. The intermittent
irrigation is the simpler ones since it only gives water within a certain time interval then
stops for another time interval. In the intermittent irrigation, it is common to give a
standing water on the soil surface over 5-10 cm then leaves it to decrease for 7-10 days
(Dong, 1999; Lin et al. 2011, Massey, 2009). The system of rice intensification with
shallow flooding is also advisable to apply sinceit gives multiple advantages not only
enabling to produce more rice with less water but also among others contributing on
carbon emission reduction (Hadi et al. 2010).
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Figure 10. Available Water Resources and Water Demands
Optimal Water Sharing

As described previously, under the present cultivation of paddy fields with
continuous flooding the availability of water is at stake for other water users in the
watershed. It is then necessary to carry out preemptive measures to apply more water
efficient practices of paddy field cultivation. One possible measure is to apply optimal
water sharing as previously suggested by Redjekiningrum (2011). In this report, the water
sharing could give certainty to all water users that for a long period of time water would
be available even though rice cultivated in two seasons by gradually applying SRI paddy
fields in combination with the other ones, such as intermittent irrigation.
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Figure 11. One alternative solution for an optimal water sharing
Figure 12. Areas of paddy fields under one alternative solution

Figure 11 shows one possible solution to secure the water supply for a longer
period until 2020 in which three different irrigation methods combine in an optimal
proportion. Under this scenario, the water supply can meet the demand side until 2020 in
which, such as shown in Figure 12, the area of paddy fields with continuous occupies
44%, the paddy field with intermittent irrigation occupies 34.7% and SRI paddy field with
shallow flooding occupies 9.3%. Thus, to get a longer term sustainable water supply than
244
the increase of areas that apply intermittent irrigation and/or SRI with shallow flooding is
very important.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
This paper has described an approach to attain optimal water sharing based on a priority to
obtain self-sufficiency of rice in a watershed, which leads to the conclusion as follows:
1. Up to this time, the watershed has a problem with water scarcity since it has
experienced a tremendous change of land uses and water availability tends to decrease
due to less annual rainfall from time to time.
2. The water was still available for water users but after 2009, a tougher competition of
water use among water users has begun and thus, it needs preemptive measure to be
taken in a right time.
3. One important measure is applying a more water efficient paddy fields that can
produce more yields with less water, i.e., by gradually introducing intermittent
irrigation and SRI with shallow flooding.
4. The optimization method enables to determine a suit combination of irrigation
methods to meet the objective on achieving self-sufficiency of rice production.
REFERENCES
Allen, R.G., M.E. Jensen, and R.D. Burman. 1990. Evapotranspiration and irrigation
water requirement. ASCE Manual and Report on Engineering Practice, no 70.
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, USA.
BAPPENAS. 2006. Prakarsa Strategis Pengelolaan Sumber DayaAir untuk Mengatasi
Banjir dan Kekeringan di Pulau Jawa: Strategi Pengelolaan Sumber Daya Air di
Pulau Jawa.
Dong, B. 1999. Study on Environmental Implication of Water Saving Irrigation in
Zhanghe Irrigation System. The project report submitted to Regional Office for
Asia and the Pacific, FAO.
Gardjito. 2011. Analysis on Sustainability of Organic Farming in Rice Intensification.
Dissertation. The Graduate School of Bogor Agricultural University. Indonesia.
Hadi, A., K. Inubushi, and K. Yagi. 2010. Effect of Water Management on Greenhouse
Gas Emissions and Microbial Properties of Paddy Soils in Japan and Indonesia.
Paddy Water Environ J.
Hasan, M., B. Hadimuljono, and W.J. van Diest (2010). Existing status of participative
irrigation management in Indonesia. Indonesia Country Paper. ICID Yogyakarta.
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Hasan, M. and S. Sato. 2007. Water Saving for Paddy Cultivation under the System of
Rice Intensification (SRI) in Eastern Indonesia. Jurnal Tanah dan Lingkungan,
Vol. 9 No.2, Oktober 2007:57-62.
Lin, X., D. Zhu, and X. Lin. 2011. Effects of water management and organic fertilization
with SRI crop practices on hybrid rice performance and rhizospheredynamics.
Paddy Water Environ (2011) 9:3339.
Massey, J.H. 2009. Water Quality-Quantity Issues in Mid-South Rice Production. USEPA
Region 6. Agricultural Issues Seminar Series. 26 May 2009.
Uphoff, N., A. Kassam, and R. Harwood. 2011. SRI as a methodology for raising crop
and water productivity: productive adaptations in rice agronomy and irrigation
water management. Paddy Water Environ (2011) 9:311.
Redjekiningrum, P. 2011. Development of Water Allocation Model for Supporting
Optimal Water Sharing: A Case of Cicatih-Cimandiri Watershed, District of
Sukabumi, West Java. Dissertation. The Graduate School of Bogor Agricultural
University, Indonesia.
Setiawan, B.I., S.K. Saptomo, H.A. Sofiyuddin, and Gardjito. 2011. Wireless Automatic
Irrigation to Enhance Water Management in Sri Paddy Field. Proceeding of
Regional Symposium on Engineering & Technology: Opportunities and
Challenges for Regional Cooperations in Green Engineering and Technology.
Kuching, Serawak, Malaysia, 21-23 November 2011.
Setiawan, B.I., Rudiyanto, Malmer, and Ilstedt. 2007. Optimization of Hydrologic Tank
Models Parameters. Manuscript of the Erasmus Mundus, Department of Forest
Ecology, the Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural.
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24
1Ilmiaty
1)
VULNERABILITY ANALYSIS OF FLOODING IN

RESIDENTIAL AREAS AT SUB RIVER WATERSHED
BORANG, PALEMBANG CITY (CASE STUDY:
SANGKURIANG INDAH RESIDENTIAL)
R.S, 2Susanto R.H, 3Setiawan. B, 4Suryadi F.X, and 5Anggrayeni S.
Environmental Science Doctoral Program, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering

, Sriwijaya University. Palembang-South Sumatra.Email: reini_mahyuddin @yahoo.co.id
2)
Environmental Science Doctoral Program, Sriwijaya University. Palembang-South Sumatra.

Email: robiyanto@lowlands_info.org
3)
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering Sriwijaya University. Palembang-South
Sumatra.Email: budhi@wgtt.org
4)
IHE Delft, Delft, Netherlands. Email: f.suryadi@unesco-ihe.org
5)
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Sriwijaya University. Palembang-South
Sumatra. Email: shepti.anggrayeni@yahoo.com
Abstract. Natural disasters caused by climate change are largely hydro-meteorological

disasters such as floods, droughts, flooding, and landslides. Macro-scale hazard
assessment needs to be studied further in the micro-scale to provide more detailed
information about the flood vulnerability. Floods that occurred in Palembang are indicated
as one of the impacts of land use for residential needs. Demand for residential continues
to increase thereby affecting the availability of land and catchment areas, for example
Sangkuriang Indah Residential, which is located in District Sako, Sub River Watershed
Borang. Research objectives were: 1). Identify residential area, 2). Analyze the
vulnerability of flooding in residential areas, and 3). Design a model of vulnerability
related with adaptation to climate change impacts, such as rainfall changing and sea level
rise. Assessment methods in this study included three stages as follows: 1). Vulnerability
inventory data consisting of sensitivity factors, exposure, and adapted capacity, 2). Flood
vulnerability analysis using ILWIS Program, and 3). Results and discussion. The
modeling results were scenario inundation areas to have potential hazards about 72,923.4
m2 or 77.47% of Sangkuriang Indah Residential total area (94,135.1 m2). The
Infrastructure Vulnerability Index on any type of infrastructure will be different
depending on indicators that exist on the type of infrastructure: the IVI is also affected by
the location of infrastructure. This study obtained that IVI maximum and minimum values
for residential building were 0.434 and 0.244, respectively where the number of houses to
have flood vulnerability level was 153 houses (moderate) and about 199 houses (low).
Keywords: Vulnerability, land use, residential, disaster, climate change
Abstrak. Bencana alam yang disebabkan oleh perubahan iklim sebagian besar
merupakan bencana hidrometeorologi seperti banjir, kekeringan, genangan dan tanah
longsor. Penilaian bahaya skala makro perlu dikaji lebih lanjut dalam skala mikro untuk
memberikan informasi lebih detail mengenai kerentanan banjir. Bencana banjir yang
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Ilmiaty et al.
terjadi di wilayah Kota Palembang diindikasikan sebagai salah satu dampak alihguna
lahan untuk kebutuhan perumahan. Permintaan perumahan terus meningkat sehingga
mempengaruhi ketersediaan lahan dan daerah resapan, sebagai contoh Perumahan
Sangkuriang Indah, yang terletak di Kecamatan Sako. Tujuan penelitian adalah: 1).
Mengidentifikasi daerah pemukiman 2). Menganalisis kerentanan banjir di daerah
pemukiman. 3). Merancang model kerentanan terkait dengan adaptasi dampak perubahan
iklim, seperti perubahan curah hujan dan kenaikan permukaan air laut. Metode penilaian
dalam penelitian ini meliputi tiga tahap. Tiga tahapan itu adalah: 1). Penyediaan data
mengenai kerentanan yang terdiri dari faktor sensitivitas, keterpaparan, dan kapasitas
adaptasi. 2). Analisis kerentanan banjir menggunakan program ILWIS. 3). Hasil dan
diskusi. Hasil pemodelan adalah daerah skenario genangan yang memiliki potensi
bahaya sebesar 72,923.4 m2 atau 77,47% dari luas Perumahan Sangkuriang Indah
(94,135.1 m2). Kerentanan infrastruktur sangat dipengaruhi oleh Indeks Kerentanan
Infrastruktur (IVI). IVI akan berbeda pada setiap jenis infrastruktur tergantung pada
indikator yang ada pada jenis infrastruktur tersebut, IVI juga dipengaruhi oleh lokasi
infrastruktur. Dalam penelitian ini diperoleh IVI maksimum bangunan perumahan yakni
sebesar 0,434 dan 0,244 minimum, dimana jumlah rumah yang memiliki tingkat
kerentanan banjir dari kerentanan tingkat sedang adalah 153 rumah dan kerentanan
tingkat rendah sekitar 199 rumah.
Kata kunci: Kerentanan, alihguna lahan, perumahan, bencana, perubahan iklim
INTRODUCTION
Palembang is the most 20 vulnerable to climate change in Southeast Asia such as Jakarta,
Bandung, Surabaya, Bekasi, Bogor, Depok, Palembang, Tangerang, Lampung, and
Jayawijaya (Yusuf et al. 2009). Palembangs population is increasing each year affecting
housing growth and thus requirement for housing continues to increase. The condition
causes vulnerable wetlands converted its function. Some cases indicate if land use change
occurred in a site, the rapid changes in the land and the environment around the site
happened.
Land use is a significant change fields and settlements. The effect of land use on
flood discharge is wetland and settlement then moor (Suroso and Hery 2006). In South
Sumatra, the utilization of natural resources and land use change are not well managed
will result in the destruction of natural resources, the environment, that it becomes
vulnerable areas (Suroso et al. 2010). The potential occurrence of floods, droughts,
landslides and so have a risk to humans and other living creatures as a result of damage to
natural resources and environmental phenomena such as global warming and climate
change.
According to the IPCC (Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change 2010)
Indonesia, especially in Sumatra region experiencing significant climate change, this
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Vulnerability Analysis of Flooding in Residential Areas
affects the temperature rising, sea levels rise and rainfall intensity increases. This
condition triggers the potential for flooding in the Palembang City because most physical
condition is a relatively flat and low and hydrological conditions surrounded by the river.
The results of previous studies, Sangkuriang Indah Residential areas often
experience flooding due to inadequate drainage and lack of water catchment areas due to
land conversion bog stockpiled and low topography (Bonar et al. 2010). From the
explanation above, an analysis of vulnerability due to flooding in a residential area expect
the results of this analysis to give an idea of how big the vulnerability of flooding at
Sangkuriang Indah Residential land its impact to the surrounding areas.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Land Use Change
Land is a factor of production that is not physically mobile, but the utilization of
the existing land is maneuver determined a maneuver taken by various interests in
development, economic, social, which accelerates the process of change (Waters 2007).
Swamp area that serves as a water catchment converted to enable the development by
landfill.
The need of land conversion has two reasons: first, the needs of a growing
population numbers and the second relates to the increasing demand for a better quality of
life (Harsono in Lisdiyono 2004). Uncontrolled development of the city has very serious
implications for environment and urban economy. Uncontrolled development resulted in
procurement of housing, roads, water supply, and community service to be expensive.
Cities are built on most productive agricultural land and undirected growth can lead to
exhaustion of land (Samadikun 2007). The primary needs for the life of human being are
food, cloth and house. Housing development in was the highest factor as threat to land
conversion. In Indonesia, land conversion to residential was the highest proportion in Java
(Table 1).
Table 1. Land conversion to housing in 2000-2003
No
Island area
Area (1000 ha/th)
Percentage
1.
Java
32,7
60,6 %
2.
Outside Java
21,3
39,4 %
Total
53,9
100 %
Source: BPS Indonesia in Wijanarko et al. 2006
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Ilmiaty et al.
Swamp Land
Swamp land is transitional land between land and water systems (river, lake or
sea), such as between mainland and sea, or in land itself, dry land areas (uplands) and
river/lake. Position of transition land between aquatic and terrestrial systems, land
throughout year or for a long period of a few months is always shallow stagnant, saturated
water, or shallow groundwater.
Housing
Under the Law No. 4 of 1992 on Housing and Settlements, it can be read as
follows:
a. House is a building that serves as a residence or dwelling and means of fostering
family.
b. Housing is a group of home that serves residential neighborhood equipped with
infrastructure and environment.
c. The settlement is part of environment outside protected areas, be it urban or rural areas
that serve as living quarters or residential environment and the activities that support
life and livelihood.
d. Administration of housing and settlement aims at:
Needs of the home as one of basic human needs, in order to improve people's
welfare and equity.
Achieve adequate housing and settlement in a healthy, safe, harmonious and
orderly.
Provide direction on regional growth and population distribution rasional.
Supporting the development in the economic, social, cultural, and other fields.
Flooding
Flooding is the flow of river water flowing beyond capacities of river, and thus
flow of river water will pass through riverbanks and inundate surrounding area (Asdak
2004). Flood is a natural disaster (natural hazard) the most destructive. This disaster
affected a concave to flat, located in lowlands.
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According to Kodoatie and Sugiyanto (2002) floods in one location caused by two
things, the natural factors and human factors. Definition of natural factors, among others:
rainfall, effect of physiographic, erosion and sedimentation, capacity of river, inadequate
drainage capacity, and influence of tide. According to Bakornas PB (2007), impact of
floods would occur in some aspects (mainly in western part of Indonesia) with heavy
damage on following aspects:
1. Population aspects, which include loss of life/death, drowning, injuries, missing,
displaced, isolated outbreaks of eidemic and population.
2. Governance aspects, which include damage to or loss of documents, records,
equipment and office supplies and disruption of running of the government.
3. Economi aspects, which include loss of livelihood, traditional market malfunction,
damage and loss of property, livestock and disruption of economic activities.
4. Facilities and infrastructural aspects, which include damage to people's houses,
bridges, roads, office buildings, social facilities and public facilities, installation of
electricity, water and communications networks.
5. Environmental aspects, which include damage to ecosystems, attractions, rice /
agricultural land, water resources and damage to the dike/irrigation.
Impact of flooding on the community is not only a loss of property and buildings.
In addition, flooding is also affecting the economy of community and development of
community as a whole, especially in health and education.
Flood Risk
Flood risk is defined as the combination of the probability of flooding possibilities
and potential consequences thereof for human health, environment, cultural heritage and
economic activity associated with a flood event (Flood Risk Directive 2007 in De Bruijn
2009). Flooding is characterized by flood probability, flood depth, flow velocity, speed of
water level rise and so on. (De Bruijn 2009). Referring to Government Regulation
Number 26 Year 2008 on National Spatial Plan, it was determined that flood-prone areas
are identified and / or potentially high-risk flood disasters. Deciding factor is the level of
flood risk, flood hazard, class density and productivity value for each land use. For
example, if an area with a high population density and high productivity were exposed to
floods with a high degree of danger possibility of losses is high. In determining the level
of flood risk following variables can be used:
1. Area of disaster risk assessment variables, hazard and vulnerability.
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Ilmiaty et al.
2. Determination of hazard zone to use some of factors relatted with natural events,
namely basic hydrological variables wide puddle, intensity, depth and duration of
flooding
3. Determination of susceptibility zones can be seen from the aspect of environmental,
physical, social and economic to use variable rainfall, topography, land use, drainage,
watershed conditions, and building density and population characteristics.
Flood Hazard
Hazards is a serious disruption of functioning of a society, causing widespread loss
of human life in terms of material, economic or environmental and are beyond the
capabilities of the concerned communities to cope using their own resources. (ISDR
2004). Hazard is a threat that comes from natural events that are extreme can be bad or
unpleasant circumstances. The threat level is determined by the probability of the duration
of the event (period of time), where (location), and its nature when it happened.
Flood vulnerability of an area is an easy state whether or not the area is ravaged
and flooded. Flooded areas are usually located in a flat area, adjacent to large rivers, as
well as poor drainage due to factors other than slopeandexisting soil properties. One
attempt to do to cope with the flood hazard is by doing research about the dangers of
flooding, both direct research efforts in the field and with tools like Remote Sensing.
Vulnerability
According to the IPCC TAR (2001) in Puspita (2010), vulnerability is defined as a
measure to which a system is susceptible, or inability to cope with, adverse effects of
climate change, including climate variables and extreme events are easy to change.
Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, rate variations in climate on a
system without the protection of the sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Meanwhile,
according to Smith et al. (1999), vulnerability is described as a measure to which a system
is susceptible to loss, damage or harm.
V = f (E, S, AC) ............................................................................................................... (1)
Vulnerability (V) is a function of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity.
Exposure (E) by IPCC TAR is the nature and size of the system that are not protected
against danger. Exposure refers to the acceptance of human and infrastructure to a hazard
by location as well as its physical defense.
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Sensitivity (S) (IPCC TAR 2001) is a measure to which a system is affected, as

well as contradictory or mutually beneficial, the effects associated with flooding.
Adaptive capacity (AC) by IPCC TAR is the ability of a system to adjust to the
danger of flooding to minimize the potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities,
or to cope with consequences that will happen. Adaptive capacity is a component that
refers to the ability of a person or group to actand adapt in the face of a danger so there is
no great loss.
METHODOLOGY
Research Sites
Source: Agency for regional development planning Palembang City, 2010
Figure 1. Map of Palembang City
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Ilmiaty et al.
Sangkuriang
Residential
Source: Agency for regional development planning Palembang City, 2010
Figure 2. Contour map of the watershed Borang
Methodologies were used: 1) getting primary and secondary data, 2) data

processing, 3) analyzing, 4) preparation of reports.
Figure 3. Flowchart of the study
254

The level of vulnerability due to flooding in the site, namely Sangkuriang Indah
Residential is situated in the district of Sako. Stage of doing modeling was as follows:
a. Analyzing the flood hazard
b. Analyzing vulnerability due to flood
Flood Hazard Analysis
Figure 4. Housing Layout of Sangkuriang Indah with building blocks

To determine the inundated area, using the formula:
Map floodwaters = if (DEM> = d, 0, (d-DEM)
Scenario at elevation 0 m is above sea level and inundation height is 10 cm
(SWMM5 modeling results). To obtain the value of d = 0.10.
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Hazard analysis produce flood hazard map.
Figure 5. Input data flood hazard

Inundation maps previously generated weighted, value 1 for flooded areas and 0
for areas that are not flooded. Level of hazardswas classified into two classes that
determined based on stagnant or not or, no hazard, and high hazard.
Figure 6. Hazards inundation

In Figure 6, the elevation 0 is the area to be exposed tothe most extreme hazard of
inundation. Scenario results inundation hazard area has been known to have potential
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hazard of the puddle is 72,923.4 m2 or 77.47% of the total area of 94,135.1 m2 Housing of
Sangkuriang Indah.
Vulnerability Analysis by Flood
In the analysis of the vulnerability of the city's infrastructure, infrastructure
vulnerability is determined by the index of infrastructural vulnerabilities, resulting from
the indicators that owned by the materials that have the potential risk of flooding.
Vulnerability indicators used in this analysis were the number of occupants, type of
people work who live in the Sangkuriang Indah Residential, spacious building, drainage
and road conditions.
Infrastructural Vulnerability Index
Infrastructural Vulnerability Index value is 0-1 (Rygel, L. et al. 2006). The highest
index value indicates as the highest vulnerability. The index is a combination of proxie
indicators of vulnerability. Proxie scoring in each of the different indicators is taking into
account how much influence these ondicators to flooding. The greater influence of these
parameters on flood then it's also a great value, the opposite applies.
The vulnerability is classified into three classes, namely low vulnerability,
moderate vulnerability, and high vulnerability.
Indicator 1: Number of Occupants
On the indicator number of occupants, determining proxie using class intervals.
The house has a user 1 person has proxie 0.05 and a house with a user 7 people have
proxie 0.22.
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Figure 7. Map of housing Indicator number of occupants
Figure 8. Map Output Indicator Susceptibility Number of Occupants

Indicator 2: Type of Work
Determination proxie on indicators of the type of work uses a class interval. Public
Serviceused value of proxie 0.15, State Owned Enterprises: 0.2 and entrepreneur: 0.65.
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Figure 9. Vulnerability Maps of Sangkuriang Indah Residential of type work

Indicator 3: Building Houses
In broad indicator of house building proxie weighting is based on the
determination of the class interval house building area. For a building between 30 m2 - 60
m2 has a proxie 0.3; 61 m2 - 80 m2 has a proxie 0.25; 81 m2 - 100 m2 have proxie 0.2; 101
m2 - 200 m2 has a proxie 0.15 and 200 m2 has a proxie 0.1.
Figure 10. Vulnerability Maps Sangkuriang Indah Residential of Building
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Indicator 4: Drainage Conditions

On parameter weighting drainage conditions based on interviews and field
observations at the survey location. The condition drainage of houses has proxie 0.6 for
poor drainage conditions, 0.4 for medium and 0.1 drainage conditions for good drainage.
Figure 11. Vulnerability Map of Sangkuriang Indah Residential Indicator drainage

Conditions
Indicator 5: State Street
Indicator based on interview and field observation at the survey site, which road
condition paved has a maximum value of proxie 0.6 and minimum value of proxie 0.4
unpaved road condition.
260
Figure 12. Vulnerability Map Sangkuriang Indah Residential Indicator State Street
In this case study used 5 indicators, each indicator has a value of proxie 0.2 proxie
for getting a model of vulnerability with vulnerability level information.
Figure 13. Vulnerability Map of output overlay (IVI)

Based on the output of vulnerability map is divided into 3 classes based on
vulnerability index: 0.3 for low vulnerability, 0.5 for moderate vulnerability, 1 for the
high vulnerability. On the map the vulnerability is known that the building housing
Sangkuriang Indah does not reach the high level of vulnerability due to flooding.
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Ilmiaty et al.
Figure 14. Flood Vulnerability Map Sangkuriang Indah Residential

Results of the vulnerability caused by flooding can be seen in number of houses
that have a moderate vulnerability levels as much as 153 houses and a low level of
vulnerability as much as 199 houses and residential buildings IVI maximum 0.434 and
minimum 0.244.
CONCLUSION
Based on results of research and analysis, it can be concluded as follows:
1. Flooding/inundation at Sangkuriang Indah housing was due to poor condition of
existing residential and poor drainage in water flow.
2. Based on the hazard scenario, the area to have potential inundation hazard was
72,923.4 m2 or 77.47% of the Sangkuriang Indah residential area (94,135.1 m2 ).
3. The level of housing infrastructure vulnerabilities due to flood. It is influenced by the
Infrastructure Vulnerability Index (IVI). IVI on any kind of infrastructure will be
different than depending on the indicators existing on the type of infrastructure; the
IVI is also affected by the location of residential.
4. IVI maximum value for residential buildings was 0.434 and minimum value was
0.244. Number of houses to have level of flood vulnerability was 153 houses at level
moderate vulnerability and 199 houses at low level of flood vulnerability.
262
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264
25
1M.
UTILIZATION OF PURUN TIKUS (ELEOCHARIS

DULCIS) TO CONTROL THE WHITE STEM BORER IN
TIDAL SWAMPLAND
Thamrin, 1S. Asikin, 1M.A. Susanti, and 2M. Willis
1IAARD
Researchers at Indonesian Wetland Research Institute (IWETRI). Jl. Kebun Karet, Lok
Tabat. BanjarbaruSouth Kalimantan. Email: thamrin_balittra@yahoo.com
2IAARD
Researcher at Indonesian Spice and Medicinal Crops Research Institute. Jl. Tentara
Pelajar No.3 Cimanggu. Bogor
Abstract. White rice stem borer was recorded as a major pest of rice in tidal swampland.
This pest attacks the rice plant from the seedling to the generative stages. But in the rice
field grown by purun tikus (Eleocharis dulcis), the damage due to white rice stem borer is
very low. The results showed that of the five weeds growing in tidal swamplands, white
rice stem borer prefers to lay their eggs on purun tikus. Even the pest is capable of
completing their life cycle in the specific weeds of swamplands. Extract of purun tikus
sprayed on rice plants was also selected by these pests to lay their eggs. Extract derived
from fresh material of purun tikus was preferred by the pest than that derived from
drained material. The results of this study prove that purun tikus had the ability to attract
the adults of white rice stem borer to lay their eggs. In addition, purun tikus is also used
by beneficial insects in order to survive. These insects are natural enemies of white rice
stem borer. With these capabilities, the existence of purun tikus around rice field is very
significant in reducing the damaging rate of white rice stem borer in tidal swampland.
Abstrak. Penggerek batang padi putih tercatat sebagai hama utama tanaman padi di
lahan rawa pasang surut. Hama ini menyerang tanaman padi dari persemaian hingga
fase generatif. Namun pada pertanaman padi yang disekitarnya tumbuh gulma purun
tikus (Eleocharis dulcis), ditemukan bahwa tingkat serangan hama penggerek batang padi
putih sangat rendah. Hasil penelitian menujukkan bahwa dari lima gulma yang tumbuh di
lahan rawa pasang surut, penggerek batang padi putih lebih memilih purun tikus untuk
meletakkan telur mereka. Bahkan hama ini mampu menyelesaikan daur hidupnya pada
gulma spesifik lahan rawa ini. Ekstrak purun tikus yang disemprotkan pada tanaman padi
juga lebih dipilih oleh hama ini untuk meletakkan telur. Ekstrak yang berasal dari purun
tikus segar lebih disukai dari pada ekstrak dari putun tikus yang telah dikeringkan. Hasilhasil penelitian ini membuktikan bahwa purun tikus memiliki kemampuan untuk menarik
imago penggerek batang padi putih untuk meletakkan telurnya. Selain itu, gulma purun
tikus juga digunakan oleh serangga menguntungkan untuk bertahan hidup. Seranggaserangga ini merupakan musuh alami dari penggerek batang padi putih. Dengan
kemampuan-kemampuan ini maka keberadaan purun tikus di sekitar pertanaman padi
memberikan dampak yang sangat signifikan dalam menekan tingkat serangan hama
penggerek batang padi putih di lahan rawa.
265
Thamrin et al.
INTRODUCTION
Rice is an ideal host plant for many insect species. There are over 800 insect species
damaging rice in one way or another, although the majority of them do very little damage.
All parts of the plant are vulnerable to insect feeding from the time since in seedling to the
harvest. In tropical Asia only about 20 species are major importance and occurrence
regularly. Several species that were earlier considered as minor pests have recently
become major pests, whereas the incidence of a few others has considerably declined
(Dale 1994).
The stem borers, generally considered the most serious pests of rice worldwide, it
is occur and infest plants from seedling stage to maturity. Fifty species in three families
(Pyralidae, Noctuidae, and Diopsidae) are known to attack the rice crop (Pathak and Khan
1994). White rice stem borer (WRSB) is a potential insect pest, which is widely
distributed in tidal swamp area of South and Central Kalimantan provinces. It attacks rice
of showing till harvest. The damage due to it pest was around 33-41% (white head) and
25-45% (dead head). Even in some locations the damage reached 75% (Prayudi 1998). On
the contrary, in tidal swamp area which grow Eleocharis dulcis (also called purun tikus
in local language), the damage caused by it pest relatively low at around 0.1-1.0% (varied
in seasons). Investigation found that WRSB like to lay their egg masses in this plant
(Asikin and Thamrin 1994; Asikin et al. 1999), even the larvae of this pest was able to
complete it life cycle in this weed (Thamrin et al. 2001).
Until recently synthetic pesticide is the famous method to manage WRSB.
Meanwhile, this method kills not only the pest but also natural enemies. Another negative
effect of this method is environment pollution, land, air, and water body polluted by this
substance. Furthermore it will also affect the human health. It is crucial to find another
method to control WRSB. E. Dulcis as attractant is one of methods that can be used to
reduce synthetic pesticide for controlling WRSB.
This paper presented as a review to give information about E. dulcis as trap crops,
and as refugee for natural enemies that influence to the low number of WRSB damage in
tidal swamp area.
TRAP CROP FOR WRSB

In tidal swamp area and monotonous swampland in South and Central Kalimantan, there
are found more than 1000 kinds of weeds. Some of them have been identified, consist of
181 genera from 51 families, as many as 110 species belong to broadleaf, 40 species
belong to grasses, and 31 species belong to sedges (Budiman et al. 1988). From those,
some weeds function as alternative host, refugee for natural enemies, attractant and bio
insecticides.
266
Utilization of Purun Tikus (Eleocharis dulcis) to Control the White Stem Borer
There are five weeds that initiate in tidal swamp area of South Kalimantan which
preferred by white rice stem borer in laying their eggs. They are Purun tikus (E. dulcis),
kelakai (Stenochlaena palutris), perupuk (Phragmites karka), bundung (Scirpus grotus),
and purun kudung (Lepironea articulata). Among them, purun tikus was highly favored
by WRSB to lay their eggs. The number of egg mass found in E. dulcis is around 3,4006,200 egg mass.ha-1, on the other hand the egg mass found in rice plant at around 65296
egg mass.ha-1 (Table 1) (Thamrin and Asikin 2002). In the case of Anjir Muara District in
1997, rice damage caused by WRSB reach 25%, its perhaps due to the absent of E. dulcis
during dry season. In other regions the damaged caused by WRSB varied in number,
whitehead at around 33-41% and deadheart 25-45% in free area of E. dulcis. Meanwhile,
in the area that grows E. dulcis, the damage by WRSB was relatively low (whitehead 1.55% and deadheart 1.7-2.5%). In the area, which is planting rice once, a year (local rice
variety) population of WRSB was high. It noted by the high number of egg mass of
WRSB found in E. dulcis (Asikin et al. 1999; Prayudi, 1998).
Secondary chemical substance in E. dulcis suspected as the main reason of WRSB
to come and lay their eggs in this weed (Asikin and Thamrin 2002). Insect response to
attractant or repellent of secondary chemical that is contained in the plant is preference
mechanism to built resistance (Painter 1951). Morphology of E. dulcis is similar to the
rice plant; its perhaps another reason for preference of WRSB to E. dulcis. Lestari (1983)
mentioned that host specification influenced by adaptability of insect to the host,
especially morphology of host.
Table 1. Number of white rice stem borer egg masses per hectare in tidal swamp areas,
Barito Kuala Regency, South Kalimantan Province
Number of egg masses/ha
Host
DS 1995
WS 95/96
DS 1996
WS 96/97
DS 1998
Phragmites karka
3,5705,646
3,7806,179
3,4005,560
3,6606,200
3,450 5,560
Stenochlaena palustirs
33-147
87-167
25-280
90-310
25 280
Scirpus grosus
47-100
73-127
30-112
45-132
30 112
Lepironea articulata
33-80
40-120
40-100
48-148
40 100
13-67
37-70
46-156
50-170
46 156
93-237
100-296
65-123
110-186
65 123
Eleocharis dulcis
Oryza sativa
Source: Thamrin and Asikin 2002,

Note: DS = Dry season, WS = Wet season
Asikin et al. (1999) reported that rice plant which is grows around E. dulcis had
low damage intensity of WRSB (1.5 to 2.5%). Meanwhile the area that has no E. dulcis
267
Thamrin et al.
had high damage intensity at around 25 to 55% (Table 2). The result of research showed
that E. dulcis, which planted in the side area of rice field, trapped more WRSB to lay their
eggs and has low damages (Figure 1). While rice field area without E. dulcis had high
damage (Figure 2)
Table 2. Rice damage intensities caused by white rice stem borer in tidal swamp areas,
Barito Kuala Regency, South Kalimantan Province
Rice Damage Intensities (%)
Rice plants areas
E.dulcis surrounding
Without E.dulcis
Deadheart
whitehead
DS 1998
WS 98/99
DS 1998
WS 98/99
1.5-2.5
25-35
1.5-2.0
25-50
1.9-2.5
33-41
1.5-1.8
25-55
Source: Asikin et.al (1999)

Note:DS = Dry season, WS = Wet season
Figure 1. Influence of trap crop lay out (E. dulcis) to the preference of white rice stem
borer in laying their eggs, Banjar Regency, South Kalimantan Province
268
Figure 2. Influence of trap crop lay out (E. dulcis) to the damage intensities caused by
white rice stem borer, Banjar Regency, South Kalimantan Province
In order to provide evidence that purun tikus actually favored by WRSB, Asikin
and Thamrin (2002) conducted a study on the attractiveness of WRSB to extract purun
tikus and other weeds that were sprayed on rice plants. The results showed WRSB more
interested in laying their eggs on the treatment that sprayed by extracts purun tikus (Table
3). Furthermore also reported that the solvent from fresh material of E. dulcis, most
favored byi mago of WRSB in laying their eggs than the solvent that obtained from
material that has been dried. Solvent storage up to one day at room temperature decreases
the abilityof solvent in attracting WRSB to lay eggs on treated plants (Table 4).
Attractant from lipid group conceivably become the reason of preference of WRSB
to lay their eggs in E. dulcis. This aromatics matter is easy to vaporize and it attracts
insects. Norlund (1987) mentioned that biochemical volatile called allelochemical, which
is produced by plant is substance that attract insects to come and lay their eggs. In order to
find out material in E. dulcis that attract adult of WRSB to lay their eggs, Thamrin et al.
(2004) explains purun tikus contained 4 fractions and two of them areactive fractions
(fractions 2 and 3) with the preferences of each 45 and 25% for solid concentration
(without water/without dilution), whereas concentration of 1 mg/100 ml water only
fraction 2 that have a high level of preference (65%).
269
Thamrin et al.
Table 3. Effect of E. dulcis extract treatments on preference of white rice stem borer lay
their eggs, Banjarbaru, Dry season 2001.
Extract
Eleocharis dulcis
Scirpus grosus
Lepironea articulata
Stenochlaena palutris
Phragmites karka
Rice plant (no treatment/ Control)
Number of egg mass/plant

12.75a
3.00c
3.50c
4.50c
8.00b
4.75c
Source: Asikin dan Thamrin (2002)
Table 4. Effect of E. dulcis solvent on preference of white rice stem borer to laying
eggs, Banjarbaru, Dry season, 2002.
Treatments
Number of egg mass trapped
Solvent (Fresh material)

Direct aplication
Storage for 1 day
32
13
Solvent (Dry material)

Direct aplication
Storage for 1 day
12
6
Rice plant (no treatment/ Control)
0-1
Source: Asikin dan Thamrin (2002)
Refugee for natural enemies

Although species diversity and total number of predators and parasitoids in tropical
rice are impressive, generalizations about the precise role and relative importance of
individual species are difficult. Clearly, abundance shifts seasonally and geographically,
but in general relatively few species has been shown to impact heavily on target insect
pests. This is primarily due to the fact that little definitive work has been done and
techniques that allow researchers to dissect these communities of parasitoids and
predators and determine their individual role are not available. Their collective role can be
clearly demonstrated by observing outbreak of insect pests after a broad-spectrum
insecticide has eliminated the natural enemy community (Ooi and Shepard 1994).
Using insecticides in swampy areas of South and Central Kalimantan is low,
therefore the population of natural enemies are high, especially predators and parasitoids.
270
Predator
Predators often are the most important group of biological control organism in rice.
Each predator will consume many prays during lifetime. They are certainly the most
conspicuous forms, and are sometime confusing with pests. Predators occur in almost
every part of the rice environment. Some, such as certain spiders, lady beetles, and carabid
beetle, search the plants for pray such as leafhopper, plant hoppers, moth, and larvae of
stem borer (Shepard et al. 1987).
In tidal swamp area was found many kind predators (Table 5). Ordo Arachnida
(spider) was found in high number. The present of spider in rice field was able to reduce
insect pests population because they can consume 5-15prey a day. This predator also
produce a lot offspring, hence it can compete the population of insect pest. Shepard et al.
(1987) mentioned that Lycosa pseudoanulata lays 200-400 eggs in lifetime of 3-5 months.
Eventually 60-80 spider lings hatch and ride on the back of the female. Meanwhile
Oxyopes javanus and O. Lineatipes (Lynx spider) produce 200-350 young and live 3-5
months. Lynx spiders live within the rice canopy, prefer drier habits, and colonize rice
fields after canopy development. Unlike wolf spiders, they hide from their prey, mostly
moths, until within striking distance. They fill an important role, killing 2-3 moths daily
and thus preventing a new generation of the pests from building up. Another family of
spider that has high population is Tetragnathidae. The spiders mostly live 1-3 months and
lay 100-200 eggs. The eggs are laid in a mass covered in cottony silk in the upper half of
rice plants.
Dragonfly (Odonata) is also found in tidal swamp areas in high population such as
Agrionemis femina femina, Ischnura segegalensis and Orthetrum sabina sabina (Table 5).
The highest population among them is Agriocnemis femina femina. Adults normally fly
below the rice canopy searching for flying insects as well as hopper on plants. Population
of O. ishii ishii, P. fuscipes and Hapalochros rufofasciatus found in high number but it
appear occasionally, these predators feed 3 to 5 larvae of leaf roller per day (Thamrin et
al. 1999).
271
Thamrin et al.
Table 5. Predators of rice stem borer in tidal swamp area of South Kalimantan Province
Ordo/Species
Family
Diptera
Anatrichus pygmaeus
Chloroipidae
Poecilotraphera taeniata
Platysomatidae
Coleoptera
Ophionea indica
Carabidae
Ophionea ishii ishii
Carabidae
Paederus fuscipes
Staphylinidae
Hapalochrus rufofasciatus
Malachiidae
Orthoptera
Conosephalus longipennis
Tettigoniidae
Metioche vittaticollis
Gryllidae
Anaxipha longipennis
Gryllidae
Odonata
Agriocnemis femina femina
Agrionidae
Ischnura senegalensis
Agrionidae
Orthetrum sabina sabina
Libellulidae
Tholymis tillarga
Libellulidae
Neorothemis fluctuans
Libellulidae
Rhodothemis rufa
Libellulidae
Rhyothemis phyllis phyllis
Libellulidae
Hemiptera
Mesovelia sp
Mesovelidae
Hydrometra sp
Hydrometridae
Microvelia sp
Veliidae
Paraplea sp
Pleidae
Micronecta sp
Corixidae
Limnogonus fossarum
Gerridae
Limnogonus nitidus
Gerridae
Arachnida
Araneus inustrus
Araneidae
Argiope catenulate
Araneidae
Neoscona mukerjei
Araneidae
Neoscona theisi
Araneidae
Oxyopes javanus
Oxyopidae
Oxyopes lineatipes
Oxyopidae
Leucage decorata
Tetragnathidae
Tetragnatha mandibulata
Tetragnathidae
Tetragnatha javana
Tetragnathidae
Tetragnatha maxillosa
Tetragnathidae
Tetragnatha nitens
Tetragnathidae
Tetragnatha virecens
Tetragnathidae
Tetragnatha japonica
Tetragnathidae
Lycosa pseudoannulata
Lycosidae
Pardosa sumatrana
Lycosidae
Pardosa sp
Lycosidae
Oxyopes javanus
Oxyopidae
Oxyopes lineatipes
Oxyopidae
Clubiona sp
Clubiodae
Bianor sp
Salticidae
Auophyrs sp
Salticidae
Phidipus sp
Salticidae
Phlegra sp
Salticidae
Plexippus sp
Salticidae
Zygoballus sp
Salticidae
Callitrichia sp
Linyphiidae
+++ = high, ++ = moderate, + = low. Source: Thamrin et al. (1999)
272
Population
+++
++
++
+++
+++
++
+++
+++
++
+++
++
++
+
+
+
+
++
+
++
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+++
+
+
+++
++
++
+
+
++
+++
+
+
++
++
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
++
Parasitoid
Parasitoids are generally more host specific than predator. Whereas predators
require several preys to complete their development, parasitoids normally require only
one. Parasitoids may attack the eggs, larvae, and nymphs, pupae, or adults of the host and
most cases; they become more effective as host abundance increases. Unlike predators,
parasitoids can find their host even when host densities are low (Shepard et al. 1987).
Explosion of rice stem borers in some areas in Indonesia mostly caused by
disturbance of ecosystem. One factor that responsible for this condition is the unwise use
of insecticides, which also killed some beneficial insect among others parasitoids.
Therefore using insecticides should be judiciously. In the case of tidal swamp area, where
the use of insecticide is relatively low, parasitoids found in high number (Table 6). The
result of research also found that in single egg mass of WRSB found 8 to 29 individuals of
Telenomus rowani and Tetrastichus schoenobii with level of parasitism around 10 to 36%.
Parasitoids lay their eggs either in groups or singly on, in, or near a host. When a
parasitoid egg hatches and the immature parasitoid develops, the host usually stops
feeding and soon dies
Table 6. Parasitoids of WRSB in tidal swamp area of South Kalimantan Province
Species
Ischnojoppa luteator
Xanthopimpla punctata
Goryphus sp
Trathala sp
Cremnops sp
Telenomus rowani
Tetrastichus schoenobii
Trichogramma sp
Family
Ichneumonidae
Ichneumonidae
Ichneumonidae
Ichneumonidae
Ichneumonidae
Scelionidae
Scelionidae
Trichogrammatidae
Population
++
++
+
+
+
+++
++
++
+++ = high, ++ = moderate, + = low

Source: Thamrin et al. (1999)
CONCLUSION
1.
Eleocharis dulcis (purun tikus) naturally play as trap plant for white rice stem borer.It
also becomes reservoir (conservation) for natural enemies.
2.
Extract of purun tikus has effectiveness as attractant for WRSB.
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2001. Diseminarkan pada Balai Penelitian Pertanian Lahan Rawa, tanggal 11
Maret 2002. 12 hal.
Thamrin, M. S. Asikin, dan M. Willis. 2004. Optimalisasi Pemanfaatan Sumberdaya
Hayati Lahan Rawa Untuk Budidaya Pertanian. Laporan Proyek Penelitian
Pertanian Lahan Rawa Tahun Anggaran 2003. Diseminarkan pada Balai Penelitian
Pertanian Lahan Rawa, Mei 2004. 15 hal.
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26
THE EFFECT OF HERMETIC STORAGE TO PRESERVE

GRAIN QUALITY IN TIDAL LOWLAND, SOUTH
SUMATERA
Rudy Soehendi, 2Martin Gummert, 1Syahri, 1Renny Utami Somantri, 1Budi Raharjo, and
Sri Harnanik
1IAARD
Researchers at Assessment Institute for Agricultural Technology (BPTP)-South Sumatra. Jl.

Kolonel H. Barlian Km. 6. Palembang-South Sumatra. Email: bptp-sumsel@litbang.deptan.go.id
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) Postharvest Development Program Leader, Program 4: Value
Chains and Products from Rice. Email: m.gummert@cgiar.org
Abstract. The research was aimed to find out the effects of hermetic storage in order to
preserve grain quality in tidal lowland, South Sumatera. In tidal lowland, grain losses
during storage may reach 2.24%. An easy storage method to be applied and identified to
be able to preserve grain quality is hermetic storage. The research was carried out in two
villages; Banyuurip and Telang Sari, Tanjung Lago Sub-district, Banyuasin District, for 6
months, from April to October 2011. The research was arranged in randomized complete
block design by 6 treatments and 5 replications. Treatments consisted of IRRI superbag
and plastic bag, with storage period of 0, 3, and 6 months. Parameters observed were
moisture content, O2 and CO2 levels, germination, and insects infestation (type and
number). The result showed that the use of hermetic storage system was better in
preserving grain quality than farmers common practice. This was defined by higher
percentage of germinated grains and lesser population of both rice insects types: weevil
(Sitophilus oryzae) and grain borrer (Rhizopertha dominica). This was because hermetic
storage system decreased O2 and increased CO2 levels during storage period.
Keywords: Hermetic storage, grain quality, paddy, germination, insects infestation
INTRODUCTION
Main staple food like rice is one of human basic needs, so do clothe and shelter. Thus, the
demand for food in both number and quality constantly increases. Loss in majority food
products, such as grains is caused by excessive moisture content and oxygen supply as
well as pests. In tropical region, products stored for 6 months had lost about 30% because
of pests (Berginson 2002). Imdad and Nawangsih (1999) said that in developing countries
including Indonesia, total agricultural product loss is estimated to reach 25-50% of total
production. FAO reported the loss of crop yields in developing countries ranges from 1013%, which about 5% is caused by various types of storage pests.
Nugraha et al. (2005) suggested that grain loss during storage period on irrigated
agro-ecosystem was 1.37%, meanwhile on rainfed land and tidal lowland were 1.28% and
2.24%, respectively. The high loss relates to the Indonesian wet climate that causes high
275
Soehandi et al.
humidity and temperature. These conditions lead to difficulties in maintaining grain

moisture content below 14%. Seed tissue metabolism is strongly influenced by moisture
content, which could spontaneously generate heat and cause loss of products.
Lack of knowledge on food storage technology has caused an increasing risk of
loss during storage period. One of storage system easy to be applied is airtight storage
(hermetic storage). The inquirements of good packaging should be able to maintain the
grain quality in order to provide protection against physical, chemical, and microbial
losses and also losses caused by moisture content and oxygen. Hermetic storage involves
placing the material into container that stop the movement of air and water between the
outside atmosphere and the grain/seed stored. This technology has been implemented in
several countries in Southeast Asia. A custom made container is made of plastic or steel
or even a pot of soil can be used in this system. The storage size ranges from 25 liters to
300 tons. This system can be used for grain, rice, and other cereals such as maize (Sham
2006).
Hermetic systems could improve the quality of grain and seed viability, as it is to
maintain stability of moisture content and reduce the pest loss without using any
pesticides. In addition, hermetic storage also prevents rodents infestation during storage
period and also prevents the growth of fungi in the stored product (De Bruin, 2005).
Viability or survival of seed in tropical areas can also be increased from 6 to 12 months.
Hermetic storage is able to reduce insects population as insects use oxygen for respiration
and release carbon dioxide (for example, oxygen levels can be reduced from 21% to less
than 5% within 10-21 days). Essein et al. (2010) stated that the storage of cocoa beans
with a hermetic system was able to reduce the oxygen level to 0.3% at 5.5 days stored and
in these conditions no insect existed. At low oxygen level, insect activity is decreased and
reproduction stalled so that rodents and birds are not attracted to the stored grain seed. In
addition, the difference in moisture content, oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations
would affect seed germination (Sutopo 2004).
IRRI has developed Super Plastic Bags-IRRI that meets hermetic system
inquirement. Super bag could prevent the entry of oxygen and moisture flow of outside
into the grain. When completely closed, the respiration of grain and insects inside the bag
may reduce oxygen levels from 21% to 5% that killed most of the insects. Super bag also
known to increase the germination of seeds, control insects without using chemicals, and
increase the percentage (about 10%) of head rice grain that is stored (IRRI 2005). High
level of carbon dioxide in the storage is believed to inhibit the growth and development of
insect pests. That is why the research was conducted in order to determine the influence of
hermetic storage systems in reducing damage to grain in the tidal lowland area of South
Sumatera.
276
The Effect of Hermetic Storage to Preserve Grain Quality

Location and Time
This study was conducted during April-October 2011, at two locations Banyuurip
and Telang Sari villages, sub-District of Tanjung Lago, Banyuasin District. Both
agroecosystems were tidal swamp. Those selected locations were one of Banyuasins rice
production centers.
Materials
The materials used in this study were freshly harvested rice grain, IRRIs
superbags, 50-kg-plastic-bags, PP-plastic-bags, selotipe, and plastic containers of 15x20
cm. The tools used were Anages CD 98 Plus to measure O2/CO2, IRRIs grain moisture
tester, and bags sewing machines.
Methods
Research employed randomized block design with 6 treatments and 5 replications.
Treatments were combination of storage system and period. The storage systems applied
were hermetic plastics (IRRIs superbags) and farmers storage system (plastic bags and
storage periods were 0, 3, and 6 months. The treatment combinations were each replicated
on cooperator farmers.
Details of the treatments were: (1) Hermetic system for 0, 3, and 6 months of
storage periods was prepared by bagging a-50-kg of grain into 9 IRRIs superbags and
plastic bags. As much as 500 g of grain from each bag was taken as sample. Parameters
such as moisture content, insect type and population were observed on the samples. The
IRRIs superbags were sealed by tying. Concentration of O2/CO2 was measured before the
outer plastic layer was stitched. (2) Non-hermetic system for 0, 3, and 6 months of storage
periods was prepared by bagging a-50-kg of grain into 3 plastic bags. As much as 500 g of
grain was taken as sample to be observed its moisture content, insect type and population.
Plastic bags were sealed by stitching followed by measuring O2/CO2 levels.
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Soehandi et al.
Parameters and Data Analysis

Grain Moisture Content (%) was measured using a water-IRRI Grain Moisture
Tester. Samples taken from each bag using sampling aid were measured 3 times. The
result of grain moisture content measurement appeared on the testers screen.
Oxygen and carbondioxide levels (%) were measured using a CD Anagas 98
Plus. The surface bag was punctured with a needle and the number appearing on the
devices screen indicated oxygen and carbondioxide levels (%). The puncture hole was
sealed using duct tape to prevent air transportation inside and outside the bag.
Seed Germination (%) calculation was referred to IRRIs procedure. Some100
grains from each treatment were germinated on media. After a week, the number of
germinated grains was percentaged.
Insects were observed by screening grains to separate the grains and insects.
Insects were identified using a key determinant of insects based on their characteristics.
Insects population was calculated from the number of insects that attacked in a
500 g of grains. Living insects were separated and calculated from the dead ones. Data
were analyzed using analysis of variance and further tested using Duncan test with SPSS
ver. 11.0.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Grain Moisture Content (%)
Hermetic condition provided constant moisture content during storage period. The
moisture used for insects and microorganisms activities. While in a non-hermetic
condition, grain moisture content created equilibrium state with the environment moisture
content. The effects of hermetic storage on grain moisture content are presented in Table
1.
Table 1.
The effects of hermetic storage on grain moisture content
Treatment
Hermetic
Non-Hermetic
Note:
278
Storage period
(Months)
0
3
6
0
3
6
Grain moisture content (%)

Banyuurip
Telang Sari
12. 7 b
13. 6 a
11. 2 a
13. 1 a
11. 5 a
12. 9 a
14. 1 c
13. 3 a
14. 0 c
13. 4 a
13. 6 c
13. 2 a
Numbers followed by the same letter in the same column are not different according to DMRT0.05
Table 1 showed that grain moisture content in the Telang Sari village was no
significant differences both hermetic and non-hermetic storages, whereas both storage
treatments in Banyuurip were significantly different. Grain moisture content during
storage periods in Telang Sari ranged from 12.9 to 13.6%, whereas in Banyuurip varied
from11.2 to 14.1%. In Banyuurip, grain moisture content in non-hermetic storage was not
significantly different, whilst in hermetic storage it was significantly different. In hermetic
storage, grain moisture content for 0 month was the highest (12.7%). While grain
moisture contents for 3 and 6 months storage periods were not significantly different.
Grain moisture content in hermetic storage decreased as prolonged storage period.
The high grain moisture content caused the increase of insect attack intensity andit related
with the increase of RH. Grain moisture content would affect the grain quality. Grain
moisture content of 12-16% could inhibit the insect attack (Sudaryono and Sutoyo 1980 in
Nugroho et al. 2005).
Oxygen (O2) Level
The level of oxygen during storage period was unstable, thus affected oxygen
absorption rate both for grains and microorganisms respiration. Airtight container
provided the least oxygen availability for grains and microorganisms respiration during
storage period. The respiration process caused the decrease of oxygen level, whilst
carbondioxide (CO2) as respiration residue increased simultanously. Whereas inside
storage containers that were not airtight, the oxygen level was relatively stable, because of
the air movement throughout the containers. The effects of hermetic storage to oxygen
level during storage period in Banyuurip and Telang Sari are presented in Table 2.
Table 2.
The effects of storage period to oxygen level
Treatment
Hermetic
Non-Hermetic
Note:
Storage period
(Months)
0
3
6
0
3
6
Level of O2 (%)
Banyuurip
Telang Sari
10. 2 b
8. 6 b
3. 5 a
2. 5 a
14. 8 c
12. 0 c
9. 9 b
4. 6 a
20. 3 d
9. 3 b
4. 5 a
20. 0 d
Numbers followed by the same letter in the same coloumn are not different according to DMRT0.05
The lowest oxygen level on both storage systems occurred on storage period of 3
months (2.54.6%) and the highest one was obtained from storage period of 6 months
(12.020.3%). Table 2 shows that oxygen levels on both locations (Banyuurip and Telang
Sari) on storage period of 0 month (8.610.2%) and 3 months (2.54.6%) were not
significantly influenced by storage systems. Whilst oxygen levels obtained from storage
period of 6 months were significantly influenced by the storage system, hermetic and non-
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Soehandi et al.
hermetic. The oxygen levels at the grain stored for 6 months in hermetic system (12.014.8%) were significantly lower than that in a non-hermetic system (20.0-20.3%).
Carbondioxide (CO2) Level
During storage period CO2 level is related to O2 level, this corresponds to pests and
microorganisms respiration process, which would decrease O2 level and increase CO2
level. Observation results on the effects of hermetic storage on CO2 levelare presented in
Table 3.
Table 3.
The effects of hermetic storage on CO2 level
Treatment
Hermetic
Non-Hermetic
Note:
Storage period
(Months)
0
3
6
0
3
6
Level of CO 2 (%)
Banyuurip
Telang Sari
8. 0 b
7. 4 b
22. 7 c
15. 2 c
5. 4 b
6. 6 b
8. 3 b
7. 5 b
5. 8 b
1. 6 a
0. 01 a
0. 06 a
Table 3 showed that storage systems influenced CO2 level, especially during
storage period for 3 and 6 months. The lowest CO2 levels were shown by 0 month storage
period. For both storage systems, a-3-month-storage period showed higher CO2 levels
than a-6-month-storage period, as the highest CO2 levels for both treatments were
measured on a-3-month-storage period.
During storage period for 3 months on hermetic system, level of CO2 ranged from
15.2 to 22.7%, higher than CO2 levels in grains stored using farmers practice (1.6-5.8%).
It also occurred on 6 months storage period; levels of CO2 (5.46.6%) were higher than
CO2 levels in the grains stored using farmers practice (0.010.06%).
280
Germination
Effects of hermetic storage period on germination of grain are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Effects of storage period on germination of grain
Treament
Hermetic
Non-Hermetic
Note:
Storage period
(Months)
0
3
6
0
3
6
Banyuurip
93. 9 b
93. 7 b
88. 5 b
88. 0 b
88. 4 b
74. 2 a
Germination (%)
Telang Sari
89. 7 b
86. 1 ab
71. 9 ab
90. 2 b
85. 6 ab
69. 2 a
The accumulation of CO2 and decrease of O2 levels during storage period caused
by respiration of pests and microorganisms can minimize damages to the stored
commodities (Navarro et al. 1994). According to Calderon and Navarro (1980),
increasing CO2 level usually is followed by decreasing O2 level, and it could be
synergistic effect on suppressing pests, but the level CO2 will be different on different
types of insects (Navarro & Donahaye 2005) .
Table 3 shows hermetic storage for 6 months significant effect on grain
germination compared to non-hermetic storage. The results showed that decrease in grain
germination was greater with longer time periode treatment. Martincic and Guberac stated
that decreasing germination seed (cereals) occured after a few years storage peroid. The
average grain germination on hermetic in Banyuurip village was 88.5%, while in Telang
Sari was only 71.9%. However, on non-hermetic treatment, the germination of grain in
Banyuurip was only 74.2% and in Telang Sari was 69.2 %. Decreasing seed germination
can be increasing need of seed, so the hermetic system is expected to be able to reduce
farmers cost for buying seed. According to Bennett, there are two factors that affect the
germination of seeds are internal factors (seed vitality, genotype, seed maturity, and seed
dormancy) and environmental factors (water, temperature, oxygen, light, and smoke).
According Mollashahi and Hosseini (2007), moisture content of seed influences
significantly on germination. Moisture content and storage temperature are important
factors that affect the seed resistance and vigor during storage (Zheang et al. 1998 in
Mollashahi and Hosseini 2007). The viability of seeds stored will be also maintained for
6-12 months (Rickmann 2004).
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Soehandi et al.
Insects Attack
The insects attack during the storage period is shown in Table 5.
Table 5.
Insects infestation during storage period
Treatment
Hermetic
Non-Hermetic
Storage
period
(Months)
0
3
6
0
3
6
Types of insects
Banyuurip
S. oryzae
R. dominica
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Telang Sari
S. oryzae
R. dominica
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
++
+ = low population (<50 insects/500 g grains) ++ = high population (> 50 insects/500 g grains)
Table 4 shows that there were two species of insect attacking on different varieties
of rice such as rice weevil (S. oryzae) and lesser grain borrer (R. dominica). Some factors
influenced by insect infestation were the type and material damages, nutritional value,
moisture content, skin color, and level of damages. Rice varieties containing low amylose
are generally less desirable by insects. This is because low amylose creates hard texture of
grain.
Insect characteristics found during storage period are as followed:
1.
Rice weevils (S. oryzae) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Adult beetle that newly emerged has slightly reddish brown color. It becomes
black as long as increase of live cycle. In both wings, especially in the front, there are 4
somewhat reddish yellow spots, two spots on the left wing and 2 spots on the right wing.
Body length ranges from 3.5 to 5 mm, depending on place of larvae. No-legged larvae
colors clear white. The insect life cycle ranges from 3-5 months and produces 300-400
eggs per grains. The eggs are usually laid on each grain of rice hole and each hole is then
covered with the remaining hoist. These pests are polifag and also damage deposits such
as corn, peanuts, cassava, copra (Kartasapoetra 1991; Pracaya 1997).
2.
Lesser grain borrer (R. dominica) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae)
Adult: dark brown and cylindrical with rows of punctures on the elytra, head is
deplexed and more or less concealed from above by a prothorax which has a coarsely
tuberculate anterior margin, and an antennae with distinctly separated 3-segmented clubs.
Larvae: Whitish and scarabaei form with well-developed prolegs. The lesser grain borer
Rhizophertha dominica is a brown beetle only about 3 mm long. The eggs of the lesser
grain borer are laid loosely among the grains and the first instar larvae penetrate the rice
grains. The pupae develop inside the rice grain, which serves as the food supply of the
282
developing larva. Both adults and larvae are voracious feeders and, unlike the Sitophilus
spp., the larvae legs are able to feed in grain dust and to attack grains externally (IRRI
2009).
Insect Populations
Several factors that caused damage during storage period are insect populations,
rice varieties, and storage period. The insect population during storage period is presented
in Table 6 and Table 7.
Table 6 shows that the population of live insect of S. oryzae in 500 g of grains in
Banyuurip was not significantly different among all treatments, and the insect mortality
during 3 months storage period was significantly different. Meanwhile, in Telang Sari
hermetic storage significantly influenced to live insect during storage period for 3 and 6
months. Live insects S. oryzae per 500 g of grains in Telang Sari and Banyuurip for 3
months storage period were the highest, 31.0 and 44.4 insects, respectively. Rickmann and
Gummert stated that the use of IRRIs super bags effectively reduced insect development.
They said that the number of live insects after 12 months were 1.2 insects/kg of grains,
while in open storage insect level increased to an average of 27.2 insects/kg of grains. On
the other hand, hermetic storage also effectively reduced population of R. dominica,
which is presented in Table 7.
Table 6. Effects of the hermetic storage on S. oryzae population (insects/500 g of grains)
Treatment
Hermetic
Non-Hermetic
Note:
Storage
period
(months)
0
3
6
0
3
6
Insect population
Banyuurip
Live
0.4
0
0.4
1.8
31.0
1.3
a
a
a
a
a
a
Dead
0.1 a
0 a
0.4 a
0 a
5.0 b
2.3 ab
Telang Sari
Live
Dead
1.2 a
0.4
1.0 a
2.3
4.0 a
2.1
3.8 a
0.6
44.4 b
4.0
34.0 b
21.0
a
a
a
a
a
b
283
Soehandi et al.
Table 7. Effects of the hermetic storage on R. dominica population (insects/500 g of

grains)
Treatment
Hermetic
Non-Hermetic
Note:
Storage
period
(months)
0
3
6
0
3
6
Insect population
Banyuurip
Live
Dead
1.6 a
0 a
2.3 a
3.0 ab
2.2 a
13.5 b
0.4 a
0 a
33.0 b
1.0 a
3.7 a
5.7 ab
Telang Sari
Live
Dead
0.6 a
0.5 a
3.7 a
1.7 a
8.9 ab
39.4 c
2.8 a
0.2 a
3.0 a
6.0 ab
21.0 b
31.7 bc
According to Table 7, R. dominica live insects on hermetic system stored for 6

months were lesser than non-hermetic system. Meanwhile, the insect mortality was
relatively higher than non-hermetic. In Banyuurip, the hermetic storage significantly
influenced live insect of R. dominica compared to non-hermetic system. R dominica live
insects per 500 g of grains stored for 3 months on non-hermetic system was 33.0 insects,
whilst in hermetic storage insect levels decreased to an average of 2.3 insects. However,
in Telang Sari, hermetic storage for 6 months significantly decreased live insects up to 8.9
insects, lesser than non-hermetic with average live insects of 21.0 insects per 500 g of
grains.
These results provide an opportunity for farmers to be able to apply the hermetic
storage systems so that they can still keep their grain, either for seeds in the next planting
season or food stock. Several studies suggested that the hermetic storage also is used to
other grains such as corn, coffee beans, cocoa, etc. (Villers et al. 2008).
CONCLUSION
The use of hermetic storage system was better in preserving grain quality and varies on
storage periods tested than common practice. This was defined by higher percentage of
germinated grains and lesser insects population, for both types: rice weevil (Sitophilus
oryzae) and lesser grain borrer (Rhizopertha dominica). It was becaused the hermetic
storage system decreased O2 levels and increased CO2 levels during storage period.
284
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27
CONSERVATION SOIL TILLAGE AT RICE CULTURE IN

ACID SULPHATE SOIL
R. Smith Simatupang and Nurita
IAARD Researchers at Indonesian Wetland Research Institute. (IWETRI)). Jl. Kebun Karet, Lok
Tabat. Banjarbaru-South Kalimantan. Email: rsmith_simatupang@yahoo.co.id
Abstract. Around 9.54 millions hectare of tidal swamp land is very potentially to be
developed for agriculture to promotean increaseof national food production efforts. The
limiting factors on rice production in this land werevery high soil acidity (soil pH less
than 4.0), low soils fertility, nutrients deficiency, iron toxicity and socio-economic
aspects. Land management through good and suitable land preparation application prepare
a good soil condition for rice plant so that can give good plant growth and increaseplant
production.The conservation soil tillage aimed to conserv land, particularly to oxidation of
pyritesin soils so that can control an iron toxicity on rice. There are two conservation soil
tillage on rice culture, i.e.: (1). Zero tillage by herbicide application and (2) full soil tillage
with regulations.The conservation soil tillage wasone inovation of land preparation which
could be applied atrice culture in acid sulphate tidal swampland.No tillages by herbicides
(paraquat or isopropil amina glyphosate) and full soil tillage with the regulationscould be
controlled pyrite oxidation and iron toxicity on rice and also increasedrice yields. Both
technologiesof conservation soil tillage could be developed to supportincreaseof rice
production efforts in the acid sulphate soils.
Keyword: Conservation soil tillage, Rice production, Acid sulphate soil
INTRODUCTION
An agriculture sector until now is still holding an important role on national economic
development. This sectors is very important to supportgrowth of economic region, as
people income resource, to give a field and opportunity of work for publics and to realize
a national foods sufficiency because of Indonesia as agrarian country (Suryana et al.
2008). A few efforts have been conducted to achieved a sustainable foods sufficiency,
particularly the effort of increasing rice production about 5%/year that have been
conducted throughout increasing national rice production program (P2BN) that have been
implemented since 2007 (Badan Litbang Pertanian 2007).
In Indonesia, tidal swampland is very wide that may reach about 20.1 millions
hectare founded in four island, i.e Sumatera, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Papua. Around
9.54 millions hectare was very potential to be extended for agricultural development,
about 3.0 millions hectare had been reclamaized by local farmers and about 1.18 millions
hectare by goverments throughout a transmigration placement programme (Widjaya-Adhi
et al. 1992; Badan Litbang Pertanian 2007).
287
The tidal swampland is included as submarginal land because it has a low potency
to grow an agriculture plants. Nevertheless, with application of suitable technology and
true managements system, the potency of tidal swampland canbe increased to become
more productive land to support sustainability of human live.
The developmentof tidal swampland for food crops wouldface a few problems, i.e.:
physico-chemist, biology problems and also socio-economic aspects. The physico-chemist
soils problemswasone of limiting factors for rice production so that the tidal swampland
has not yet givenoptimal yields (Ismail et al. 1997). Therefore, managements and
optimalization using tidal swamplands for agriculture development particularly to
supportprogramme of increasing national rice productionin the future, have to be
executed. It should beconducted with good planning and holistic ways, such as: lands
arrangement, land and water managements, tolerant rice variety applicationand farmers
experience consideration to managing tidal swampland for rice (Alihamsyah et al. 2003).
One problem of rice culture attidal swamplandwasan iron toxicity on rice plant,
particularly if farmers used a new variety. Usually, the new rice variety was difficult to
extend because it was not preference for local people, so that the local rice variety was
more extending than new rice variety at tidal swampland (Watson and Willis, 1984).
This articles as areview of research results aimed to bring out information of
innovation technology throughout lands preparation by conservation soils tillage on rice
culture atthe tidal swamplands. Throughout this paper the information of the technology
could be disseminated, adopted and applied by stake holder or farmers in rice farming
system at tidal swampland asefforts to increaserice yields and supportsustainabilily of
national foods sufficiency.
LIMITING FACTORS OF RICE PRODUCTION

The acid sulphate soils could be differented on two soils typhology, it was potencial acid
sulphatesoil (PAS) and actual acid sulphatesoil (AAS). In potencial acid sulphate
soil,prosess of soil acidity did not yet appears so that the problems was not complecated,
while in actual acid suphate soil, the prosess have been gonewhereaeration have reached
until pyrites layers so that it was oxidated and exposed to produce soil acidity and bring
out the soil pH to be decreased below 3.5 (Dent 1986). Soil chemical characteristicsof
acid sulphate soilusually have a very highsoil acidity is, high toxic materials, very low
nature soil fertilityand low soil productivity (Sarwani et al. 1994; Adimihardja et al.
1998).
There are several problems in optimalizing and developing tidal swamplands for
rice cultivation, i.e.: soil physico-chemits, weed, and socio-economic problems. The
problems will be explaned in the next paragraps.
288
Conservation Soil Tillage at Rice Culture
1. Soils Physico-chemist Problems

Soil characteristics of tidal swampland is very high acidity (soil pH below 4.0),
very low macro nutrient contents particularly N, P, K, Ca and Mg and also low micro
nutrients mainly in peat/peaty soil. The problems will be caused soils nature fertility of
tidal swamplands is very low, thus soil productivity become low (Dent 1986; Sarwani et
al. 1994; Adimihardja et al. 1998).
In the acid sulphate soils, it is commonly founded a pyritic layers (FeS2) at
different depth and contained pyrite more than 2%. The pyrites are stable in the soils and
not dangerous if the soils on reductive/submergence conditions (Widjaya-Adhi et al.
1992). Nevertheless, the pyrites will be oxidized when the soils dry and the prosess will
result a H+, SO42- and Fe2+ so that the soils become acid and iron toxicity on rice crops
rises. Usually the iron toxicity increased when rice crops at 6-8 weeks ages after planting,
so that rice growth will not fully good, number of tillers decrease and that the rice crops
productivity become low.
The pyrites contents in acid sulphated soils become limiting factors for plantrice
growths. Unproper land managements may inpact on rice yield. Iron toxicity on rice crops
is because of increasingferro contents in soils solution. The simple methods to exceed the
iron toxicity is by planting of tolerants rice variety, but in other side,local peoplesdo not
preferance the new rice variety.
The innovation of technology which can overcomethe iron toxicity problem on rice
cultivation should be implemented. The technology includes: application of ameliorant
matters like a compost of rice straws, cow and chicken manures and weeds biomass, as
well as applications of lands preparation by soils conservation tillage (Jumberi et al. 1998;
Simatupang 2007).
2. Weeds Problems
Definition of weeds are as unlike plants, growing in unplace and causing damage
on the main crops, so that presence of the weeds in planting area will be one of biologist
contraints or limiting factors in process production to get high yields according topotency
of the plants.The growth of weeds is very fast and grow wellin tidal swamplands,
nevertheless the presence of weeds will be main competations for plants to get nutrients
and space.Weed is one a parts of an ecosystems so that it is needed to be maintananced,
therefore the precense of weeds in plantingarea must be in tolerants limit level for plants
in order to give advantage in agriculture system.
The problems of weeds is very closed relations with lands preparation system on
rice culture in tidal swamplands because it could increase production cost and decrease
289
rice yields until 74.2% (Ramli et al. 1992: Simatupang 2007). Usually, at the first planting
on wet seasons, weeds grows very fast and fertiles after sowing. The weeds management
attidal swamps rice area, usually is implemented together with land preparation systems
while weeds biomass is used as the organic matters as a source of nutrients for rice plants.
3. Socio Economic Problems
Swamplands agriculture management, by traditional ways had been already
conducted by local farmer Banjarise and Bugirise along hundreds years with local
knowledge. In addition, goverments also have developed this area with programs of
transmigrant replecement since 1960 from Jawa, Bali and Lombok islands. So the
transmigrant people had still not yet known how to managed this land for agriculture.
The problems increasing to use this lands for agricuture were labors and capitals,
so that the use of this lands has still not optimalized that caused the land would be become
neglected (Ramli et al. 1992). Limiting number of labors family and less of young labors
who interest to agriculture sectors was one of contraints on socio-enonomic aspect in
farming systems intidal swamplands area (Ismail et al. 1997). Thus, to optimalize tidal
swamplands area need innovation of technology that can decrease labors needed, cheaps,
easy to apply and efficients. One of them is innovation of soils tillage conservation lands
preparation. This technology should be conducted by using herbicides to reduce the labors
needed for land preparation, so it is more efficients and be able to increase farmers
income (Solahuddin, 1998; Simatupang 2007).
CONSERVATION SOIL TILLAGE

The lands preparation is one of technology that must be conducted at the first time on rice
culture at tidal swamplands area. This technology aimes to prepare land as the areas of
growing plants, to clean area from weeds, and to improve soil physics. But it makes soils
loose so that the soils would be formed as good puddling which can controll a weeds
growth.
The wrong way asusing land preparation equipments that not fixed or unsuitable
will give consequence ofdisadvantages and increase of negative impact for rice plants (for
example: increase of iron toxicity). Widjaya-Adhi (1997), recommended that useof tidal
swamplands area particularly acid sulphate lands for rice should be conducted by
application of integrated soils tillage-nutrients system.This systems wasone of lands
preparation that was in line with soils conservation principle, particularly that pyrites have
not disturbed in the soils and also use of weeds biomass that plenty grows in the swamp
areas as organics matter that source of nutrients for plants.
290
The soil tillage aimed to escape a soil fertility degradation inmarginal soils so that
land productivitycould be maintenanced. The soils conservation devided into: (a) zero
tillage, (b). Minimum tillage, and (c) soil tillage by mulching. Generally, the soils
conservation tillage that be conducted in upland and lowlandresult yield more better than
intensive soils tillage system (Utomo 2000).
The soil conservation tillage systems in tidal swamplands aimed: (a) to
controllsoils degradation, to increase and maintenance land productivity troughout use and
management of weeds biomass, (b) to maintenance pyritesin the soils layer should be
stable as fixed condition, the pyrites did not expose to soils surface so that iron toxicity
could be controlled, and (c) to prepare land in order to be ready and easy to
riceplantingand to controlweeds growth in paddy area (Simatupang et al. 1997a). The
technology of soils conservation tillage related with the weeds managements, so in
applications of this technology should be related with the use of herbicides whic was the
main components to control weeds.
The systems of land preparation intidal swamplands (acid sulphated soil)
mustconsidersoil conditions, including that must be attention about soil phyisical and
chemical characteristics particularly soil pyrites, so that methods or land preparation ways
should give optimal advantages and did not increase negative impacts to rice plants.
Therefore, the technology of land preparations must consider the soils conservation
principle of land resources so the land productivity could be inreasing and the farming
system could be increasing the farmers income.
In tidal swamplands the conservation soil tillage system can be applied by three
ways, there are (1) land preparation using tajak (traditional methods), (2) zero tillage,
and (3) full tilagge with regulations (FTR). The second and third methods are the
innovation technology that can be developed in tidal swamplands, where thetechnology
showed a good perform of result to prepare land for rice and couldincrease rice yields
(Simatupang 2007).The three methods of land preparation should be explain in the next
paragrafs.
A. Traditional Methods
The traditional methods of land preparation using tajak has been already
developed by the Banjarise and Bugerise along hundred years. This technology is the
local wisdom or indigenous knowledge. The technology is very simple, flexible,
conservative and sustainable to be applied intidal swamplands, as well as be friendly to
environment.
The traditional methods consist of 4 (four) steps, there are to slash/slice, to wrap
round, to turn up, to spread which is called as Tapulikampar (Nazemi et al. 2007). The
291
land preparation should be related with weeds management as a source of organic matters
and nutrients throughout using weeds biomass that was so much available in the area, as a
nutrient recylce process.The weeds biomass should be replaced to the soils as the source
of nutrients for plants. The traditional methods also hold a principle of lands conservation
particularly to pyrites layers in the soils and maintained pyrites on stable conditions, their
oxidation were not realize and the plants could be escape from iron toxicity (Simatupang
2007).
In application of land preperation by tajak, farmer sliced weeds until 3-5 cm
soildepth only so that the pyrites were not exposed to soils surface and iron toxicity was
not raised on rice plant. Usually, to operate the methods of slicing weeds by tajak would
be conducted at submerged soil about 5-10 cm depth. Nevertheless, the technology is not
efficient because to prepare land for rice that startedform the beginning activity untill land
ready to plantingneeded about 45-50 man/day/ha. In addition, the labor fee was very
expensive so that lands preparation cost became very expensive while farmers capitalwas
very weak and limited (Ramli et al. 1992).
B. Zero Tillage
Zero tillage is one of soils conservation tillage technology that could be developed
at rice culture in tidal swamplands. Herbicide is an important components on this
technology. Herbicide is used to kill weeds before rice plantingand controlweeds grow in
the planting areas.
The application of zero tillage in tidal swamplands rice area would be conducted
by 2 (two) steps, i.e.:
1.
Step I: Application of herbicide; the herbicides should be sprayed using knapsack

sprayer to weeds target in the area.One week after application, if the weeds are still
grows in the area, it was needed respraying herbicide for correction.Time of
application, kind and dosage of herbicides depend on lands condition, plant season,
kind of weeds target and herbicide used.
2.
Step II: Rolling; 2 - 3 weeks after application the rolling would be conducted, this
aimed to lay weeds and levelland surface in order to be easy for rice planting.Rolling
could be conducted by using drum, coconut stems, and other that should be pulled
with people or animals powers (Figure 1), and also it could be conducted by run over
of hand tractor tools (gelebek).After levellingland surface,then rice should be planted.
292
Figure 1. Rolling process after application of herbicide for land preparation in acid
sulphate lands
Use of herbicide both herbicide systemic or contactsat zero tillage should be
implemented in acid sulphate soils. It showed to be good effects to land preparation,
effective and be able to controlweeds in paddy area, increase rice yields and farmers
income so that it could be developed as one of land preparation technology in the tidal
swamplands (Simatupang 2007).
There are two kind of hebicides that could be used as main components on
applying of zero tillage technology in tidal swamplands.It is paraquat and isopropil amina
glyphosate. It showed at goods efficaciousand effective to kill weeds on land preparation
and also could controlweeds growth until 30 days afterplanting rice.
1.
Zero Tillage with Paraquat
Paraquat is a contacts herbicide that couldkill all kind of weeds that grows and
rises in tidal swamplands.This herbicide was effective to kill weeds so that this herbicide
is prospective to use on zero tillage technology to prepare paddy area in acid sulphate
lands (Simatupang, 2007).
Resarch results showed that using paraquat by 3.04.0 l ha-1 dosage on zero tillage
in tidal swamplands could preparea good area for rice and control weeds until 30 days
after planting rice (weeds covered less than 25%), increaserice yields about 25 30%
(0.600.85 t ha-1) compared to traditional methods (Figure 2a), decrease a labor need
atland preparation about 85%, increase farmers income and economically give a R/C
value ratio = 1.44 so that it could be recieved anddeveloped as one of land preparation
technology in tidal swamplands (Lamid et al. 1996; Simatupang et al. 1997).
293
To support twice of cropping patterns per year in acid sulphate lands, zero tillage
with using paraquat active ingredients of herbicide gave a good rice yields (Figure 2b) and
rice yields increased from 7.53 t ha-1 to become 8.23 t ha-1 dry yields (increased about
9.29%) during two plant seasons compared to traditional (with tajak). Economically, use
of herbicide on twice planting on cropping patterns gave biggest net return, it could
decrease total labor needed about 27.9% so that it was more efficiently (Simatupang et al.
2003).
Figure 2. Performance of rice yields at zero tillage compared to traditional methodsin

acid sulphate solis.
2.
Zero Tillage with Glyphosate
Isopropil amina glyphosate is an active ingredients of a post emergence herbicide.

This herbicide is to kill weeds troughout destroyof plants tissue systemically so that the
weeds should be dead and this herbicide is more effective than another herbicide.
The result research showed that using about 6.07.0 l ha-1 of isopropyl amina
glyphosate herbicide at zero tillage could prepare land until ready to be plantedwell,
effectively and control weeds grows until 30 days after planting with weeds covered less
than 25%, increase rice yields from 2.92 t ha-1 to become 4.50 t ha-1 (54.1%) compared to
traditional methods by tajak. Use of isopropyl amina glyphosate herbicide at zero tillage
did not caused iron toxicity on rice plants, decreased total labor for land preparation abaut
25% and increase farmers income from Rp. 3,800-Rp. 14.455/man/days (Simatupang
2007). Next, the performance of rice yields as research results during four seasons by
using isopropyl amina glyphosate herbicide compared to traditional methods by tajak is
showed at Figure 3.
294
Figure 3. Performance of rice yields during four seasons at zero tillage in acid sulphate
soils of Central Kalimantan
3.
Full Tillages with Regulations (FTR)
Full tillage is land preparation methods whic isconducted by hoe, disk plow or
rotary completelly, so that soil puddling can be realized and give a good effects to rice
plants growth.Nevertheless, the full tillage not only give a good effects but also give a
negative impact in the acid sulphate soils.
The innovation of soil tillage in tidal swamplands, anythings is full tillage with
regulations (FTR). Full tillage with the regulation is land preparation methods with a few
regultions, there are (1). The deep of soil tillage not more than 20 cm depth or conducting
abaut 1215 cm depth, (2). When land preparation, the lands must be in
submergedconditions (reduction condittions), and (3). To keep the land in flooding or
submergedcondition. Water management is one clause and as key success at
managements of tidal swamplands for agriculture, therefore submerged condition needed
micro arrangement systems.
Full soil tillage with the regulations aimed to prepare a lands with good puddling,
to controll a pyrites in soil layers, not disturbed or not exposed to soil surface and to
depend it in stable condition. This prevented the soil not to be oxidazed so the iron
toxicity on rice growth could be prevent.
Ar-Riza and Sardjijo (1994) reported that full soil tillage in lowlands insubmerged
condition regulations gave a good result which described with good puddling, better rice
growth performance, iron toxicity on rice not founded and gave more rice yields (4.52
t/hadry grains) compared to the soil tillage when the land in the dry conditions (yields:
295
4.03 t ha-1 dry grains) (Figure 4). To prepare soilswhen the soil in dry condition caused
the pyrite oxidation reaction and an iron toxicity onrice plants would be rised.
Figure 4. The performance of rice yield at full tillage in acid sulphate soils
CONCLUSION
1.
The conservation soil tillage was one inovation of land preparation which could be
applied atrice culture in acid sulphate tidal swampland.
2.
No tillages by herbicides (paraquat or isopropil amina glyphosate) and full soil tillage
with the regulations could be controlled pyrite oxidation and iron toxicity on rice and
also increasedrice yields.
3.
Both technologies of conservation soil tillage could be developed to support increase

of rice production efforts in the acid sulphate soils.
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28
1Ani
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOIL CHEMICAL

PROPERTIES AND EMISSION OF CO2 AND CH4 IN
GULUDAN OF SURJAN SYSTEMS IN ACID SULPHATE
SOIL *)
Susilawati and 2Bambang Hendro Sunarminto
1IAARD
Researcher at Indonesian Wetland Agriculture Research Institute (IWETRI), Jl. Kebun

Karet, Loktabat Utara. Banjarbaru-South Kalimantan. E-mail :ani.nbl@gmail.com
2Soil
Science Division, Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University-Yogyakarta
Abstract. Acid sulphate soil is a great potential land for agricultural development. The
soil productivity may be increased with surjan system technology. This research aimed to
study the relationship between soil chemical properties and emission of CO2 and CH4 of
guludan on surjan systems in acid sulphate soil. The study was conducted at two sites
(Karang Indah and Tanjung Harapan villages) which had difference in soil productivity.
Soil samples were originated from 0-30 cm depth while CO2 and CH4 emissions were
collected directly in the field using close chamber technique. The results showed that
there were positive correlation between soil pH, organic C, total N, available P and K,
CEC with emissions of CO2 and CH4 in Karang Indah and Tanjung Harapan villages
while saturation of Al, exchangeable Al, Fe2+, and C/N had a negative correlation with
both emissions. The best relationship among soil chemical properties with emissions of
CO2 and CH4 at both experiment sites was soil pH (positive correlation).
Keywords: Soil chemical properties, Acid sulphate soil, Emissions of CO2 and CH4
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia has about 33.4 million hectares of swamplands covered particularly in Sumatra,
Kalimantan, and Papua islands (Subagyo 2006). Government has been encouraging
development of marginal lands for agriculture such as swamplands because these land
resources are not still used optimally. In association with development of agriculture,
extensification strategy is especially aimed to achieve a target of 4 (four) successes of
agriculture, i.e. to achieve and maintain self-sufficiency in food.
Diversification of agricultural commodities in swamplands can be done through a
surjan system technology. There are two soil surfaces at the surjan system. The first part
is called as tabukan/ledokan (sunken beds) which can be planted with rice, and the second
part is called as guludan/tembokan (raised beds) that can be planted with horticultural
crops, fruits and plantation crops (Noor 2004).
*)
299
Susilawati dan Sunarminto
Development of swamplands for agriculture faced several problems, such as: high
soil acidity with pH range of 3-5, high release of toxic elements (Fe, Al), low fertility
rates, and easily degraded soil fertility. Another important problem is production of
greenhouse gas emissions such as CO2, CH4, and N2O, particularly from peat soil or from
paddy rice field.
This study aimed to identify the relationship between soil chemical properties and
emissions of CO2 and CH4 of guludan at surjan systems in acid sulphate soil of B type.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The experiment was conducted in June to September 2011 at two sites of acid sulphate
soil of B type in Karang Indah and Tanjung Harapan villages. Both villages belong to
Karang Buah Sub district Mandastana, Barito Kuala District, South Kalimantan Province.
The arrangement of surjan system in the study sites was the area (1 ha or 100 m x
100 m) was divided into 8 lines of guludan, with a dimension of 3 m wide and 100 m
long. These lands were arranged in rice-citrus crops pattern where citrus was planted on
the guludan part while the tabukan part was planted with rice. The pattern was very
popular among farmers in Batola District, South Kalimantan because of high interest
income to farmers.
Greenhouse gas emission samples were collected using close chamber method at
each the guludan part with time intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, and 24 seconds. The
samples were then directly measured in the field using a Varian Micro GC Portable Field
Case, 4,900 types. Disturbed soil samples were taken compositely using auger at a depth
of 0-30 cm. The samples, were then analized in soil laboratory of Indonesian Wetland
Agriculture Research Institute (IWETRI) Banjarbaru to determine several soil
characteristists as follow: pH (pH meter method), EC (EC meter method), Total N
(Kjeldahl method), Organic-C (Walkley and Black method), C/N ratio, Available P (Bray
I method), Available K (NH4OAc method), CEC (NH4OAc pH 7 method), Exchangable
Al (KCl 1 N method), and Redox potential (using HI 8424).

The results of soil analysis on some soil chemical properties are presented in Table
1. The Table 1 shows that there were differences in soil chemical properties at nearly all
observed parameters. There were a tendency of soil chemical properties at guludan
300
Relationship Between Soil Chemical Properties and Emission of Co2 and CH4
Karang Indah village better in all parameters compared to those of Tanjung Harapan
village.
Table1.
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11
The Mean Result of Soil Chemical Properties at Both Experiment Sites

Villages
Tanjung Harapan
Karang Indah
Parameter
H2O pH
Total N (%)
Organic-C (%)
C/N ratio
Available P (mg P2O5 kg -1)
Available K (cmol (+) kg-1)
CEC (cmol (+) kg-1)
Al saturation (%)
Exchangable Al (cmol (+) kg-1)
Fe2+ (mg kg -1)
Redox potential (mV)
4.01 0.37
0.33 0.02
4.09 0.34
13.22 3.08
19.59 4.30
0.44 0.22
24.00 2.59
32.05 0.96
9.03 1.64
179.91 1.7
473 4.47
5.02 0.41
0.52 0.5
5.00 0.60
9.92 0.15
34.12 3.41
0.55 0.48
30.83 2.88
5.16 4.91
1.60 0.48
51.76 0.74
513 4.13
Emissions of CO2 and CH4

Results of measurements of CO2 and CH4 emissions at both experiment sites are
presented at Table 2.
Table 2. Emissions of CO2 and CH4 at both experiment sites
No
1.
2.
Villages
Parameter
Tanjung Harapan
Karang Indah
-2
-1
6,165.44
11,433.02
-2
-1
8.99
19.49
CO2 emission (mg.m .d )

CH4 emission (mg.m .d )
The observation of CO2 and CH4 emissions at the site showed that the emission in
Karang Indah village was higher (about twice) than that of Tanjung Harapan village. This
was presumably due to differences in land use patterns that resulted in differences of
physical and chemical properties of soil (Schrier-Ujil et al. 2010; Gao et al. 2011).
Methane (CH4) was a green house gas emitted by the soil from biotic sources
(Duxbury and Mosier 1997; Greene and Salt 1997). The gas produced by the bacteria
methanogen in the anaerobic environment (Asakawa and Hayano 1995). Accumulative
CH4 formation rate was determined by the presence of base materials, populations,and
microbial activity forming CH4 (methanogens) and its environment.
On dry land cultivation, CH4 production was much lower than the field and limited
site-site anaerobic, cultivation of vegetables and corn produce CH4 flux respectively
0.46050.5255 and 0.16340.1824 mg CH4-Cm-2hr-1 this because cultivation techniques
301
such as the addition of manure to the planting (Suprihati et al. 2006). Incorporation of
resh organic matter causes an increase in CH4 flux on dry land and contribute significantly
to the balance of global CH4 (Yang and Chang 1997; Rath et al. 1999). Ernawanto et al.
(2003) reported that CH4 flux of upland rice cropping system was 1.73 mg m-2 d-1, and
sinks at 0.05 mg CH4 m-2 hr-1 in soybean cropping system. CH4 emissions range from
planting sugar cane in Australia is 297 to 1,005 g CH4-C ha-1 (Weier 1999).
Relationship between Soil Chemical Properties and CO2 and CH4 Emissions
The relationship between soil chemical properties and CO2 and CH4 emissions in
both sites are presented at Table 3.
Table 3. Relationship between Soil Chemical Properties and Emission of CO2 and CH4
at Experiment Sites
No
Villages
Tanjung Harapan
Karang Indah
CO2
CH4
CO2
CH4
Soil Characteristic
1.
H2O pH
0.95 *
0.92 *
0.94 *
0.93 *
2.
Total N (%)
0.66*
0.70 *
0.80 *
0.56 *
3.
Organic-C (%)
0.72 *
0.83 *
0.53 *
0.75 *
4.
C/N ratio
-0.52 *
-0.72 *
-0.54 *
-0.62 *
5.
Available P (mg P2O5 kg -1)
0.62 *
0.82 *
0.55 *
0.58 *
6.
Available K (cmol (+) kg-1)
0.53 *
0.71 *
0.80 *
0.64 *
7.
CEC (cmol (+) kg-1)
0.72 *
0.75 *
0.81 *
0.79 *
8.
Al saturation (%)
-0.71 *
-0.75 *
-0.65 *
-0.60 *
-0.50 *
-0.77 *
-0.62 *
-0.82 *
9.
-1
Exchangable Al (cmol (+) kg )

2+
-1
10.
Fe (mg kg )
-0.87 *
-0.46 *
-0.51 *
-0.75 *
11.
Redox potential(mV)
0.52 *
-0.80 *
0.82 *
-0.88 *
N: * significant at = 5 %
:
Table 3 shows that all observed parameters of soil chemical properties were fairly
close relationship with emissions of CO2 and CH4, and were significant at = 5%. Based
on the above, it is shown by the variables Table 3 the strongest relationship between soil
chemical properties and emissions of CO2 and CH4 in Karang Indah and Tanjung Harapan
villages was soil pH. It indicated that soil pH held an important role in producing CO2 and
CH4 emissions at both sites.
Soil pH values in Karang Indah village were higher than those in Tanjung Harapan
village, because the farmers in Karang Indah village used dolomite and organic material.
302
A positive correlation between soil pH with CO2 and CH4 emissions was also reported by
Rumbang et al. (2009). Soil pH affects soil respiration rate as it is related to a suitability
of soil microorganisms life. Most of known bacterial species live and grow well at soil pH
values of 4 to 9. As for fungi group requires soil pH of 4 to 6 (Luo and Zhou, 2006).
Sitaula et al. (1995) stated that soil pH of 3.0 produced 2 to 12 times lower CO2 compared
with the soil pH of 4.0. This was the effect of low soil microbial activity at low soil pH. In
line with this, Jugsujinda et al. (1996) and Rumbang et al. (2009) also stated that the
presence of organic matter and high soil pH would lead to the formation of CO2. Conrad
(1989) also suggested that an increase in soil pH would increase the production of CH4
and degradation of organic materials.
Soil nutrients (N, P, and K) had a appositive correlation wih CO2 and CH4
emissions at both sites. It means that if the nutrients in the soil increase, it would be
followed by an increase in emissions of CO2 and CH4. Li (2007) stated that nutrient status
was a main factor that affected production of methane. Luo and Zhou (2006) stated that
availability of soil nitrogen and addition of the substrate affected soil respiration.
The relationship between C/N ratio with CO2 and CH4 gas emissions showed the
same pattern that indicated a negative correlation. Reduction in CO2 and CH4 gas
emissions was in line with the increased of C/N ratio. This suggests that the magnitude of
the effect of organic matter addition to fertilization depends on the type and amount.
Various types of organic materials commonly used as green manure (fresh biomass),
manure or compost would each give a different effect on gas emissions. The magnitude of
the effect of giving organic matter to CH4 emission depends on the C/N ratio, chemical
composition, and amount of organic material that was added (Setyanto 2004)
Soil CEC had a positive correlation with CO2 and CH4 emissions at both sites.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a chemical property that is closely related to fertility.
Soil CEC value of a soil is influenced by the content of organic matter and the amount of
base cations in soil solution. Ground with higher CEC has organic material content so that
the microorganisms activity is in greater quantities and at the end it also results more gas
emissions.
The same pattern was shown by exchangeable Al, Saturation of Al, Fe2+ which
were negatively correlated with the emissions. Reduction in CO2 and CH4 gas emissions
was in line with the increase of soil exchangeable Al, Saturation of Al, and Fe2+. This was
apparently related to soil pH. Changes in soil toxicity or concentration of Al were
inversely proportional to soil pH. Soil pH could affect the action of gas emissions
production due to soil reaction (pH) level which was suitable with life condition and
activity of soil microorganisms. Microbes required acertain soil pH range for optimal
growth (Lou and Zhou 2006).
303
Redox potential had different patterns with CO2 and CH4 emissions at both sites.
Redox potential was positively correlated with CO2 emissions and negatively correlated
with CH4 emission. CO2 emissions increased with the increase of the redox potential
while CH4 emissions were in line with the decrease of redox potential. According to
Jugsujinda, et al. (1996), CO2 production rate of respiration was affected by redox
potential (Eh). Redox potential was a factor that directly affected formation of CH4 in the
soil and negatively related to methane emissions (Yagi and Miami 1990; Bouwmann
1991). Kludze and Delaune, in Nieder and Benbi (2008) added that the redox potential
effected the formation and transport of methane through the plant. At low Eh, an
aerenchyma formation increased while root size decreased.
CONCLUSION
There was positive correlation between soil pH, organic C, total N, available P and K, and
CEC with emissions of CO2 and CH4 in Karang Indah and Tanjung Harapan villages,
while saturation of Al, exchangeable Al, Fe2+ and C/N had a negative correlation with
both emissions.The best relationship among soil chemical properties with emissions of
CO2 and CH4 in both experiment sites was soil pH (positive correlation).
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306
29
UTILIZATION OF LOWLANDS SWAMP FOR RICE

FIELD IN ACCORDANCE WITH FISHERIES AND
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY (CASE STUDY IN PAMPANGAN,
SOUTH SUMATRA PROVINCE, INDONESIA)
1Dina
Muthmainnah, 2Zulkifli Dahlan, 2Robiyanto H. Susanto, 1Abdul Karim

Gaffar, and 2Dwi Putro Priadi
1Researchers
at Research Institute for Inland Fisheries, Jln. Beringin no. 8 Mariana.

Palembang-South Sumatra (e-mail: dina.gofar@yahoo.co.id)
2Lecturer
of Environmental Doctoral Programme, Sriwijaya University
Abstract.This research was focused on the evaluation of functions of lowlands swamp

ecosystem for food production, conducted in Pampangan sub district of Ogan Komering
Ilir, South Sumatra Province. During rainy season the areas of aquatic environment is
suitable for fishing ground while during dry season the area becomes rice field. Animal
husbandry activities used the area as grazing field of swamp buffalo (kerbau rawa). Rice
cultivation is only one time a year with sequence activities begin with land clearing,
collection of plant litter, growing rice seedling, weed control, and harvest. There were
four varieties of rice cultivated in the area such as: Ciliwung, Serang, IR-42, and
INPARA-3. Rice productivity was quite low (about 1 ton per ha per year) from the total
areas of 11,070 ha paddy field. Integration of rice cultivationfisheries - and animal
husbandry within swamp area can increase farmers income. In order to reach sustainable
use of swamp ecosystem, some management schemes should be practiced by balancing
rate of exploitation with conservation of the resources.
Keywords: Lowlands, integrated system, paddy field, fisheries, animal husbandry
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia areas of lowlands swamp is about 33 million hectares which were grouped into
tidal and non tidal swamps. About 13,296,770 hectares area (39.8%) is categorized as non
tidal swamp and only 341,526 hectares of which has been developed into agricultural land
(Ditjen Pengairan Departemen PU in Susanto 2010). Therefore, the swamplands have
potentials to develop in order to produce food. In South Sumatra Province, there were 1.1
million hectares non tidal lowlands swamp areas (Sumsel in Figure 2005), which are still
under utilized.
Lowlands swamp is a half way world between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem
and exhibits some of the characteristics of each (Smith 1980). Mitsch & Gosselink (1986)
described that lowlands are distinguished by the presence of water, have a unique soils
that differ from adjacent uplands, and support growth of vegetations adapted to the wet
condition. Zinn and Copeland (1982) defined that although water is present for the least
307
Dina Muthmainnah et al.
part of the time, the depth and duration of flooding vary considerably from wetland to
wetland, and often at the margins between deep water and terrestrial uplands, and are
influenced by both systems.
Pampangan sub district of Ogan Komering Ilir Regency has about 70% area as
lowlands swamp. The local people have been using swamp area for agricultural as well as
fishery and livestock raising purposes. This research was focused on the evaluation of the
functions of swamp ecosystem for food production in Pampangan sub district Ogan
Komering Ilir of South Sumatra Province.

The research was conducted from July 2011 to June 2012 by distributing questioner to
find out data on production of rice, fish and animal husbandry. As many as 439
respondents were randomly selected from the community of 10 villages i.e. Ulak Depati,
Pulau Layang, Tapus, Pulau Betung, Bangsal, Kuro, Menggeris, Pampangan, Serdang,
and Jungkal. Direct observation was also done to find out data on water depth fluctuation,
and pattern of fishery and livestock raising activities.

A. Bio-physical characters of Pampangan Swamp
According to water sources, those swamps were divided into three types: 1) the
swamp inundated by flood water from Komering river covers 4 villages: Tapus, Ulak
depati, Manggeris, and Pulau Betung; 2) the swamp with peat soils inundated by rain
water called Lebak Deling covers 3 villages: Jungkal, Serdang, and Deling; and 3) the
swamp inundated by both waters (from Komering river and rain water from Lebak
Deling) covers 3 villages: Bangsal, Kuro, and Pulau Layang (Figure 1).
308
Utilization of Lowlands Swamp for Rice Field in Accordance with Fisheries
Figure 1. Map of research location

Figure 2 shows relationships of monthly precipitation with water level in swamp
areas. High precipitation as found in January to April and October to December gave
higher water level in subsequent month. In December with average precipitation of 308.7
mm gave water level in swamp of 169.3 cm, and at that time water from river flew into
the lateral plain covering large areas of flood plain swamp.
Figure 2. Monthly average precipitation (20012011) (left) and water fluctuation (July
2011June 2012) (right)
309
Pattern of precipitation and water level has been used by local people to shift their
activity from fishing to cultivating swamp rice and animal raising.
B. Utilization Pattern of Lowlands Swamp in Pampangan
Data collected from 439 respondents from ten villages community showed that
majority of the village people use the swamp as their household (Figure 3).
Swamp type 1 was the swamp area where water level was influenced by water
level in the river. During wet season, water level in river increased and made flooding into
swamp, while during dry season, water level in river decreased and the water flowed back
to river causing major part of swamp becoming dry land, and only some water was found
in small river channel.
Figure 3. Local people utilize swamp as their household

During wet season, the swamp water has slightly acidic reaction covering grasses
and cultivated vegetations, and becomes habitat of many species of fish. During dry
season, major part of swamp becomes dry land and about 44% of respondents utilized the
areas as rice fields and the area with very shallow water body and grass vegetation
becomes grazing fields of buffalos and cattles (Table 1).
Swamp type 2 as found in 3 villages (Serdang, Deling and Jungkal) was covered
by quite deep water as permanent waterbodies. The water was black in color influenced
by peat soils with acidic reaction (pH=4.5). Water level fluctuated according to
fluctuation of monthly precipitation. The swamp was covered by grasses and aquatic
weeds and became habitat of many species of fish collectively called black fish. During
dry season, some deeper water areas become swampy pool and about 26% of respondents
utilized the areas as fishing ground where many kinds of fishing gear used by local
fishermen. Part of the swamp area becomes dry lowlands where 32% of respondents
utilized the land for plots of short crops, 20% of respondents utilized the land as buffalo
310
grazing pasture. Within this type of swamp, the dry period was found only about 3
months, during peak of dry season (Table 1).
Swamp type 3 gave water from both sources river and outflow of type 2 swamp,
water reaction wes acidic to circum neutral with grass vegetation. During wet season the
swamp become a fishing ground but during dry season, 59% of respondents using the area
as rice field and 13% of respondents using the area as buffalo grazing pasture (Table 1).
Table 1. Percentage of people utilizing the lowlands swamp as their household
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The Activities
Rice cultivation
Short crop
Capture fisheries
Fish culture
Raising buffalo swamp
Raising duck
Collecting wood
Collecting aquatic plant
Total
Swamp type 1
44
4
11
26
5
7
3
0
Percentage of people
Swamp type 2
Swamp type 3
4
59
34
5
27
6
5
11
21
13
4
6
0
0
5
0
100
100
100
There were four varieties of rice cultivated in the area such as: Ciliwung, Serang,
IR-42, and INPARI 13. The 11,070 hectares rice field has produced 9,288 ton rice per
year (Table 2). Rice was cultivated only one time a year with sequence activities begin
with land clearing, seeding, collecting plant litter, transplanting of rice seedling, weed and
pest controlling, and harvesting (Table 3).
Table 2. Data of rice field area and its production from 16 villages in Pampangan subdistrict
No
Village
Rice Field (ha)
Production (kg.ha-1)
Total (Ton)
1
2
3
4
5
Ulak Kemang Induk

Ulak Kemang Baru
Sepang
Keman
Keman Baru
1,062
550
1,015
937
375
788.1
791.0
697.5
984.0
667.0
837
435
708
922
250
6
7
8
9
10
Ulak Pianggu
Kandis
Ulak Depati
Tapus
Pulau Layang
525
1,157
739
1,251
915
815.0
487.5
587.0
1,000.0
1,000.0
428
564
434
1,251
915
11
12
13
14
15
Kuro
Bangsal
Menggeris
Pulau Betung
Serdang
675
450
425
619
150
1,000.0
1,000.0
1,000.0
1,000.0
1,000.0
675
450
425
619
150
16
Serimenang
Total
225
11,070
1,000.0
225
9,288
311
Table 3. Time schedule of rice cultivation activities in Pampangan Swampland

No
1
2
3
4
5
6
Activities
Month
7
8
10
11
12
Land clearing
Seeding
Straw collecting
Seedling Transplanting
Weed and pest controlling
Harvesting
During rainy season, the area was aquatic environment and used as fishing ground,
while during dry season the area became rice fields. Animal raising activities used the
area as grazing field of swamp buffalo.
Fisheries activities are usually done by either individual or group of fishermen
using many kinds of fishing gear. Besides sold as fresh fish, some of fish was processed
into salty fish, fermented fish, and smoked fish.
Fresh fish is usually sold to collector in the village and then the collector sold their
fish to an agent in Pampangan or Palembang markets. Fish prices were grouped into 3
categories: cheap (<Rp 15,000/kg), medium (about Rp 15,000 to 30,000 per kg), and
expensive (> Rp 30,000 per kg).
Fish culture was also practised in the areas with giant snakehead (Channa
micropeltes) and catfish (Pangasius hypopthalmus) as the principal cultural species. The
fish was grown out in bamboo cages with average production of 200 kg/cage/year. In
Pampangan sub district, there were 1,306 units of fish cages. The catfish was sold at quite
low price of Rp 13,000 per kg.
Animal raising was practised by about 18.33% of the respondents, 12.67% of them
raised buffalo, and the other 5.67% raised duck. There were 5,129 buffaloes and 5,220
ducks in Pampangan sub district (Pampangan Sub-district Office 2011).
C. General Discussion
Research findings showed that rice production in Pampangan swamp areas was
quite low (<1 ton ha-1). This phenomenon may be related to climate changes with
unpredictable dry and wet seasons. Very long dry season , causes rice plant to be dry and
dead before harvesting time. On the other hand, very early rainy season causes flood
which makes the rice plant dead or harvested before fully ripe. The problems may be
solved by introducing suitable rice variety which is adapted to fluctuating water level.
Susanto et al. (2004) also mentioned that time schedule of rice cultivation
activities in swamp area of Sako village of Banyuasin Regency during dry season started
312
from March for land clearing and harvest in August, but in that area water was available
all year long.
Waluyo et al. (2006) also found same problem in Batu Ampar Village of Sirah
Pulau Padang Sub district, where rice production was less than 2 ton ha-1. Waluyo et al.
(2001) also stated that in South Sumatra Province, the average of rice production in
swamp land was only about 2.7 ton ha-1. The production can still be improved by
implementation of suggested technology by which the production may reach 3.6 ton.ha-1
in shallow swamp, 3.8 ton ha-1 in medium swampland, and 4.5 ton ha-1 in deep swamp.
Suggested technology was using rice variety which is adaptive to water fluctuation
(Waluyo et al. 2006).
To increase farmer income in that area, some alternative methods could be
developed, such as integration of rice cultivations with fish culture, rice-fish-duck
integrated system, or shifting activity from fishing during rainy season to rice farming
during dry season. Livestock can be raised as an extra income. Suparwoto & Waluyo
(2009) stated that lowlands swamp has high potential to be developed as agricultural land,
animal raising, and fisheries. Combination of activities can improve farmers income.
Achmadi and Las (2006) suggested innovation technology in lowlands swamp rice such
as aspects of landscape and irrigation, cropping patterns, the selection of commodities and
agricultural technologies adapted to the characteristics of lowlands swamp. Rice base
farming system such as rice, short crop, horticulture, animal raising, and fish culture; or
rice, short crop, animal raising, and fish culture; or rice, animal raising, and fish culture;
or rice and animal raising.
CONCLUSSION AND REMARKS

Rice productivity was quite low (about 1 ton per hectare per year) from the total areas
11,070 ha paddy field which can still be improved by implementation of suggested
technologies. Integration of rice cultivation-fisheries-and animal raising within swamp
area could increase farmers income. In order to reach sustainable use of swamp
ecosystem, some management scheme should be practised by balancing rate of
exploitation with conservation of the resources.
Deep swamps as habitats for fish and wild animal, wide range of vegetation could
not be developed into agricultural land. This specific ecosystem should be conserved as
natural as possible.
313
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Mitsch, W.J. and J.G. Gosselink. 1986. Wetlands. van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New
York. 539pp.
Smith, R.L. 1980. Ecology and Field Biology. 3rd ed. Harper and Row. New York. 835p.
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Sumatera Selatan, Palembang.
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Penganekaragaman Komoditas. Jurnal Pembangunan Manusia. Vol. 7 No. 1. April
2009.
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Lebak untuk Penentuan Skala Prioritas Usaha dan Pengembangan Kelembagaan
sesuai dengan Profil Sosio-Ekonomi-Teknis-Hidrologi-Kelembagaan. Laporan
Hasil Pertemuan pada Lokakarya Penyusunan Rencana Kegiatan 2005 untuk
Penumbuhan Kantong Penyangga Pangan di Rawa Lebak. 6-7 September 2004.
Jambi.
Susanto, R.H. 2010. Strategi Pengelolaan Rawa untuk Pembangunan Pertanian
Berkelanjutan. Jurusan Tanah Fakultas Pertanian. Universitas Sriwijaya. Indralaya.
Waluyo, Suparwoto, I.W. Supartha, and Jumakir. 2001. Pengkajian Lahan Rawa Lebak
dengan Penerapan Teknologi Sistem Usahatani Terpadu di Sumatera Selatan.
Prosiding Seminar Nasional PLTT dan Hasil-hasil Penelitian/Pengkajian
Teknologi Pertanian Spesifik Lokasi. Jambi. 2001.
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(Studi Kasus: Desa Batu Ampar, Kab. OKI, Sumsel). Prosiding Seminar Nasional
Balai Penelitian Pertanian Lahan Rawa. Banjarbaru. 28-29 Juli 2006.
Zinn, J.A. and C. Copeland. 1982. Wetland Management. Congressional Research
Service. The Library of Congress. Washington D.C. 149p.
314
30
1Umi
WATER USE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OF

LOWLAND RICE BASED ON CARBON EFFICIENT
FARMING (CEF) IN SUKAMANDI
Haryati and 1Yoyo Soelaeman
1IAARD
Researchers at Indonesian Soil Research Institute. Jl. Tentara Pelajar No. 12.
Cimanggu. Bogor (umiharyati @yahoo.com)
Abstract. One criterion of carbon efficient farming (CEF) is water use efficiency without
reducing crop production. Rice farming at Experimental Station of Sukamandi was
managed by farmer groups using conventional irrigation by irrigating continuously. This
irrigation system was wasting water that caused low crop water use efficiency. The aims
of this study were to determine efficiency of crop water use in lowland rice and to find out
alternative irrigation techniques to improve water use efficiency. The experiment was
conducted at 2011/2012 planting season consisting of three activities: 1) Analysis of
agroecosystem, 2) Survey to farmers using semi structure interview, and 3) Field
observations to calculate efficiency of water use. The results showed that the climate in
the Experimental Station was categorized into C2-C3 types, with 2 wet and 6 dry months,
and the average annual rainfall was 1,466 mm year-1. Water surplus occurred from May to
October and deficit in December, February, and March. The soils were dominated by
Ultisols with silty clay loam to clay texture. The soil had medium bulk density (BD), high
total pore space and pore of available water, and slow soil permeability. The average rice
yield at the site was 5-7 t ha-1 with 0.9 up to 1.5 kg/m3 crop water use efficiency level
under conventional irrigation systems. Intermittent irrigation system increased crop water
use efficiency of paddy by 34 up to 45%.
Keyword: Water use efficiency, paddy, CEF
INTRODUCTION
In the future, agricultural development in Indonesia faces several challenges of how to
establish a sustainable national food security and improve farmers welfare, as well as to
keep resources continuity and sustainability. Another challenge is to strive for the
achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which include poverty
reduction, unemployment and food insecurity. Meanwhile on a global scale, the
agricultural sector is required to raise awareness on global warming threat through efforts
of adaptation and mitigation to reduce green house gas (GHG) emissions. To support
these efforts, the government has issued Presidential Decree on the National Action Plan
for Green House Gas Emission Reduction (RAN-GRK) No. 61/2011 and Presidential
Regulation No.71/2011 on the Green House Gas Inventory.
National and global challenges, among others, can be answered through the
development of Carbon Efficient Farming (CEF) or green farming. Green farming is part
315
Haryati and Soelaeman
of the Green Economy that prioritize economic growth with due regard to the
environment, including the reduction of GHG emissions.
CEF can be defined as a system of agriculture that makes optimal use of carbon
containing in organic matter of crop residues and animal waste so it provides added value
in the form of increase productivity, farmers' income, and energy efficiency and reduce
green house gas emissions and improve environment (Las et al. 2010). So, there are
many pillars in CEF, such as: 1) High productivity, 2) High profit, 3) Clean run-off, 4)
Zero waste and 5) Low emission and 6) High water used efficiency.
Irrigated agriculture is the largest user of water with amount above 80% of total
water use, but the water use efficiency is still low (<40%) (Pereira et al. 2002; Middleton
2005). In Indonesia, agricultural water use reaches 76% (Sosiawan and Subagyono, 2007)
and even reaches 80-90% of all water use (Partowijoto 2002). In the global scope,
Indonesia is one of among the countries that was predicted will take the experience water
crisis by 2025 (World Water Forum II 2000), because of weaknesses in water
management. The main problem is the low efficiency of water use (Sosiawan and
Subagyono 2007). In general, it should take a real action to reduce the use of irrigation
water to 65-70% by suppress in a water loss and improve the efficiency of irrigation
(Partowijoto 2002).
Indonesian Center for Rice Research Institute (ICRRI) Sukamandi is only
technology innovator in the field of rice research to support national programs to increase
rice production. Experimental Station of Sukamandi and its surrounding is one of the
largest rice field areas in PANTURA (northern part of Java) of Indonesia. So this area has
the big contribution for national rice production. Rice farming in the Experimental
Station, largely managed by farmer groups who use conventional irrigation by continuous
irrigation. These irrigation system wastes water and causes low crop water use efficiency.
This study aims to determine the efficiency of crop water use at Experimental Station of
Sukamandi lowland area and to find an alternative irrigation technique that can improve
crop water use efficiency.

Research site
The research was conducted at Experimental Station of Sukamandi in 2011/2012
planting season. This site was located in Subang District, West Java Province at 6o 20
South Latitude; 107o 39 East Longitude; with altitude of location is+15 m above sea
level.
316
Water Use Efficiency Improvement of Lowland Rice
Research Procedure
The research consisted of three steps: 1) Agro-ecosystem analysis, 2) A survey to
farmers through semi structural questionnaires for interviews and 3) Field observations to
collect data for calculating water use efficiency.
a.
Agro-ecosystem analysis
This stage was conducted to know characteristic of location including soil, climate,
and present land-use. The data source was from secondary data, which collected from this
experimental station and ICRRI its self.
b.
Farmers interviews
Ten farmers were interviewed to know about existing farming system especially
existing culture of rice. The data to be collected including large of land holding, paddy
variety, fertilizers, planting system, irrigation and production level of rice.
c.
Field observation
To calculate water use efficiency, many data were needed. To collect this data,
field observation including ring soil sample for soil physics analysis and soil composite
sample for soil chemical analysis were taken. The results of soil physics analysis were
used to calculate available soil water to determine how much water to be given for
irrigation. Beside that, water debit at every irrigation channel type (tertier, quarter and
warm chanel) were also measured to know how much and how long water should be flow
to meet water requirement of rice field.
Data Collection
There were two types of data that was collected in this research such as secondary
and primary data. The secondary data were: rainfall, temperature, altitude, latitude and
soil type. These data were used to calculate water balance at research site to know rainfall
distribution, water surplus and deficit month along the year.
For calculating monthly water balance, many data were important to be owned
such as:
1.
Average monthly rainfall (January up to December, during last 5-10 years)
2.
Geographic position
3.
Conversion and tables (Thorntwaite and Mather 1957), and
4.
Soil texture and water holding capacity at a certain soil depth

317
The primary data to be collected were soil physical and chemical properties,
irrigation water source, debit of irrigation on different level of irrigation channel
(secondary, tertiary, quarter), farmers rice culture, and rice productivity level. The soil
physical properties were analyzed at Soil Physical and Soil Chemical Laboratories of
Indonesian Soil Research Institute.
Analysis on soil physical properties included bulk density (BD), particle density
(PD), soil moisture at pF 1; pF 2,0; pF 2,54; pF 4,2; pore space distribution, soil
aggregation, soil percolation, and soil permeability. Soil chemical properties that were
analyzed included pH, organic matter, potential and available phosphorus and potassium,
exchangeable cations, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, and acidity saturation.
Data Analysis
a.
Water balance calculating
Monthly water balance was calculated by formula presented by Thornthwaite and

Mater (1957). Many terminologies and abbreviations used in this formula were:
ToC
:
Average of monthly air temperature
I
Heat index (from table)
Unadj PE = PE
uncorrected
Daily potential evapotranspiration (from table, for average

air temperature > 26,5oC);
Corr. fact
Monthly correction factor (from table based on longitude

position)
PE
Monthly potential evapotranspiration, multiplication

between uncorrected PE with correction factor, in mm unit
Average of monthly rainfall (January up to December), in

mm unit
P-PE
The difference between monthly rainfall and monthly

potential evapotranspiration
Acc Pot WL/
Potential loss of water accumulation = the sum of negative

value of the difference between P - PE
ST
Soil moisture/soil water content after irrigation, and when

potentially loss of water occurred. It depended on water
holding capacity, soil texture, and the kind of plant. This
value comes from table.
ST
Changes of soil water content. They were different between

soil moisture of present month and soil moisture of one
month before
318
AE
Monthly potential evapotranspiration, if P > PE (positive),

so AE = PE, but if P < PE (negative), so AE = P + ST
(without see the mark);
D (Deficit)
Sum of the differences between actual and potential

evapotranspiration at a certain month. The value become
deficit/lack of water at that month
S (Surplus)
After value of water holding capacity was reached, when

rainfall higher than water holding capacity, and surplus/
excess water will become run-off
b.
Calculating of crop water requirement
Potential evapotranspiration is amount of water that can evapotranspirate by plant

in a normal condition with enough available water content in soil to support optimum
plant growth. According Doorenbos and Pruit (1977), potential evapotranspiration can be
predicted by approaching to climate factors and plant characteristics. This prediction can
be reflected by equation:
ETp = ETo*Kc
where: ETp = maximum evapotranspiration (mm/day)
ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Kc = crop coefisient
c.
Water use efficiency (WUE) calculation

Water use efficiency was calculated by this formula:
WUE = Yield / ETp
where: WUE = water use efficiency (kg/m3)

Yield = crop yield (kg ha-1)
ETp = maximum evapotranspiration (m3/ha)
319

Agro-ecosystem Characteristics
a.
Soil and Climate
Dominant soil type in Sukamandi was Ultisols with loam up to clay soil texture.
Average monthly rainfall and air temperature during 20 years (1991-2010) was showed at
Table 1.
Table 1 showed that the highest average monthly rainfall occurred at February.
Based on the data had been collected during 20 years (1991 up to 2010), there were 2 wet
months (>200 mm) and 6 dry months (<100 mm), so according Oldeman (1975), the
research site (Sukamandi Experimental Station) had C2C3 climate type (can only plant
one time of paddy, the second season/crop should be careful because of scarcity of water).
The average of monthly rainfall during 20 years was showed at Table 1 and the average of
monthly temperature during 20 years at Table 2.
Table 1. The monthly rainfall at Experimental Station of Sukamandi, ICCRI during 20
years ( 1991-2010)
Year
Jan
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Average
320
Feb
Mar
Apr
Mei
Jun
Month
Jul Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Des
.......................... . mm .........
139 260
223 220
4
5
52
0
0
0
134 358
134 222
157 234
91
26
13
26
66 115
49 144
359 306
208 109
106
84
29
6
25
4
81 111
332 189
290 170
113
58
0
0
0
0
252 296
290 273
180
69
22
73 133
0
0 155
261 104
360 262
110
51
168
46
5
19
78
86
98 280
371 127
179
96
19
0
0
0
0
0
48 131
152 230
188 147
164
75
44
56
25 178
221
85
206 227
241
53
102
37
32
0
6 117
333 174
435 189
104 223
104
31
2
10
10
70
293
83
209 194
181 140
132 130
2
72
16
94
279 157
452 579
132 105
25
22
88
0
2
0
103 136
150 339
180
55
51
0
0
0
92
70
103
98
238 537
368
75
89
57
9
0
0
0
144 119
279 154
201 137
70
13
24
4
3 163
48 183
341 170
232
93
30
10
37
0
0
2
16 157
147 185
150 198
59 154
6
0
36
61
111 210
286 530
137
48
45
13
0
3
0
73
150 112
374 366
203 179
72
8
0
0
10
6
208 244
198 375
144 134
116
63
82
54 125 183
261 298
272 285
190 127
79
45
28
12
25
69
159 174
Total
1,393
1,274
1,424
1,698
1,558
1,560
970
1,563
1,527
1,552
1,604
1,642
1,137
1,636
1,278
1,087
1,314
1,395
1,670
2,033
1,466
Table 2. The monthly temperature at Sukamandi Experimental Station, ICCRI during 20

years ( 1991-2010)
7
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
July
Month
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Total
Average
318.3
326.5
321.5
319.6
323.6
323.5
329.4
330.4
322.0
323.3
322.6
333.4
328.1
332.8
329.7
330.0
325.4
323.3
329.1
330.0
326.1
26.5
27.2
26.8
26.6
27.0
27.0
27.5
27.5
26.8
26.9
26.9
27.8
27.3
27.7
27.5
27.5
27.1
26.9
27.4
27.5
27.2
......................................................... mm .......................................................................
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Average
b.
26.1
25.8
25.7
25.8
26.6
25.6
25.7
27.9
26.4
26.0
26.7
28.3
26.6
27.2
26.4
26.6
27.5
26.7
26.1
26.4
26.5
25.7
28.1
25.7
26.1
26.3
25.9
26.0
27.1
26.0
25.8
25.8
26.8
26.4
27.4
27.0
26.9
27.1
24.6
26.3
27.6
26.4
26.7
28.8
26.8
26.4
27.0
26.9
27.3
27.3
27.1
26.5
26.7
27.3
27.2
28.1
27.6
27.2
27.2
26.7
27.2
27.5
27.2
25.9
26.3
26.0
26.3
26.8
27.6
27.1
28.0
26.9
27.2
27.6
27.9
28.3
28.8
27.8
28.0
27.7
27.5
28.7
28.4
27.4
27.1
27.2
27.3
27.4
27.5
27.9
30.0
28.5
27.3
27.8
26.7
27.8
28.2
28.4
28.1
28.2
27.7
27.8
27.7
28.3
27.8
26.4
26.5
26.9
26.4
27.0
27.0
26.8
27.5
26.8
26.8
26.7
27.4
27.6
27.0
27.5
27.0
27.4
26.3
27.6
27.8
27.0
26.0
26.1
26.4
25.4
26.3
26.8
26.3
26.9
26.1
26.6
26.3
26.9
26.8
26.8
26.8
26.8
26.8
26.4
27.1
27.0
26.5
26.1
26.6
27.0
25.4
26.6
27.1
26.3
27.4
26.4
26.2
26.9
26.8
26.3
26.8
27.3
26.9
26.5
27.0
27.2
27.6
26.7
27.1
26.9
27.2
27.1
27.8
27.6
27.4
28.1
27.4
27.8
28.1
27.6
27.4
27.9
28.0
27.3
27.1
27.9
27.7
27.3
27.5
27.6
27.1
28.1
27.8
28.0
27.3
27.4
27.6
27.8
28.2
27.5
28.9
28.1
28.7
28.5
28.2
26.4
28.2
28.3
27.5
27.9
27.1
27.0
27.4
28.2
27.0
27.3
28.8
27.2
27.1
27.1
27.4
29.7
28.1
28.1
27.8
29.0
27.2
27.5
27.8
27.8
27.7
26.5
29.9
26.9
27.3
26.7
26.5
30.3
27.0
26.9
27.4
26.2
28.0
27.2
27.6
26.9
27.8
26.9
26.7
27.4
26.8
27.3
Soil physics properties
Soil at Experimental Station of Sukamandi, at 0-20 cm depth had a high water

content (48%), bulk density (BD=1.16 g/cm3) and particle density (PD=2.37g/cm3) were
medium, total pore space (TPS=50.91%) was high, rapid drainage pore (RDP=4.64%) and
was very low, slow drainage pore (SDP=4.61%) was also very slow, available water pore
(21.52%) was quite highand permeability (0.43cm/hour) was very slow (Table 3). All
these soil physical properties affected water movement in the soil profile, therefore, the
physical properties of soil surface layer was crucial soil physical properties of soil
parameters which was still able to be manipulated so that the movement of water in the
soil will favorable for crops.
Rapid drainage pore was very low and slow permeability indicated that there was a
very close relationship between soil physics properties and landuse (as rice field). This
situation was also related to the physical properties of the soil in the profile or deeper
horizons (20-40) cm from the surface of the soil (Table 4). At a depth of 20-40 cm, the
soil has a high water content (43.3%), bulk density (BD=1.29 g/cm3) and particle density
(PD=2.43 g/cm3) was medium, total pore space (TPS=47.13%) was high, rapid drainage
pore (RDP=3.81%) was very low, slow drainage pore(PDL=4.61%) was very slow,
available water pore (AWP=7.10%) was high and permeability (0.12 cm/hour) was very
slow. The results of soil physical properties analysis at the layer of 20-40 also showed that
all parameters were analyzed and have a lower value than the surface layer (020 cm),
321
except for BD and PD had a higher value than those at 0-20 cm layer. This suggested that
this horizon (20-40 cm) was denser because the tread plow layer begins to form.
An important point of the soil physical properties at this Experimental Station was
having total pore space and available water pore were high, both at surface layer (0-20)
cm and deeper layers (20-40) cm. This means that the soil had a capacity of holding water
(water holding capacity=WHC) was good, so the water did note asily percolate in to the
deeper soil layers (percolation). Such a situation was good for paddy because water did
not quickly pass to deeper layer/profile and expected the usage of water by plant scan be
more efficient.
322
Table 3. Soil physical properties at 0-20 cm depth of each observation block in Experimental Station of Sukamandi rice field area,
Subang Regency, West Java
No
Observations
Blok
BD
PD
RPT
pF 1.0
pF 2.0
pF 2.54
pF 4.2
RDP
SDP
AW
Permeability
(% vol)
(g/cm3)
(g/cm3)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(% vol)
CT - 1
CT - 2
CT - 3
MK - 1
MK - 2
MK - 3
CH - 1
CH - 2
CH - 3
INPARI - 1
INPARI - 2
INPARI - 3
B2/C2 - 1
B2/C2 - 2
B2/C2 - 3
C1 - 1
C1 - 2
C1 - 3
D2 - 1
D2 - 2
D2 - 3
E2 - 1
E2 - 2
E2 - 3
F2 - 1
F2 - 2
F2 - 3
2 HA
Average
50.8
48.5
50.9
50.2
50.3
46.9
52.2
52.7
44.6
51.4
48.9
39.5
48.3
51.1
41.3
45.2
48.7
44.5
48.4
46.4
48.1
47.9
45.7
44.2
51.1
46.4
48.3
50.2
48.0
1.04
1.14
1.09
1.02
1.09
1.16
1.00
1.03
1.10
1.07
1.11
1.22
1.12
1.19
1.35
1.30
1.10
1.21
1.20
1.28
1.25
1.24
1.25
1.34
1.10
1.18
1.18
1.17
1.16
2.33
2.36
2.32
2.22
2.37
2.26
2.24
2.31
2.09
2.36
2.35
2.24
2.35
2.53
2.55
2.48
2.24
2.39
2.41
2.42
2.47
2.41
2.41
2.53
2.39
2.30
2.44
2.51
2.37
55.42
51.56
52.99
54.07
54.03
48.58
55.14
55.52
47.28
54.56
52.86
45.69
52.58
53.00
47.02
47.70
50.62
49.16
50.30
46.99
49.28
48.49
48.22
46.96
54.07
48.50
51.48
53.35
50.91
48.94
47.13
49.70
52.06
53.14
46.94
54.03
53.88
45.69
52.16
49.84
42.08
50.88
51.87
46.55
45.63
48.90
47.70
49.57
46.41
48.38
47.42
47.56
45.44
52.27
47.58
49.25
52.60
49.06
47.60
45.33
42.42
49.54
49.60
44.46
51.69
51.53
44.16
50.51
47.31
41.86
49.24
49.93
44.14
43.99
43.79
43.56
46.97
43.61
45.54
44.16
44.29
43.07
48.08
44.84
44.86
49.47
46.27
42.47
41.20
38.52
44.96
44.47
40.35
47.01
47.03
40.16
45.79
42.71
36.96
44.30
45.27
39.28
39.23
39.19
38.98
42.46
39.34
41.23
39.72
39.40
37.84
43.25
40.89
40.90
44.19
41.68
19.51
21.12
20.47
22.38
20.12
20.80
20.85
21.95
17.95
21.68
19.88
17.54
21.91
20.63
20.22
22.56
15.91
20.43
19.47
18.80
20.69
20.93
24.47
21.12
17.54
18.93
19.25
17.50
20.16
7.82
6.24
10.58
4.53
4.42
4.11
3.45
3.99
3.11
4.05
5.55
3.82
3.34
3.07
2.88
3.71
6.83
5.60
3.32
3.39
3.74
4.32
3.93
3.89
5.99
3.66
6.62
3.89
4.64
5.12
4.13
3.90
4.58
5.13
4.11
4.69
4.50
4.00
4.73
4.60
4.90
4.94
4.66
4.86
4.75
4.60
4.58
4.51
4.26
4.31
4.45
4.89
5.23
4.84
3.95
3.95
5.28
4.59
22.96
20.08
18.06
22.57
24.35
19.55
26.16
25.09
22.21
24.11
22.83
19.42
22.39
24.64
19.06
16.67
23.28
18.55
22.99
20.54
20.54
18.79
14.92
16.72
25.70
21.96
21.65
26.69
21.52
0.20
0.02
1.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
1.27
0.59
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
2.00
1.49
0.02
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.56
0.63
1.60
0.02
2.08
0.19
0.43
(cm/jam)
category
high
Mrdium
medium
high
very low
very
low
high
slow
323
Explanation: WC=water content, BD=bulk density, PD=particle density, TPS=total pore space, RDP=rapid drainage pore, SDP =slow drainage pore, AW = available water
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
WC
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Observations
Blok
WC
BD
PD
TPS
pF 1,0
pF 2,0
pF 2,54
pF 4,2
RDP
SDP
AW
Permeability
(% vol)
(g/cm3)
(g/cm3)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(% vol)
(cm/jam)
CT - 1
CT - 2
CT - 3
MK - 1
MK - 2
MK - 3
CH - 1
CH - 2
CH - 3
INPARI - 1
INPARI - 2
INPARI - 3
B2/C2 - 1
B2/C2 - 2
B2/C2 - 3
C1 - 1
C1 - 2
C1 - 3
D2 - 1
D2 - 2
D2 - 3
E2 - 1
E2 - 2
E2 - 3
F2 - 1
F2 - 2
F2 - 3
2 HA
Average
45.5
42.1
45.2
53.7
41.9
43.8
44.5
49.2
37.9
44.2
43.0
40.8
39.5
41.5
40.3
44.8
40.7
39.5
44.0
45.3
43.2
45.4
37.4
46.5
43.7
43.9
41.3
44.8
43.3
1.26
1.36
1.23
1.07
1.31
1.30
1.29
1.04
1.41
1.27
1.35
1.41
1.29
1.37
1.38
1.27
1.23
1.21
1.23
1.21
1.38
1.33
1.31
1.38
1.17
1.37
1.37
1.21
1.29
2.39
2.49
2.38
2.36
2.50
2.40
2.48
2.11
2.49
2.45
2.42
2.52
2.33
2.54
2.52
2.41
2.29
2.45
2.45
2.41
2.57
2.54
2.39
2.48
2.30
2.49
2.49
2.45
2.43
47.52
45.10
48.28
54.63
47.47
45.94
47.76
51.01
43.41
48.06
44.47
43.93
44.56
45.96
45.15
47.32
46.03
50.49
50.00
49.80
46.21
47.52
45.14
44.35
49.10
44.90
45.02
50.63
47.13
42.75
41.68
46.31
52.70
45.66
44.92
45.43
49.40
41.82
45.60
43.20
41.23
42.91
47.72
43.40
46.01
44.95
49.49
48.85
47.81
45.08
46.82
42.72
49.47
47.34
43.64
44.17
47.57
45.67
42.30
40.30
44.46
50.35
42.61
41.91
44.02
46.96
39.72
44.43
40.88
40.53
41.32
43.34
41.98
43.46
42.24
47.59
46.48
46.18
42.44
43.48
41.12
40.50
45.74
41.05
41.58
46.17
43.33
38.57
34.97
39.59
44.99
38.56
37.06
39.72
42.29
35.20
40.14
36.21
35.75
36.93
38.71
37.62
39.00
37.91
43.46
41.72
41.24
38.07
38.69
36.50
35.13
41.12
36.32
36.82
41.67
38.71
19.09
27.95
24.90
22.85
22.45
22.20
24.63
17.42
18.48
22.78
20.82
18.89
22.13
24.98
25.54
19.99
18.11
17.79
19.29
27.68
21.75
21.69
20.26
24.34
17.49
20.54
22.28
18.74
21.61
5.22
4.80
3.82
4.28
4.86
4.03
3.74
4.06
3.69
3.63
3.59
3.40
3.24
2.62
3.17
3.87
3.80
2.90
3.52
3.62
3.77
4.04
4.01
3.85
3.36
3.85
3.44
4.46
3.81
3.73
5.33
4.88
5.36
4.05
4.86
4.30
4.66
4.51
4.29
4.68
4.78
4.39
4.63
4.36
4.46
4.33
4.13
4.76
4.93
4.38
4.79
4.62
5.37
4.62
4.74
4.76
4.50
4.61
19.47
7.02
14.69
22.13
16.11
14.85
15.09
24.87
16.73
17.36
15.38
16.85
14.80
13.73
12.08
19.02
19.79
25.68
22.44
13.56
16.32
17.00
16.24
10.79
23.63
15.78
14.54
22.93
17.10
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.08
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.24
0.02
1.59
0.02
0.16
0.29
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.57
0.12
Category
High
medium
medium
High
very low
very low
high
very slow
Explanation: WC=water content, BD=bulk density, PD=particle density, TPS=total pore space, RDP=rapid drainage pore, SDP =slow drainage pore, AW = available water
324
Table 4. Soil physical properties of 20-40 cm depth at each observation block of Experimental Station of Sukamandi rice field area,
Subang Regency, West Java
Soil at Experimental Station of Sukamandi hads and content of between 2-20%

with an average of 6%, silt content ranging from 34-59% with an average of 51% and
aclay content ranging from 39-63% with an average of 44% . So it belongs to the category
of siltyclay loam to clay soil texture (Table 5).
Table5.
Results of soil texture analysis on ten observations block at Experimental

Station of Sukamandi rice field area, Subang Regency, West Java.
Number
ObservatNo
ions block
Depth of soil
(cm)
Content
Sand
Silt
Clay
Soil Texture
----------- % --------1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
c.
CT
MK
INPARI
B2/C2
CH
C
D
E
F
2HA
Average
0 20
0 20
0 20
0 20
0 20
0 20
0 20
0 20
0 20
0 20
0 20
10
6
3
2
3
7
5
7
5
7
6
44
54
54
59
34
54
55
53
47
53
51
46
40
43
39
63
39
40
40
48
40
44
Silty clay
Silty clay
Silty clay
Silty clayloam
clay
Silty clayloam
Silty clay - Silty clayloam
Silty clay
Silty clay
Soil chemical properties
Table 6 shows that soil in rice field area of the Experimental Station is acidic
(pH5.2), low organic matter content (C and N), medium C/N ratio (11.5), high P potential
(41.9 mg/100 g), very low K2O (4.5 mg/100 g), very high available P2O5 (26.7 ppm), high
K2O (31.7 ppm), medium Ca-exch (8.4 cmol+/100 g), medium Mg-exch (2.1 cmol+/100
g), low Na-exch, (0.10 cmol+/100 g), low cation exchange capasity (14 cmol+/100 g), and
high base saturation (77%).
Chemical properties has a strong relationship with nutrient availability of the soil.
By knowing nutrient status in the soil, nutrient requirement and amount of nutrient needto
be added to soil will be known so fertilizers efficiency can be reached
d.
Land-use and rice culture
Land at Experimental Station of Sukamandi had been sertified with large about
520.66 ha (BB Padi 2011). Rice field area that arange with CEF model was 100 ha large,
which consisted of about 67 ha under cooperation management with objective for seed
production and 33 ha for consumtion under Experimental Station management (Figure 1).
325
326
To dry sample105 oC
Ekstract 1:5
Organic matter
HCl 25%
Observation
Block
H2O
KCl
Walkley
& Black
Kjeldahl
C/N
------- % -----1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
CT - 1
CT - 2
CT - 3
MK - 1
MK - 2
MK - 3
CH - 1
CH - 2
CH - 3
Inpari - 1
Inpari - 2
Inpari - 3
B2/C2 - 1
B2/C2 - 2
B2/C2 - 3
C1 - 1
C1 - 2
C1 - 3
D2 - 1
D2 - 2
D2 - 3
E2 - 1
E2 - 2
E2 - 3
F2 - 1
F2 - 2
F2 - 3
2 Ha
Average
Cation exchanger (NH4-Acetat 1N, pH7)
pH
5.7
5.3
5.1
5.0
5.6
5.2
4.9
4.9
5.2
5.4
5.4
4.7
5.1
5.4
5.3
5.1
4.9
4.9
6.1
4.9
5.2
4.9
5.3
4.6
5.1
5.7
5.5
5.2
5.2
4.7
4.3
3.9
3.9
4.7
4.2
3.9
3.9
4.3
4.5
4.6
3.8
4.3
4.3
4.5
4.3
4.0
3.9
5.0
4.1
4.3
3.8
4.4
3.8
4.2
4.7
4.6
4.1
4.2
0.93
1.01
1.10
1.64
0.68
0.94
1.51
2.21
1.92
1.04
0.74
0.94
0.63
0.85
0.85
0.81
0.86
1.07
0.63
0.97
0.92
0.54
0.88
0.91
1.03
0.60
0.77
1.13
1.0o
0.09
0.08
0.10
0.16
0.06
0.08
0.13
0.19
0.17
0.09
0.07
0.07
0.05
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.04
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
P2O5
K2O
- mg/100 g 10
13
11
10
11
12
12
12
11
12
11
13
13
12
12
12
12
13
13
10
9
14
11
10
10
9
10
13
11.4
32
33
24
21
30
45
31
14
31
52
47
76
28
27
34
41
24
36
85
49
59
39
64
51
47
52
73
32
41.9
6
8
7
7
4
4
4
4
3
7
3
4
2
3
3
3
3
5
4
4
5
4
7
4
6
4
4
4
Olsen
Bray 1
Morgan
P2O5
P2O5
K2O
---- ppm ---24

13
34
22
40
4.5
26.7
4.9
2.7
2.1
4.7
2.4
2.1
4.8
3.9
3.5
6.5
3.8
2.7
3.2
3.0
3.0
5.6
6.7
6.1
3.5
5.8
3.6
3.7
2.8
4.0
Ca
--ppm-47
78
63
47
17
31
18
30
17
47
16
17
16
17
16
17
16
16
16
31
47
31
63
31
47
31
33
31
31.7
Mg
Na
Sum
CEC
-------------------------- cmolo/kg -----------------------9.65

8.70
8.93
9.45
8.14
9.09
7.27
10.47
8.32
8.99
7.63
6.55
8.02
11.15
9.02
8.71
8.13
9.00
8.26
7.92
8.43
6.06
7.32
6.62
9.03
9.05
8.03
8.61
8.4
2.39
2.14
2.31
2.76
1.82
2.17
1.88
2.90
1.88
2.11
1.91
1.59
2.09
2.93
2.33
2.07
2.05
2.22
1.89
1.92
2.27
1.80
1.84
1.50
2.50
2.29
2.02
2.16
2.1
0.09
0.15
0.12
0.09
0.03
0.06
0.03
0.06
0.03
0.09
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.06
0.09
0.06
0.12
0.06
0.09
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.1
0.36
0.41
0.47
0.34
0.29
0.33
0.47
0.35
0.31
0.35
0.39
0.32
0.42
0.51
0.28
0.41
0.29
0.47
0.30
0.27
0.34
0.34
0.44
0.21
0.31
0.29
0.53
0.25
0.4
12.49
11.40
11.83
12.64
10.28
11.65
9.65
13.78
10.54
11.54
9.96
8.49
10.56
14.62
11.66
11.22
10.50
11.72
10.48
10.17
11.13
8.26
9.72
8.39
11.93
11.69
10.64
11.08
11.0
11.10
13.53
15.06
16.79
9.38
13.96
15.61
20.94
12.44
12.47
12.53
14.73
12.18
15.54
13.78
14.40
15.19
15.98
10.16
15.43
13.63
14.55
12.21
13.87
14.73
11.62
11.01
13.40
13.8
BS *
%
>100
84
79
75
>100
83
62
66
85
93
79
58
87
94
85
78
69
73
>100
66
82
57
80
60
81
>100
97
83
77.3
Number of sample
Figure 1. Map of rice field and cowshedwith CEF model at Experimental Station of
Sukamandi
Cropping pattern in the Experimental Station rice field area was paddy-paddyidle
(bera) with legowo 1:4 planting system with 20 cm x 20 cm planting distance. Paddy
varieties planted in first planting season year 2011 at land managed by cooperation were
Inpari I, Inpari 13, Ciherang and Mekongga. While in research site managed by
Experimental Station, many variety were planted according to its objective of research
such as Inpari 10, Situ Bagendit, Sinta Nur, Inpari 7, Mekongga and Ciherang (Block F2),
Inpari 13, Inpari 6, Inpari 1, Bondoyudo and Sarinah (Blok E2), variety display and Galur
(Block D2) and research of paddy hybrid (Block C1).
The rice field soil tillage at every planting season was perfectly done by tractor or
hand tractor which used non reneweble fosil fuel to operate agriculture mechinery.
Water management for the most part of the Experimental Station was done with
intermitten system and fertilizer dosage were 60-83.5 N/ha (source from Urea and
Phonska), 15 kg P2O5/ha and 15 K2O/ha (source from Phonska). Most of rice straw was
left in rice field area and only small part of rice straw and panicle stalk were cut and
procesed by thresher. The organic matter that left by thresher was burned before soil
tillage, but the straw that left in the field was incorporated in to soil at soil tillage (Figure
2).
327
Umi Haryati and Yoyo Soelaeman
Burning of rice straw left by thresher
Soil tillage process
Figure 2. Preparing process of planting at irrigation rice field at Experimental Station of

Sukamandi
Water management at rice farming in Sukamandi for most part was done by
intermitten that can decreased CH4 emission, but at dry condition (aerobic), emission of
CO2 and N2O increased. At fooding irrigation system, more water to be needed and
flooding (anaerobic) at rice field created CH4 emission.
Inorganic fertilizer to be used was relatively as same as prepared by cooperation
with dosage 200-300 kg urea ha-1 and 200 kg Phonska/ha equal with 120-155 kg N/ha, 30
kg P2O5/ha and 30 kg K2O/ha without added organic fertilizer or livestock manure.
Dooberman and Fairhurst (2000) reported that for reaching unhulled rice 6 t ha-1, rice
cultivation needs 350 kg urea/ha, 120 kg SP-36/ha and 225 kg KCl/ha which equal with
157,5 kg N/ha, 43 kg P2O5/ha and 135 kg K2O/ha. So the nitrogen fertilizer used at the
Experimental Station met with nutrient rice requirement.
Cycles and Water Balance
a.
Water balance
Water balance mean a balance between water inflow to the land through
precipitation (rainfall) and outflow from the land through evapotranspiration. The rainfall
and evapotranspiration were the active factors in climate. In this water balance, soil
moisture parameter, rainfall and the evapotranspiration were related so that surplus and
deficit of water can be predicted. Water balance was calculated in every month along the
year.
Water balance at the Experimental Station showed that monthly potential
evapotranspiration (PE) from January up to December ranging from 130 up to 154 mm or
1,726 mm per year, while actual monthly evapotranspiration (AE) ranging from 42 mm
328
to 151 mm. Low AE were occurred on month when soil moisture were low such as on
July-September. The PE and AE can be in the same value when soil was saturated or in
wet month such as January- February. Daily loss of water from plantation through
evapotranspiration was ranging from 1,4 up to 4,9 mm (Table 5 and Figure 3). The
maximum water holding capacity (ST) in a month with clay loam soil texture was
predicted 250 mm (Thornthwaite and Mater1957).
Parameter
T (oC)
I
Jan.
Feb. Mar.
Apr.
Mei
Jun.
Jul. Aug.
Sep.
Oct. Nop.
Des. Total
26.5
26.4 27.2 27.4
27.8
27.0
26.5 26.7 27.5 27.9 27.7
27.3
12.49 12.42 12.99 13.14 13.43 12.85 12.49 13.63 13.21 13.50 13.36 13.07 155.58
Unadj PE
4.5
4.5
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.6
4.5
4.6
4.8
4.9
4.8
4.7
Corr fact.
PE
P
P-PE
31.9
144
272
128
28.8
130
285
155
31.2
147
190
43
30.0
144
127
-17
30.6
150
79
-71
29.4
135
45
-90
30.5
137
28
-109
30.8 30.0
142 144
12
25
-130 -119
31.5
154
69
-85
30.9
148
159
11
32.2
151
174
23
-17
-88
-178
-287
-417 -536 -621
Acc Pot Wl.

ST
181
250
250
233
175
122
79
46
29
20
31
53
D ST
AE
D
S
128
144
0
0
69
130
0
86
0
147
0
43
-17
144
0
0
-58
137
13
0
-53
98
37
0
-43
71
66
0
-33
45
97
0
-17
42
102
0
-9
78
76
0
11
148
0
0
22
151
0
1
1726
1465
-261
1335
391
130
Table 7. Monthly water balance (mm) at Experimental Station of Sukamandi, Subang

Regency, West Java Province
On May-October, the rainfall was lower than PE or AE, so lack of water/deficit of
water in the soil was occurred. If on that month start to plant without giving irrigation
water , the plant will wilt even die because of drought. Surplus of water was occurred on
December, February and March. On November, January and April, water surplus or
deficit of water was not occurred. Soil moisture was finished by evapotranspiration need
(Figure 3). The existence of embung (ponds) in this area was very useful to harvest water
or to collect rainfall and run-off when rainy season. While when deficit of water, surface
water (in ponds) and or water from irrigation channel can be used for irrigation.
329
Gambar 1. Neraca Air Bulanan di KP Sukamandi (BB Padi Sukamandi)
Subang, Jawa Barat

300
250
200
150
( mm)
100
50
0
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
Mei
Jun.
Jul.
Ags.
Sep.
Okt.
Nop.
Des.
(Bulan)
CH
PE
AE
Figure 3. Monthly water balance at Experimental Station of Sukamandi, Subang

Regency, West Province
b.
Jatiluhur reservoir role
Rice field in Sukamandi is technically irrigation rice field with the irrigation water
source comes from Jatiluhur Reservoir. Base on large of rice field and volume or debit of
irrigation water flowed to the rice field in Sukamandi (Figure 4), the rice field can be
planted twice a year with the paddypaddybera cropping pattern. In general, planting
schedule of paddy at rainy season (first planting season) was done on November and
harvesting was predicted about March. The water requirement for rice can be met or
rainfall was enough. After harvesting of the first season, then followed by paddy in
second season on April (dry season) and harvesting was predicted on August. The
availability of water was defended on water supply from Jatiluhur Reservoir because at
that time soil condition was water deficit (drought). Average water level in secondary
channel at Patok Beusi at 11.30 am was about + 40 cm. From this channel, water flowed
to the testier channel at Sukamandi, then to quarter channel, warm channel and finally to
rice field area. After the second rice harvesting, the land was let to bera for 2 months up to
the next rainfall season at the next year.
Average of surface section water flow at tertiary channel was ranging from 1.111.31 m2 and at the quarterly channel was ranging from 0.111.11 m2 with average of flow
velocity was 0.42 0.44 m3/sec at tertiary channel and 0.170.24 m3/sec at the quarterly
channel (Table 6). There was a difference of dimension debit component including large
of surface section water flow and flow velocity at each channel type for every point and
time of observations. This caused an occurrence of debit differ in volume. The debit at
tertiary channel 0.590 m3/sec in the morning, 0.463 m3/sec in the morning 0.562 m3/sec at
330
noon. This was as same as at quarterly channel, in the morning, it was ranging from
0.0280.081 m3/sec, and 0.0190.239 m3/sec at noon (Table 8).
Table 8. Surface section water flow, water flow velocity and average water debit at
every channel type at Experimental Station of Sukamandi, Subang District,
West Java.
Component
of debit
4th of
April
2012
5th of April 2012
16.50
19.00
06.00 - 08.30
12.45 - 14.45
Surface
section
water flow
(m2)
Tersier
Tersier
Quarter
1
Quarter
2
Quarter
3
Tersier
Quarter
1
Quarter
2
Quarter
3
L-1
1.20
0.98
0.29
0.20
0.13
0.86
1.06
0.14
0.10
L-2
1.46
1.55
0.31
0.21
0.17
1.36
0.97
0.14
0.12
L-3
1.20
1.40
0.46
0.09
0.20
1.12
0.98
0.18
0.12
Average
1.29
1.31
0.35
0.17
0.17
1.11
Water flow velocity (m/sec)
1.00
0.15
0.11
V-1
0.44
0.47
0.23
0.17
0.19
0.47
0.25
0.16
0.16
V-2
0.42
0.46
0.23
0.18
0.21
0.34
0.23
0.17
0.17
V-3
0.45
0.44
0.24
0.16
0.20
0.48
0.23
0.17
0.17
V-4
0.48
0.51
0.24
0.16
0.20
0.42
0.24
0.17
0.17
V-5
0.40
0.37
0.22
0.17
0.21
0.37
0.24
0.16
0.17
Average
0.44
0.45
0.23
0.17
0.20
0.42
0.24
0.17
0.17
Debit
(m3/sec)
0.562
0.590
0.081
0.028
0.034
0.463
0.239
0.026
0.019
Explanation: L -1,2 and 3= surface section flow of observation 1,2 and 3; V-1 up to 5 = flow velocity of
observation 1 up to 5
The differences of debit volume at a difference of time caused supply of water to

the field differed so it was needed optimal water management in order to be water use as
efficient as possible, especially at deficit months.
To overcome the scarcity of water when deficit water months, it could be done by
managing irrigation (water supply) and by optimizing water use through effective and
efficient irrigating system. This system was known by intermittent irrigation system
where the irrigation water was given occasionally (discontinu) and met with crops water
requirement.
331
Crops Water Requirement and Crop Water Use Efficiency

Crops water requirement is an amount of water to fulfill the consumptive water of
plant (evapotranspiration) in order to grow normally/optimally. In other words, the
irrigation water should be needed to meet evapotranspiration minus by effective rainfall
(Dastane 1974). Evapotranspiration is crops water requirement, defined as the depth of
water needed for optimal plant growth without plant diseases, grow without the stagnant
of soil water and fertility, and the stagnant of environment on its surrounding. The amount
of evapotranspiration is affected by climate factor, kind of plant or plant type, and plant
growth phase. Condition of cultivation area such as soil type and soil characteristics,
topography and large of cultivation area were also affected the plant growth (Doorenbos
and Pruit 1977). Arsyad (2000) defined evapotranspiration (consumptive water use) as the
amount of water (on cultivation area) that be used for transpiration, evaporate from soil
and water surface, and interception by plant. This can be declared in volume per large unit
such as m3/ha or in a water depth such as millimeter.
Potential evapotranspiration was the amount of evapotranspiration that can be
occurred in enough available soil water condition for plant growth. According to
Doorenbos dan Pruit (1977), potential evapotranspiration can be predicted through the
approach to climate factors and plant characteristics.
The prediction of rice evapotranspiration on crop pattern paddy-paddy at the
Experimental Station showed that crop water requirement (ETp) at first planting season as
big as 799,2 mm and can fulfill by rainfall (1.080 mm). So at that period the water surplus
occurrence as big as 280,8 mm (Table 9). This water surplus was flowed and collected in
to the ponds at its surrounding. On the other hand, the capacity of ponds was not enough
and was not optimal yet so it was needed to add the ponds in order to be able to
gather/collect water surplus.
Table 9. Crop water requirement and crop water use efficiency at Experimental Station
at Sukamandi, Subang District, West Java
Aspect
Crop
Planting period
ETo (mm)
Kc (crop factor)*
ETp (mm)
Rainfall (mm)
Irrigation (mm)
Deficit/surplus (mm)
Water source
Crop yield (kg.ha-1)
Crop water req.(m3.ha-1 )
Crop water use efficiency (kg/m3)
* Source of reference: Doorenbos and Kasam (1986)
332
Planting season-I
Paddy
November - March
720
1.11
799.2
1080
0
280.8
rainfall
7000
7992
0.9
Planting season-II
Paddy
April - August
291
1.11
323.0
279
44
-44.01
rainfall. irrigation water
5000
3230
1.5
Crop water requirement at panting season II can not be fulfilled by rainfall because
crop water requirement was 323 mm while rainfall was only 2 79 mm, so on that period
the water deficit was occurred as big as 44 mm (Table 9). This water deficit can be
fulfilled by irrigation water from Jatiluhur Reservoir through secondary channel at Patok
Beusi water gate, which its debit showed at Table 6. The calculation result of average of
debit at quarterly channel as big as 0,127 m3/sec, so for irrigated rice field as large of 100
ha at planting season II (water deficit 44 mm), was needed irrigation operation time as
long as 96 hour during planting season II. That operational time needs to be managed in
order to met crop water requirement so that water use efficiency can be increased.
Crop water use efficiency is the amount of water that is needed to product per unit
crop yield or crop yield per unit water use and it can be expressed by kg/m3. There was a
water use efficiency difference between planting season I and planting season II. On the
period of planting season I, the water use efficiency was lower than planting season II,
because even though the yield at planting season I is higher than planting season II, but
the water requirement was also higher than planting season II. The crop water use
efficiency at planting season I was 0,9 kg/m3 and at planting season II was 1,5 kg/m3
(Table 9). That calculation results met with results of Setiobudi et al. (2003) who reported
that water use efficiency at rice field in Subang was ranging from 0.71.2 kg/m3.
This water use efficiency is still able to increase by changing irrigation flooding
system to intermittent system. According to several research results, intermittent system
(once every 3 days) could decrease irrigation water use 13-19% and even the yield
increased 14-18% (Setiobudi et al. 2003). So, the decreasing of water requirement and
increasing crop yield as big as 16%. If in the Experimental Station, the intermittent system
was done, so water requirement decreased became 671.2 mm at planting season I and
271.3 mm at planting season II with rice yield (dry harvest) became 8,120 kg ha-1 at
planting season I and 5.800 kg/ha at planting season II. With decreasing of water
requirement and increasing rice yield, so the water use efficiency increased became 1.21
kg/m3 (the increase 34.4 %) at planting season I and became 2.14 kg/m3 at planting season
II (the increase 42.5%).
333
The secondary chanel at Patok Beusi watergate
The quartery chanel
The rice field at Sukamandi
Figure 4. Secondary channel, quarterly channel and rice field area at Experimental
Station of Sukamandi, Subang District, West Java.
CONCLUSION
1.
The climate at Experimental Station of Sukamandi was C2-C3 types, with 2 wet and
6 dry months and average annual rainfall was 1,466 mm year-1. Water surplus
occurred from May to October and water deficit was in December, February, and
March.
2.
The soils were dominated by Ultisols with silty clay loam to clay soil texture. The
soil had medium bulk density (BD), high total pore space and pore of available
water, and slow soil permeability.
334
3.
The average yield of rice at farm level was 5-7 t ha-1 with crop water use efficiency
level of 0.9 up to 1.5 kg/m3 by conventional irrigation systems.
4.
Intermittent irrigation system increased crop water use efficiency of paddy by 34 up

to 45%.
REFERENCES
Arsyad, S. 2000. Konservasi Tanah dan Air. Penerbit IPB (IPB Press).
Dastane, N.G. 1974. Efective Rainfall in Irrigated Agriculture. FAO Irrigated and
Drainage Paper. FAO. UN. Rome.
Doberman, A. and Fairhurst. 2000. Rice. Nutrient Disorder and Nutrient Management.
International Rice Research Instutute-Potash and Phosphate Instutute (PPI)-Potash
and Phosphate Instutute oc Canada (PPIC).
Doorenboos, J. and W.O. Pruit. 1977. Guideline for Predicting Crop Water Requirement.
FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper. Vol 24. Rome.
Doorenbos, J. and A.H. Kassam, 1986. Yield response to water. Irrigation and drainage
paper 33. Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations, Rome.
Middleton, R. 2005. Air Bersih: Sumber Daya yang Rawan. Makalah Hijau. Kedutaan
Besar Amerika Serikat, Jakarta, Indonesia. http://www.usembassy jakarta.org/
ptp/airbrsi.html. 15 Juni 2005.
Oldeman, L.R. 1975. Agroclimatic Map of Java and Madura. Cent. Rest. Inst. For Agric.
Contr. No. 17.
Partowijoto, A. 2002. Penelitian Kebutuhan air lahan dan Tanaman di Beberapa Daerah
Irigasi. Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pengairan. Vol. 16 No. 49 Desember
2002. ISSN 02-1111. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumber Daya Air.
Badan Litbang Permukiman dan Prasarana Wilayah, Departemen Permukiman dan
Prasarana Wilayah.
Pereira, L.S., T. Oweis, and A. Zairi. 2002. Irrigation management under water scarcity.
Agric. Water Manage. 57: 175-206.
Setiobudi, D., Suprijadi, and O. Syahroni. 2003. Tanggap Tanaman Padi Sawah terhadap
Pemupukan Nitrogen dan Selang Pemberian Air. Dalam Suprihatno et al. (eds).
Kebijakan Perberasan dan Inovasi Teknologi Padi: Buku II. Bagpro Litbang
Tanaman Padi Sukamandi. Balai Besar Litbang Padi Sukamandi
Sosiawan, H. dan K. Subagyono. 2007. Pembagian Air Secara proporsional untuk
Keberlanjutan Pemanfaatan Air. Jurnal Sumberdaya Lahan Vol 1 no 4 hlm 15 24.
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Balai Besar Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumberdaya Lahan Pertanian. Badan

Litbang Pertanian. Departemen Pertanian.
Thornthwaite, C.W. and J.R. Mather. 1957. Instruction and tables for computing potential
evapotranspiration and the water balance. Drexel Institute of Technology
Laboratory of Climatology. Publication in Climatology Volume X, Number 3.
Centerton, New Jersey.
336
31
1Muhammad
1Doctoral
THE REGIONAL OF WATER QUALITY DISTRIBUTION

OF PEAT SWAMP LOWLAND IN JAMBI *)
Naswir , 2Susila Arita, 2Marsi, and 2Salni
Candidate of Environmental Sciences Program. Sriwijaya University-Palembang.

Corresponding author: Telp. +081366282753, Email: m.naswir@yahoo.com
Lecturer of Pascasarjana Sriwijaya University,Padang Selasa No. 524. Bukit Besar-Palembang
Abstract. In Jambi province, peat water is distributed in lowland region of West Tanjung
Jabung, East Tanjung Jabung, and Muaro Jambi Regencies. Peat water is used for
agriculture, rice field, and as a source of clean water for people, while the peat water
contains organic matter, Fe, and acids. The purpose of this research was to determine
quality peat water scattered in swamps of Jambi. The parameters tested were TDS, color,
pH, Fe, Mn, organic matter and nitrate contents. Sampling method used was non
probability with purposive sampling technique. The total number of samples was 15, and
each region had five sampling points. The samples were collected compositely. The
results showed that the parameter values during wet season varied widely, where TDS, Fe,
Mn, organic matter, and nitrate values were 0.17-277, 0.382-4.932, <0.003-0.282, 23.00221, and <0.0006-0.3888 mg/L, respectively, and color and pH values were 17-1065.08
Pt.Co and 3.53-6.90). During dry season, the values of TDS, Fe, Mn, organic matter, and
nitrate were 0.29-524, 0.429-5.57, -0.800, 29.29-208.91, and -0.5436 mg/L, respectively,
and color and pH values were 15.77 to 205.71 Pt.Co and 3.80 to 7.70. From the research
results, it can be concluded that the quality of the swamp peat water of Jambi Province
varied widely, however, there were no extremely high and very low values. Peat water
quality was relatively different between rainy and dry seasons. The average values of peat
water quality in the dry season were better than that in rainy season. The values were
good while in the wet season and in dry season, the water was not feasible as a source of
clean water for the community because they were still far below the water quality
standard.
Keywords: Peat water, clean water, lowland
Abstrak. Sebaran air gambut di daerah rawa Jambi terdapat di daerah Kabupaten
Tanjung Jabung Barat, Tanjung Jabung Timur dan Muaro Jambi. Air gambut di daerah
ini digunakan masyarakat untuk pertanian, persawahan dan sumber air bersih sehari
hari. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui kualitas air gambut yang tersebar di
daerah rawa Jambi dengan parameter uji adalah TDS, warna, pH, Fe, Mn, zat organik
dan nitrat. Metode sampling yang digunakan non probability dengan teknik purposive
sampling. Jumlah total sampel yang ditetapkan 15 titik sampling, dan masing-masing
daerah terdiri dari 5 titik sampling. pengumpulan sampel menggunakan metode composit
sampling. Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa pada musim hujan kandungan parameter
air gambut yang tersebar di daerah Jambi sangat bervariasi; TDS 17 277 mg/L, Warna
23-1065,08 Pt.Co,pH 3,53 6,90, Fe0,382 4,932 mg/L, Mn<0,003 0,282 mg/L, zat
*)
337
Naswir et al.
organik23,00 221 mg/L dan Nitrat <0,0006 0,3888 mg/L, sedangkan pada musim
kemarau kandungan TDS 0,29 524 mg/L, warna 15,77 205,71 mg/L, pH 3,80 7,70,
Fe 0,429 -5,57 mg/L, Mn 0,000,800 mg/L, Zat organik29,29 208,9 mg/L dan Nitrat
(mg/L) 0,000,543 mg/L.Dari hasil telitian dapat disimpulkan bahwa kualitas air gambut
di daerah rawa Jambi sangat bervariasi ada yang ekstrim tinggi dan yang sangat rendah.
Kualitas air gambut relatif berbeda antara musim hujan dan musim kemarau, rata rata
pada musim kemarau kualitas air gambut lebih baik dibanding dengan musim hujan,
namun demikian baik pada musim hujan maupun musim kemarau air gambut belum layak
untuk dikonsumi sebagai sumber air bersih masyarakat, masih jauh dibawah baku mutu
air bersih.
Kata kunci: Air gambut, air bersih, lahan rawa
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is one country in the world that has the largest peat swamp. Peat swamp in
Indonesia is approximately 16-27 million hectares (Rieley et al. 1997, Sulistiyanto Y. et
al. 2007). Of the area about 7.2 million hectares or 35% are located on the island of
Sumatra, including Jambi region (Susanto 2010).
Jambi Province, one of provinces in Indonesia that located in Sumatra, with an area
of 51,000 km2, equivalent to 5.1 million hectares, is geographically located between 20 45
s/d 00 45 LS 1010 0 between the LS and BT s/d 1040 55 BT or between 00 45 20 45 LS and
1010 0-1040 55 East. The topography of the eastern province of Jambi is generally a
swamp (lowland), while the West in general is the mainland (dry land) with topography
varying from flat, undulating to hilly. The type of soil potential for agriculture in general
dominated by Podsolic Red Yellow (PMK) that is equal to 44.56%. Other soil types are
included Regosol Latosol 18.67% 10.74% Humus and Gley. Partly the temperate regions
of Jambi B-type climate classification Schmidt and Ferguson with wet months between 810 months and 2-4 months dry season. The average monthly rainfall is 179-279 mm
Jambi in wet and dry in 68-106 mm (PBS 2000).
Figure 1. Conditions peat water and houses on the edge of the village ditch Peat Gambut
Raya in the Muaro Jambi
338
The Regional of Water Quality Distribution
Three of the ten districts in Jambi provinsi lowland, namely Tanjung Jabung
district of West, East and partly Tanjung Jabung the district Muaro Jambi. The total area
of peatlands or wetlands contained in Jambi is 684,000 hectares. Of the land area has been
successfully opened and developed as agricultural land until it reaches an area 252,983
hectares (Tanjung Jabung western area of 52,052 ha, 149,210 ha Tanjung Jabung East and
District area of 10,7000 hectares Muaro Jambi. Land non tidal swamp located in the
district covering Muaro jambi 17,900 ha. Batanghari 14,475 ha. Kerinci 1684 ha, ha
Sarolangun 4,121. Merangin 436 ha and 2,405 ha Tebo regency (Bambang 2011).
Peat is an organic material that is formed from the incomplete decomposition of
plants in wet areas is very moist and anaerobic conditions. Peat water is abundant surface
water tidal areas, peat swamp and lowland, brownish red, acidic, having a high content of
organic matter, do not meet water quality requirements set by the Ministry of Health
through Permenkes No.416 / MENKES/PER/IX/1990 (Iva Rustanti, E. 1990; Yusnimar
2010; Naswir 2003). The acid has acidic character due to carboxylic and phenolic groups.
That can be characterized as being generally be yellow-brown color, the acid are the main
constituents of the dissolved organic carbon pool in surface waters, water grounds,
commonly imparting a yellowish-brown to the water system (Macarty 2011 in Andayani
2011).
Organic content in the water is dominated by peat humic compounds which
possess aromatic bond complex with functional groups such as-COOH, OH-phenolic and
alcoholic OH and is no biodegradable. This trait also causes most of the water Organic
peat decomposes naturally difficult. Organic content in the water to form potentially
carcinogenic compounds peat include: THM (trihalomethane) in the process of
disinfection with chlorine. Humic acid having a molecular weight 2,000-100,000 daltons,
have the potential to form organochlorines such as THM and HAA (haloacetic acids) is
relatively higher than non humus compounds (Zouboulis 2004).
Water quality peat differ from one region to another, depending on the condition
and age of peat soil, such as water quality peat West Kalimantan has a turbidity of 60
NTU, color, 804 Pt.Co, pH 4.8, organic matter 246.8 mg/L (Rustanti 2009), while the
water content of the peat area of Jambi has 952 Pt.Co color, pH 3.34 to 5.20, organic
matter 332 mg/L (Naswir 2009).
This study aims to determine the water quality of spread peat in Jambi province
and is expected to be a material consideration and guidelines to make the process of water
treatment peat for water resources community. Data dissemination water quality peat can
be used as consideration to provide proper treatment in accordance with such designation
for the treatment of water for agriculture, rice and as a source of public water.
339
Naswir et al.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Sampling peat water have taken from 5 points each region (Tanjung Jabung West, Eastern
Jabung and Muaro Jambi district), so the total sampling points is 15 pieces. Sampling was
carried out based on the theory of finite non probability with purposive sampling
techniques, and the collection of composite sampling is done. Sampling locations are
centered in the area of human settlements, the village there is a river or a ditch that
drained peat water all the time. The sampling locations are presented in Table 1 and figure
1, 2 and 3.
Table 1. Location of sampling points
Area
West Tanjung
Jabung District
District Eastern
Tanjung Jabung
District Muaro
Jambi
340
No
Location of Sample
Bramitam/Bramitam Kiri
Sinyerang/Lumahan
Teluk Nilau/Pengabuan
Betara/Mekar sari
Betara/Serdang jaya
Garagai/Pandan Lagan
Sabak Barat/Parit Culum
Dendang/Sido Mukti
Mendahara/Desa lagan Tengah
Rantau Rasau/Rantau Rasau II
Sungai Gelam/Tangkit Baru
2
3
Sungai Gelam/Gambut Raya

Petaling
Kumpeh/Arang Arang
Kumpeh/Arang-Arang PKS
Teluk raya/Pematang Raman
Coordinate
o
S 00 52.883
E 103o21.925
S 00o 49.667
E 103o21.764
S 00o 55.765
E 103o21.873
S 00o52.871
E 103o21.903
S 00o 58.805
E 103o22.795
S 01o24.205
E 103o42.106
S 01o16.664
E 103o45.157
S 01o13.883
E 103o53.649
S 01o05.877
E 103o43.168
S 01o16.445
E 103o30.
245
S 01o 37.765
E 103o42.128
S 01o43.117
E 103o52.406
S 01o 36.796
E 103o47.951
S 01o36.165
E 103o47.470
E 01o045.261
S 101o22.637
Remark
Tidal
Pengabuan River and
Tidal
pengabuan River and
Tidal
Tidal
Batara River and Tidal
Peat Swamp
Swamp Peat
Batanghari River
Swamp Peat
Batanghari River and
Tidal
Peat
Peat
Batanghari River
Batanghari River
Batanghari River
Map of sampling locations of West Jabung
3
4
5
Note: 1 Senyerang village, 2. Sirindit village, 3. Bramitam village, 4. Mekar

Sari village and 5.Serdang village
Map of sampling points at Muaro Jambi district
1
3
2
Note: 1 Tangkit Baru village, 2. Gambut Raya Petaling village, 3. Arang Arang village, 4.
Arang-arang PT.Makin and 5. Teluk Raya/Pematang Raman village
341
Naswir et al.
Map of peat water sampling points at East Tanjung Jabung
4
3
Note: 1. Pandan Lagan village, 2. parit Culum village, 3. Sido Mukti village, 4. Lagan tangah
village and 5. Rantau Rasau II village
Test parameters were used as indicator in this study is the content of TDS, color,
pH, Fe, Mn, organic matter and nitrate. Test parameter measurements performed using PH
meter instrument, gravimteri, UV-V is spectrophotometer and AAS. All examination
conducted water quality peat refers to the Standard Methods for Examination of Water
and Waswater.

Based on laboratory tests on the parameters TDS, pH, Color, Fe, Mn, organic matter in
peat water spread area of Jambi obtained results are very diverse and varied. Water
quality peat between one location to another quite different, and each region has different
characteristics from each other. Although peat water in the same area or the district but
the content of the material has a striking content of each others. Data detailed
measurement results are listed in table 2 and 3.
342
Table 2. The results of measurements of water parameters Jambi rainy season turf areas
Area
No
Parameters
Location of sample
District
Tanjung
Jabung
West
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
Sinyerang/lumahan
Teluk nilau/ pengabuan
Betara/Mekar Sari
Betara/Serdang jaya
Dendang/Sido Mukti
Mendahara/ lagan Tengah
Rantau Rasau/R. Rasau II
Kumpeh/Arang Arang
Kumpeh/Arang Arang
Kumpeh/Teluk Raya
District
Tanjung
Jabung
Eastern
District
Muaro
Jambi
TDS
mg/L
40
69
46
193
23
32
60
35
75
94
29
277
18
17
21
Color
Pt.Co
326.7
23.43
186.26
400.27
38.40
908.23
30.46
29.29
801.22
0.277
29.39
1065.08
41.311
605.23
309
pH
4.03
3.60
3.80
3.70
4.50
4.00
3.60
4.10
3.53
3.82
6.10
6.90
5.9
5.4
5.4
Fe
mg/L
4,932
0.473
0.473
4,816
1,939
1,237
0.382
3,759
0.671
0.765
0.645
0.725
1.751
1.359
1.877
Mn
mg/L
0.282
<0.03
<0.03
<0.03
<0.03
<0.03
<0.03
<0.03
<0.03
<0.03
<0,03
<0,03
<0,03
<0,03
<0,03
matter
organic
mg/L
221.86
74.31
93.02
196.62
102.84
80.01
96.72
102.07
67.80
23.00
167.56
77.57
102.07
65.36
125.20
Nitrat
mg/L
0.1824
0.0188
0.1009
0.1469
0.0383
0.1886
0.0885
0.0779
0.2161
<0.0006
0.0370
0.3888
0.0442
0.1349
<0.0006
Table 3. The results of measurements of water parameters Jambi season turf areas.
Area
No
West
Tanjung
Jabung
District
A
B
C
D
E
Sinyerang/lumahan
Teluk Nilau/ pengabuan
Betara/Mekar Sari
Betara/Serdang jaya
524
63
67
345
85
16,77
191,76
96,27
45,23
24,26
6,64
4,52
6,02
5,25
5,13
3,88
1,42
3,12
2,25
3,04
ttd
ttd
ttd
0,80
ttd
Matter
organik
mg/L
126,85
33,23
78,84
116,0
85,04
Eastt
Tanjung
Jabung
Distric
F
G
H
I
J
Dendang/Sido Mukti
Mendahara/Lagan Tengah
Rantau Rasau/R. Rasau II
183
36
382
289
28
15,17
112,21
117,23
196,77
205,71
3,80
6,45
4,66
4,71
5,24
1,56
3,65
2,04
4,23
5,57
0,58
Ttd
0,75
0,53
ttd
29,29
52,52
150,07
63,42
80,45
0,0301
0,1080
0,0917
0,1531
0,2714
Muaro
Jambi
District
46
121,28
3,80
0,493 ttd
208,91
0,0969
L
M
N

Kumpeh/Arang Arang
Kumpeh/Arang Arang
Ujung
Teluk raya/Pematang
Raman
59
30
36
69,502
200,209
180,21
3,87
7,52
7,32
0,429 ttd
1,946 ttd
4,73 ttd
68,69
70,58
55,24
0,2537
0,0558
0,5436
34
142,33
7,70
3,71 ttd
92,78
0,0597
Parameters
Location of sample
TDS
mg/L
Color
Pt.Co
pH
Fe
mg/L
Mn
mg/L
Nitrat
mg/L
0,0651
Ttd
0,0507
0,0417
0,1182
Water quality peat in each region are very varied and unique, both season and dry
season. The rainy season usually occurs from October to early June, and the dry season
which usually occurs in mid-June to late September, but because climate change is
happening is that the world today is no longer stable.
The results showed that the content of the wet season parameters; TDS (mg/L) 17
to 277, Color (Pt.Co) 0.277 to 1065.08, pH 3.53 to 6.90, Fe (mg/L) 0.382-4.932, Mn
(mg/L) <0.003 to 0.282, organic matter (mg/L) 23.00 to 221 and Nitrate (mg/L) <0.0006
to 0.3888, while in the dry season TDS content (mg/L) 29 to 524, color (Pt.Co) 15.77 to
205.71, pH 3.80 to 7.70, Fe (mg/L) 0.429 -5.57, Mn (mg/L) Signed-0.800, Organic matter
(mg/L) 29.29 to 208.91 and Nitrate (mg/L) Signed -0,5436 mg/L
343
Naswir et al.
Content of suspended substances and extreme colors of the region, the village of
Gambut Raya Petaling District of Muara Jambi River District Gelam has a TDS content of
277 mg/L and the color of 1065 mg/L, and the peat water from the village of Tanjung
Jabung Mekar Sari West has a TDS content of 193 mg/L and the color of 400.27 mg/L,
and the peat water village Bramitam TDS 40 mg/L, while the TDS content in other
villages under the average of 0.90 mg/L. Judging from the physical properties of high
TDS content was positively correlated with peat water color, the more concentrated the
higher TDS water peat 326.7 mg/L. However, TDS is not always correlated with color,
water color is more brown peat but small TDS, the water in the peat charcoal is charcoal
color 605.23 mg/L, while TDS 0.17, then the village of Middle Lagan 801.22 Pt content
of color . Co. while TDS 0.32 mg/L, and the village of Pandan Lagan peat water content
Garagai color and TDS Pt.Co 908.23 0.32 mg/L.
This means that water peat and brown colors are not necessarily concentrated
solute contained therein is higher, because the substance dissolved in water is influenced
by the presence of particles derived from organic matter, soil erosion, rainfall, etc., as well
as the level of acidity (pH) iron content and other parameters. Peat water pH is influenced
by the amount of pyrite and organic substances contained in the soil, the higher the
organic matter and pyrite the rate the higher the acidity. Peat that has been processed and
will have good drainage resulted in increased acidity of the peat water, as much pyrite are
silent on the surface will rise up and out, up there on the surface of pyrite oxidation, and
produces hydronium ions and sulphate ions as one indication of the acidity of peat water.
The quality of water color cast Jambi peat areas can be described as follows:
Figure 2. The distribution of the color content of peat water area of Jambi
Peat acidity (pH) in the rainy season varies, the average is acidic with a pH of 5.9
to 3.53, except in Tangkit baru and Gambut Raya village to Gelam River district near
neutral pH content of the pH 6.1 and 6.9 . In the dry season the average peat water quality
344
is relatively better than the dry season, the level of acidity (pH) TDS, organic matter and
other parameters tends improved, pH peat water in the dry season is quite good even
relatively neutral pH values above 7.0 (peat water from village Gambut Raya pH 7.9).
Figure 3. Water conditions in the residential community Gambut Raya village and New
Tangkit village In Muaro Jambi District
The improvement in water quality in the dry season turf caused by the absence of
organic substances seepage and other materials that are dissolved from the peat soil
around the trench or the forest peat drift and go ke badan river in peat areas, while in the
rainy season, organic substances and materials dissolved in peat and peat forest much
carried away or seeps into streams and ditches around it.
Figure 4. Distribution of water acidity of peat area of Jambi

According Sulistiyanto et al. (2007), that the pH in forested areas is higher than the
pH of the water in the peat, because pristine forests its soil still contains many cations
cations such as Ca, Mg, and K which can increased alkalinity of soil and water properties
(Veneklaas et al. 1990 in Sulistiyanto 2007)
345
Naswir et al.
Figure 5. Distribution of iron (Fe) content in the peat water area of Jambi
Content of iron (Fe) in the area of Jambi peat water well in the wet season and the
dry season are relatively high average and far above the water quality standard set, even in
the seacoast village of Rasau its Fe concentration up to 5.50 mg/L and in the village of
Tanjung Jabung Bramitam its western Fe 4.93 mg/L.
Increased acidity of peat water alongside the elevated levels of iron. Acidity and
increased Fe ions on peat water are the result of compound pyrite (FeS2) is oxidized in an
aerobic atmosphere. Oxidation of pyrite produces sulfate ions (SO4-2) and a hydronium
ion (H+), the two ions to form sulfuric acid. In the peat soil drainage does not exist, or
peat, which has not been processed, yet reclaimed its pirit not oxidized, so did not form
sulfuric acid, generally near neutral pH water. Oxidation of pyrite and the formation of
sulfuric acid in the peat water (Achmad, 2004).
FeS2+ 2O2 + 3,5 H2O
Fe(OH)3 +2(SO4-2) + 4H+
Pirit oksigen water
Feroi (III) sulfation hidronium (acid)
In addition to sulfuric acid, there is also another type of acid that may exist in the
peat water is carbonic acid (2HCO3-). Carbonic acid in water from exposed soils
containing CaCO3 fogginess then reacts with CO2 gas from the reaction of photosynthesis
in aquatic biota to form H2CO3, and can cause acidity in the peat water. And the
difference in the acidity of peat water also caused by the structure of the soil, calcareous
soil acidity is usually lower than the calcareous soils
Content of organic matter in peat water spread area of Jambi differ from one
location to the other location, there are extreme high organic matter content of the rainy
season as the village Bramitam with organic substances 221.86 mg/L and in the dry
season in the village Tangkit the new organic substances 208.90 mg/L.
346
Figure 6. Distribution of organic matter content of peat water area of Jambi

Peat is an accumulation remnant vegetation that has died and then broken down by
anaerobic and aerobic bacteria into components that are more stable. In addition to
organic matter that forms peat are also inorganic substances in small quantities. In the
environment of deposition of peat more than 90% under water-saturated conditions
(Sukandarrumidi, 1995). Conditions peat water used by the people in the Jambi quite
alarming, Figure 2 shows the peat water used for domestic needs and places of
worship/musholla Tangkit area Muaro Jambi regency. Water quality is also affected by
peat rainfall, heavy rainfall led to many matter to dissolved organic matter in the soil and
washed away to river, so the water is brown and peat over the higher acidity. Lots of
organic matter and peat water acidity is a picture of many organic acids or acid content of
peat water, the humic acid and fulvic.
Humic acid is formed from the decomposition of organic material by aerobic
organisms. This acid has a molecular weight of 10,000 to 100,000 g/mol (Toshiyuki et al.
2004). Humic acid is an organic compound that is very complex aromatic
macromolecules, have a variety of colors ranging from brown black to gray. has aromatic
bond length and no biodegradable (can not be degraded by microorganisms), which is the
result of oxidation of lignin compounds (phenolic group). This acid is not soluble in water
under conditions pH <2 but soluble in the higher pH. Figure 1 shows the model structure
of humic acid.
Figure 7. Humic Acid Structure Model (Stevenson 1982)
347
Naswir et al.
Fulvic acid is an organic acid naturally occurring compounds derived from humus,
insoluble in water, often found in surface water with low molecular weight that is between
the range of 1,000 to 10,000 (Toshiyuki, et al. 2004 and Sarah D et al. 2004). It is soluble
in water at all pH conditions and will be in the solution after the removal of humic acid by
acidification process. Its color varies from yellow to brownish yellow. Fulvic acid model
structure can be seen in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Model structure of fulvic acid by buffle

Acid water is formed in the environment from carbon dioxide (CO2) derived from
the degradation of organic compounds by bacteria and of algae, CO2 produced by the
process of photosynthesis with the help of sunlight. Humic acid and fulvic acid into the
peat water is through rain water that flows into the pores of the peat soil. With the
inclusion of peatland water inundation occurs and water-saturated peat, peat long
submerged will experience the process of weathering and leaching of organic materials.
Humus humus that exist in plants and organic materials in long enough to form humic
acid and amino fulfat that ended up being the component that causes the water acidic peat.
Fulvic acid is more complex plays an important role as a chelating agent. Cluster of
phenolic and carboxylic fulvic acid forming a claw that has a very strong affinity for
trivalent metal ions such as Al3+ and Fe3+. Solid compounds and solutions of fulvic acid
with Al3+ or Fe2+ form chelates can reduce environmental pollution caused by the
solubility of the ions. Bourbonniere and Creed (2006), states that humic and fulvic acids
that exist in water peat soil can donate a negative charge and acts as an organic colloids.
CONCLUSION
From the research it can be concluded that the peat water quality of the swamps spreaded
in Jambi Province varied widely and no value was extremely high and very low. Contents
of TDS, color, pH, Fe, Mn, organic matter, and nitrate of the peat water in Jambi region
were relatively different between the rainy and dry seasons. The wet season values were
348
17-277 mg/L TDS, 17-065.08 Pt.Co color,, pH of 3.53-6.90, 0.382- 4.932 mg/L Fe ,
<0.003-0.282 mg/L Mn ), and 23.00-221 mg/L organic matter. While in the dry season
TDS content (mg/L) 0.29 to 524, color (Pt.Co) 15.77 to 205.71, pH 3.80 to 7.70, Fe
(mg/L) 0.429 -5.57, Mn (mg/L) Signed - 0.800 and Organic matter is 29.29 to 208.91
mg/L. the average water quality in the dry season turf better than the rainy season. The
water qualities were good in the wet season and it was not feasible as a source of clean
water for the community in the dry season. The values were still far below the water
quality standard.
REFERENCES
Andayani, W., Agustin, and N.M. Bagyo. 2011. TiO2 Beads For Photocataliytic
Degradation of Humic Acid in Peat Water. Indo J. Chem., 2011 (3) 253-257
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Pengkajian dan Pengembangan Daerah. Jambi
Bourbonniere, R.A. and I.F. Creed. 2006. Biodegradability of dissolved organic matter
extracted from a chronosequence of forest-floor materials. Journal of Plant
Nutrition and Soil Science. 169:101-107
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Gambut dengan Cara Two Stage Coagulation. Journal Teknik Lingkungan ITB ,
13(1) :17-26
Toshiyuki, S., S. Mitsuhiro, and Y. Tatsuaki. 2004. Molecular Weight Characterization of
Humic Substances by MALDI-TOF-MS. J. Mass Spectrom. Soc. Jpn. 52 ( 1 ): 2932
Eri, R.I. dan W. Hadi. 2008. Kajian Pengolahan Air Gambut Menjadi Air Bersih dengan
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Puslit. 2004. Instalasi Pengolahan Air Gambut untuk Penyediaan Air Bersih.
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2011.
Eri, R.I. dan W. Hadi. 2009. Humic Water Treatment by Combination of Uplow
Andaerobic Filter and Slow Sand Filter. Tesis, Jurusan Teknik Lingkungan FISPITS. Surabaya
Iswono. 2001. Efektivitas Poly Aluminium Chloride Terhadap Penurunan Intensitas
Warna Air Gambut di Siantan Hulu kota Pontianak. Thesis pada Universitas
Diponegoro
Naswir, M. 2003. Bentonit usage to decrease colour concentration and Fe metal in Peat
Moss water. Proceeding :National Seminar XI Chemical Industry and Environment
of Yogyakarta
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Naswir, M. and H. Aima. 2009. Study of Peat Moss water for consume water with CCBNRO Technology. Seminar International to UNSOED Jawa Tengah
Rieley, J.O., S.E. Page, S.H. Limin, and S. Winarti. 1997. The peatland resources of
Indonesia and Kalimantan Peat Swamp Forest Research Project. In Biodiversity
and Sustanaibility of Tropical Peatlands of Southeast Asia. IUCN pp 17-53
Sukandararrumidi. 2005. Rekayasa Gambut Briket Batubara dan Sampah Organik. Gajah
Mada Press.
Sarah, D. Brooks, Paul J. DeMott, Sonia M. Kreidenweis Water uptake byparticles
containing humic materials and mixtures of humic materials with ammonium
sulfate. Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 18591868
Susanto, R.H. 2011. Pengembangan konsep pengelolaan lahan basah yang multidimensi
di wilayah Indonesia. Makalah disampaikan pada seminar pada kegiatan sosialisasi
dan roadmap hari lahan basah dan Ramsar site, Palembang Sumsel, 28-29
September 2011
Stevenson, F.J. 1982. Humus Chemistry Genesis, Composition, Reaction. John Wiley &
Son New York
Yusnimar. 2010. Pengolahan air gambut dengan Bentonit. Jurnal Sains dan Teknologi
Fakultas Teknik 9 (2) Universitas Riau; 77-81
Sulistiyanto, Y., H. Vasandar, J. Jauhainen, J.O. Riely, and S.H. Limin. 2007. Mineral
Nutrient Content of Water at Different Depths In Peatland In Central Kalimantan,
Indonesia. University of Helsinky.
Zouboulis, A.I., X.L. Cha, and I.A. Katsoyiannis. 2004. The Application of Biofloculant
for the Removal of Humic Acid from Stabilized Landfill Leachate, Enviromental
Management Journal 70, 35-41
Veneklaas, E.J. 1990. Nutrient fluxes in bulk precipitation and throughfall in two montane
tropical rain forest. Colombia. Journal of Ecology, 78: 974-992
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32
1Ali
THE NUTRIENTS QUALITY OF FIBER PALM WITH

AMMONIATION-FERMENTATION
A.I.M, S. Sandi, Muhakka, and Riswandi
1Research Center for Sub-Optimal Lands, Sriwijaya University. Palembang-South Sumatra.

(Email: indranutrisi@yahoo.co.id; sofiasandi_nasir@yahoo.com; muhakka@yahoo.co.id
;riswandi_dya@yahoo.com)
Abstract. The research was carried out concerning the nutrition quality of Palm fiber
through ammoniation-fermentation process. The experiment was arranged using
Randomized Complete Design with 5 treatments and 3 replications. The inoculum was
starbio and molasses in 1:1 ratio with 21 days fermentation. Treatments consisted of
control (R0), 2% urea (R1), 2% urea + 2% starbio (R2), 2% urea + 4% starbio (R3), and
2% urea + 6% starbio (R4). The results showed that ammoniation-fermentation treatment
significantly increased (P<0.01) crude protein, crude fat, and ash contents of palm fibers,
but it did not significantly increased ADF, NDF, cellulose, and lignin contents.
Conclusion of this research was the ammoniation-fermentation treatment of 2% urea + 4%
starbio increased crude protein and ash contents and lowered fat content. In addition,
ADF, NDF, and lignin contents from cellulose were relatively similar to the control.
Keyword: Nutrients quality, palm fiber, ammoniation-fermentation
INTRODUCTION
Palm fiber, which is by product of oil palm industry, has potential as a source of ruminant
feed because its availability is abundant throughout the year. However, palm fiber only
reaches 35-45% digestibility level and contains 5% crude protein. Ruminant feed requires
at least 50-55% digestibility level and 8% crude protein content.
Optimizing utilization of palm fiber as ruminant feed can be improved through
chemical, physical, and biological treatments. Based on the characteristics of palm fiber
with low protein and digestibility, the treatment should be reduced both of these
constraints. Treatment provided must be able to increase the protein content and
digestibility palm fiber. Improved quality of palm-fiber technology is most likely applied
with ammoniation-fermentation techniques.
Ammoniation is one form chemical treatment (using urea) that many have done to
improve nutritional value and digestibility of plantation by product with high in fiber
content. Ammoniation is both chemical and alkalis treatment which is can dissolve
hemiselulosa, lignin and silica, saponification acid uronat and esters acetic acid, neutralize
nitric acid free and provide content lignin cell wall. The descent crystalinity cellulose will
facilitate penetration of enzyme cellulose of rumen microbe (Van Soest 2006). Ammonia
used can be gas, aqueous solution or ammonia solution of urea. The molecular formula of
351
Ali et al.
Urea is CO (NH2)2, which is a cheap source of nitrogen, hygroscopic, crystalline-shaped

solid and easily soluble in water. Urea is used as a source of ammonia because it is
alkaline and do not cause environmental pollution due to missing and can easily evaporate
fixation by plants and microbial. The process of ammoniasi a influenced materials by a
number of factors among others a dose of ammonia, environmental temperature, long
storage, and moisture content of materials.
Fermentation is a process that happens through the work of microorganisms or
enzymes to convert the organic complex material as protein, fat and carbohydrate
molecules into simple ones. Fermentation using starbio can increase the digestability
involved in the degradation of crude fiber content on the Palm fiber. Starbio is a collection
of microorganisms (probiotic microbes, cellulolytic, lignolitic, lipolitic, aminolitic) that
are able to metabolize the complex organic material into simple organic material
(Anonimous 2009). Added Winarno (1980) States that fermented feed materials change
containing protein, fat and carbohydrate that are difficult to digest becomes easy to digest
and produce aroma and flavor that is typical. Based on the above research needs to be
done influences the quality of nutrition through the Palm fiber technology ammoniationfermentation.

Materials
Materials used in this research are Palm fiber obtained from PT. Sampurna Agro,
urea [CO (NH2) 2] as a source of ammonia to process ammoniation, molasses and
inoculum solution for starbio for fermentation process as well as chemicals for analysis of
proksimat and van soest.
Instrument
The equipment consists of a bucket, a pair of scissors, a knife, a plastic bag, scales,
analytical laboratory equipment such as porcelain, glass bowls, spatula, beaker oven,
furnace, glass paper filter and G3, etc.
Methods
The process of Palm fibers ammoniation with urea levels 2% was held for 21 days
as instructed, Riswandi et al. (2009). The manufacture of fermented Palm fiber for 21
days is done with a mixture of Palm fiber material, among others, ammoniation and
inoculum solution. Manufacture of inoculum is starbio: molasses: a comparison of water
352
The Nutrients Quality of Fiber Palm
i.e. 1:1:20 in accordance with directive Zainuddin et al. (1994). Measurement of

proksimat based on the AOAC (1990) and fiber based on Van Soet (1983)
Designs
The design used in this study is a Randomized Design with Complete with 5
treatments and 4 replications. Treatment consisted of:
1. Control
2. 2% Urea
3. 2%urea dan 2 % starbio
Based on analysis of a range of Data processed in accordance with the draft which
used multiple range test and continued Duncan (Steel and Torrie 1983).
Variables
Variables observed in this study is, ash, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber,
cellulose, ADF, NDF, and lignin.

Influence ammoniation and ammoniation fermentation by using urea and Starbio the
nutritional quality palm fibers are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Influence ammoniation and ammoniation-fermentation with urea and starbio in
chemical composition palm fibers
Treatment
R0
R1
R2
R3
R4
Crude
Protein
5.93a
8.19b
7.72b
8.39b
6.95a
Crudefat
d
8.65
6.93bc
7.84c
6.23ab
5.63a
Ash
a
4.75
5.17a
5.11a
7.12b
6.84b
NDF
ADF
cellulosa
Lignin
76.34
81.26
80.93
77.84
79.22
69.39
69.31
69.13
68.57
62.32
24.17
28.96
30.12
31.65
33.67
42.52
37.26
35.52
32.55
21.85
Description: R0 (No treament/control), R1(2% urea), R2 (2% urea + 2% Starbio), R3 (2% urea + 4% starbio),
R4 (2% urea + 6% starbio). Superscript in different columns of the same shows significantly
different(P<0,01)
Crude Protein Content

The result analysis showed that treatment of ammoniation and ammoniationfermentation using urea and starbio significantly different (P< 0.01) of crude protein
353
Ali et al.
content in fiber palm. R0 treatment (control) is not different with treatment R4 (2% Urea+
6% Starbio), but treatment differs markedly R0 and R4 treatment R1 (2% Urea), R2 (2%
urea+ 2% starbio), R3 (2% urea + 4% starbio). This shows that treatment with
ammoniation and ammoniation-fermentation can increase crude protein and fiber content,
although in relatively equal treatment on R4 with treatment but there is a trend of
increasing R0 protein content of Palm fiber. It is influenced by the donation of crude
proteins from microbes used in fermentation starbio fiber palm and N from ammoniation.
Ammonia can cause changes in the composition and structure of cell wall, dilute the
bonds between lignin and cellulose and hemicellulose, makes it easier digestion by
cellulase rumen microorganisms. Ammonia will be absorbed and bound with a methyl
group from the feed material, ammonium acetate to form salts that are ultimately
accounting as protein ingredients (Anonimous 2012). Next Nining (2011) declaring that
the level of granting ammonia optimal for ammoniation is 3-5% (equivalent to urea 5.38.8%) of dry substances. The provision of ammonia less than 3 %, did not influence his
digestibility so only serves as a preservative. The provision of ammonia more than 5 %
will be wasted because of a not capable of absorbing ammonia. Ammoniation with urea
can increase the digestion after 21 days fermentation. Starbio is a group of
microorganisms lignolitik, selulolitik, lipolitik, and symbiotic nitrogen fixation bacteria
non protein-containing 10.42% (Anonimous 2009). A new Protein in feed by fermentation
forage preservation is composed of a merger between N free of bacteria and the rest of the
carcass fatty acid volatile who had lost ion O, N and H (Sandi et al. 2010). The next
Harfiah (2010) report that the addition of urea can also increase total N feed on material
so that support an increase in crude protein in feed materials. Research results-Gomez
vazquez et al. (2011) suggests the use of fermentation and urea can increase crude protein
content sugarcane.
Crude Fat Content
The result analysis shows that treatment ammoniation and ammoniationfermentation by the use of urea and starbio significantly different (P< 0.01) crude fat
content of fiber palm. R0 treatment (control) different with R1 treatment (2% urea), R2
(2%urea+ 2% starbio), R3 (2% + 4% of starbio), R4 (2% +6% starbio), as well as R1 and
R2 with R4 treatment. R1 treatment no different with R2as well as between R3 treatment
withR4 and R1with R3 treatment. A fat content the highest on treatment control ( R0 ) as
that of 8.65 %, the on treatment ammoniation 2 % urea + 6 % starbio (R4) as that of
5.63%. It showed that with treatment ammoniation-fermentation capable of lowering a fat
content of fiber palm. It is caused by microbial activities during fermentation with
additional starbio. The fat contained in fiber palms relegation suffered by bacteria lipolitik
derived from starbio (Gunawan and Sundari 2007). The research Himawan (2006)
indicating that ammoniation with dose urea different decreased a crude fat content of
Waste brown. Added Nelson and Suparjo (2011) reported that fermentation process might
lower a fat content of pod cocoa.
354
The Nutrients Quality of Fiber Palm
Ash Content
The analysis result shows that treatment ammoniation and ammoniationfermentation by the use of urea and starbio significantly different (P< 0.01) ash content of
palm fiber. Treatments of R0 (control), R1 (2% Urea), and R2 (2% urea + 4% starbio)
were different with R3 (2% urea+ 4% starbio) and R4 (2% urea + 6% starbio). The
content of the ashes of the highest treatment R3 of 7.12 %, while the lowest in treatment
R0 of 4.75 %. It showed that with the increase the addition of starbio in the process of
ammoniation-fermentation increase ash content of palm fiber. It is caused by during the
process ammonia-fermentation there are changes in organic matter (Haddadin et al.
2009). Pitriyani (2006) reported that ammoniation withurea and the length of different
storage on the pod soybean can increase the levels of ashes.
Crude Fiber
The result analysis shows that ammoniation treatment and ammoniationfermentation by the use of urea and starbio were not significantly different to NDF, ADF
cellulose, and lignin contents of palm fiber. The addition of urea and ammoniation-starbio
through fermentation lowered the levels of ADF and lignin, and increased levels of NDF
and cellulose of palm fiber. Declined and increased levels of these fibers were affected by
problem solving as a result of the addition of urea lingo selulosa and activity
microorganisms found in starbio containing bacteria and cellulolitic lignolitic (Anon
1994). The ammonia produced in the process of ammoniation caused a change the
composition and structure of cell wall, which serves to liberate the bonds between lignin
and cellulose and hemicellulose. The chemical reaction that occurs (by undercuts liaison
hydrogen) network expansion and increase flexibility to facilitate the penetration of cell
wall (tunneling) by the enzyme cellulose produced by microorganisms (Van Soest 2006)
CONCLUSION
This research concludes that ammoniation of palm fiber with 2 % urea + 4 % starbio
increased crude protein and ash contents, and lowered crude fat content. In addition, NDF,
ADF, cellulose, and lignin contents were relatively stable.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Financial support of this research was provided by research incentive for national
innovation system, Ministry for Research and Technology (RISTEK), Republic of
Indonesia, fiscal year 2012.
355
Ali et al.
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material of cassava silage. J. Media Peternakan. 1(1). 23-30
Van Soest, P.J. and J.B. Robertson. 1983. System analysis for evaluating fibrous feeds.
Proceeding of Workshop Standardization of Analytical Metodology for Feeds. 1214 March. Ottawa: Canada.
Van Soest, P.J. 2006. Rice straw the role of silica and treatment to improve quality. J.
Anim. Feed Sci. and Tech. 130:167-171.
Winarno and S. Fardiaz. 1980. Biofermentation and protein biosynthesis. Angkasa.
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Zainuddin, D., D.K. Dwiyanto, dan Suharto. 1994. Use of Probiotics starbio (starter
microbes) in broiler ration on productivity, economic value, and environmental
ammonia levels. Balai Penelitian Ternak Ciawi. Bogor.
356
33
1
FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF CITRUS FARMING ON

SORJAN SYSTEM AT TIDAL SWAMPLAND
Yanti Rina D. and Dedi Nursyamsi
1IAARD
Researchers at Indonesian Wetland Research Institute (IWETRI), Jl. Kebun Karet, Lok
Tabat Banjarbaru-Kalimantan Selatan (email: tuha_13@yahoo.co.id)
Abstract. Tidal swampland has a high potential for rice-base agricultural production. Its
utilization, however, faces several technical and socio - economic constraints. Farmer
usually uses sorjan system to develop citrus cultivation at tidal swampland area. This
paper reported feasibility study of sorjan system for rice+citrus+vegetables pattern. The
research was conducted at Karang Buah village, Belawang Sub-District, Barito Kuala
Regency, in June 2012. The amount of sample was determined by purposive method. The
result showed that sorjan system with rice+citrus+vegetables pattern at Karang Buah
Village was suitable to be developed. Interest rates of 12, 15, and 18% per annum resulted
in B/C value > 1, positive Net Present and Internal Rate of Return values were greater
than interest rate. The main problems of sorjan system in this area were capital and
diseases.
Keywords: Farming, citrus, tidal swampland
Abstrak. Lahan pasang surut memiliki potensi yang cukup besar untuk peningkatan
produksi pertanian berbasis padi. Akan tetapi dalam pemanfaatannya dihadapkan pada
beberapa masalah teknis, sosial dan ekonomis. Makalah ini menyampaikan informasi
kelayakan pola tanam padi + jeruk + sayuran pada sistem sorjan di lahan pasang surut.
Penelitian dilakukan di Desa Karang Buah Kecamatan Belawang Kabupaten Barito
Kuala pada bulan Juni 2012. Jumlah sampel ditentukan secara purposive. Hasil
penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sistem sorjan dengan pola padi + jeruk + sayuran di
Desa Karang Buah adalah layak untuk dikembangkan karena dengan tingkat bunga
12%, 15%, dan 18% per tahun diperoleh nilai B/C >1, Net Present Value positif dan
Internal Rate of Return lebih besar dari tingkat bunga. Masalah utama dalam usahatani
jeruk sistem sorjan adalah modal dan hama penyakit
Kata kunci: usahatani, jeruk, lahan pasang surut
INTRODUCTION
Tidal swampland area in Indonesia is 20.1 million ha. It is estimated that 9.5 million ha
area is potential for agriculture where approximately 4.1 million ha has been reclaimed
(Nugroho et al. 1992). In South Kalimantan, tidal swampland reaches 190,206 ha,
including 155,513 ha that has been planted (Agricultural Department, South Kalimantan
Province, 2009).
357
The agricultural development on tidal swampland is faced with land bio-physical

constraints so its management should be done carefully and holistically with appropriate
and correct implementation of technology. The success keys in the utilization of tidal
swampland for agriculture depend on land and soil management. The research result of
SWAMP II Project in 1993 showed that the system can be done with land forming sorjan
system gradually in acid sulphate or shallow peat on overflow type B and C.
Benefits of sorjan system according to Anwarhan (1986) are among others (1)
crop diversification, (2) no soil acidification, (3) reduction of drought risk , (4) toxicity
reduction due to inundation, (5) minimizing failure risk , (6) more equitable widely used
labor distribution, and (7) the increase of farmers income . Despite the benefits of the
sorjan system has been well known by farmers, development of the system in tidal land is
still slow due to capital constraint to make the sorjan.
Citrus is a plant that has long been cultivated by local farmers in the tidal
swampland area since 1930s and is a prime commodity of South Kalimantan. Therefore,
since 2004 the Government of Barito Kuala District had programmed the development of
citrus until 2009, and targeted to reach 5,000 ha of citrus. Siam Banjar citrus was
cultivated on raised bed system while rice was planted on sunken bed. The average rice
production in the South Kalimantan is 3.5 tons/ha and production of citrus is 111.4 kg/tree
(BPS Tk I, 2010). The increase in production of rice and citrus can be done through the
proper cultivation technology.
Siam Banjar Citrus in terms of fruit flesh flavor and aroma is quite sweet which
produced at several plantation locations and citrus peel contained black spots that need to
be repaired. Similarly, the size of the harvested fruit should be uniform in accordance with
the needs of consumers. The research results by Supriyanto et al. (2006) showed that
consumers of Siam Banjar citrus fruit favored D class which contains 14 pieces/kg and
tastes sweeter than A and B classes. The edible part of the fruit is more and the number of
seeds tends to slightly less. But the citrus sold outside Kalimantan was generally A and B
classes.
Development of citrus requires costly investment as citrus is long-term plant.
According to Johnson (1970), each investment is expected to (a) rapidly generate profits,
(b) profusely endeavored profitability, and (c) the risk of marketing the product must be as
little as possible. This long-term investment will produce a little cash at the beginning of
the implementation, so it is necessary to make cost and benefit calculation in order to
know the feasibility of investment. According to Soekartawi et al. (1984) in conducting an
assessment of the economic development program activities, it is necessary to know
whether the investment plan is financially feasible.
This paper presents information on the financial feasibility of citrus farming on
sorjan systems in tidal swampland and problems in citrus farming development.
358
Financial Analysis of Citrus Farming on Sorjan System
RESEARCH METHOD
Research was conducted with survey method in 2012. Location was purposively
determined based on production center at Karang Buah Village, Belawang Sub-district,
Barito Kuala District, as type B tidal swampland area. Samples of farmers were
purposively set as many as 40 households. Data were collected through interviewing
farmers using questionnaire that had been prepared. Data collection included planting
area, land forming, rice farming, citrus and vegetables and citrus farming problems.
Financial feasibility analysis is used to calculate the investment feasibility of sorjan
farming systems using three performance indicators (Rianto 1984; Kadariah et al. 1976).
The feasibility model was mathematically formulated as follows:
1.
Net Present Value (NPV)

n
NPV =
t =1
2.
Bt Ct
(1 + i )t
Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
NPV '
IRR = i '+
(i ' 'i ')
NPV ' NPV ' '
3.
Benefit Cost Ratio (B/C)

n
BC=
Bt
(1 + i )
t =1
n
Ct
(1 + i )
t =1
Where:
NPV = First Net Present Value
NPV = Second Net Present Value
IRR
= Internal Rate of Return
B/C ratio= Ratio of benefits to costs
Bt
= Benefit on t-year
Ct
= Cost on t-year
t
= Year
i
= First bank interest
i
= Second bank interest
Criteria for decision-making if the system sorjan is feasible: (1) NPV > 0; (2) IRR
> discount level, and (3) Gross B/C ratio > 1.
359

Characteristic of Farmers
The ability of farmers to participate in the application of technology related to their
characteristics such as age, level of education, experience, while resource mastery
including land ownership and availability of labor (Table 1). The results showed that the
average age of farmers was 49 years old, and it was categorized as productive age since
productive age ranges from 15 to 55 years.
Formal and non-formal educations are means to improve knowledge and skills.
The low level of education of farmers is very influential on the absorption of innovation in
agriculture, which is recommended by the field agricultural extension or delivered by
other mass media. According to Raymon as quoted by Depari and Mac Addrew (1988)
that there are different tendencies in a person receiving the information and how he
searches for information. The determining factor is education. Individual response speed
affects perception of innovation. Older farmers with relatively low education showed a
slower response to the new innovations (Abunawan et al. 1988). Average education level
of farmers was 8.18 years. The level of education was dominated by elementary school to
junior high school graduates, which means that farmers have a good enough education to
accept the introduction of technology.
The experience of farmers in farming the tidal swampland area was 18.43 years
and it can be said quite long. The farming experience of farmers in tidal swampland
ranged from 16 to 23 years, and it was an asset for farming because of the conditions of
tidal swampland were different from the region of origin (transmigrant). The experiences
of farmers are very significant in determining the success of farming. According to Azahri
(1988) the longer the experience in farming will cause the easier to understand innovation
and the higher participation in agricultural development program.
The average of farmers labor availability per household was 515.12 man days/year.
When compared with the available land area of 2.49 ha, the family labor supply is
insufficient. Therefore, farmers need the availability of sufficient agricultural machinery
to cover the labor shortage.
360
Table 1. Characteristics of farmers at Karang Buah Village, Belawang Sub-district

Barito Kuala District, 2012
Resource of Farmers
1
2
3
4
5
6.
7.
Age (year)
Formal education (year)
Farming experiences (year)
Occupation (%)
-Main
-Side
The number of family members per head of
family (people)
Availability of labor (man days/household/year)
Area of land ownership (ha).
Yard
Field area
Average
Range
49
8,18
18,43
29 70
68
16 23
100,00
50,00
3.45
25
515.12
357.5 942.5
0.35
2.14
0.25 1.60
1.25 7.62
Farming System
Karang BuahVillage is one of villages, which is located at Belawang Sub-district,
Barito Kuala District. Before becoming a village, this area was part of the transmigration
settlement unit (UPT)-Tarantang. The settlement was occupied in 1983 with 106 heads of
household that came from East Java. Every family acquired 2.25 ha of land that consisted
of 0.25 ha yard, 1.0 ha first field area, and 1.0 ha second field area to be used as farmland
to support life.
In the beginning, rice farming developed by farmers in the village was done in
their yards and first field area to apply the cropping pattern once a year using a rice
variety adaptive to acid sulphate field and longevity, i.e. local rice with productivity level
of 2.0 to 3.5 ton ha-1.
In 1984/1985 through project of SWAMP-II and APBN, Indonesian Swampland
Agriculture Research Institute (ISARI) directly involved in the farmer development.
ISARI introduced some technologies of tidal swampland management such as raised bed
(sorjan) system, water management system with one-way flow and dam overflow systems,
nutrient management, land preparation, and utilization of tolerant varieties. The sorjan
area was planted with citrus, coconut, and other seasonal plants so that it looked like
diversification of agricultural commodities. These efforts were quite successful in
increasing land productivity and farmers income and welfare, as seen today at the site. To
support the achievement of agricultural diversification in tidal wetlands, landscaping
sorjan system is very necessary. In its development, in the venture field I and II in the
UPT area. Tarantang now has been developing landscapings sorjan system and planting
with variety of Siam Banjar citrus with variety of ages.
361
Rice Cultivation Technology

The developed planting pattern was twice rice planting - a year, either high
yielding varietyhigh yielding variety or high yielding variety-local rice variety. The
difference of cultivation technology between high yielding variety and local rice variety is
only on its seedbed. The high yielding-rice variety planting is only through one-time wet
seedbed; while local rice variety is planted on dry seedbed (called: teradak and ampak).
High yielding-rice varieties planted by farmers are Ciherang, Margasari, and Inpara, and
local rice varieties are Siam Unus, Siam Ganal, Siam Kuning, etc. For making rice
seedbed, soil is plowed. The size of beds is 10 cm height, 110 cm width and length as
needed. Land is left in wet and loose conditions till dried. Then the rice seed, which had
been soaked for one night, were uniformly broadcasted and fertilized with dosages of 6 kg
Urea and 6 kg NPK per 400 m2. Seedlings were transplanted after 21 days old.
Land preparation was conducted by spraying the land with herbicide or by
slashing. For some farmers, the land preparation was conducted using rotary tractor
(called glebek). High yielding rice variety seedlings are planted on 21 days old and local
variety seedlings on 60 days in field that ready to be planted. Planting space on high
yielding rice is 20 cm X 20 cm or 25 cm X 25 cm, whereas for local rice variety is 25 cm
X 30 cm. Transplanting is conducted on 1-2 weeks after planting.
The first fertilizer application on high yielding rice variety was on planting day and
the second one was at 15 - 30 DAP (Days After Planting), whereas fertilizer for local rice
variety was given once depending on rice plant condition. The types of fertilizer used by
farmers were Urea, SP-36, and Ponska with various dosages. Slashing was conducted
manually by hands or using short machete, once or twice per crop season, but some
farmers conducted slashing with herbicide. The major pests attacking rice plants were
rats, birds, and rice bugs. Farmers used rodenticide and insecticide in accordance with
attacks level magnitude.
Harvest was conducted by using sickle and shedding or thresher. After shedding,
the rice was dried. Cleaning was conducted by using Gumbaan.
Citrus Cultivation Technology
Citrus farming characteristics in Karang Buah Village, Belawang Sub-district
Barito Kuala District are presented in Table 2.
362
Table 2. Citrus farming charateristics at Karang Buah village, Belawang Sub district,
Barito Kuala District, 2012
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Description
Average
Range
Planting area (ha)

Sunken bed : raised bed
Seed type of citrus
Plant spacing (m)
Population (tree)
Production (kg/tree)
1.46
65 : 35
Grafting
5
267
37
0.75 3.5
8020
46
96 650
20 70
Table 2 shows that the average area of land planted with citrus area were 1.46 ha
with 267 or 183 trees/ha. However, there were only 170 productive trees/ha, and the
occupational area was 65%: 35%, meaning 0.65 ha sunken bed (local rice) and 0.35 ha
raised bed (citrus). The research results (Antarlina et al. 2005) in some tidal swamplands
showed that the ratio of sunken beds and raised bed as in Simpang Arja Village was 60%:
40% with 0.31 ha of raised bed (113 trees), Sungai Kambat Village was 59%: 41% with
0.42 ha of raised bed (195 trees), Gudang Hirang Village was 55%: 45% with 0.25 ha of
raised bed (133 trees), and Sungai Tandipah Village was 55%: 45% with 0.27 ha of raised
bed (156 trees). Variations in plant ages on the research area of Sungai Tandipah, Sungai
Kambat, and Gudang Hirang villages were due to rejuvenation.
Citrus plant spacing and seed variety in Karang Buah Village were more uniform
compared to other sites since there was an expansion program from related institutions.
Plant cultivation on sorjan system was as follows: citrus on raised bed and rice on
sunken bed. The development of sorjan system took long time, especially for farmers who
did not have capital. Usually farmers make gradual raised bed and then from the first to
the fifth year, farmers gradually construct raised beds into raised bed. The production
process begins with the preparation of land with 5 m spacing between plants and digging
citrus planting hole one month before planted. The whole size used by farmers varies,
depending on soil type and soil layers beneath. Topsoil mixed with manure, then inserted
into the holes, and left for a week, and then newly seeds were planted by digging back to a
size slightly larger than the media polybag. Form of seed planted is grafting (Table 2).
Maintenance activities range from gradual raised bed widening, peliburan
(maintenance of sorjan system conducted by farmer every year by spreading rice straw on
raised bed and then covered with muddy soils taken from rice field or sunken bed),
weeding, fertilizing, constructing supporting poles, fruit thinning and pest eradication.
Widening gradual raised bed is conducted every year since the tree is two-year-old.
Fertilization is applied after citrus crops harvest. Farmers generally provide manure, lime,
urea, and Ponska with varying doses. The dose of fertilizer increases with increasing age
of the plant. Fertilizer is applied in1-2 times per year by putting it surrounding the plant.
Similarly, weeding is done 1-2 times per year depending on the thickness of the weeds.
The weeding is commonly used by using herbicides.
363
Organic fertilizers are needed to increase the humus content of the soil becomes
moist around the roots. For farmers who have the capital, fertilization in plants is
conducted before fruiting twice a year which is applied at the beginning and the end of the
rainy season. Whereas on the plants that had been bear fruit, fertilizing is conducted three
times a year. Citrus blossoming is conducted every year by spreading rice straw on raised
bed and then covered with muddy soils derived from rice field (sunken bed) on the side
raised bed. The first fertilization is applied before flowers appear, the second one during
fruit ripening and the third one after the harvest.
Pests and diseases that attack citrus are generally wet Diplodia and dry Diplodia ,
these diseases could cause plant death.
Fruit thinning have been only conducted by some farmers because the income from
thinning the Siam Banjar citrus was almost the same without thinning.Thinning activity
on citrus tree with plenty fruit as 60% while maintaining Siam Banjar citrus with slightly
fruit maintained at 33%. Citrus harvesting is 6 - 8 months after its flower bloom.The way
of harvesting citrus by cutting the fruit stalk with prune shears approximetly 1-2 cm from
its fruit. Gathering time is conducted after the sun has shone around 9 am till afternoon.
Siam citrus is grouped based on the standard as follow:
Class A : citrus with diameter of 7.6 cm, approximately 6 fruits/kg
Class B : diameter 6.7 cm, approximately 8 fruits/kg
Class C : diameter 5.9 cm, approximately 10 fruits/kg
Class D : diameter 5.7 cm, approximately 12-14 fruits/kg
The Cost of Making Sorjan

According to Leknas concept (1977) in Gunawan et al. (1979), that someone is
considered working full time based on the following criterias: (a) adult male age > 15
years = 35 hours/week and (b) young male < 15 years and female > 15 years = 20
hours/week. Based on that concept, then farmer labor which available at Karang Buah
Village Belawang Sub-district was about 515.125 man-days per household/year or around
357.5 942.5 man days/household/year
The labors number, which is required for constructing sorjan, is different on tidal
field type A and C, this is very depending on the width and height of rice bed of sorjan.
Constructing 1 ha of sorjan system at Karang Buah Village on overflow of type B field
with sorjan area of 0.35 ha requires160,7 man days. Farmers generally work with hired
labor as much as 75% or equivalent to 120.5 man-days. When compared with available
labor, the family labor is still available. However, farmers use family labor for other
productive activities such as cultivate the sawit-dupa cropping pattern (rice-rice) in the
business land I, yards and so on.
364
Likewise, the cost of constructing sorjan is greatly affected by the type of land. The
cost of making raised bed and gradual raised bed in the Karang Buah Village on type B
tidal swampland is IDR 9,600,000/ha (0.35 ha) with a width of 2 meters sorjan size by 8
pieces along the field size of 120 m. These costs consist of wage of sorjan making IDR
5000/m2 and gradual raised bed making IDR 15,000/unit. If farmers plant citrus only on
gradual raised bed for 200 pieces, then it requires cost as much as IDR 3,000,000. Farmers
usually make sorjan gradually and within 3 years it has become sorjan with width of 4 m.
Analysis of Rice + Citrus + Vegetable Farming
Farmers was originally encouraged to plant citrus on the second field with rice +
orange pattern, while the first field cultivated with rice - rice. Area of citrus is averagely
1.46 ha/household with a population of 267 trees, which has been harvested 83%. This
cost benefits analyses use an area of 1 hectare consisting of 0.65 ha sunken bed (paddy
field) and 0.35 ha raised bed (sorjan) with a citrus population of 183 trees/ha.
To obtain the result of cost-benefit analysis, the production, revenues, expenses
and income of the farming system sorjan are assessed beforehand (Table 3). The
production is the result of human effort to produce output using the existing input. Input
includes means of production such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and fixed costs such as
equipment depreciation, property tax and religion tax or zakat of rice yield.
Rice production ranged 2-3 ton ha-1, this yield was still high because citrus plants
were still young or <5 years old. At the age of 8 years old of citrus plants, local rice yield
was 2.7 ton ha-1. Vegetable was planted by farmers on sorjan between citrus plants of 1-3
years of age because after 3 years old the citrus plant has started to grow high. Planted
vegetables were, among others eggplant, chili pepper, beans, tomatoes, etc., but it
cultivated on a small scale.
Citrus production was calculated from plant age 4-8 years old. At 4 years old, the
average citrus production was 1500 kg ha-1 (183 trees), and at 8 years old was 9000 kg ha1
. According to the results of research on tidal land showed that the highest citrus
production was at the age of 10 years old, namely 14.25 ton ha-1, and at 15 years old the
citrus production was assumed stable, then at 16 years old the citrus production begin to
decrease. Average citrus production at the age of 25 years old as many as 170 fruits/tree
equivalent to 24.2 kg/tree and fruit size is smaller than citrus production from younger
tree (Rina et al., 2006).
The analysis of citrus plant in the Karang Buah Village was only at the age of 8
years old. Production rate depends on plant age, population density, maintenance and the
state of the water system.
Revenue per hectare in year the tth (Rt) was calculated from the production per
hectare in year t multiplied by the unit price of the product. The selling price of rice,
vegetables and citrus are determined based on farmers price on selling time. The average
rice price was IDR 4,500,-/kg GKG (unhusky rice), the highest one was IDR 5,500,-/kg
GKG and the lowest one was IDR 4,000, -/kg GKG. While the average citrus price was
365
IDR 4,000,-/kg, the highest one was IDR 4,500,-/kg and the lowest one was IDR 3,000,/kg. The highest revenue of rice + orange + vegetable obtained at the age of 8 years old
was IDR 38,273,400,- and this value will grow higher in accordance with citrus age up to
15 years old.
The production cost is the sum of input materials costs, labor costs, depreciation
costs, land tax and religion tax of paddy (zakat). In this study, because the planting pattern
which conducted by farmers was rice + citrus + vegetables, then the investment cost was
only the cost of making sorjan and rice farming (zero citrus plant age). In the calculations
of fixed costs (such as depreciation of equipment and taxes) and variable costs (such as
the cost of fertilizer and labors) is expense cost. The results of financial analysis per
hectare of the rice + citrus + vegetables pattern are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. B /C, NPV and IRR at interest rate (Df) of 12%, 15%, and 18% on financial
analysis of 1 hectare rice + vegetables + citrus fruit pattern at Karang village,
Belawang Sub district, Barito Kuala District, 2012
Investment criteria
Df 12%
Benefit Cost Analysis

Df 15%
Df 18%
1.25
1.21
1.16
19.587
37.10
14.992
36.72
10.401
36.07
1,19
14.963
34.82
1,15
11.094
34.14
1,11
7.225
32.97
1.32
25.367
39.10
1.27
19.864
38.96
1.22
14.371
38.78
Citrus price at IDR 4000/kg

B/C
NPV (IDR million)
IRR(%)
Citrus price at`IDR 3600 /kg
B/C
NPV (IDR million)
IRR(%)
Citrus price at IDR 4500/kg
B/C
NPV (IDR million)
IRR(%)
Cost benefit analysis carried out in Karang Buah Village with used average price
of citrus IDR 4,000/kg and rice IDR 4,500/kg GKG. Obtained IRR value was greater than
the interest rates used in this calculation, namely 12%, 15%, and 18% (Table 3). From the
analysis using prices prevailing at the farmers level values obtained greater IRR was on
the interest rate of 12% (37.10%) and 18% (36.07%). In these circumstances the
investment of constructing sorjan on planting pattern of rice + siam citrus + vegetables in
Karang Buah Village was declared feasible because the value of B/C> 1, positive NPV
and IRR > interest rate.
Even, if the price used was 10 % lower than the current price of rice (IDR 4,500/kg
GKG) and citrus (IDR 3,600/kg), it obtained B/C> 1, positive NPV and IRR > the interest
rate. From this circumstance rice + citrus + vegetables farming was financially worth
effort.
366
Citrus farming problems

Based on interview with farmers, it showed that 40% of farmers stated that
Diplodia disease was a major problem, and 30% of farmers stated that capital was a major
problem. Citrus marketing, according to farmers was easy because there are buyers from
East Java who buy the oranges directly to farmers.
CONCLUSION
1. The average age of farmers was 49 years old, the farming experience was 18.43 year,
and landownership was 2.44 ha.
2. Farming system developed on yard field had been managed with paddy and citrus. Wet
rice field was planted with rice+citrus+vegetables, rice+citrus, and ricerice patterns.
3. Citrus had been planted with sorjan system. Guludan (raised bed)was planted with
citrus and vegetable meanwhile wet rice field (sunken bed) was planted with rice.
4. The cost of manufacturing sorjan with the dimension of 4 m wide and 120 m long for
8 sorjans was Rp. 19,200,000.00 (0.38 ha).
5. Sorjan system with rice+citrus+vegetables pattern was financially feasible due to the
interest rates of 12, 15, and 18%. For the analysis of 1 ha, it was obtained a B/C ratio >
1, the positive net present and the Internal rate of Return were greater than the interest
rate.
6. The main problems in citrus farming faced by farmers were disease and capital.
SUGGESTION
The cultivation of citrus on tidal swampland requires substantial capital therefore it is
suggested to government to provide a part or all of financial for making sorjan system.
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368
34
1 Izhar
1
TECHNOLOGY OF IRON TOXICITY CONTROL ON RICE

AT ACID SULFATE SOILS OF TIDAL SWAMPLANDS
Khairullah and 2Muhrizal Sarwani
IAARD Researcher at Indonesian Wetland Research Institute, Jl. Kebun Karet, Lok Tabat
Banjarbaru-South Kalimantan
2
IAARD Researcher at Indonesian Center for Agricultural Land Resources Research and
Development, Jl. Tentara Pelajar No. 12 Cimanggu. Bogor
Abstract. Iron toxicity is one of the major problems in increasing rice production at acid
sulfate soils of tidal swamplands. Some ways of controlling iron toxicity on rice have
been known, but efficient and effective control ways are still rare, especially at acid
sulfate soils of tidal swamplands. A study to control iron toxicity on rice at acid sulfate
soils of tidal swamplands had been carried out covering aspects of varieties, amelioration,
fertilization, seed treatment, water management, and time of planting. Each technology
component had contributed to decrease of iron toxicity on rice at acid sulfate soils of tidal
swamplands. The results showed that iron toxicity could be controlled by using high
yielding varieties that tolerant to iron toxicity such as Margasari, Martapura, Mendawak,
Lambur, Inpara-1, and Inpara-2. At acid sulfate soils of tidal swamplands with heavy
stress levels or newly opened land were grown local varieties such as Siam Unus Putih
and Lemo Kwatik. Amelioration with application of straw and purun tikus (Eleocharis
dulcis) aerobically composted of organic matter with a dosage 5 t ha-1 of straw and 5 t ha-1
of purun tikus increased rice yields compared to controls. Phosphate fertilizer at a dosage
90 kg ha-1 P2O5 and potassium fertilizer at a dosage 100-125 kg ha-1 K2O which was
combined with seed treatment using CaO 75% of seed weight before planting decreased
iron toxicity up to 21% than application of 90 kg ha-1 P2O5 and 75 kg ha-1 K2O.
Intermittent water management (flooded and drained 1 week later) and delayed planting
time between 14 days to 21 days after arrival of water controlled iron toxicity based on
grain yield, plant growth, iron toxicity symptom, soil pH and Fe concentration, and Fe
content in plant. It produced about 3.51 t ha-1 grain yield, which was higher than water
management by continuously flooded (water in and out freely) and without delayed of
planting time.
Keywords: Agricultural technology, rice, iron toxicity, acid sulfate soils, tidal swamplands
INTRODUCTION
Acid sulfate soils is one type of land at tidal swamplands which has an area about 6.61
million hectares, or approximately 33% of total area of tidal swamplands (Nugroho et al.
1992). The soils problem of acid sulfate soils is a layer of pyrite (FeS2). In waterlogged
conditions, soil pH increase causes reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+, so that Fe2+ concentration
increase to thousands mg L-1 in soil solution. This phenomenon occurs especially at actual
acid sulfate soils that flooded by rain or high tide (Widjaja-Adhi et al. 2000).
369
Khairullah dan Sarwani
Concentration of 300-400 mg kg-1 Fe2+ can cause toxicity to rice plants (Ikehashi and
Ponnamperuma 1978).
Iron toxicity is a nutrients physiological disease on rice plant associated with an
excess of dissolved Fe (Tanaka and Yoshida 1970), salinity, P deficiency, low bases
(Ikehashi and Ponnamperuma 1978), nutrients stress and low pH (Benckiser et al. 2005),
and plant physiological conditions (Ottow et al. 1989). Since the first reported
(Ponnamperuma et al. 1955), iron toxicity to be one of the main problems of rice
production in several countries in Asia, Africa, and South America (Van Breemen and
Moormann 1978; Yoshida, 1981; De Datta et al. 1994). Iron toxicity in Indonesia occurs
at rice fields in West Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan, and tidal swamplands in Sumatera,
Kalimantan and Irian Jaya (Ismunadji et al. 1989; Puslitbangtan 1991; Ottow et al. 1982).
There are several factors in soil which could lead to iron toxicity such as high soil
Fe concentration, low soil pH (Ponnamperuma 1977b; Van Breemen and Moormann
1978), nutrient deficiency and nutrient imbalance (Tanaka and Tadano 1969; Benckiser et
al. 1982; Yamauchi 1989), poor drainage, poor root oxidizing power, and application of
organic matter that is not easily decomposed (Dobermann and Fairhurst 2000; Fairhurst et
al. 2002), environmental conditions such as water condition in rice fields and location of
region (Ponnamperuma 1977b; Van Breemen and Moormann 1978). Excessive Fe uptake
increased polyphenol oxidase enzyme activity resulting production of high-oxidized
polyphenols that caused bronzing. Iron toxicity also reduces root oxidation power
(Dobermann and Fairhurst 2000; Yamauchi and Peng 1993).
Growth and yield of rice at acid sulfate soils is strongly influenced by iron toxicity.
The decrease due to iron toxicity among 30-100% depends on resistance of varieties
(Virmani, 1977), intensity of Fe toxicity (Cai et al. 2003; Majerus et al. 2007), and soil
fertility status (Audebert and Sahrawat, 2000). Decreased in yield of rice grown in Fe
toxicity wetland in Cihea, West Java, reached 52% lower than healthy plants (Ismunadji et
al. 1973). In conditions of heavy Fe toxicity in Belawang in South Kalimantan, rice plant
can only produce 160 kg ha-1 (Noorsyamsi and Sarwani 1989).
Iron toxicity can be controlled by planting varieties which resistant or tolerant to
Fe toxicity, amelioration, fertilization, and water management. This paper discusses how
to control iron toxicity in rice at acid sulfate soils of tidal swampland based on the
previous research results.
THE RESEARCH RESULTS

The research results showed that iron toxicity at acid sulfate soils of tidal swamplands can
be controlled in several ways, namely by using of tolerant varieties to iron toxicity,
amelioration, fertilization and water management combined with time of planting.
370
Technology of Iron Toxicity Control on Rice
1.
Tolerant rice varieties to iron toxicity
Tolerant varieties of rice to iron toxicity can be taken from tidal swampland
specific HYVs and local varieties of rice. The results at acid sulfate soils of tidal
swamplands at Belandean Experimental Installation (South Kalimantan) and Palingkau
village (Central Kalimantan) in 2004 dry season showed that varieties Margasari and
Mendawak were able to grow and provide grain yield about 3.06 t ha-1 and 2.89 t ha-1
(Belandean Experimental Installation) and 3.00 t ha-1 and 2.87 t ha-1 (Palingkau). Soil pH
and Fe concentration were 4.36 and 569.4 ppm at Belandean Experimental Installation,
while at Palingkau 3.80 (soil pH) and 869.8 ppm Fe (Fe concentration), respectively. The
soil pH and Fe concentration can cause toxicity to rice plant. Fe2+ concentration of 300400 ppm is very toxic to rice plants and resulting low plant nutrient availability (Ikehashi
and Ponnamperuma 1978; Widjaja-Adhi et al. 2000). Symptoms of iron toxicity, and
grain yield in both testes sites (Table 1) showed a similarity, although grain yield in
Palingkau was lower than in Belandean.
Table 1. Iron toxicity symptom, growth and yield of rice in Belandean Experimental
Installation, South Kalimantan and Palingkau village, Central Kalimantan,
2004 dry season
Genotypes
GH47
GH137
GH173
GH460
Tox3118b-E-2-3-2
IR58511-4B-4
IR66233-234-2-1-2
B10277b-Mr-1-4-3
Margasari
Mendawak
Fe toxicity
symptom
2-3
2-3
3
3
2-3
3-5
2-3
5-7
2-3
3-5
KP Belandean
Tiller
number
15.5ab
17.4bc
18.8c
16.3ab
14.0a
15.6ab
15.0ab
16.3ab
16.8bc
15.0ab
Yield
(t ha-1)
3.14bc
3.12bc
2.69ab
3.19bc
3.23bc
3.36c
2.24a
2.83bc
3.06bc
2.89bc
Fe toxicity
symptom
2-3
2-3
3
3
2-3
3
3
5-7
2-3
3-5
Palingkau
Tiller
number
15.2
16.0
16.8
15.7
14.7
15.8
14.7
14.3
13.8
15.1
Yield
(t ha-1)
3.01
3.01
2.74
2.91
3.11
2.93
2.29
2.14
3.00
2.87
Numbers followed by the same letter are not significantly different (DMRT 5%)
Fe toxicity score :1-2 very tolerant, 3 tolerant, 5 moderate, 7 susceptible, 9 very susceptible
Sources: * Khairullah et al. (2006a); ** Khairullah and Imberan (2006)
High yielding variety (HYV) of Lambur at acid sulfate soils with soil Fe
concentration 866.5 ppm and soil pH 3.63 was able to provide yield 3.17 t ha-1 and higher
than susceptible variety to iron toxicity IR-64 that its yield 1.94 t ha-1 (Khairullah and
Sutami 2005). Variety Martapura on soil pH conditions 4.66 and Fe concentration 1064.9
ppm in Belandean, South Kalimantan was able to provide yield 3.45 t ha-1 (Khairullah et
al. 2006b). Similarly, high yielding varieties Inpara-1 and Inpara-2 were capable to well
adaptation at acid sulfate soils of tidal swamplands (Khairullah et al. 2011).
At acid sulfate soil of recently opened can be grown local rice varieties. Field
observation of local rice varieties grown at the rice field did not show any symptoms of
371
iron toxicity. This may be due to the old age of seedling (about 4 months) so that the
seedlings performed large and strong when planted. In addition, the field conditions may
also have started down level of dissolved iron in soils so the seedlings protected from iron
toxicity. Based on the results of Khairullah et al. (2005) there was avoid or prevention
mechanism of iron toxicity tolerance in local rice varieties.
Iron toxicity tolerance levels of local varieties varied based on iron toxicity
symptoms, concentration of Fe-leaves and roots, plant growth, and decreased relative
plant growth. Local rice variety Siam Unus Putih relatively more tolerant than Lemo
Kwatik and Lakatan Hirang, and Lemo Kwatik and Lakatan Hirang relatively more
tolerant than Pandak Arjuna, Bayar Palas, and Raden Rata. Its grain yield varied from 2.0
to 3.0 t ha-1 (Khairullah et al. 2005).
Screening to iron toxicity of 130 local varieties from tidal swamplands in South
Kalimantan and South Sumatera showed different variations of Fe toxicity tolerant. On
soil condition with 156 ppm Fe concentration and 0.44 me L-1 Fe soluble in water, there
were 35 local rice varieties that tolerant to iron toxicity at seedling old of 1 week, whereas
at the seedling old of 2 weeks there were 29 tolerant varieties, while seedling old of 3
weeks there were only 20 varieties that tolerant to iron toxicity (Khairullah et al. 2006).
Response of seedling old of local rice varieties was not consistent with iron toxicity. Some
local varieties showed a recovery effort to grow at an older age of plant, but the others
were getting older varieties of plants, iron toxicity symptoms tended to increase.
2.
Amelioration
Application of ameliorant at acid sulfate soils of tidal swamplands could control

iron toxicity and increase growth and yield of rice. Ameliorant such as straw and purun
tikus (Eleocharis dulcis) could be used to control iron toxicity. Purun tikus was the
dominant in situ weed that grown at acid sulfate soils of tidal swamplands. Application of
straw and purun tikus at dosage of 5 t ha-1, composted aerobically could control iron
toxicity and increase rice growth and yield. The addition of purun tikus compost up to 10 t
ha-1 combined with straw compost of 5 t ha-1 decreased rice growth and yield (Table 2 and
Figure 1).
Decreased of iron toxicity symptoms and increased of growth and yield of rice due
to application of purun tikus compost on straw compost showed quadratic regression
pattern. Optimum dosage of purun tikus compost added to straw compost of 5 t ha-1 for
Inpara-1, Inpara-2, and IR-64 were 5.14; 5.29, and 5.31 t ha-1, respectively. Although the
average grain yield per hill of variety Inpara-1 was the highest, but the highest increasing
percentage on grain yield was showed by IR-64. This means that IR-64 was more
responsive to straw and purun tikus compost at acid sulfate soils of tidal swamplands.
372
This was understandable because IR-64 is one of the HYVs that also responsive to
fertilizer. Thus, application of straw and purun tikus compost could more increase grain
yield of IR-64, although its grain yield was still lower than Inpara-1 that resistant and
Inpara-2 that avoidant to iron toxicity.
Table 2. Growth and yield of three rice varieties on straw and purun tikus compost
treatments, greenhouse Balittra, Banjarbaru, 2010 wet season
Treatment
Organic matter
Control
Control fresh water
5 t ha-1 J + 0 t ha-1 PT
5 t ha-1 J + 2.5 t ha-1 PT
5 t ha-1 J + 5.0 t ha-1 PT
5 t ha-1 J + 10.0 t ha-1 PT
Varieties
Inpara-1
Inpara-2
IR-64
Tillers
number
13.4
14.8
17.0
19.0
20.4
17.4
18.1
17.4
15.6
e
d
c
b
a
c
x
x
y
Root dry
weight
(g)
2.22
3.11
3.82
4.61
5.22
3.99
4.33
4.07
3.08
Root
tolerance
index
e
d
c
b
a
c
x
x
y
0.18
0.23
0.30
0.40
0.46
0.33
0.35
0.33
0.27
e
d
c
b
a
c
x
x
y
Fe toxicity
symptom*
6.11
5.55
5.00
3.56
2.33
4.33
4.11
4.50
4.83
a
ab
bc
d
e
c
y
xy
x
Yield
(g/hill)
8.25
13.25
18.50
22.94
27.17
19.35
21.59
19.56
13.57
e
d
c
b
a
c
x
y
z
y tolerant, 3 tolerant, 5 moderate, 7 susceptible, 9 very susceptible
(Source: Khairullah et al. 2011)
Figure 1. Relationship between purun tikus compost and grain yield on three varieties of
rice, greenhouse Balittra, Banjarbaru, 2010 wet season
3.
Fertilization and seed treatment
P and K fertilization combined with seed treatment using lime could control iron
toxicity and improve growth and grain yield of rice at acid sulfate soils. Characteristics of
acid sulfate soils (Table 3) showed that soil with low pH and high Fe concentrations.
Combination of CaO 75% of seed weight, 90 kg ha-1 P2O5 and 100-125 kg ha-1 K2O
373
treatments showed better response than other treatments. Soil pH increased, especially at
9 WAT, where P fertilizer was relatively increased soil pH higher than K fertilizer and
seed treatment (Figure 2). Increased seed treatment showed no decreased soil Fe. P
Fertilizer with dosage of 60 kg ha-1 P2O5 and K fertilizer with dosage of 100 kg K2O ha-1
showed the lowest soil dissolved Fe content compared to other dosages of P and K
(Khairullah et al. 2008).
At 3 WAT, dosage of CaO increased to 75% by seed weight and fertilizer P and
120 kg ha-1 P2O5 could reduce Fe in plant. Similarly, the increasing in K fertilizer and 75
kg ha-1 K2O will decrease Fe in plant. P fertilizer was more effective to decrease Fe in
plant than seed treatment and K fertilizer. Dosage of 120 kg ha-1 P2O5 showed the lowest
Fe in plant (0.257% Fe), followed by seed treatment of 75% CaO (0.282% Fe) and K
fertilizer at dosage of 75 kg ha-1 K2O (0.282% Fe) (Khairullah et al. 2008).
Table 3. Characteristics of acid sulfate soil of tidal swampland in Belandean Barito
Kuala District, 2007 dry season
Soil Characteristics
pH (H2O)
C-organic (%)
N-total (%)
KTK (me/100gr)
Ca-dd (me/100gr)
Mg-dd (me/100gr)
K-dd (me/100gr)
P-Bray I (mg kg-1)
Fe (mg kg-1)
SO4 (mg kg-1)
Value
Criteria
4.11
6.78
0.392
37.0
4.45
1.62
0.34
18.81
1248.9
321.4
very acid
moderate
moderate
high
low
moderate
moderate
moderate
very high
-
Growth and grain yield of rice variety Batanghari (susceptible to Fe toxicity)

showed increased as seed treatment and fertilizer of P and K increased. Treatment 75-90125 indicated that more number of tillers but no significantly different from 75-90-100
treatment, that enhancement of dosage K fertilizer 50 kg ha-1 to 125 kg ha-1 was not
efficient to increase tillers number of rice.
Increasing P and K fertilizer dosages up to 150 kg ha-1 P2O5 and 125 kg ha-1 K2O
showed vigor growth and phenotypic acceptability of plant were better, but for seed
treatment the most effective dosage was 75% of seed weight. Increased fertilizer dosage K
up to 125 kg ha-1 was also able to decrease iron toxicity symptom, while P fertilizer
dosage of 100 kg ha-1 has shown its efficiency in decreasing its symptoms. For seed
treatment, dosage up to 75% of seed weight was also effective in decreasing symptoms of
iron toxicity.
The highest grain yield showed by treatment of 75-90-125 (3.65 t ha-1) was not
significantly different from all other dosages of K fertilizer from 25-100 kg ha-1 at dosage
374
75% of seed treatment and P fertilizer 90 kg ha-1. Increased dosage fertilizer P up to 150
kg ha-1 showed grain yield was not significantly different from treatment of K fertilizer.
Combination of seed treatment 75% and 90 kg ha-1 P2O5 and 100 kg ha-1 K2O were
efficient and effective combination for all characters of grain yield.
Table 4. Scoring, growth, and yield of Batanghari rice variety at acid sulfate soil of tidal
swampland, Belandean, 2007 dry season
Treatment
%CaO-P-K
kgha-1
Vigor
(score)
Fe toxicity
symptom
(score)
Phenotypic
acceptability
(score)
Tillers number
25-90-75
50-90-75
75-90-75
100-90-75
125-90-75
75-30-75
75-60-75
75-120-75
75-150-75
75-90-25
75-90-50
75-90-100
75-90-125
0-90-75
0-0-0
3-5
3-5
3
3
3-5
3-5
3-5
3
1-3
3-5
3-5
3
1-3
3-5
5
3-5
3-5
3
3
3
3-5
3-5
1-3
3
3-5
3-5
3
1-3
3-5
5-6
3-5
3-5
3
3
3
3-5
3-5
3
1-3
3-5
3-5
3
1-3
3-5
3-5
19.7 bcd
21.0 cde
21.1 cde
20.5 cde
18.7 abc
20.1 b-e
20.4 cde
21.0 cde
20.9cde
19.0 abc
21.8 def
22.6 ef
23.8 f
17.8 ab
16.6 a
Yield
(tha-1)
3.10 abc
3.24 bcd
3.32 b-e
3.18 bc
3.06 ab
3.20 bc
3.24 bcd
3.40 b-e
3.47 cde
3.26 b-e
3.29 b-e
3.63 de
3.65 e
3.01 ab
2.76 a
Source: Susilawati and Khairullah 2011

Vigor score: 1. Strong vigor, 3. vigorous, 5. normal
Phenotypic aaceptability score: 1. excellent, 3. good, 5. normal
4.
Water managemant and planting time
Water management is one of the main keys to success in increasing rice production
at acid sulfate soils of tidal swamplands. The dynamics of natural tide in the soil cause
soil in reductive and oxidative conditions. This is important in controlling iron toxicity,
especially to decrease ferro in reductive conditions. Nonetheless, the reductive and
oxidative condition needs to be managed so that rice did not have deficit water, especially
during dry season.
Water management treatment (continuous, intermittent, and flushing) combined
with planting time (0, 7, 14, 21 days after water management application) at acid sulfate
soils at Belandean Experimental Installation in dry season showed in Table 5. The soil
characteristic was low pH and high soil Fe concentration. Such soils conditions could
cause great potential to iron toxicity in rice plants.
375
Intermittent water management showed its dominance in increasing soil pH at

planting time 0, 7, and 14 days after application of water management. Planting time of 14
days showed that soil pH was low. Intermittent water management and time of planting 14
days and 21 days after application of water management showed the lowest soil Fe
concentration. This means that delay planting 14 days to 21 days after initial flooding at
tidal swamplands was a safe time to rice varieties. Similarly, intermittent water
management (flooding and drying with interval a week) will be able to suppress solubility
of soil Fe making it safe for growth of HYVs, especially those sensitive varieties to iron
toxicity.
Table 5. Characteristics of acid sulfate soils of tidal swampland in Belandean (Barito
Kuala District), 2006 dry season
Karakteristik
pH (H2O)
C-organik (%)
N-total (%)
KTK (me/100gr)
Ca (me/100gr)
Mg (me/100gr)
K (me/100gr)
P-Bray (ppm P)
Fe (ppm)
SO4 (ppm)
Nilai
4.36
14.22
0.59
52.0
5.17
1.38
0.29
11.94
1678.3
330.0
Kriteria
acid
very high
moderate
moderate
high
high
very high
very low
very high
-
Source: Khairullah et al. (2011).
The most of tillers number was obtained from intermittent water management
(flooded-dried) and time of planting 14 and 21 days after application of water
management. Tiller number was a main variable that was directly related to grain yield.
Intermittent water management combined with delayed planting 14-21 days after flooding
was an effective treatment in increasing number of tillers (Table 6). Treatment of
intermittent water management and time of planting 14 and 21 days after application of
water showed score of vigor, iron toxicity symptoms, and phenotypic acceptability were
small. This treatment was able to improve vigor of plants, control iron toxicity, and show
better plant performance (Table 6).
The most number of grain and filled grain, longest panicle and weights grain weigh
were shown by intermittent water management (flooded and drained). Number of grains
and filled grains was observed, as much as 168.7 grains and 140.2 grains, panicle length
was 25.3 cm and 1000 grain weight was 25.4 grams. Although not significantly different
from time of planting, but planting time 14 and 21 days showed a tendency to increase
number of grains, filled grains, panicle length and grain weight (Table 7).
376
Soil Fe (9 wat)
Soil pH (9 wat)
continuous
flushing
continuous
intermitten
flushing
intermitten
ppm Fe
40
30
4,5
pH
20
10
3,5
3
1
Planting time
Planting time
Plant Fe (9wat)
continuous
% Fe
flushing
intermitten
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
1
Planting time
(Source : Khairullah et al. 2011)
Figure 2. Soil pH and Fe, and Fe in plant at water management and planting time (0, 7,
14, and 21 days after water management application)
Water management of flooded and dried interval a week (intermittent) showed the
highest grain yield around 3.51 t ha-1. The continuously flooded treatment (continuous)
and water freely in and out (flushing) showed no difference in grain yield, about 3.09 51 t
ha-1 and 3.10 51 t ha-1, respectively. The planting time treatment of 14 days and 21 days
after application of water management showed a higher yield, while early planting time (0
day) and 7 days after the application did not show significantly different. The highest
grain yield at planting time of 14 days followed by 21 days after water management
application were 3.37 t ha-1 and 3, 28 t ha-1, respectively. While for planting time 0 day
and 7 days after water management application only gave yield 3.15 t ha-1 and 3.14 t ha-1.
Thus, to obtain high yield at acid sulfate soil of tidal swampland needed water
management that flooded and dried interval a week (intermittent) along with a delay time
of planting 14 days to 21 days after flooding.
377
Table 6. Scoring, growth, and yield of Batanghari rice variety at acid sulfate soil of tidal
Treatment
Water management:
Flooding
Intermittent
Flushing
Time of planting:
0 day
7 days
14 days
21 days
after application
water management
Vigor
(score)
Fe toxicity
symptom (score)
Phenotypic
acceptability (score)
Tillers
number
3-5
1-3
3-5
3-5
3
3-6
3-5
1-3
1-3
11.4 a
15.4 b
12.3 ab
3
3-5
1-3
3
3-4
4-6
3
3
3-5
3-5
1-3
1-3
11.7 a
12.2 a
13.9 b
14.2 b
Source : Khairullah et al. (2011)

Vigor score: 1. Strong vigor, 3. vigorous, 5. normal
Phenotypic acceptability score : 1. excellent, 3. good, 5. normal
Table 7. Yield and its components of rice variety Batanghari at acid sulfate soil of tidal
Treatment
Water management:
Flooding
Intermittent
Flushing
Time of planting :
0 day
7 days
14 days
21 days
after application
water management
Grain
number
Filled grain
number
Panicle length
(cm)
1,000 grain
wieght (g)
Yield
(t ha-1)
131.2 a
168.7 b
128.8 a
106.2 a
140.2 b
105.9 a
21.6 a
25.3 b
21.1 a
23.5 a
25.4 b
23.7 a
3.09 a
3.51 b
3.10 a
134.3
136.3
146.5
154.5
111.8
117.8
121.3
118.9
22.3
22.8
22.5
23.0
24.2
24.4
23.6
23.0
3.15 a
3.14 a
3.37 b
3.28 ab
Source : Khairullah et al. (2011)

CONCLUSION
From a series of studies in controlling iron toxicity on rice conducted at acid sulfate soils
of tidal swamplands, it can be concluded as follows:
1. Rice varieties of Margasari, Martapura, Lambur, Mendawak, Inpara-1, and Inpara-2
grew well at acid sulfate soils of tidal swampland that potential to iron toxicity. Acid
sulfate soils with levels of severe stress or newly opened lands were planted with local
rice varieties such as Siam Unus Putih and Lemo Kwatik.
378
2. Amelioration by application of 5 t ha-1 straw compost and 5 t ha-1 purun tikus compost
increased rice yields about twice compared to control.
3. Application of P and K fertilizers with dosages of 90 kg ha-1 P2O5 and 100-125 kg ha-1
K2O in combination with soaking seeds using CaO 75% of seed weight before planting
controlled Fe toxicity up to 21% compared to application of 90 kg ha-1 P2O5 and 75 kg
ha-1 K2O.
4. Intermittent water management (a week flooded and drained intervals) and delay
planting time until 14 to 21 days after flooding controlled iron toxicity based on grain
yield, plant growth, iron toxicity symptoms, soil pH, soil Fe, and Fe in plant. It
produced about 3.51 t ha-1 grain yield, which was higher than continuous or flooded
(in and out freely) water managements and without delay planting time.
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382
35
1 Helda
THE POTENCY OF INDIGENOUS RICE CROPPING

SYSTEM IN CONSERVING THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF
PEST (PREDATORS AND PARASITOIDS) IN BACK
SWAMPLAND, SOUTH KALIMANTAN
Orbani Rosa, Mariana, and Dewi Fitriyanti
Plant Pest and Disease Department, Agriculture Faculty, Lambung Mangkurat University, Jl.
Jend. A. Yani, Kotak Pos 1028, Banjarbaru, Telp & Fax. 0511-4777392
*Corresponding Author (e-mail: helda_hptunlam@yahoo.com)
Abstract. The objective of this research was to study potency of indigenous rice cropping
system in conserving natural enemies of pests (predators and parasitoids) in back
swampland of South Kalimantan. The research was begun with a field survey of the major
pest intensity of rice plant in back swampland, either from indigenous or conventional
cropping systems. Collection of natural enemies was done three times on each research
location i.e; at the time of taradak, lacak, and planting in the field. Result showed that the
major pest of rice plant on back swampland was brown plant hopper with attack intensity
of 42.5%. Species richness of predators on indigenous cropping system tended to be
higher, with values of 1,573; 2,275; and 3,119 for taradak, lacak, and planting time,
respectively, compared with the conventional one of 1,559; 1,737; and 3,069,
respectively. Similarly for species richness values of parasitoid on the indigenous
cropping system were 2,232; 2,569; and 2,597, respectively compared with the
conventional as 0,736; 1,674; and 2,552, respectively. Generally, it could be concluded
that the indigenous cropping system had the potency to conserve the natural enemies
(predators and parasitoids) that rolled as control agents, especially in the implementation
of Integrated Pest Management program in rice field.
Keywords: Conservation, natural enemies, indigenous cropping system, back swampland
INTRODUCTION
The swampland is an agro ecosystem which is very typical and unstable. There are always
problems that are faced in managing this land, so that a special care is needed to solve it,
such as a site-specific solution, including the management of pest attacking rice plant.
Various technological invasion in rice cropping and pest control such as the use of high
yielding varieties that require high inputs of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides was known
harmful to the environment and our next generation. Biological control is then considered
to be the best solution. However, the application of this technology must be integrated
with the swamp land agro ecosystem as stated in the principles of IPM.
Local wisdom in rice plant cropping hasnt yet been learnt before. Rice farmers in
back swampland usually use a cropping/planting system based on the water tidal, known
as three planting time system. This condition may have produced the good plant growth
383
Rosa et al.
and also will empower the natural enemies, so that the pest management can be naturally
occurred. This condition may affect the existence of the local insects, either from pest
group or their natural enemies like predators or parasitoids. These natural enemies as
natural control agents must be optimized among others by the conservation of these
natural enemies in order to maintain these populations so that they could be sustainably
used. Likewise, soil tillage for weed sanitation will produce green manure. The condition
of high organic matter content is an alternative feed source for neutral insect populations
that can be used as a preyfor predators, so as to achieve a balance between pests and their
natural enemies. In addition, the rolled-weeds can also serve as shelter or hiding place for
predators, such as spider nymphs and adults of spider cannibalism which is common in
populations of Lycosa. Lycosa likes moving and colonizing the wet rice field or the
newly-prepared dry rice field. They've been on the field since very early planting and
preyed pest just before the population increased to the destructive level. Based on the
facts and analysis, it was necessary to investigate the potency of the indigenous rice
cropping system in conserving the natural enemies of pest (predators and parasitoids) in
back swampland of South Kalimantan.
MATERIAL AND METHODS

Time and Place
The main pest field survey and the collection of the natural enemies took place in
back swampland area of Banua Rantau village, Banua Lawas subdistrict, Tabalang
Regency, South Kalimantan. The identification of its natural enemies was done in
Biological Control Laboratory of Plant Pest and Diseases Department, Faculty of
Agriculture, Lambung Mangkurat University. This research had been done since April to
September 2012.
Main Pest Survey
The survey of the main pest was done in rice field using indigenous and
conventional cropping systems. The intensity of the pest was calculated by taking the
sampling plant in each field diagonally as many as ten clumps. Pest intensity was counted
by taking each of sampling plant on each field. The intensity calculations was based on
Abbots formula (in Hamed et al. 2012). For non-systemic attacking plant pest, the
formula proposed by Townsend and Heuberger (1943) was used (in Adria, 2010).
384
The Potency of Indigenous Rice Cropping System
Planting Preparation
This research was performed in back swampland using two rice cropping systems
i.e; field planted with indigenous cropping system and conventional system. Both lands
were separated by 500 m distance. Rice variety used in the conventional system was
Ciherang and for the indigenous was Siam Unus variety which was commonly planted by
local farmers. The indigenous rice cropping was done based on customs of the local
farmers that was three shifting seedlings. It began with teradak (nursery). It was done at
high place of land. Seeds were then transferred to low part of the place (lacak). While
waiting for rice to become a bit high and strong (vigor), soil tillage was prepared. Weeds
were cut using a type of sickle trowel (tajak) applied in water. The cut-weeds were then
rolled and brought up to embankment. The rolled weeds were left to rot and then chopped
(sliced small) and applied in the field. After that the lacak seedlings were ready for
planting. For the conventional rice cropping system, nursery (teradak), lacak, and planting
in the field were the same as the indigenous cropping systems, except for tillage using
herbicides.
Collection and Identification of Predators and Parasitoids
Collection of the natural enemies was conducted in three stages of each rice
cropping system: at the time of taradak, lacak, and when the rice was grown in the field.
The collection of insect natural enemies was using nets, traps, and yellow light trap. The
caught-insects were then kept in collection bottles filled with 70% alcohol for further
identification at laboratory. Identification was done to level of family referred to Borror et
al. (1992) and then counted. The observations on diversity and abundance of predator and
parasitoid species were done every two weeks, beginning from nursery (teradak) until
generative phase (16 weeks after planting).
Observation
In this research, a descriptive method was used to directly observe the research
objects, i.e. insect species and parasitoid. Data obtained from the observation were then
analyzed by using formula of Species Richness (R) proposed by Margalef (Ludwig and
Reynolds, 1988) and Dominance Index (C) by Simpson (Southwood, 1978 in
Soegianto(1994); Ludwig and Reynolds, 1988).
Results and Discussion
The result of survey showed that the main pest found in back swampland was
brown plant hopper with the attack intensity as much as 42.5% (medium category).
385
Rosa et al.
Whereas, the natural enemies identified during the study were as many as 17 kinds of
predators belonging to Formicidae, Staphylinidae, Coccinellidae, Coenagrionidae,
Lycosidae, Araneidae, Tetragnathidae, Thomisidae, Oxyopidae, Microphysidae, Miridae,
Gryllidae, and Tettigoniidae families, and 13 kinds of parasitoids belonging to
Chalcidoidea, Bethylidae, Ichneumonidae, Eulopidae, Vespidae, Diapriidaae,
Pteromalidae, Platygastroidea, Cucujidae, Pipunculidae, and Lygaeidae families.
The diversity of predators and parasitoids in rice produced values of species
richness (R) and dominance (C) indices that also varied among each stage of planting and
cropping systems. Data analysis can be seen at Table 1 and 2.
Species Richness (R) and Dominance (C) Indices of Predator and Parasitoid
The values of Species Richness (R) and Dominance (C) Indices of predators in
each planting time and cropping system are shown in Table 1, whereas for the parasitoid
the values are shown in Table 2.
Table 1. Species Richness and Dominance Indices of Predators in the Indigenous and
conventional cropping system
Transplanting stages
Taradak
Lacak
Planting
Species richness(R)
Conventional
Indigenous
1,559
1,573
1,737
2,275
3,069
3,119
Dominance index (C)

conventional
Indigenous
0.254
0.469
0.219
0.185
0.125
0.171
Table 2. Species Richness and Dominance Indices of Parasitoids in the Indigenous and
conventional cropping system
Transplanting stages
Taradak
Lacak
Tanam
Species richness(R)
conventional
Indigenous
0.736
2,232
1,674
2,569
2,552
2,597
Dominance index (C)

conventional
Indigenous
0.709
0.222
0.278
0.184
0.300
0.124
Species Richness Index of predators/parasitoids is an indicator of the wide variety

of predators/parasitoids in an ecosystem. This index values in the indigenous cropping
system were higher than those in all phases of conventional planting. These higher values
were probably caused by the tillage method that was using a trowel to remove weeds at
the time water flooded and produced weeds that could be used as green manure. The
condition of high organic matter content was analternative feed source for neutral insect
populations that could be used as a prey for predators. In addition, the rolled-weeds could
also serve as shelter or hiding place for predators from their enemies or even cannibalism
386
The Potency of Indigenous Rice Cropping System
of their own kinds. Whereas, in conventional, herbicide was generally used in soil tillage
practices. Beside that in the indigenous cropping system, each planting stage took a longer
time compared with the conventional, allowing their natural enemies associated
significantly longer in rice ecosystems.
Most of the predators and parasitoids found in rice field were predators and
parasitoids of rice pests (including brown plant hoppers), among others were Cyrtorhinus
lividipennis, Micraspis sp., Agriocnemis femina, Goniozus nr. triangulifer, Pipunculus
javanensis, so that the presence of the predators and parasitoids was able to suppress the
attack of pests, including the main pest, rice brown plant hopper.
The dominance index of predator/parasitoid describes the type of predator/
parasitoid that prevailed in a community of each habitat. This index in the indigenous
cropping systems ranged from 0.171 to 0.469 and in the conventional cropping it ranged
from 0.125 to 0.254 (Table 1). According to Odum (1983) in Son (2012), the criteria of
the dominance values in both cropping systems were included to low category, because
the values were below 0.5. This suggested that each species in it had nearly the same
amount.
The dominance index of parasitoid in the indigenous cropping system ranged from
0.1240.222 and in the conventional it ranged from 0.278-0.709 (Table 2). The criteria of
the dominance value of indigenous system were included to low category, whereas for the
conventional it was included to medium category, it was because it was on the range 0.50.75. It showed that there was one dominant species, namely Goniozusnr.triangulifer (in
taradak stage), although still in the medium rate.
CONCLUSSION
Generally, it could be concluded that the presence of both natural enemies, either
predators or parasitoids, were important and also had the potential in managing pest in
rice ecosystems. The values of species richness and dominance indices showed that the
indigenous cropping system was capable of conserving the natural enemies in rice
ecosystems in the back swampland.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank to Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of National
Education, Republic of Indonesia for funding this research via Fundamental grant
research program so that all activities in this research were well-accomplished.
387
Rosa et al.
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36
1,3*Ferdinand
Amiro Hitosi
1Aquaculture
VULNERABILITY THE QUALITY IMPROVEMENT OF

GIANT FRESHWATER PRAWNS POSTLARVAE
(Macrobrachium rosenbergii) IN SWAMP MEDIA
WITH SODIUM ADDITION DURING THE
ACCLIMATIZATION
Hukama Taqwa, 1,3 Ade Dwi Sasanti,2,3 A.K. Gaffar, and 1,3 Yuri
Program Study, Agriculture Faculty-Sriwijaya University; Jl.Raya PalembangPrabumulih KM 32, Indralaya, Ogan Ilir. Palembang-South Sumatra. e-mail :
perikanan_unsri@yahoo.co.id
*Corresponding author: Telp. +6281367088484; Email: ferdinand_unsri@yahoo.co.id
2Research Institute of Inland Fisheries (BP3U)-Ministry of Marine Affair and

Fisheries,Republic of Indonesia, Jl. Beringin 308, Mariana. Palembang-South Sumatra. Email:
brppu_brkp@yahoo.co.id; adm_bppu@yahoo.com
3 Research Center for Sub-optimal Lands (PUS-PLSO)- Sriwijaya University, Jl. Padang Selasa
No. 524, Bukit Besar Palembang-South Sumatra. Email: purplso@yahoo.co.id
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to improve the quality of giant freshwater
prawns post larvae with the addition of sodium during the acclimatization medium from
12 until 0 g.l-1. This research used Completely Randomized Design with 5 treatments and
3 replications. The addition of sodium treatments were 0 mg.l-1 (A), 25 mg.l-1 (B), 50
mg.l-1 (C), 75 mg.l-1 (D), and 100 mg l-1 (E) by using swamp water as diluent. Experiment
parameters included survival rate, oxygen consumption rate, level of osmotic work, and
water quality. The results indicated that the survival rate of giant freshwater prawns post
larvae did not significantly different among the treatments (84-91,7%). The osmotic level
was significantly different with treatment D and produced lower osmotic work level of
post larvae with a value of 185.68 mOsm.l H2O-1. Oxygen consumption rates were also
the best on treatment D that showed 1,378 mg O2.g-1.h-1. These results showed that the
addition or without sodium did not significantly affect the survival rate of giant freshwater
prawns post larvae, whereas to improve osmoregulation (level of osmotic work) and
metabolism mechanism (oxygen consumption), it was required to add 75 mg.l-1 sodium in
swamp water. Water quality during acclimatization was still in appropriate range to
survival rate of giant freshwater prawns post larvae.
Keywords: Sodium, giant freshwater prawns post larvae, survival rate, osmotic level,
oxygen consumption, swamp water, acclimatization
INTRODUCTION
Giant freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) are a freshwater shrimp that has a
fairly high economic value and potential for propagation. According Hadie et al. (2001),
that 84.65% of the waters in the South Sumatera has the potential to clear land for
cultivation. This is due to the characteristics of the waters in the South Sumatra match the
389
Hukama et al.
natural habitat of giant freshwater prawns. The main problems in aquaculture are the low
rate of survival and growth in the larval stage. Increased vitality prawns could measure
from oxygen consumption rate and the level of osmotic work. This is due to the larval
stage is critical stadium affected by water quality. One of water quality affecting the
survival and growth of prawn is changes in salinity at the migration time. The research
results by Charryani (2007) stated that when the salinity reduction made at the prawn
larvae 29 to 49 days of age, salinity of 12 to 0 g.l-1 resulted in best survival value of
20.67%.
Therefore, it is necessary to advance acclimatization to minimize mortality rate and
increase survival rate. Acclimatization was obtained by the addition of sodium during the
salinity reduction. The addition of sodium is expected to increase the survival rate of
prawns at post larvae phase.

Giant freshwater prawn larvae used was 30 days old (stadium 11th) at 12 g.l-1 salinity and
fed with Artemiasalina naupli. The acclimatization of giant freshwater post larvae used 15
pieces aquarium of 40 x 40 x 40 cm3. The aquariums were placed randomly according to
treatment. Each aquarium was aerated for 24 hours by using aerators to make the
dissolved oxygen content was ideal for larvae (5-7 mg l-1). Water swamps sodium was
treated as medium salinity diluent into the swamp water from the swamp water flood in
the area of the hatchery of Aquaculture Program Study, Faculty of Agriculture. Sodium is
used in the form NaCO3.
Giant freshwater prawns post larvae had used passed initial preservation in the
laboratory. Stocking densities prawns are 200 individuals per aquarium at 12 g.l-1 salinity
water as much as 4 liters. Decrease in salinity of 12 to 0 g.l-1 by adding swamp water that
has been mixed with sodium (NaCO3) done gradually by arrangement through the faucet
drip. Decreased salinity dilution method for 10 days gradually. Decreased salinity are
from 12, 10 , 8, 6, 4,3, 2, 1.5 and 1 g l-1. Then turn the water followed by 25% and 50% of
the total volume to obtain salinity of 0 g l-1periodically 24 hours. The 1st day decreases to
10 g l-1 salinity, next the 2nd day decreased salinity of 8 g l-1and 6 g l-1salinity reduction
done on 3rd.The 4th day decreased salinity 4 g l-1, further after reaching 3 g l-1on 5th day
done drop back to 2 g l-1salinity on 6th day. Decreased salinity of 1.5 g l-1 on 7th day and 1
g l-1on 8th day. Next on the salinity of 1 g l-1 done water changes as much as 25% of the
total volume. Decreased in salinity to 0.5 g l-1 performed on 9th day. At the turn of the 10th
day of water that was done gradually 12 liters for 24 hours and salinity gained 0.5 g l-1
change of water for 24 hours by 50% and gained 0 g l-1. The parameters of survival rate
and osmotic level were analyzed using One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and
Duncans multiple comparison of the means by using SAS 6.12, while the other
390
Vulnerability the Quality Improvement of Giant Freshwater Prawns Postlarvae
parameters (oxygen consumption rate and water quality) descriptively analyzed.

Significant differences were indicated at p < 0.05.

The osmotic work level is the result of osmotic difference of osmolarity prawns post
larvae with medium osmolarity. The activity rate regulates osmolarity osmotic
haemolymph of the prawns. Figure 1 shows that the survival rate of giant freshwater
prawns post larvae during the acclimatization period was not significantly different to the
levels of prawns survival rate. The highest survival rate was found in the D treatment with
the addition of 75 mg l-1 of sodium. Dersjant-Li et al. (2001) stated that ratio value of
Na+/K+ containing in the water functions to maintain the balance between the K+ and Na+
ions in appropriate liquid intracellular. Survival rates were higher during the
acclimatization period allegedly can cause decreased salinity less of energy use for setting
the concentration of K+ in haemolymph.
Survival Rate (%) and Osmotic Rate (mOsm.L

H2 O-1 )
The osmotic rate shows the activity rate. The lowest osmotic was on treatment D
with the value of 185.68 mOsm.l H2O-1, while the highest level of osmotic rate was on
treatment E (193.08 mOsm.l H2O-1). The addition of sodium on different treatments
caused the osmotic work of post larvae prawns were significantly different during the 10
days of acclimatization period of reducing salinity (based on Anova and Duncans Test).
Based on the results by Abidin (2011), low levels of osmotic work associated with the
level of oxygen consumption, the lower of osmotic energy use osmoregulation in prawns
post larvae can be utilized for the growth process. The water ions such as Na, Ca, and Cl
absorbed by the body through the gills. Ion settings generally require a lower the energy
that is close to isoosmotic environment, so that the energy can be used for growth
enhancement (Imsland et al. 2003).
250
200
192.15 b
192.27 b
192.78 b
185.68 a
193.08 b
survival rate
150
osmotic rate
100
91 a
86.3 a
86.5 a
91.7 a
84 b
50
0
A (0 mg.l-1) B (25 mg.l-1) C (50 mg.l-1) D (75 mg.l-1) E (100 mg.l-1)
The treatmeants (sodium addition)
*different superscript behind data value on same color of chart show significant differences
Figure 1.
Survival rate and osmotic work of giant freshwater prawn post larvae
391
Hukama et al.
Rate of oxygen consumption on Figure 2 can be used as a parameter to determine

metabolic rate aquatic organisms. Oxygen consumption rates affect energy use. Abidin
(2011) stated the lower of oxygen consumption level, the energy needs of growth are
greater than the energy use for the metabolism of shrimp. The lowest oxygen consumption
rate on treatment D (1,378 mg O2 g-1 h-1) showed that addition of 75 mg l-1 of sodium
reduced energy using to metabolism, so growth energy of giant freshwater prawn post
larvae was much higher than the other treatments.
94
Oxygen consumtion rate

mg O2.g-1.h-1
92
91,7
91
90
88
86,3
86,5
86
84
84
82
80
A (0 mg.l-1)
B (25 mg.l-1)
C (50 mg.l-1)
D (75 mg.l-1)
E (100 mg.l-1)
The treatments (sodium addition)
Figure 2. Oxygen consumption rate of giant freshwater prawn post larvae

Based on Table 1, temperature on all treatments during the study ranged from 2630 C. According Hirono (1982) in Abidin (2011), the optimal temperature for growth of
freshwater prawn between 28-32oC. Temperature affects the rate of metabolism in water
animal. The degree of acidity (pH) during the study ranged from 6.4-6.8. According
Syafe'i (2006), the optimal pH is in the range of 7.0-8.5, while based on this study under
optimal pH range for prawns, it is alleged by the addition of swamp water diluents to
cause a decrease in pH during acclimatization period of prawns post larvae.
o
At the beginning period of acclimatization, alkalinity value on all treatments was

82 mg l-1. At the end period, the alkalinity values in treatments A, B, and C were 26, 44,
and 80 mg l-1, while the values in treatment D and E were 108 and 130 mg l-1. Value for
ammonia contents decreased during the study. The high ammonia value can cause death
in prawns (Syafe'i 2006). Dissolved oxygen during the study was still in the range of
optimal care of giant freshwater prawn. Syafe'i (2006) stated that the optimal level of
dissolved oxygen for prawns rearing ranges from 5-8 mg l-1. Wynne (2000) and Cheyada
et al. (2001) stated that the optimal conditions for breeding prawns are: water temperature
between 28-32oC, pH 7.2-8.4, and dissolved oxygen at least 3 mg.l-1. Ahmad (2005)
stated that giant freshwater prawns will be able to grow well if it is cared in medium
392
Vulnerability the Quality Improvement of Giant Freshwater Prawns Postlarvae
temperature of 28-31oC, dissolved oxygen above 3 mg.l-1, pH 6.5 to 8.8, and ammonia
content below 1 mg.l-1.
Table 1. The measurements of water quality on acclimatization media
Treatment
Temperatur
e
(Sodium
(oC)
Addition)
A (0 mg.l-1)
26-30
26-30
B (25 mg.l-1)
26-30
C (50 mg.l-1)
26-30
D (75 mg.l-1)
E (100 mg.l-1)
26-30
Salinity
(g.l-1)
0-12
0-12
0-12
0-12
0-12
Dissolved
Oxygen
(mg.l-1)
6.06-6.70
6.11-6.69
6.01-6.74
6.06-6.97
6.07-6-98
pH
(unit pH)
Amonnia
(mg.l-1)
Alkalinity
(mg.l-1)
6.7-7.4
6.7-7.4
6.7-7.5
6.7-7.4
6.7-7.5
0.364-0.73
0.364-0.061
0.364-0.243
0.364-0.033
0.364-0.066
26-82
44-82
80-82
82-108
82-130
CONCLUSION
The addition of sodium did not significantly affect the survival rate of giant freshwater
prawns post larvae, but it produced the best performance of post larvae on swamp water
media. The better quality of post larvae based on measurements, the osmotic work level,
and oxygen consumption rate was the more efficient sodium addition of 75 mg l-1 on
swamp water diluent.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by Research Incentive for National Innovation System, Ministry
for Research and Technology FY 2012. The first author would also like to thank Faculty
of Agriculture, Sriwijaya University for the infrastructure of swamp area to eliminate this
study, Research Center for Sub-optimal Lands (PUS-PLSO)-Sriwijaya University and
Research Institute of Inland Fisheries (BP3U) for the supports on this experiment.
REFERENCES
Ahmad, Y. 2005. Biology and ecology of Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Macrobrachium
rosenbergii aquaculture management, Malaysian Technical Cooperating
Programme, National Prawn Fry Production and Research Centre, Malaysia, p. 25
Abidin, J. 2011. Penambahan Kalsium untuk meningkatkan kelangsungan hidup dan
pertumbuhan juvenile udang galah (Macrobrachium rosenbergii de Man) pada
media bersalinitas. Tesis. Sekolah Pascasarjana. Institut Pertanian Bogor. Bogor.
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Charryani, E. 2007. Kelangsungan hidup dan Pertumbuhan udang galah (Macrobrachium

rosenbergii de Man.) (D21 - D49) pada berbagai tingkat penurunan salinitas.
Skripsi. Fakultas Pertanian. Universitas Sriwijaya.
Cheyada, D., C. Chitmon, and C. Orachunwong. 2001. Hatchery of giant freshwater
prawn in Thailand. Charoen Pokphand Foods Ltd., Bangkok. Internal Extension
Paper, 9 pp
Dersjant-Li, S. Wu, M.W.A. Verstegen, J.W. Schrama, and J.A.J. Verreth. 2001. The
impact of changing dietary Na/K ratios on growth and nutrient utilization in
juvenile African catfish, Clarias gariepinus. Aquaculture. 198:293-305
Hadie, W., L.E. Hadie, I. Muljanah, dan Murniyati. 2001. Tingkah laku makan dan
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Jakarta 26 Juli 2001. Pp 84-92.
Imsland, A.K.S, A. Gunarsson, S.O. Foss, and Stefansson. 2003. Gill Na+, K+/ATPase
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Syafei, L.S. 2006. Pengaruh beban kerja osmotik terhadap kelangsungan hidup, lama
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Paper,9 pp.
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PROCEEDINGS

International Workshop on Sustainable

INDONESIAN AGENCY FOR AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Director General of IAARD,

TABLE OF CONTENT ......................................................................................

WELCOME ADDRESS ......................................................................................

KEYNOTE SPEECH ..........................................................................................

CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .........................

Tidal Swamp for Future Food Support in Facing of Climate Change

Opportunities and Uniqueness of Suitable Lowland Bio-Physics for

Strategy of Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Lowland

Application of Azolla Pinnata Enhanced Soil N, P, K, and Rice Yield

Raising Corn Technology on Peat Land at Gambut Mutiara Village, Riau

Carbon and Methane Emission at Acid Sulphate Soil of Tidal Swampland

Mineralisation of Reclaimed Peats for Agriculture: Effects of Lime and

Contribution of Endophytic Microbes in Increasing the Paddy Growth and

11. Emission of Methane and Carbon Dioxide at Management of Organic

12. Performance of Some Rice Varieties on Acid Sulphate Soils

13. Pests at Fresh Swamp and Tidal Lowland of South Sumatra

14. Potential of Indigenous Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria from Fresh-Water

15. Predatory Arthropods on Paddy Field of Fresh Swamp Applied by

16. Preliminary Study of Water Availability Related to Impact of Climate

19. Sample Preparation for Peat Material Analysis

20. Technical Approach of Erosion and Sedimentation on Canal (Case Study in

22. Identification of Lowland Irrigation Condition on Irrigation Network

24. Vulnerability Analysis of Flooding in Residential Areas at Sub River

25. Utilization Of Purun Tikus (Eleocharis Dulcis) To Control The White

27. Conservation Soil Tillage at Rice Culture in Acid Sulphate Soil

30. Water Use Efficiency Improvement of Lowland Rice Based on Carbon

32. The Nutrients Quality of Fiber Palm With Ammoniation-Fermentation

33. Financial Analysis of Citrus Farming on Sorjan System at Tidal Swampland

36. Vulnerability the Quality Improvement of Giant Freshwater Prawns

SCHEDULE OF THE PROGRAM ...................................................................

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS .................................................................................

Director General of IAARD,

Assalamualaikum Warahmatullahi Wabarokatuh

experience in the development of swamp in the future, particularly in supporting food

CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

International Workshop on Sustainable Management of Lowland for Rice Production on

SCHEDULE OF THE PROGRAM

Opening ceremony and Keynote

Minister of Research and

Plenary presentation (I and II))

Tidal Swamp for Future Food

Dr. Muhrizal Sarwani

Opportunities and Uniqueness of Prof. Bart Schultz

Dr. Iding Chaidir/ Ir.

Plenary presentation (III to V)

New Concept on High Rice

Prof. Mitsuru OSAKI

Integrated Lowland Development

Prof. Dr. Fahmuddin

Success Story (I to II)

Success Story of Tidal Swamp

Barito Kuala Regent

Success Story of Tidal Swamp

Success story of Lowland

Success story of Lowland

Break and praying

Prof. Dr. Lutfi Fatah

Dr. Kasdi Subagyono/Dr.

Dr. Bruno Lidon

DAY-2, Friday, 28 September 2012, Rattan Inn Hotel, Banjarmasin

Strategy of Climate Change