281

Multiple access

f*grl.v-

r-E
l-

(a)

_F
:

I-

-t

ffi

'lffi_.
l frequency

(b)

TDMA

Code

cDMA

trme

(a) Frequency
Figure5.3 The principleof multipleaccess.
divisionmultipleaccess(FDMA).(b)
Time divisionmultiple accessODMA). (c) Codedivisionmultipleaccess(CDMA).(B: channel
(transponder)
bandwidth.)

The use of such codes has the effect of broadening the carrier spectrum in
comparison with that which it would have if modulated only by the useful
information. This is why CDMA is also sometimes called Spread Spectrum
Multiple Access (SSMA).
Several types of multiple access as defined above can be combined; Figure 6.4
illustrates the range of combinations.

282

Multiple access
BASICTECHNIOUES

FRECIJENCY
D I V I S I O N( F D M A )

FREOUEI.ICY
/T]ME
0tvtstoN (FoITDMAI
FREOUENCY/
(FolcoMA)

(FDIToICoMA
)

TIMEOIVISION
(ToMA)

SHOWING
SIGNAL
IN TIME
OCCUPANCY
FREOUENCY
PLANE
t-T-t
FRAMEPERIOD
(J
z

tr, ,

I-lT

AAI
Hl I
|!

cooEolvtsloN

I(SYSTEMBANDW|DTH) (CDMA)

t_l
TIME

Figure 6.4 Combination of the three fundamental types of multiple accessinto hybrid access
types.

5.3.2 Multiple accessto the satellite repeater

Multiple accessto a particular repeater channel (transponder) implies prior multiple
accessto the satellite repeater. Access to a satellite repeater is achieved as a function
of frequency and polarisation of the carrier. For every carrier with given
polarisation and frequency there is an obligatory FDMA access to the repeater
together with FDMA, TDMA or CDMA accessto each channel. The corresponding
combinations of Figure 6.4 can thus be considered as representative of multiple
accessto a satellite repeater. In all cases,the spectral occupation of a carrier must
not exceed the channel bandwidth.

6.4 FREQUENCYDIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS(FDMA)

rii
t:

ir
|r

The bandwidth of a repeater channel is divided into sub-bands; each sub-band is

assigned to one of the carriers transmitted by the earth stations. With this type of
access,the earth stations transmit continuously and the channel conveys several
carriers simultaneously at different frequencies. It is necessary to provide guard
inten'als betrt'een each band occupied by a carrier to avoid interference as a result of
imperfections of oscillators and filters. The receiver selects the required carrier in
accordance with the appropriate frequency. The Intermediate Frequency 0F)
amplifier provides the filtering.

290

Multiple access

INTERMODULATION
PRODUCTS
A R EG E N E R A T E D

Figure6.10 Variationof (C/Ng)rMas a functionof back-offand numberof carriers.

carriers increases, the bandwidth allocated to each carrier must decrease and this
leads to a reduction of the capacity of the modulating multiplexed signal. As the
total capacity is the product of the capacity of each carrier and the number of
carriers, it could be imagined that the total capacity would remain constant. But it is
not; the total capacity decreases as the number of carriers increases. This results
THROUGHPUT
f/4

NUMBER
OFACCESSES
ii

IF
t:

Figure 6.11 Throughput of an FDMA transmission; the curve indicates the relative variation of
the total capacity of a transponder with a bandwidth of 36 MHz as a function of the number of
accesses/that is tl're number of carriers of FDM /FM/FDMA type. The value indicated as 700Vo
represents the total capacity of the multiplex which modulates the carrier for the case of single
accessto the repeater channel, operated at saturation.

2?2 (

24

cHAFTER
6 MULn?tEAccEss
Satellite

ffi

---'+
TDMAstream
fromsatellite
One frame

Incomingbit

FIGURE 6.7 lllustrationof TDMA with three earth stations.Transmittingearth stations

must time their burst transmissionsso that they arrive at the satellitein the correctsequence.The signal transrnittedby the satelliteis a continuoussequenceof bursts separa
by short guard times.

TDMA is an RF multiple accesstechnique that allows a single transpondertr

shared in time between RF carriers from different earth stations. In a TDMA system
RF carrier from each earth station sharing a transponder is sent as a burst at a spe
time. At the satellite, burstsfrom different earth stationsarrive sequentiall%so the trans
der carries a near continuoussignal made up of a sequenceof short bursts corning
different earth stations.The principle of TDMA is illustrated in Figure 6.7.
The burst transmissionis assembledat a transmitting earth station so that it wil
rectly fit into the TDMA frame at the satellite.The frame has a length from 125 ps to
milliseconds, and the burst from the earttr station must be transmined at the correct ti
arrive at the satellite in the correct position within the TDMA frame. This require
qhronization g_fall the earth stations in a TDMA network, adding considerablecomr
to the equipment at the transmining station. Each station mu.stknow exactly when tc
mit, typically within a microsecond,so that the RF bunts arriving at the satellite frr
ferent earth stations do not ovedap. (A time overlap of nvo RF signals is called a c
and results in data in both signals being lost. Collisions must not be allowed to cc,
TDMA system.)
A receiving earth station must synchronize its receiver to each of the sc
bursts in the TDMA signal and recover the transmission from each uplink earth
The uplink transmjssionsare then broken down to extract the data bits, which al
and reassembledinto theii original bit streams for onward transmission. The ir
transmissionsfrom different uplink earth stationsare usually sent using npS[.
and will inevitably have small differencesin carrier and clcck frequencies,and
carrier phases.The receiving earth station must synchronizeits PSK demodulatr
burst of signal within a few microseconds,and then synchronizeits bit clock it
few microsecondsso that a bit stream can be recovered.In high-speedTDMA
operating at 120 Mbps, for example,these are demandingrequirements.

Bits, Symbols, and Channels

A potential sourceof confusion in the discussionof TDMA systemsis that QPi
sibly QAM) modulation is typically usedby transmittingearth stations,and da

Time diaisian multiple nccess (TDMA)

293

tr'"";;1

->--?l^

B o=IR I

userbitstreamsto A
B
a

7f,M,
I AAA

N
ffi

bit rate : R3

Figure5.13 Burstgenerationwith the 'one carrierper transmittingstation'technique.Ri : User

rate(bit/s),Ru: informationrateof the multiplex(bit/s): IRi, R: ratein eachburst(bit/s),
Is : burst duration(s),Tr :frame duration(s).

The value of R is high when the burst duration is short and consequently the
transmission duty cycle (TBITF) of the station is low. Hence, for example, if
R u :2 M b i t/s
a n d (fF /Ta) :10, modul ati on occurs at 2j Mbi tl s. N oti ce that R
represents the total capacity of the network; that is the sum of the station capacities
in bitls. If all stations have the same capacity, the duty cycle QFITil represents the
number of stations on the network.
It can now be seen why this type of access is always associated with digital
transmission; it is easy to store bits for a frame period and to empty a digital
memory in the shorter period of one burst. Performing this type of processing on
analogue information is not easy.
The structure of a burst can be seen in Figure 6.13 and is further detailed in Figure
6.14.This consists of a header, or preamble, and a traffic field. The header has several
functions:
-To

permit the demodulator of the receiving earth station, in the case of coherent
demodulation, to synchronise its local oscillator to the received carrier. For this

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236

232

AccEss
cHAPTER6 MULTTPLE

cH

without disrupting its operation.They must also be able to track changesin the timir
the frame causedby motion of the satellite toward or away from the earth station. l
earth station must also be able to extract the data bits and other information from I
transmissionsof other earth stationsin the TDMA network. The transmitted-bunQ
e'ontaig;ynchronizatioa aryl-ldeqgf-q4-tlgl in{oryation--that-help-reeelving-Ea4LSta

Synchronizationof the TDMA network is achievedwith the portion of the preambletr

mitted by eachearth stationthat containscarrier and bit clock synchronizationwavefo
In some systems,a separatereferenceburst may be transmitted by one of the stat
designatedas the master station. A referenceburst is a preamble followed by no tr
bits" Traffrc bits are the revenue producing portion of each frame, and the preamble
reference bursts represent overhead. The smaller the-_overhead,the more efficient

TDMA.sys-t9m,
bufthesleqte{
{r9 ditrig[lty!ffiqufilg *a maftiai!fit"{1ql11

chronization"The preamble of each station's burst transmissionrequires a fixed u

niiSsion time. A longer frame contains proportionally less preamble time than a s
frame, so more revenue producing data bits can be carried in a long frame. Early TD
systemswere designedaround 125 p,s frames, to match the samplerate of digital sp
in telephonesystems,in exactly the sameway that Tl 24-channelsystemsoperaterA
ital telephonechannelgeneratesone 8-bit digital word every 125 ps (8 kllz samplingr,
so a I 25-p,sframe transmitsone word from each speechchannel.However,it is mor
ficient to lengthen the frame to 2 ms or longer so that the proportion of overheadto r
sage transmissiontirne is reduced.It must be rememberedthat a longer frame reqr
multiple 8-bit words when transmitting digital speech.For example, in a time perio
2 ms, a digital terrestrial channelwill deliver sixteen8-bit words, so a 2-ms TDMA fr
requires sixteen 8-bit words from each terrestrialchannel in each transmittedburst.
Figure 6.9 shows a typical TDMA framc with 2.0 ms duration used by somee
stationsoperatingin TDMA through Intelsat satellites.All of the blocks at the startol

CBTR

UW

fiY

vowIvow

SC

Digitalspeech channels

M Satellitechannels

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 0 1 1 12 1 3 1 41 5 16

Sixteen8-bit samplesform each satellitechannel

FIGURE 6.9 Structure of an Intelsat traffic data burst. A satellite channel is a block of si
teen 6-bit samples from one terrestrial speech channel" Other blocks in the traffic burst ar
used to synchronizethe PSK demodulator,the bit clock,and the frame clock in the receiv
{CBTR,UW) and to provide communication links between earth stations (TTY SC, and VC
CBTR,carrier and bit timing recovery;UW, unique word; TTY teletype;SC, satellitechanr
VOW, voice order wire.

zln

cHAprER6 MuLnpLEAccEss

EXAMPLE 6.3.2

TDMA in a VSAT Network

As an example,considera typical VSAT earth station in the United Stateswhich is part of a TDt,l,t'
network using a 54 MHz bandwidth transponderon a domestic Ku-band GEO sateuite.The
VSAT
earth station has a i m antennathat transmits a single 64 kbps signal at 14 GHz. Let's assume
d
the TDMA network usesQPSK modulation and that all transmittershave a symbol rate of 30 MbauC,
We will set (C/N),,' at 20 dB, and then calculate the required uplink transmit power. The following
.1
system pafameterswill be used:
Earth station antennagain : 41.5 dB, satellite antenna gain (on axis) : 32.0 dB, edge
beam loss = 3 dB, path loss at 14 GHz : 2O7.ldB, receivernoise bandwidth : 30 MHz. transpon,
noise temperature: 500 K, atmosphericand other losses = 1.0 dB.
The uplink power and noise budgetsare
: p, dBW
Earth stationantennagain at ll GHz = 41.5 dB
: 32.0dB
Satelliteantenna
Earth station transmit power

Edge of beam loss

Other losses
Path loss at l I GHz
Power at transponderinput
Boltzmann'sconstant

Transponder
noisebandwidth
Transponder
noisetemperature
Transponder
inpurnoisepower

-3.0 dB
-1.0dB
-207.1dB
Pt - 137.6dBw
= -228.6 dBWK/Hz
: 74.gdBHz
- 2?.0dBK
:
:
=
-

: -126.9dBW

we require(c/N)"p : P,f kT,Bn: 20dB: hencep, - I 37.6+ 126.g= 20dBw andp, =

dBW or P, : 1200W
Now consider the sameearth station transmitting the same 64-kbps signal in a SCpC-FDM{
VSAT network using QPSK with a symbol rate of 32 kbautl and a receiver noise bandwidth
oi
32 kllz. The uplink power budget is unchanged,but the noise powcr in the transponder.
in a bandwidthof 32 kHz is - 156.5dBW.
To achieve(C1w)"o : 2o clBin the transpondernow requires an uplink transmitterpower
P , : 2 0 + 1 3 7 . 6- 1 5 6 . 5 : 1 . 1d B W : 1 . 3W .

The above example illustrates a key problem with TDMA for any small earthsH
tion: uplink transrnitpower.No one is going to equip a l-m VSAT stationwith a 1200-[
transtnitter.Apart frorn the excessivecost,FCC regulationin the United Statesdo not
small VSAT statiottsto transmit more than 2 W to limit interferenceto adjacentsatelli
If we changethe multiple accesstechniquefor just two earth stations,so thate
transtnits a burst of QPSK signal at 64 kbaud for half the tirne, the uplink transmi
power requirementis doubledto 4.1 dBW or 2.6 W. This makeswidebandTDMA an
likely choicein VSAT networks,and limits the numberof stationsthat can sharea
frame in a low earth orbit satellitetelephonesystem.The lridium LEO systemwasd,
signed to use a hybrid TDMA-FDMA multiple accessschemeat L band to combine
small numberof digital telephonetransmissions
inro a 50-kbpsQPSI<signal.Similar
niquesare used in someVSAT networks.

EXAilPLE o.3.3

TDMA in a Fixcd Earth stttion Notwork

In Example 6"2.1, three identical large ea:th stations shareda single 36-M*zbandwidth
der using FDMA. The three earth stations transmitted signals with powers and bandwidths

(TDMA)
6.3NME DIVISIONMULNPLE
ACCESS

245

by
B _ 15MHz P , : 1 2 5W : 2 1 . 0d B W
f r , - l 0 MH z P , : 8 3 W : l 9 . 2 d B W
fi, = 5 MHz P, = 42W : 16.2dBW

StationA:

rich is Part of a TDMA

iO satellite. The VSAT
3Hz. Let's assumethat
mbol rate of 30 Mbaud'
it power. The following

StationB:
StationC:

The transponder total power output was 16 dBW with 3-dB outputbackoffand 105-dB
transpondergain.
The three earth station accessesto the transponderare changed to TDMA, with a frame length
of 1.0 ms, a preamble time of l0 p.s, and a guard time of 2 pr.s.There is no referenceburst in the
TDMA frame. The signals are transminedusing QPSK, and within the earth stations the bit rates
of the signals are

is) : 32.0 dB, edge of

= 30 MHz, transPonder

Station A:
Station B:
Station C:

Ru= 15.0Mbps
Ru= 10.0Mbps
Rr = 5.0Mbps

i fi .':\

Calculate the burst duration and symbol rate f*o-re:c_h-qanlrslation, and the_earthllaggll transmltterp-uEurpo**jequired
if the qansponQgroutp11,q
U-1ci9f is set at 1.0 On ana-tnJ gain of the
transponderwith this output backoff is 104 dB. Compare the uplink (C/N) ratios in the transponder
for FDMA and TDMA operation given that station A's transmissionhas a (C/N)"p ratio of 34 dB
when the transponder is operated in FDMA.
The transpondermust carry a total bit rate of 15 't l0 + 5 = 30 Mbps within the 1"0-ms
frames. Thus each frame canies 30 Mbps x 0.001 s : 30 kb" The three preamble and guard times
take up 3 X (10 + 2) : 36 p,s in each frame, leaving 1000 * 36 = 964 ps for transmissionof
data' Hence the burst bit rate is
' '

!w
KlHz

r, Mbps.
rrl-.
: 30kb/9& p,s : 31.12
Rbburr,

- 20 dBW and P, = 30'8

Since we are using QPSK for the transmissions,the burst symbol rate on the link is
, signal in a SCPC-FDMA
,.iJ", noise bandwidth of
the transPonder, measured

: 31.12Mbps/2 :
R,bursr

15.56Msps

Each of the stations must transmit at the same burst rate of 15.56 Msps. The burst lengths
can be calculated from the time available in each frame for data transmission and the number of
bits each station must send in a I ms TDMA frame" The time available for data transmission is 964
ps, which must be shared in proportion to the number of bits each station sends in a frame. The

plink transmitter Powerof

I

number
orbits
inarram;;,::T:''"
for anY small td

i-;;;"

{-

isgiven
berow
arrame

ff$il:;;;

StationB:
Stz"tion
C:

witha lzoGw'rj

T:: ;:'f

Ru= 10,@0bits Ts = 321.3ps

Ru- 5,000bits Tc = 160"7ps

We'caneasilycheckto seeif theseresultsarecorrect.Eachearthstationrnusthavethe stated

averagebit rate,so if we multiply the burstdurationfor eachearthstationby the burstbit rate for
thetransponder,
31.12Mbps,we musthavethecorrectnumberof bits/framefor eachstation.
StationA;
StationB:
StationC:

gtwork
i6-MHz bandwidth-tnt
Jl".r, *o bandwidths

rA -

"f"

IB

tc -

482.0ps Nu = 482"0p.sx 31.12Mbps = 15,000

32L3 p.s Nv = 321.3p,sX 31.12l"Ibps= 10,000
160.7p.s Nu = 160.7p.sx 31"12Mbps = 5,000

Each station must ransmit at the same symbol rate of 15.56 Msps, regardlessof the number of
bis dentper frame. In the previous FDMA example, a transponderoulput power of,20 W = 13 dBW
was achievedwith a total earth gation power of 250 W = 24 dBW and a transpondergain of 105 dB.
With mMA, we are using a I dB tansponder output backoff, and a transponder gain of 104 dB, so
the transponderoutput power is now 16 - 1 : 15 dBV/, an increaseof,2 dB, and we have lost I dB
of gain in the transponder.This requires an earth station oulput power, frbm each earth station, of

P,", = 24 + 2 + I = 27 W : 500W

Time diaision multiple access (mMA)

305

THROUGHPUT

(/.)

100

NUMBEROF ACCESSES
Figure 6.21 The efficiency of the INTELSAT/EUTELSAT TDMA system; the 100% value
indicated for a single accesscorresponds to the capacity of the single carrier which passesthrough
the transponder and is transmitted continuously.

5.5.6 Conclusion
Time division multiple access (TDMA) is characterised by access to the channel
during a time slot. This has certain advantages:
-At

each instant the satellite repeater channel amplifies only a single carrier which
occupies all of the repeater channel bandwidth; there are no intermodulation
products and the carrier benefits from the saturation power of the channel.
-Transmission throughput remains high for a large number of accesses.
-There is no need to control the transmitting power of the stations.
-All stations transmit and receive on the same frequency whatever the origin or
destination of the burs| this simplifies tuning.
TDMA, however, has certain disadvantages:
-The

need for synchronisation which implies complex procedures and the

provision of two reference stations. Fortunately, these procedures can be
automated and computer driven.
-The need to increase power and bandwidth as a result of high burst bit rate,
compared to continuous access, as with FDMA for instance.
Consider a station-to-station link. The quality objective is specified in terms of error
probability. The imposed value determines the required value of the ratio E/No.
The ratio C/No for the overall link is determined by the relation established in
Chapter 3 and recalled here:
C /N o : (E /N O)R
(6.17)
It can be seen that C/N6 is proportional to R for which the expression is given by
equation (6.8). For a capacity Rtr, a station must be dimensioned in power and
bandwidth to transmit a bit rate R which is high when the duty cycle TslTe is low,