MECN2005

Mechanical Engineering Laboratory 1

T. Kim

Lab courses
- 1st semester:
(1) Fluids 1: Calibration of flowmeters (Prof. Kim)
(2) Fluids 2: Fluid friction in pipe flow (Dr. Law)
(3) Mechanics 1: Compression tests (Prof. Polese)
(4) Mechanics 2: Forces in plane trusses (Dr. Muthu)

- 2nd semester:
(5) Thermodynamics: The pressure relationship for water-steam
(6) Heat transfer: Conduction heat transfer in a solid
(7) Mechanics 3: Single degree of freedom (DOF) vibration
(8) Mechanics 4: Compound pendulum

Typical engineering problem solving procedure

- System observation
- Problem identification
- Problem description
- Approach
(1) Analytical (mathematical)
(2) Numerical (simulation)
(3) Experimental
- Solution
- Re-design

New open cell porous medium as a heat exchanger

(1) Analytical approach

- Mathematics based approach, providing details of
the physical contribution of involved parameters.
- Validation needed since mathematical
simplifications typically made during derivation.
from the estimation using the fin equation at Redp=20000
from the estimation using the fin equation at Redp=5000
from the experiments

500

Adopting a classical fin analogy,

400

Nudp

Nu dp =
300

d p hendwall ( S x S y AVertex ) + 3 hStrut Pk s AStrut tanh(mL)

kf
SxS y

200

100

qtotal
1
k f / d p Vertex

150

300

450

600

ks [W/mK]

750

900

(2) Numerical approach ( I )

- Mathematics based approach, BUT often
some fitting constants (typically from
empirical correlations) required.
- Once validated, providing deep physical
insights into the problem.

(2) Numerical approach (II)

- Grid generation
- Boundary conditions

Streamlines at selected surfaces

with colored velocity magnitude

(3) Experimental approach (I)

- Physical observation of what actually is
happening.
- Self-standing/validating solutions
if well & accurately designed and conducted.
- Design of experiment is about what & how to
measure. Unfortunately (?), already done by
someone else.
- Performing experiment (by you)
- Interpreting experimental data (by you)

(2) Experimental approach (II)

Small scale test rig
with channel height
of 12 mm

Larger scale test rig

with channel height of
300 mm

(2) Experimental approach (III)

Guess who?

Experimental
- Fluid Mechanics
- Thermodynamics
- Heat transfer
- Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics: some related

aspects

Experimental Thermo-Fluid Mechanics

Experiments? Dirty work???
Despite continuing advances in computational fluid
dynamics (CFD), experimental data are still needed to
validate the CFD results. Therefore, a sound knowledge of
experimentation is a necessary asset for not only
experimentalists but also CFD people.
For any experiment, a fundamental question is perhaps
what to measure. Answering this question is likely to be
associated with governing equations. Three governing
equations in aerodynamics and heat transfer include
continuity equation,
momentum equation, and
energy equation.
These equations contain the terms such as (1) static
pressure, (2) velocity, (3) temperature, and (4) their
gradients.

Experimental Thermo-Fluid Mechanics

The measurement techniques in this lecture attempt

to quantify some of them in different media-gases,
and liquids.
In some cases, it is not possible at present to
experimentally obtain parameters required to close
the above-mentioned governing equations due to
the experimental limitations (????).
There are parameters in the governing equations
that may not be experimentally quantified without
compromising data quality as could be done
analytically.

Experimental Thermo-Fluid Mechanics

The motion of fluid particles is governed by the Navier-Stokes
(N-S) equation. In addition, the fluid has to satisfy the continuity
equation stating mass conservation for a given volume of
interest (control volume). In one-dimensional form, along the xaxis, the general expressions of these equations for
incompressible and steady flow without body force may be
expressed as:
- Continuity equation:
- Momentum equation:

du
=0
dx
dp
du
d 2u
u
=
+ 2
dx
dx
dx

where u is the velocity component in the x-direction, p is the

static pressure, is the density of fluid, and is the viscosity
of fluid.

Experimental Thermo-Fluid Mechanics

Details of the final expression of both equations including
mathematical derivations can be readily found in numerous
text books.

Experimental Thermo-Fluid Mechanics

Solving continuity and momentum equations experimentally is
about how to close the terms such as pressure gradient (dp/dx),
velocity (u), and velocity gradient (du/dx) and its gradient
(du2/dx2).
For example, to experimentally obtain the pressure gradient
(dp/dx) term, static pressures at two points (p1 and p2) with an
interval (dx) between two pressure tappings along the direction of
flow have to be measured. In experiments, a commonly and
practically useful form of the definition of the pressure gradient
may be expressed as:

p p 2 p1
=
x x 2 x1

Experimental Thermo-Fluid Mechanics

In the actual experimental setup, the closest interval (x)
might be the diameter of the pressure tappings, D, which is
typically on the order of millimeters.
For detailed gradient measurements, if many pressure
tappings are aligned along the x-axis with very fine
intervals (e.g., ~ the diameter of the pressure tappings),
another unexpected problem may arise. The flow past the
downstream tappings will be affected by those at upstream
because the upstream tappings may act as cavities and alter
the flow.
There may exist a minimum interval (between two pressure
tappings placed in an in-lined configuration along the x-axis)
which minimizes such interference effects without sacrificing
data resolution.

Experimental Thermo-Fluid Mechanics

Similarly, the velocity gradient terms can be obtained by

measuring velocity at different locations (separated by
x) using various techniques (e.g., Laser Doppler
Anemometry (LDA), Pitot tube).
The accuracy of the measurements depends strongly on
x and its relative scale to the overall flow domain of
interest and probe size. Thus, experimental data are
strongly dependent upon measurement methods.
Therefore, it is important to question whether an
appropriate experimental technique that does not
contaminate the main features of interest is being used.

Pipe flow and friction

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Exact solution (I)

The velocity at the wall is zero (i.e., non-slip condition), because of

adhesion, and reaches a maximum on the axis.
At a sufficiently large distance from the entrance section the
velocity distribution across the section becomes independent of
the coordinate along the direction of flow, called ????.
The fluid moves under the influence of the pressure gradient
which acts in the direction of the axis, whereas in sections which
are perpendicular to it the pressure may be constant.

Exact solution (II)

Owing to friction individual layers act on each other with a
shearing stress which is proportional to the velocity gradient du/dy.
du
du
or = C
where C is a constant
~
dy
dy

A fluid particle is accelerated by the pressure gradient and retarded

by the frictional shearing stress.

Exact solution (III)

Consider a coaxial fluid cylinder of length, l and radius y. The

condition of equilibrium in the x-direction requires that the pressure
force (p1-p2)
y2 acting on the faces of the cylinder be equal to the
shear 2
yl acting on the circumferential area.

p1 p2 y
=
l
2

Exact solution (III)

du
p p2 y
= 1
dy
l 2

p p2
u( y) = 1
l

u( y) =

um =

integrating

y2
C

p1 p2 2
R y2
4 l

p1 p2 2
R
4 l

R 4
( p1 p2 )
Q = R um =
2
8l
2

Volume flow rate

u=0 (no slip at the wall, y=R)
C=R2/4

From the parabolic distribution of the velocity

having the maximum um at the center, y=0.

p1 p2 8 Q 8
= 2 2 = 2 umean
l
R R R

Measured pipe friction (I)

Friction factor

p1 p2
d
f =
2
l
umean
/2

Reynolds number

umean d
Re d =

Laminar friction loss in a pipe

p1 p2
d
d

f =
= 2 umean 2
= 64
2
l
umean d
umean / 2 R
umean / 2
64
f =
Re d

Measured pipe friction (II)

Measured pipe friction (III)

Friction factor, f

102

0 degree inclined
15 degree inclined
30 degree inclined
45 degree inclined

101

100

-1

10
2000

8000

ReDh

14000 20000

Pressure measurement (I)

- Pressure is the force per unit area applied in a direction
perpendicular to the surface of an object.
- Static pressure: the actual pressure of the fluid, which is
associated not with its motion but with its state
- Dynamic pressure: closely related to the kinetic energy
of a fluid particle, since both quantities are proportional to
the particle's mass (through the density) and square of the
velocity.
- Total pressure (or stagnation pressure)
Bernoulli equation

p+
p1 +

u 2
2

u12
2

=C
= p2 +

u22
2

When this equation does not work?

Total pressure measurement

Static pressure measurement

Pressure drop vs. pressure loss

Empty channel (or pipe)
Case A

Case B

(p1 - p2)A

(p1 - p2)B

Heat exchanger

Mass & volume flow rate (I)

- Mechanical flow meters (e.g., Turbine flow meter, rotameter)

- Pressure-based meters (e.g., Venturi nozzle, orifice plate)
- Optical flow meters
- Open channel flow measurement
- Thermal mass flow meters
- Vortex flowmeters
- Electromagnetic, ultrasonic and coriolis flow meters
- Laser Doppler flow measurement

Mass & volume flow rate (II)

Orifice plate

Mass & volume flow rate (III)

Venturi nozzle

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venturi_effect

Mass & volume flow rate (IV)

Rotameter

It belongs to a class of meters called variable area meters,

which measure flow rate by allowing the cross-sectional area
the fluid travels through to vary, causing some measurable
effect.
A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made
of glass, with a float inside that is pushed up by flow
and pulled down by gravity.
At a higher flow rate more area (between the float and
the tube) is needed to accommodate the flow, so the
float rises.
Readings are usually taken at the top of the widest part
of the float; the center for an ellipsoid, or the top for a
cylinder.
Note that the "float" does not actually float in the fluid:
it has to have a higher density than the fluid, otherwise
it will float to the top even if there is no flow.

Mass & volume flow rate (V)

Turbine flow meter
The turbine wheel is set in the
path of a fluid stream.
The flowing fluid impinges on
the turbine blades, imparting
a force to the blade surface
and setting the rotor in
motion.
When a steady rotation speed
has been reached, the speed
is proportional to fluid
velocity.

Engineering Observation
&
Physical Data Interpretation

Tongbeum Kim

Example case

www.treehugger.com

Simplified

Flow through a rectangular channel

with many cylinders inserted forming
a bank of cylinders.
(1) Cross-flow: design conditions
(2) Off-design conditions

Problem considered: Inclination of Staggered Cylinder Banks

Sideview

Zero degree inclined

Non-zero degree inclined

Problem considered

- Frontal area is fixed,

indicating that transverse pitch remains the same
- Porosity should be maintained,
implying that longitudinal pitch varies with the inclination of
the cylinders

Simple pressure drop measurements

Data presentation

(1) Simple observation

a.

For a given inclination angle,

dP/L v.s. U

b.

What does classical

(or conventional) equation
say?
Following the same trend?

c.

Any physical mechanism

explained about its trend by
other people?

d.

Effect of the inclined angle

in a qualitative manner?

15000
0 degree inclined
15 degree inclined
30 degree inclined
45 degree inclined

P/L [pa/m]

12000

9000

6000

3000

U [m/s]

10

12

14

In a quantitative manner?

Non-dimensional grouping

Why?????

Conventional way to evaluate pressure drop

Friction factor

f =

L U 2

: non-dimensional pressure drop coefficient

Reynolds number

UC
Re =

where C is a characteristic length

C
/ 2

Conventional choice of a characteristic length

- Cylinder diameter, d
- Circular pipe (flow channel) diameter, D
- Hydraulic diameter
(for non-circular flow channel), Dh
Dh=4(WH)/2(W+H)
where W = Channel width
H = Channel height

Pressure drop across inclined staggered cylinder banks

Friction factor, f

10

Inclined angle
0 degree inclined
15 degree inclined
30 degree inclined
45 degree inclined

10

Pressure drop

What else?
10

10-1
2000

8000

ReDh

14000 20000

New parameters using a variable unit cell length

- Pressure drop per unit cell, KCell

- Reynolds number
based on unit cell length

K Cell ( ) =

L U 2

S ( )
x

/ 2

Re dp

US x ( )
=

The beauty of non-dimensional grouping

Variable unit cell length + Independence principle

102

K Cell , N =

KCell,N = C / ReSx( ),N + D

Re Sx ( ), N

+D

KCell,N

10

10

0 degree inclined
15 degree inclined
30 degree inclined
45 degree inclined
Correlation

10

-1

10

ReSx( ),N

10

where C and D are

obtained from the noninclined case.

( ) = C
cos
( )
U
+
D
U

L
2 S X (0)
2 S X (0)