EX.

7 EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE FROG

Frog (Rana sp.)

Toad (Bufo spp.)

External nares respiration

Tympanum receives sound waves
Nictitating membrane keep the eyeball moist and for protection
Browspot vestigial third eye
Prehallux/ calcar rudiment of 6th missing toe
External feature
Size
Pigmentation
Thumb
tympanum

MALE
Smaller
Dark
With nuptial pad
Smaller

FEMALE
Bigger
Diffused
No nuptial pad; smaller thumb
Bigger

EX. 10 - MUSCULAR SYSTEM

FASCIA tough covering of connective tissue
ORIGIN more fixed or more proximal attachment
INSERTION more movable or distal
ACTION contraction or shortening in length

EX. 11 MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY

MUSCLE TWITCH muscle contraction in response to a single stimulus of adequate strength
KYMOGRAPH instrument that records variation in pressure and tension (know the parts)
3 PHASES OF A MUSCLE TWITCH
1. Latent period (5 milliseconds)
- time needed for conduction of an action
potential and subsequent release of
calcium ions by the sarcoplasmic reticulum
- sarcolemma and T tubules depolarize
- Ca released into cytosol
- Cross bridges begin to cycle but no visible
shortening of muscle
2. Contraction (40 milliseconds)
onset of shortening of peak of tension
development
Sarcomeres shorten as a result of myosin
cross bridge cycling

3. Relaxation (50 milliseconds)

calcium ions are actively transported back into the terminal cisternae
- cross bridge cycles to decreases
- tension is reduced, muscle returns to original length

Ringers reagent - sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, and sodium bicarbonate in the
concentrations in which they occur in body fluids
- provides electrolytes (maintain physiological properties of muscles)
WAVE SUMMATION
- frequency of stimulation increases
- continual increase in tension is due to
increased availability of intracellular calcium
ions
- 2nd stimulus, applied before the muscle has
completely relaxed, induces another
contraction that adds to the first, the sum of the
tensions being greater than that of a single
twitch
- successive stimuli arrive before the relaxation
phase.
TREPPE
- results from increasing frequency and voltage
- relaxation is complete
- increase in tension may result from increase in muscle warming and efficiency of enzymes
INCOMPLETE TETANUS
- results from constant strength and increasing frequency
- short contraction/relaxation cycles, marked by some degree of relaxation (brief) after each contraction
- tension production rises to a peak.
COMPLETE TETANUS
- frequency of stimulation becomes fast enough
- contractions fuse into a smooth, continuous, total contraction with no apparent relaxation.
FATIGUE
the muscle is no longer able to sustain tension and gradually elongates due to build up of acidic
compounds which affect protein functioning, relative lack of ATP and ionic imbalances resulting from
membrane activities

WARMING UP
o Accumulation of metabolic products formed during activity and slight increase in temperature of
muscle acts to create more favorable conditions for excitation-contraction coupling to work
o Enzymes can work faster and more efficiently when a muscle is warmed up
EX. 20: NERVOUS RESPONSE
EARTHWORM
Nervous system segmented" just like the rest of the body
Cerebral ganglion ("brain") - located above the pharynx and is
connected to the first ventral ganglion.
segmented ganglion - sensory information and muscle control
touch, light, vibration, moisture, temperature and chemical receptors
all along the entire body surface.

MORE REACTION at the ANTERIOR & POSTERIOR end rather than the middle
CONTACT touch receptors
LIGHT - presence of photoreceptors in the prostomium
o Intense light earthworm will move away from it
o Weak light earthworm will move towards it

HEAT
o Coelomic fluid in the body when exposed to heat could evaporate
MOISTURE
o natural habitat - moist environment
CHEMICAL
o e.g. Xylol cause evaporation of coelomic fluid

FROG
Nervous system
Cerebral hemisphere
more important
medulla
cerebellum
midbrain
reflex center
equilibrium, balance righting reflex

spinal cord (impulses)

brachial plexus forelimb
sciatic plexus - hindlimb

Normal response to all the stimuli

o Complete and undamaged nervous system
o DECEREBRATED FROG same response with normal frog
BRAIN FROG (entire spinal cord destroyed)
SPINAL FROG (entire brain destroyed)
o No response to righting the body and compensatory movements
TOTALLY PITHED FROG
o no response since the entire nervous system was damaged
HUMAN

Reflex
Involuntary response of the body adaptation and protection
Spontaneous; happens unconsciously
Regulated or controlled by the spinal cord response is done before the brain processes them
Reflex arcs shortened and simple pathways of nerve fibers
1. Pupillary Reflex
From retinal ganglion cells
Transmit impulse from the photoreceptors to the optic nerve (pretectal nucleus of midbrain)
From pretectal, axons are delivered to neurons oculomotor nerves
Between oculomotor & ciliary ganglion neuron
Axons connected to effectors of constrictor muscles of iris
LIGHT pupil is constricted
NO LIGHT pupil is dilated to accommodate entry of light
2. Blinking
Associated with the afferent limb fibers of the 5th cranial nerve closure of eyes
Efferent limb fibers of 7th cranial nerve obicularis oculi muscle of the eyelid
moisten and cleanse the cornea
3. Convergence
Coordinated movement and focus of two eyes
Extraocular muscles direct visual axis of the eyes to a near point
4. Swallowing
Movement of esophageal muscles
5. Salivation (involuntary)
Presence of food triggers salivary glands to secrete and deliver more saliva