MODAL VERB

Reglas generales: no llevan s en la 3 pers. Sing., usan not en

forma negativa, no se utilizan en forma pasada ni futura (ej
musted), los ms usados son (ought to, can, could, may, might,
must, shall, should) y las expresiones (had better, have to, have got
to)
1. MODAL VERB+INF = PRESENT

CAN (PRESENT) = Posibilidad habilidad general

COULD (PAST IN GENERAL) = sugerencia, posibilidad
habilidad general en el pasado, peticin formal, futura
posibilidad
You could see a movie or go out to dinner
She could swam at the age of four
Extreme rain could cause the river to flood the city
John could go to jaif for stealing the money
WAS WERE ABLE TO ( SPECIFIC PAST)
We were able to find the house although we had no map
WILL BE ABLE TO (FUTURE) I wont be able to speak Swahili

MUST ( PRESENT) = Necesidad, certeza, fuerte

recomendacin, prohibicin
This must be the right address
Students must pass an entrance examination to study at this school
You must take some medicine for that cough
Jenny, you must not play in the street
MUST HAVE (PAST) MEJOR = HAD TO
That must have been the right restaurant = That had to be the right
restaurant
MUST / WILL HAVE TO (FUTURE)

HAVE TO= certeza, necesidad, obligacin

This answer has to be correct
The soup has to be stirred to prevent burning
They have to leave early

MIGHT = posibilidad, sugerencia, peticin formal

She might be on the bus
You might visit the botanical gardens
Might I borrow your pen?
MIGHT HAVE TAKEN (PAST)
She might have taken the bus
MIGHT TAKE (FUTURE)
She might take the bus to get home

MAY = posibilidad, permiso, peticin formal

Cheryl may be at home
You may leave the table when you have finished your dinner
May I use your bathroom?

MAY HAVE BEEN (PAST)

Jack may have been upset

SHOULD = recomendacin, consejo, obligacion, expectacin

You should visit the palaces in Potsdam
You should focus more on your family and less on work
I really should be in the office by 7.00 am

SHOULD HAVE EATEN (PAST)

Frank should have eaten low-fat foods.

SHALL = sugerencia, promesa (tienen un sentido futuro y se

utiliza con I y we
Shall I help you?
I shall never forget where I came from

OUGHT TO = recomendacin, probabilidad, consejo

You ought to stop smoking

This stock ought to increase in value

Mark ought not drink so much= NEGATIVE SIN TO

DONT HAVE TO / DONT NEED (NEGATIVE PRESENT)

HAD TO HAVE (PAST)
She had to finish the first book before the midterm
WILL HAVE TO (FUTURE)
She will have to finish the other books before final exam.
NOTA: MUSTNT = Prohibicin

NOTA = COULD NOT / MIGHT NOT

El 1 sugiere que algo es imposible que pase Jack could not have the
key y en el 2 sugiere que no se sabe si algo puede pasar o no Jack
might not have the key
NOTA = DO NOT HAVE TO / MUST NOT

El 1 sugiere que algo no es requerido para hacer you do not have

toe at that y en el 2 se indica que algo es prohibido you must not
eat that

HAD BETTER + INF (TO)= fuerte recomendacin en el pasado

futuro ( mejor , va a ser mejor, debera, sera mejor , ms
vale que,)
BE SUPPOSED TO + INF = fuerte recomendacin por una
norma
-

MAY = +++ posible

MIGHT = ++ posible

COULD = + posible

MUST no es igual que HAVE TO (en el primer caso la

necesidad proviene del hablante y el segundo caso la obligacin
viene de fuera) =>
1 Ex: I know, I have to finish that today
2 Ex: You must finish that today

NEEDNT HAVE TO no es igual que DIDNT NEED TO (en el

primer caso se ha hecho aunque es innecesario y en el
segundo caso es innecesario y adems no se ha hecho)

EXPRESIONES (POSIBILIDAD FUTURA)

You may well be + P.P. = es muy problable que
There is a strong, faint, real possibility that + frase
There is a slight, a fair, a remote, outside chance that + frase
I rarely + verb, so it would make sense if
I stand a good (no) chance of + gerund = tener la posibilidad de .
It seems unlikely that + frase
They have no chance of + gerund
She is hardly likely to + verb

There is very likelihood = es muy probable

HABILIDAD= COULD (pasado), BE ABLE TO (general o especfica en el
pasado a pesar de la dificultad), CAN (presente o futuro)

I can speak Spanish / I can help you later

She could swim well at the age of four
He is able to dress himself / we were able to find the house although we had
no map
was able to /managed to /succeeded in (cuando es la primera vez) I
managed to speak to Frank last night, but I couldnt persuade him to come to
the opera with us.

POSIBILIDAD = COULD (sin certeza), MAY (future), MIGHT, CAN (teorica)

The keys could be in the car

It may rain tomorrow / he may not arrive tonight
It might rain tomorrow

IMPOSIBILIDAD = CANT, COULDNT, MAY NOT, MIGHT NOT

You cant see the dentist now

He couldnt have understood
He may not arrive tonight
Tom might not be available today

PERMISO = CAN (informal), MAY (formal), BE ALLOWED TO (por primera

vez en el pasado)

You can take the car tomorrow

You may take the car
We were allowed to take the car

PETICIN = CAN (informal), COULD (formal), MAY (formal), WILL (formal),

WOULD (formal)

Can I use your car?

Could I have a word with you?
May I call you later?
Will you pass the sugar, please?
Would you move your car, please?

SUGERENCIA = COULD, SHOULD (formal sin certeza), OUGHT TO (formal

con deseo), SHALL (formal ofrecimiento)

You could iron the clothes, if you like

Should I put the bags here?
Shall I carry this bag?

PROHIBICIN = MAY NOT, MUSTNT, CANT (deduccin, certeza)

You may not smoke in the library

You mustnt smoke in this hospital

EXPRESAR PREFERENCIAS = WOULD

I would rather have tea

PREDICCIN = WILL

He will arrive at six oclock

DECISIN ESPONTNEA O DESEO = WILL

Ill answer the door

ACCIN REPETIDA EN EL PASADO = WOULD

I would walk on the beach every morning

OFRECIMIENTO = SHALL (formal), CAN (informal), MAY

Shall I carry this bag?

May I be of assistance?

DAR CONSEJO = OUGHT TO, SHOULD

You should (ought to) see a doctor

You shouldnt lose your temper with people
Mark ought not drink so much

OBLIGACIN = MUST, HAVE TO, SHOULD (menos habitual), SHALL

I must write a letter to my aunt

We have to wear school uniforms
I really should be at the office by 7
The judges decision shall be finall

INTENCIN, PROMESA, INSTRUCCIN = SHALL ( I shall definitely give up

smoking, Shall we go out for a beer ?, the judges decision shall be final)
FUERTE NECESIDAD = MUST

You must observe the speed limit

CONSENSO = MAY, MIGHT

He might be good-looking, but he cant sing very well

DEDUCCIN = MUST
CERTEZA = MUST (casi seguro), CANT, COULD, SHOULD /OUGHT TO (90%
certeza 10% prediccin), WILL

He should (ought to) do well in the exam

The lights are on, she must be at home
He will arrive at six oclock

FUERTE RECOMENDACIN = MUST

You must go and see that film

NECESIDAD = HAVE TO, NEED, MUST (fuerte)

You must observe the speed limit

We have to wear school uniforms

FALTA DE NECESIDAD = DONT HAVE TO, NEEDNT = DONT NEED TO

I dont have to pay this until September

You neednt come today if you dont want to

NECESIDAD PASADA = HAD TO

I had to leave early

NECESIDAD FUTURA = WILL HAVE TO (GET), MUST (GET)

We will have to leave soon

ENFADO = COULD, MIGHT, WILL, WOULD

You might at least help me

He will keep interrupting when Im talking

CRITICA =CAN

She can say some very hurtful things sometimes.

DESEO =WILL, WOULD

I wish he would try a bit harder

Nota: WELL after modal verb = ms posibilidad

Take an umbrella, it could well rain later on

Nota: Let (permiso) / Make +inf (obligacin)

2. MODAL PERFECT = MODAL VERB + HAVE+ P.P. (para hacer comentarios
o conjeturas sobre el pasado)
CERTEZA/CONCLUSIN = MUST HAVE, CANT HAVE (con surely en frases
exclamativas)

The driver must have lost his way

POSIBILIDAD = MIGHT HAVE, MAY HAVE

He might have bought a new car

You may well be + Past Participle = es muy posible que..
You may as well = tambin

POSIBILIDAD PASADA QUE NO OCURRI = MIGHT HAVE, MAY HAVE

ENFADO = MIGHT HAVE, MAY HAVE

DESEO = COULD HAVE

HABILIDAD PASADA QUE NO OCURRIO = COULD HAVE

You could have avoided the accident

SUGERENCIA = COULD HAVE

CERTEZA QUE NO OCURRIO = COULDNT HAVE

He couldnt have known about the problem

CONSEJO NO SEGUIDO EN EL PASADO = SHOULD HAVE

He should have listened to me

CRITICA / ARREPENTIMIENTO = SHOULDNT HAVE

You shouldnt have gone on foot

EXPECTACIN = SHOULD HAVE

They should have won the competition

OPININ =SHOULD HAVE

ESPECULACIN con verbos de pensamiento = SHOULD HAVE

3. PARTICIPLE CLAUSES (son oraciones subordinadas que empiezan

con present participle = ing o past participle = ed para expresar
ideas de forma rotunda y se utilizan sobretodo en el lenguaje escrito).
Aportan mucha informacin sin necesidad de que la frase sea muy
larga.

En la participle clause no hay sujeto. El sujeto de la oracin principal

tambin es el sujeto de la participle clause. Ej.= Working as a waitress, I
have all my meals in the restaurant.
Aunque hay veces que puede ser diferente
Having been damaged by vandals (subject = her bycicle), Helen had to walk
rather than go on her bycicle (subject = Helen).
NOTA: A veces se utiliza with para introducir el sujeto
With both parents working all day, I have to cook my own lunch

El verbo principal se conjuga como un participio o gerundio, prestando

atencin a si la accin en la participle clause tuvo lugar antes o despus que

la accin de la oracin principal y si hay que usar la voz activa o pasiva.

Holding the hair-dryer in her left hand, Susan cut her hair.
(accin simultnea, activa present participle)

Participio
Accin
simultanea
(una accin
pasa a la vez
que la otra o
inmediatament
e despes)
Accin
secuencial
(la accin de la
participle
clause ocurre
antes que la de
la oracin
principal)

Activ
a

Pasiv
a
Activ
a

Pasiv
a

Present participle
(ing)

Past participle (ed or

irregular)
Acorta oracin de pasivo
Perfect participle
(having + verb+ ed/
irregular)
Perfect participle
(having been +
verb+ed/irregular

ejemplo
Holding the
hair-dryer in
her left hand,
she cut her hair
Blown by the
hair-dryer, her
hair could be
cut
Having washed
her hair, she
cut it
Having been
cut, her hair
looked strange

Pueden sustituir a RELATIVE CLAUSES (si el sujeto de la oracin

principal y de la relativa es el mismo) = sustituir por el mismo verbo y
el mismo tiempo verbal
The house which we live in is over a century old => the house living
in is over a century old
I recognize that man who is standing over there => I recognize that
man standing over there
Three of the people who were injured in the crash are still in the
hospital => Three of the people injured in the crash are still in the
hospital

Puede sustituir CONJUNCIONES (because, so, as, while, when, once,

after, and, if)
Because I dont wish to offend my host, I ate everything on the plate
=>Not wishing to offend my host, I ate everything on the plate

While I was looking out of the window last night, I saw a shooting star
=> Looking out of the window last night, I saw a shooting star
Once you have worked out how much you can afford to pay for . =>
Having worked out how much
He fell off the ladder and broke a leg and three ribs => He fell off the
ladder breaking a leg and three ribs
If you cook them in their skins => Cooked in their skins

Pueden utilizarse despes del CD CI de los siguientes verbos: see,

hear, watch, notice, feel, find, listen, smell AQU EL SUJETO ES
DISTINTO EN CADA ORACIN!!!!!!
Police found him lying.
I could hear something moving.

Puede usarse con superlatives y nmeros ordinales:

The youngest person that entered the programme was jus fourteen =
The youngest person to enter the programme was just fourteen
Linda was the only one who stayed for the whole performance =
Linda was the only one to stay for the whole performance

NOTA: Aunque los llamados verbos estticos (be, know, want, ) no

se utilizan en continuous tense pueden hacerlo en el caso de las
oraciones de participio
Being a very shy person, I never enjoy going to parties

NOTA: No se utilizan verbos modales pues el significado no queda

claro
The questions must be answered are not easy ones => The questions
which must be answered are not easy ones

NOTA: Se puede utilizar en el lenguaje hablado segn los siguientes

ejemplos:
To tell the truth, .
Generally speaking, .

Adjetivos compuestos (-ing /-ed):

A quick-acting officer, a narrow-minded politician,
Well, badly, ill, poorly + past participle:
A well-intentioned friend, a constantly- crying baby ( a baby
who is crying constantly), a brown-eyed boy (a boy who has
brown eyes),.

4. WOULD RATHER / WOULD PREFER (expresar preferencias

especificas en el futuro o presente)

Would rather + infinitive verb

If you are talking about your own preference in a specific situation (i.e.,
what you want to do), or asking someone about his or her preference in a
specific situation (i.e., what he or she wants to do), use would rather with
an infinitive verb.

I'd rather stay in tonight.

Would you rather stay in or go out tonight?

Would rather + past tense verb

Use would rather with a past tense verb only when stating your
preference about what you want someone else to do in a specific
situation, or asking someone about his or her preference about what he
or she wants someone else to do in a specific situation.

I'd rather he stayed in tonight.

I'd rather you didn't.

Would you rather I stayed in or went out tonight?

Please also note that, although we use a past tense verb, this
construction always has a present or future meaning, not past.

One last point: I endlessly repeated the phrase in a specific

situation above because, would prefer, would rather is only used to
talk about preferences in a specific situation/context.
The main verb prefer is correct if you are talking about your general
preferences.
NOTA: Podemos decir que cuando el sujeto es diferente, el
tiempo verbal da un paso hacia atrs en el tiempo.

To be about to do something = estar a punto de hacer algo

So far this week, = en lo que va de semana

5. TALKING ABOUT THE PAST

PAST SIMPLE (para acciones completas en un momento especifico del pasado

para acciones o comportamientos habituales en el pasado), (yesterday, last
week, when I was in 1990, ago, etc)
I sold my car about three months ago
Did you bite your nails when you were a child?
Used to+inf (did not use to) se puede utilizar para situaciones y acciones
habituales en el pasado, mientras que Would+inf se utiliza solo para acciones
habituales en el pasado.
Every summer we used to / would go to Scotland
I used to (not would) have a parrot.

PAST CONTINUOS (para situaciones o acciones en progreso en un determinado

momento del pasado, o una situacin en pasado que fue interrumpida por otra,
situaciones o acciones en el pasado que ocurren al mismo tiempo, acciones
pasadas y repetitivas que son molestas) nota: tambin se utiliza en relatos
narrativos para describir el trasfondo o el ambiente de la historia

This time last year I was taking the CAE exam

We were still having breakfast when he called around
She was always complaining about something

PRESENT PERFECT (une situaciones pasadas con el presente, por lo que se

utiliza para hablar de hechos recientes que tienen consequencias en el presente,
para describir situaciones que tienen lugar en el pasado y continan en el
presente, para hablar de hechos que ocurren en algn momento desconocido
entre el pasado y el presente o con otro present perfect cuando ocurren a la
vez). Tambin para expresar que algo sucedi antes de lo esperado o algo que
nunca hemos hecho en el pasado. Utilizar recently, lately, since, so far this
week, ever, never
They have just bought a new car
We have had these saucepans since we got married
I have already seen United play three times this season
We have been burgled twice since we have lived here
NOTA: Tambin se utilize con las expresiones como: this/that/it is the
first/second/third time
Its a year (a long time) since

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINOUS (para cuando queremos enfatizar la duracin

de la accin, cuando sta es temporal y se quiere indicar , para indicar que
una accin se ha repetido en el tiempo). Tambin se puede utilizar sin indicar la
duracin y en ese caso el significado es ms general una accin en el pasado
que termina justo ahora.
I have been eating at my mums house
I have been reading that book you lent me
Recently, I have been feeling really tired
Have you been smoking?
What have you been doing for the last 30 minuts?
Someone is phoning you. Nota = si queremos indicar el nmero de veces
que tiene lugar la repeticin, utilizaremos el Simple, Shes phoned you
about six or seven times.

PAST PERFECT (para indicar que una situacin pasada tiene lugar antes que otra
tambin pasada, para indicar que una accin tiene lugar en el pasado y que
continu en el pasado)
As soon as the film started, I realized I had seen it before
They had known each other for several years before they got married
Nota: tambin se utilize despus de expresiones como that/it was the
first/second/third time , it was two/three year/s a long time since ,
despus de after, before, by the time, as soon as, once, when, until y para
INDIRECT SPEECH

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS (para unir situaciones pasadas con otros puntos
del pasado, para eventos an ms lejanos en pasado)
I have been waiting for over an hour when she finally arrived

EVENTOS PASADOS INCOMPLETOS (para situaciones pasada con intencin de

que tuvieran lugar pero que finalmente no ocurrieron)
I was going to send you an email
I was about to call the doctor
She had been/was thinking of going to Iceland
The meeting, which was to have taken place last weekend, was cancelled

EXPRESAR PREFERENCIAS SOBRE EL PASADO (para indicar que nos hubiera

gustado que el pasado hubiera sido de otro modo)
WOULD LIKE/LOVE/PREFER TO+ PERFECT INFINITIVE
WOULD HAVE LIKED/LOVED/PREFERRED TO+ INFINITIVE or PERFECT
INFINITIVE
We would like to have stayed longer
We would have loved to tell/ to have told him what we thought
She would have preferred him to say it to her face (porque el sujeto no es mismo)

WOULD RATHER/ WOULD SOONER + PERFECT INFINITIVE

(expresar lo que hubieras preferido en el pasado).
Normalmente te lamentas o criticas algo.
+ PERFECT INFINITIVE (HAVE+ PAST PARTICIPLE)Se refiere al
pasado

Would rather/sooner + perfect infinitive expresses preferences about the past and
means that the desired action was not performed:

Would you rather have had pork than beef? (Would you have preferred pork to
beef?)

I'd rather have walked, but I went by bus because it was raining. (I would have
liked to walk, but I went by bus because it was raining.)

If we omit rather, we get the main clause of a sentence in the third conditional:

I would have walked (if it hadn't been raining).

+ INFINITIVE Se refiere al presente o futuro

I would rather see the film with subtitles

Would rather/sooner is followed by a bare infinitive if the subject of would

rather/sooner is the same as the doer of the action expressed by the following
verb.
Sino es el mismo sujeto pondramos PAST PERFECT

Would you rather I hadnt said anything about it to Matt?

+ PRESENT SIMPLE / CONTINUOUS

Would rather/sooner + simple or continuous infinitive expresses preferences about

the present:

I'd rather go by bike than walk. (I'd prefer to go by bike rather than walk.)
Where would you rather sleep? (Where would you prefer to sleep?)
I'd rather be writing my paper. (I'd prefer to be writing my paper.)

The negative is would rather not:

I would rather not go out tonight. (I'd prefer not to go out tonight.)

If we leave out rather, we get the main clause of a sentence in the second
conditional:

Where would you sleep (if you could choose)?

Compara estos ejemplos: I would like to have travelled more when I was young =
me gustara haber viajado ms , I would have liked to travelled more when I was
young = me hubiera me viajar ms , I would have liked to have travelled more
when I was young = me hubiera gustado haber viajado ms

6. SITUACIONES HIPOTETICAS (con los past tenses podemos hablar de situaciones

imposible imaginarias en el presente, pasado o futuro)

Wish/ If only + past simple = expresar deseo o lamentarse sobre el presente

I wish you were here / If only you were here (but Im sorry you are not)

I wish I had more free time / If only I had more free time (but Im sorry I dont)

Wish/ If only + would = para quejarse por un comportamiento que se desaprueba

o expresar enfado sobre el presente o futuro
I wish my husband wouldnt snore/ If only he wouldnt snore (but he does)
I wish it would stop raining / If only it would stop raining (but it is raining)

Wish/if/only + past perfect = para expresar deseos, lamentarse o criticar sobre

el pasado
I wish I hadnt eaten my dinner so quickly
If only you had listened to my advice

Should + perfect infinitive = para lamentarse o criticar sobre el pasado

We should have brought an umbrella

3er Conditional (if+ past perfect, would/might/could+perfect infinitive) =

especular sobre como algo podra haber sido diferente en el pasado
If you had been paying attention, you might have understood what I was saying =
you werent paying attention, so you didnt understand
NOTA: Una forma ms formal es omitir if y empezar con had
directamente en el caso de la 3er Conditional
Had she known about his criminal past, she would never have employed him

Mixed Conditional (if+ past perfect, would/might/could+infinitive)=

especular como una situacin pasada podra haber tenido un resultado diferente en
el presente.
If I werent so broke at the momento, I could have bought you something decent for
your birthday.

7. CONDITIONALS

Zero conditional = situaciones que siempre son verdad

IF+PRESENT SIMPLE, PRESENT SIMPLE
If I start to eat too much spicy food, I start to feel ill

First conditional = situaciones futuras posibles y sus consequencias

IF+PRESENT SIMPLE, WILL/GOING TO/MAY/MIGHT/COULD+INFINITIVE

If you dont water this plant soon, it will die

IF+SHOULD, WILL/GOING TO/MAY/MIGHT/COULD +INFINITIVE
IF+HAPPEN TO, WILL/GOING TO/ MAY/MIGHT/COULD+INFINITIVE
SHOULD HAPPEN TO, WILL/GOING TO/MAY/MIGHT/COULD+INFINITIVE
=>
hace que la frase sea ms improbable = en el caso de que, si por
casualidad, etc
If I happen to see Dr. Dee there, I will ask him for you
Please feel free to visit us if you happen to come to France
NOTA: Es ms formal an, si empezamos con SHOULD (+ subject
+INFINITIVE) la frase
Should you wish to change your holiday arrangements, we will do all we can
to help

Second conditional = situaciones imaginaries, imposibles o poco probables en el

presente o future
IF+PAST SIMPLE, WOULD/MIGHT/COULD+INFINITIVE
If I had an extra pair of hands, then I could help you
IF+WERE TO+INF, WOULD/MIGHT/COULD + INFINITIVE= es ms
improbable an
If England were to win the next two matches, Germany could pass the
league => si hubieras, en el caso de que ., si hubieras tenido la
intencin de
IF puede ser sustituido por los siguientes verbos: SUPPOSE, SUPPOSING,
IMAGINE (sobretodo en el ingls hablado)
Supposing you ran out of Money, what would you do? = If you ran out of
money, what would you do?
NOTA: Si utilizamos WERE+SUBJ+TO+INF an es ms formal
Were they to break the contract, we would of course take legal action = If
they broke the contract, we would of course take legal action

NOTA: IF(+ SUBJECT) puede ir seguido de WILL/WOULD/GOING TO/

WOULD/MIGHT/SHOULD +INF en el caso de que queramos hacer peticiones
formales o describir el resultado de una accin
If you would take a seat for a moment, I will tell Mr Green you are here
If it is going to be more profitable for the company, then I think we should
do it

3er Conditional (if+ past perfect, would/might/could+perfect infinitive) =

especular sobre como algo podra haber sido diferente en el pasado
If you had been paying attention, you might have understood what I was saying =
you werent paying attention, so you didnt understand
NOTA: Una forma ms formal es omitir if y empezar con had
directamente en el caso de la 3er Conditional
Had she known about his criminal past, she would never have employed him

Mixed Conditional (if+ past perfect, would/might/could+infinitive)=

especular como una situacin pasada podra haber tenido un resultado diferente en
el presente, o como los cambios en el presente hubieran afectado al pasado.
If I werent so broke at the moment, I could have bought you something decent for
your birthday.

Inverted conditional = es mucho ms formal, menos probable y se utiliza tambin

para sugerir educadamente.
If they were to escape, there would be an outcryprotesta => were they to escape,
there would be an outcry

8. INFINITIVE OR GERUND

INFINITIVE + TO (NEGATIVE = NOT+INFINITIVE)

Como sujeto introducido por FOR
For evil to succeed it is only necessary for the good to do nothing
The doctor started to carefully remove the bandages = the doctor started to remove
the bandages carefully
Para expresar finalidad
To stop the train, pull the lever downwards

Despus de algunos adjetivos: Easy to,

It is not easy to find work these days

Despus del verbo TO BE para dar rdenes o citas

You are to stay here until I get back

Despus de WOULD HATE/LOVE/LIKE/PREFER

Would you like me to do it now?

Despus de los siguientes verbos: agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt,

choose, claim, dread, decide, demand, deserve, expect, help, hesitate, hope,
happen, intend, learn, manage, offer, prepare, pretend, refuse, seem,
threaten, afford, aim, beg, campaign, care, consent, dare, fail, fight, forget,
guarantee, plan, promise, propose, prove, swear, tend, trouble, try,
undertake, vow, wait, want, wish, yearn.
We spent ages waiting for them to arrive

Despus de los siguientes verbos con sus CD/CI: advise, allow, ask,
challenge, enable, encourage, expect, force, get, help, intend, invite, order,
persuade, recommend, remind, teach, tell, urge, warn, cause, command,
forbid, instruct, leave, permit, request, tempt.

NOTA: si no llevan CD/CI van seguidos del GERUNDIO

Con las expresiones: in order to+inf, so as+ inf, only to+inf

Rates have been raised in order to reduce inflationary pressures

Despus de only to para describir un resultado o sorpresa

They queued for hours only to discover that all was sold out

Despus de too y enough para hablar de resultados

There isnt enough food to go around

INFINITIVE + TO

Despus de verbos modales

En la pasiva con el verbo MAKE

Despus de los siguiente verbos: help, had better, let, make, would rather/sooner

ADJ+TO+INFINITIVE
Able/unable, afraid, anxious, ashamed, bound, careful, certain, crazy, curious, due,
eager, fit, happy, impossible, likely, lucky, pleased, right, shocked, stupid, sure,
surprised, thrilled, welcome, wrong.
The Bensons are lucky to be having such good weather
It is impossible to find them in the snow

NOUN+TO+INFINITIVE
Attempt, bid, decision, desire, incentive, need, nuisance, opportunity, place,
pleasure, reason, time, wish
She has finally made a decision to leave

Y despus de: there is/are, have (got)

Ive got a report to write this evening

GERUND (NEGATIVE NOT+ING / NO+ING) Ej. no parking

Como sujeto, objeto o complemento de una frase

Swimming makes you fit

All this complaining wont get you anywhere

Despus de preposiciones

She has no reason for not telling the truth

Despus de las siguientes expresiones: Have difficulty, problems / there is

no, little, point / it is no good, use / it is (not) worth

Despus de los verbos de los sentidos: heard, smell,

I heard Alan giving a marvellous rendition of Nessun Dorma

Have you see us performing yet?
Despus de los siguientes verbos: admit, adore, advise, appreciate,
anticipate, allow, avoid, begin, cant help, cant stand, cant bear, consider,
cease, complete, continue, defend, despise, discuss, delay, deny, detest,
dislike, dread, enjoy, encourage, forget, feel like, hate, give up, imagine,
involve, keep, dont mind, miss, love, need, neglect, permit, postpone, put

off, practice,prefer, prevent, propose, recommend, resent, resist, risk, quit,

recollect, report, require, start, tolerate, understand, urge, suggest, avoid,
burst out, contemplate, defer, endure, escape, excuse, face, fancy, finish,
justify, leave off, mention, recall, save, tolerate, understand, catch, discover,
find, hear, leave, notice, observe, see, spot, watch = van en gerundio
seguidos de un objeto
Los verbos advise, allow, forbid, permit van en gerundio sino tienen un
objeto, sino van en infinitivo.
The doctor advised taking a course of antibiotics
The doctor advised him to take a course of antibiotics

Como adjetivo:

The remaining items will be sold in our January sale

Despus de los verbos siguientes seguidos de la preposicin to:

Adapt/adjust to, admit to, confess to, get round to, get used to, look forward
to, object to
She confessed to being surprised by her success.

INFINITIVE OR GERUND WITHOUTH CHANGING MEANING

Begin, cant bear, continue, intend, start, hate, like, love, prefer, attempt, bother,
cant stand, cease, deserve, fear.

Con los verbos forget, remember, regret, stop utilizaremos INFINITIVO si la

accin del verbo principal tiene lugar primero. Utilizaremos GERUNDIO si la accin
del verbo principal ocurre en segundo lugar.

Con el verbo regret+ SAY/TELL/INFORM/utilizaremos el INFINITIVO+TO

INFINITIVE OR GERUND WITH CHANGING MEANING

TRY+INFINITIVE+TO = hacer una esfuerzo para hacer algo dificil
Please be quiet, Im trying to sleep
TRY+GERUND = hacer algo para ver que pasa
If you cant sleep, try using carplugs

MEAN+ INFINITIVE+TO = intend

I have been meaning to write to you for ages

MEANG+GERUND = involve
Changing jobs also meant changing houses

GO ON+INFINITIVE+ TO = change the activity

After opening the hospital the Prince went on to meet the staff
GO ON+GERUND = continue
They went on playing despite the bad weather

NEED+INFINITIVE+TO = debe hacerse

NEED+GERUND = desear

FORGET/REMEMBER + INFINITIVE = recorder hacer una accin futura

Dont forget to lock the back door
FORGET/ REMEMBER + GERUND = recorder una accin anterior y pasada
Ill never forget meeting him
REGRET+ INFINITIVE = anunciar malas noticias
We regret to inform you of delays in todays service
REGRET + GERUND = lamentarse sobre el pasado
I really regret getting that tattoo when I was eighteen
STOP + INFINITIVE =terminar una accin para empezar otra
We stopped to get petrol
STOP + GERUND = terminar una accin
They stopped making fax machines about ten years ago
NOTA: no se deben poner dos infinitives o dos gerundios en la misma frase.
He wanted to start to take lessons = He wanted to start taking lessons

NOTA: Cuando el verbo like = pensar que algo es buena idea, va seguido de
INFINITIVO

9. ASPECTOS DE COHESIN (ELLIPSIS y SUSTITUCIN)

ELIPSIS (palabras o frases en una oracin que pueden ser omitidas o

incluso sustituidas)
Mike left at about the same times as Jane left
-

Podemos sustituir verbos por DO/DOES/DID

Paula didnt want to go, but she go = did
She doesnt know more than I know= do

Podemos sustituir un VERBO+OBJECTO

He told her to lock the door, but she had already locked the door =done so

Podemos omitir palabras despus de AND/BUT

I live and I work in London

Podemos omitir expresiones de infinitive

I dont eat much cheese now, but I used to eat much cheese

Podemos omitir TO en IF or WH-CLAUSES despus de verbos como: ASK,

FORGET, PROMISE, WANT, WOULD LIKE.
Shall we go to the cinema tonight? Yes, if you want to

Podemos omitir el VERBO PRINCIPAL despus del MODAL VERB excepto EL

VERBO TO BE
I can speak Spanish, and Mary can speak Spanish too

Podemos omitir el verbo principal despus del auxiliar

She said she would phoned, but she hasnt phoned

En oraciones con QUESTION WORDS, podemos omitir el resto de la oracin

Did he say where he was going?

En oraciones COMPARATIVAS, podemos omitir el verbo de la frase

You look older than my brother does

You look older than she does=You look older than her

SUSTITUCIN (palabras o frases en una oracin que pueden ser sustituidas

por otras)
-

Podemos sustituir por PRONOMBRES

John came into the room. John / He was wearing a coat

Podemos sustituir por THIS/THAT/THESE/THOSE

He hated school. Thats why he left at 16

Podemos utilizar IF NOT/SO para sustituir frases enteras

Are you free on Friday?/ If so, do you fancy going to the cinema?
Are you free on Friday?/ If not, what about next week?

Podemos utilizar SO/NOR/NEITHER+VERBO AUXILIAR+SUJETO/

SOME/ALL/EACH/NONE/BOTH/OTHER/A FEW/ENOUGH para sustituir frases
enteras
She likes dogs and I like dogs too =so do I
Ive never been to Paris and he has never been to Paris too =nor/neither has he
I didnt have enough money and I didnt have too = neither did I/ nor did I/ I didnt
either
The boys went out night after night, and the boys =some did not return

Podemos utilizar SO/NOT para reemplar una oracin que empieza con THAT,
despus de los verbos: EXPECT, HOPE, SEEM, SUPPOSE, THINK
Is he coming?I think that he is coming=so
Do you think it will rain? I hope that it wont rain=not

Podemos utilizar ONE/ONES para sustituir nombres contables despus de adjetivos

o demostrativos
What sort of ice-cream would you like? A plain one or one with chocolate sauce on?
Which colour would you prefer, this one or that one?

10. LA PASIVA
ESTRUCTURA:
-

BE (mismo tiempo verbal que el verbo principal de la frase en active) + PAST

PARTICIPLE
Architects design (Present Simple) buildings=> Buildings are designed (Present
Simple + Past Participle) by architects.

USOS:
-

Cuando la accin es ms importante que quin la realiza

La atencin se centra en accin.

La persona que realiza la accin es desconocida, no es importante es demasiado

obvia.
Bills car was stolen (we dont know who stole it)
The office is being redecorated (its not important whos doing it)
The burglar has been arrested (its obvious that the police arrested him)

CAMBIOS:
-

El sujeto de la frase activa pasa a ser el agente en la frase pasiva (by)

El objeto directo de la frase activa pasa a ser el sujeto en la frase pasiva

Coldplay wrote the song viva la vida => the song viva la vida was wrote by
Coldplay

Verbos con dos objetos (directo e indirecto): Lo ms habitual es usar el objeto

indirecto como sujeto en la frase pasiva

They showed me their last lbum => I was showed their last album (by them)

Sin embargo, hay veces que preferimos ENFATIZAR el OBJETO DIRECTO

They sent me a mysterious letter => A mysterious letter was sent to me (by them)

CAMBIOS VERBALES:

TIEMPO VERBAL

ACTIVA

PASIVA

Present Simple

Peter builds houses

Houses are built by Peter

Past Simple

Peter built a house last year

A house was built last year

by Peter

Present Perfect

Peter has built many houses

Many houses have been built

by Peter

Past Perfect

Peter had built a house

A house had been built by

Peter

Will

Peter will build a house

A house will be built by Peter

Going to

Peter is going to build a

house

A house is going to be built

by Peter

Modal verbs

Peter might build a house

A house might be built by

Peter

NOTA: A veces utilizamos GET (ms informal) en lugar de BE

They are going to get (be) married next week

Solo podemos utilizar los verbos transitivos en pasiva

Bill lives in a flat => A flat is lived in by Bill

Los siguientes verbos (hear, help, see, make, allege, believe,

consider, estimate, expect, know, report, say, think, understand, be

rumoured, be reputed) forman la pasiva con BE+ PAST PARTICIPLE

+ TO INFINITIVE
She made me clean my room => I was made to clean my room

LET = BE ALLOWED TO (en pasiva)

The teacher let the children play in the playground => The children
were allowed to play in the playground (by the teacher)
VERBO CON PREPOSICION (en la pasiva va junto al verbo)
A bee stung Peter on the leg => Peter was stung on the leg by a bee

QUESTION/NEGATIVE SENTENCES IN PASSIVE (siempre utilizamos

do/does/did)
John had his hair dyed => When did he have his hair dyed????

HAVE/GET something DONE (es una estructura pasiva).

Se utilize cuando quieres indicar que alguien realiza alguna accin en
tu lugar, o para hablar de algo desagradable.
They had their house painted blue
Jackie had her car stolen

La forma ING PASSIVE es posible

Having been fed, the dog went to sleep

THE AGENT (BY) si es una frase muy larga va obligatoriamente al

final de frase
The meeting was attended by representatives of the five permanent
members of the UN Security Council

11.

REPORTED SPEECH

Se da cuando pasamos de in direct speech a reported speech, es

decir, cuando hacemos referencia a algo que ha dicho otra persona.
Deberemos realizar algunos cambios verbales, y de otras palabras.
Im having a great time, said Peter => Peter said he was having a
great time
CAMBIOS VERBALES:
-

Present tenses = Past tenses

Present Perfect tenses = Past Perfect tenses
Past tenses = Past Perfect tenses
The modal verbs (will, must excepto para deduciones, may, can) =
would, had to, might, could
The modal verbs (would, might, could, should, ought to) = NO
CHANGE
Ive never ridden a horse, said Clare => Clare said she had never
ridden a horse
We were trying to phone you, she said => She said they had been
trying to phone you
It must be done by tomorrow, she said => She told me it had to be
done by tomorrow
It must be raining, she said => she said it must be raining
(deduction)
OTROS CAMBIOS ( pronombres / adverbios de lugar o tiempo)
I saw you here yesterdas, said Alan => Alan said he had seen me
there the day before
NO CAMBIOS, SI

Si la frase siempre es verdad

I intend to retire next year, he said => he told me he intends to retire
next year

Si el verbo esta en present o present perfect

I never tells lies, she said => she said she never tells lies

QUESTION:
-

No utilizamos auxiliares do/does/did

El orden de la frase es igual que si fuera una frase afirmativa
En el caso de Yes/No Questios, utilizamos IF or WETHER (ask, want to
know, say, see, remember)
No se utilizan las Questions Marks ()
Wheres Paul? => He asked me where Paul is/was
Did you enjoy it ? => She asked if I (had) enjoyed it

VERBS PATTERNS:
Hay verbos que se pueden utilizar con diferentes estructuras en el
caso de REPORTED SPEECH
Por ejemplo: asked
He asked to leave
He asked them to leave
He asked that they should leave
Sin embargo, en el caso de otros verbos no
VERB + THAT+CLAUSE (add, admit, agree, answer, argue, announce,
assure, believe, claim, comment, complain, concede, conclude,
confirm, consider, decide, deny, doubt, emphasize, estmate, explain,
expect, fear,feel, hope, imply, insist, mean, mention, object, observe,
persuade, promise, propose, point out, predict, reckon, remark,
remember, reply, report, reveal, reassure, remind, repeat, say, state,
suggest, suppose, stress, tell, think, threaten, understand,warn.
Critics predicted that the film would be a success.
VERB+INFINITIVE TO (agree, ask, claim, demand, offer, promise,
refuse, threaten)
He claimed to be an expert on ghosts
VERB + OBJECT+ INFINITIVE TO (advise, ask, beg, convince,
encourage, forbid, instruct, invite, order, persuade, recommend,
remind, tell, urge, warn)
She urged him not to get involved
VERB+GERUND (admit, advise, deny, recommend, remind, regret,
suggest)

He denied taking/having taken the money

VERB+PREP+GERUND (advise, argue, protest, warn against)
(apologize, blame, forgive, praise, tell off, thank for) (discourage,
dissuade from) (accuse, speak of) (congratulate, insist on) (admit,
confess, consent, object to)
She admitted to feeling rather nervous
VERB+ (THAT)+ SBDY + (SHOULD) DO STHG /// STHG (SHOULD)
HAPPEN (advise, agree, ask, demand, insist, propose, recommend,
request, suggest)
They demanded that he should resign
We suggest he apply for the job
IT+ (announce, believe, claim, confirm, estimate, rumour, suggest,
think)
It is thought that she may have left the country
It has been suggested that the minister took bribes.
12.
THE PASSIVE WITH REPORTING VERBS (Para expresar los
sentimientos o creencias de otros, con determinados verbos para
expresar hechos generales) Los verbos ms utilizados son: accept,
believe, expect, hope, know, say, think, understand, calclate, claim,
consider, discover, estmate, feel, prove, report, show.
NO PODEMOS UTILIZAR LOS SIGUIENTES VERBOS: encourange,
inform, persuade, reassure, remind, tell, warn,
They have informed us that => It has been informed us
ESTRUCTURA: Es una estructura IMPERSONAL
SUBJECT+PASSIVE OF REPORTING VERB+ (TO)+INFINITIVE
IT+PASSIVE OF REPORTING VERB+ THAT+CLAUSE
People know that many pop singers come from England ==
. Many pop singers are known to come from England
. It is known that many pop singers come from England
NOTA: Con referencia de presente, en el pasivo se utilize el
PRESENTE INFINITIVO

People think that Johnson is in Cardiff => Johnson is thought to be in

Cardiff
Con referencia de pasado, en el pasivo se utilize el PERFECTO
INFINITIVO
People believe that the forger left Florence => The forger is believed
to have left Florence.
People know that the suspect has been dealing with drugs =>The
suspect is known to have been dealing with drugs.

Los Reporting verbs tambin pueden estar en PASADO

People considered the goverment had spent too much => The
goverment was considered to have spent too much
13.
CLEFT SENTENCES (podemos enfatizar una parte de una
oracin mediante la entonacin y tambin cambiando la
posicin de los elementos en una oracin hablada o escrita,
para ello dividimos la frase en dos partes cleft sentences
poniendo el elemento a enfatizar al principio fronting)
Mediante la entonacin = > Por ejemplo: Thank you for listening
Usando estructuras pasivas => Por ejemplo: The President is
expected to resign son
Aadiendo palabras (own, very/indeed, not at all, the least,
whatsoever)
Aadiendo question words ending in-ever => Por ejemplo: Whatever
are you doing?
Aadiendo auxiliary DO => Por ejemplo: I do hope youll come
again
Aadiendo algunos Adjetivos o Adverbios => Por ejemplo: I actually
went inside one of the Pyramids
Aadiendo gradable and non-gradable adjectives => Por ejemplo:
Hes absolutely brilliant
Utilizando so => Por ejemplo: So it is

Utilizando frases temporales day after day, time and time again,
over and over again, day in, day out => Por ejemplo: David reads
the same book over and over again
Repitiendo el mismo verbo = Por ejemplo: I tried and tried, but it was
no use

13.1 EMPHATIC IT-CLAUSES

Para dar importancia a una determinada parte de una frase = IT IS/
THAT = it + a form of be+(not and/or adverb) +emphasised
word/phrase+ that/which/who clause
-

Podemos enfatizar el sujeto, objeto, adverbio y preposicin:

Mike took Sally to the party on Saturday =
- It was Mike who took Sally to the party on Saturday
- It was Sally (that) Mike took to the party on Saturday
- It was on Saturday (that) Mike took Sally to the party
- It was to the party (that) Mike took Sally on Saturday

NOTA:
-

Usamos when, while, not until para enfatizar un periodo de tiempo:

It wasnt until he took off his hat that I recognized him

Usamos because para enfatizar razones:

Perhaps its because Im a chef that people never invite me to their
dinner parties

Podemos sustituir that por who/ which si queremos enfatizar una

persona cosa :
It was Gary who broke the chair
It was the photos which the secretary sent Jake yesterday

NOTA: No podremos enfatizar una accin un complemento verbal

con esta estructura

What Mike did was take Sally to the party = It was taking Sally to
the party that Mike did
What they are is unscrupulous = It is totally unscrupulous that they
are
13.2 WH-CLAUSES WHAT IS/WAS
be+ emphasized word or phrase

= wh-clause + a form of

En este caso WHAT = the thing/s that

Podemos enfatizar un nombre:

What I most wanted to see in the Louvre was the Mona Lisa = The
Mona Lisa was what I most wanted to see in the Louvre

Podemos enfatizar una persona, lugar, tiempo o razn:

The
The
The
The

guy who told me about the new club was Zack

house where I used to live is near here
day (when) I left was the saddest day of my life
reason (why) they never told me is they dont trust me

Podemos enfatizar una/s accion/es:

What happened was (that) I left my wallet in the caf and had to go
back

Podemos enfatizar una accin interpretada por alguien con la

siguiente estructura: what+subject+do+be+to-infinitive clause
What we did was (to) send them a letter of complaint
NOTA: Podemos utilizar los Modals Verbs para sustituir is/was
It cant be my mobile phone thats ringing because its switched off.
NOTA: Podemos utilizar all para sustituir what con el significado
de the only/last thing that
All I really want is a little house in the countryside
NOTA: Esta estructura es ms comn con los siguientes verbos
(need, want, like, hate, adore, dislike, enjoy, loathe, love, prefer,
want)
What I hate is rainy weather

NOTA: Si el verbo principal est en continuous o en perfect, la

forma del verbo betambin coincide.
The boys are taking Sandy to the match => what the boys are doing
is taking Sandy to the match
NOTA: Who we forgot to invite was Ian = The one (who) we forgot to
invite was Ian
NOTA: FORMAL = INFORMAL (podemos utilizar when/where
pero no how/why)
It was because of greed that he did it = It was greed why he
did it
It is by using a calculator that he does it = It is using a
calculator how he does it

It is you who are in the wrong = Its you thats in the wrong
NOTA: podemos aadir frases como: the reason why, the thing
that, the person/people who, the place where, the day when

13.3 REVERSED CLEFT CLAUSES

Ponemos la informacin que queremos enfatizar al principio de la frase
Zack was the guy who told me about the new club
NOTA:

En spoken English podemos usar this/that

They told me the same thing = Thats what they told me

14.
FRONTING
Ponemos determinadas palabras al inicio de la frase para dar ms
nfasis
-

Poniendo objetos y complementos

She may be friendly but she isnt reliable =Friendly she may be, but
reliable she isnt

Poniendo prononombres demostrativos

I disagree with that = That I disagree with

Utilizando el superlativo o comparative

Much more exciting was Red Heat

-

Utilizando To+infinitive
To meet him is my most fervent wish

Utilizandos as y though con verbos y adjetivos

Battered though he was, he never lost his will to succeed
Try as she might, she simply couldnt open the jam jar

Utilizando also and such

Also at the service were several ambassadors
Such is the fate of most illegitimate children in

15.

INVERSION

Para enfatizar podemos cambiar el orden normal de la frase,

invirtiendo el sujeto y el verbo o el verbo auxiliary.
-

En el caso formal de las frases condicionales, sustituimos if por

should, had, etc)
If you had needed my help, Id have come earlier = Had you needed
my help, Id have come earlier

Invertimos el sujeto-verbo despus de adverbio de direccin o lugar

Above the fireplace was a portrait of the Duke

Utilizamos la inversin del verbo sobretodo con verbos de lugar y

movimiento. Cuando el sujeto es un pronombre NO HAY INVERSIN
In an armchair sat his mother = In an armchair sat she = In an
armchair she sat

Normalmente la inversin se produce despus de here y there

Se produce la inversin del sujeto y del verbo auxiliar con las

siguientes frases: no soonerthan, never (before), at no time, (in) no
way, Littlethat, on no account, under no circumstance, not once,
not only, not until, not since, neithernor, hardlywhen, barely,
scarcely, only, seldom
No sooner had he left than he came back for his car keys
Never (before) had he been so rude and at no time did he apologize

Hardly had I finished my work when in came my boss with more

Little did he know that the police were after him
NOTA: Despus de (not until, only when, only after) la
inversin se produce en la parte media de la frase
Not until I saw him did I remember we had met before
-

Se produce la inversin del sujeto y el verbo auxiliary despus de:

so+adverb o such+noun
So badly did my boss
Such was my surprise that

Tambin se produce la inversin en respuestas cortas con (so,

neither, nor)
So am I, Niether does she

Y tambin se produce la inversin con as o than

Lord Barchester has estates in Scotland, as do many other noblemen

Inversin para ciertas expresiones fijas

So be it
Long live the king
NOTA: Expresiones con (no, not) excepto las anteriores no se
pueden inverter
No doubt he will give us a key = No doubt will he give us a key
NOTA: No invertimos el sujeto y el verbo auxiliar despus de only si
no hay una expresin de tiempo o preposicional inmediatamente.
Only members can park here = Only can members park here =Only
on Saturdays can members park here

16.

INVERTED CONDITIONAL SENTENCES WITHOUT IF

Hace que sea ms formal y menos probable la frase

-

If they were to escape, there would be an outcry = Were they to

escape, there would be an outcry.
If he has cheated, he will have to be punished = Should he has
cheated, he will have to be punished
If I had known, I would have protested strongly = Had I known, I
would have protested strongly
If you happen to need / If you should happen to need