Chapter 2

Vector algebra and vector calculus

PeterWolfgang Gr
aber

Systems Analysis in Water Management

CHAPTER 2. VECTOR ALGEBRA AND VECTOR CALCULUS

On the basis of simple, well-known representations of vector calculus the basic rules of
the vector algebra are specied. Subsequently, the rules of vector dierentiation with
descriptive examples are discussed.

52

2.1 Unit vectors

Dierent unit vectors of vector representations are dependent on the use of coordinate
system. Then the vector a can be expressed as the sum of multiples of the unit vectors.
The unit vectors have the length (magnitude) one |e| = 1, and are always parallel to
the coordinate system axis.
For the practical work in water management three coordinate systems, the Cartesian,
the cylindri- cal and the spherical, are generally used. In table 2.1 the vector a is
described in each of this three coordinate systems (also see gures 2.2 and 2.1).
Table 2.1: coordinate systems for description of vectors
coordinate
unit
vectora
system
vectors
Cartesian

cylindrical

sphericalrisch

i j k

r z

a = ax i + ay j + az k
a = ar r + a + az z

a = ar r + a + a

Figure 2.1: vector representation in Cartesian coordinates

In two-dimensional space the polar coordinate system will be used (see Figure 2.3).

PeterWolfgang Gr
aber

Systems Analysis in Water Management

CHAPTER 2. VECTOR ALGEBRA AND VECTOR CALCULUS

Figure 2.2: vector representation in spherical coordinates

Figure 2.3: vector representation in two-dimensional space

Since the vector a is independent of the used coordinate system, the following conversion is applicable between the Cartesian and the polar coordinate system:
ar
a

54

2
ax + a2y = |a|

ay
= arctan
ax
=

ax

= cot (a ) ay

ax

= cos (a ) |a|

(2.1)

2.2 Algorithms
In the following some important basic arithmetic rules for vectors are to be demonstrated by examples in the Cartesian coordinate system.
Addition
The arguments of the Cartesian unit vectors are respectively added in the vector
addition:
(2.2)
a + b = (ax + bx )i + (ay + by )j + (az + bz )k
Notice:
This relationship applies only to the Cartesian coordinate system and can not be
transferred to other coordinate systems.
In the vector algebra the following laws apply:
+B
=B
+A

commutative law A

(2.3)

distributive law

= (mn)A
= n(mA)

m(nA)

(2.4)

distributive law

= mA
+ nA

(m + n)A

(2.5)

distributive law

+ B)
= mA
+ mB

m(A

(2.6)

associative law

+ (B
+ C)
= (A
+ B)
+C

(2.7)

Magnitude
The magnitude of a vector is equal to its length and thus a scalar, which is
direction-independent.

(2.8)
|a| = a2x + a2y + a2z
In paticular it applies that the magnitude of the unit vector is equal to one.
|i| = |j| = |k| = |r| = |
| = || = 1

(2.9)

Product
There are two kinds of vector products with respect to the vector algebra, the
scalar product (dot product) and the vector product(cross product).
The scalar product between two vectors is dened:
a b = |a| |b| cos(a b)

PeterWolfgang Gr
aber

(2.10)

Systems Analysis in Water Management

CHAPTER 2. VECTOR ALGEBRA AND VECTOR CALCULUS

Hence the scalar product between two vectors is equal to zero, if they stand
perpendicularly to each other. In particular it applies that the scalar product of
a vector with itself, i.e. the square, is equal to the square of the magnitude:

a b =

|a| |b|

ab
a b
(2.11)

|a| |b|

|a| |b| cos a b

a b
generally

Particularly for the unit vectors:

i j = 0; i k = 0;
i i = 1;

j k = 0;

r
= 0; r z = 0;

j j = 1; k k = 1; r r = 1;

(2.12)

= 1; z z = 1;

According to the above algorithms we compute the scalar product as follows:

a b = (axi + ayj + azk) (bxi + byj + bzk)

(2.13)

= ax bx + ay by + az bz
For computing the angle between two vectors we use the equation:
ax bx + ay by + az bz

cos(a b) = 2
ax + a2y + a2z b2x + b2y + b2z

(2.14)

The cross product between two vectors yields a vector:

a b = v

(2.15)

its magnitude is equal to the positive area of the parallelogram having a and b
as sides
|v | = |a b| = |a| |b| sin(a b)
and its direction is perpendicularly to a and b:
v a and v b

56

2.2. Algorithms

Generally:

|a b| =

|a| |b|

ab
ab
(2.16)

ba

|a| |b|

|a| |b| sin(a b) generally

For the Cartesian coordinate system applies:

i j k

a b = ax ay az

b b b
x y z

(2.17)

Especially for unit vectors:

i j = 1

i j = k

i i = 0

i k = 1

j k = 1

i k = j
j k = i

j j = 0 k k = 0

|r
| = 1

|r z| = 1

r
= z

r z =

|r r| = 0

| = 0

|z z| = 0
(2.18)

Notice:
For the vector product the commutative law is not applicable, but the anticommutative:
a b = b a
(2.19)
The vector product is still distributive:
a (b + c) = a b + a c

(2.20)

Dierentiation
In vector analysis we speak of three dierent kinds of dierentiation, the gradient
(grad), the divergence (div) and the curl or rotation (rot) of a vector. For
all three methods a uniform dierential vector, the Nabla operator applies
(see table 2.2). Table 2.3 shows the ways of writing of the dierent kinds of
dierentiation in the overview as a function of the used coordinate system. For

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CHAPTER 2. VECTOR ALGEBRA AND VECTOR CALCULUS

further simplication the Laplace dierential operator will be used. This

is equal to the double application of the Nabla operator:
=

(2.21)

Table 2.2: Description of the NABLA operator in dierent coordinate systems

coordinate system
Cartesian

cylindrical

spherical

i + j + k
x
y
z

r +
+ z
r
r
z

1

1

r +

r
r sin
r

For the gradient

= grad

(2.22)

scalar = vector

i +
j +
k =
i +
j +
k
=
x
y
z
x
y
z
the Nabla operator is applied to a scalar potential eld . The result for this is
a vector. The gradient can be regarded as the formal multiplication of the Nabla
operator with a scalar. In the eld of the hydrogeology this quantity can be the
groundwater level h, temperature elds T , concentration distributions C, evaporation
or groundwater regeneration rates vN and others. There scalars (potentials) are nondirectional and have thereby no vector character. However they are location dependent.
The most important application of the gradient is the Darcy law for the computation
of the groundwater ow velocity (see section 7.1 ).
v = k grad h
Example for the gradient:
The groundwater level of an aquifer is indicated by the function:
h = 2xy 3x + 2

58

(2.23)

2.2. Algorithms

We compute the groundwater ow velocity for the case that the permeability coecient
of the aquifer is k = 2 103 m s1 .
It applies:
v = k grad(h)

(2xy 3x + 2) (2xy 3x + 2) (2xy 3x + 2) m

3
k
i+
j+
= 2 10
x
y
z
s

m
m
i 4 x 103 j
s
s
It is to be recognized, that:
= (6 4y) 103

1. there is no vertical stream

2. the velocity is dependent on the coordinates. Thus the current in the aquifer is
not constant.
The divergence is the application of the Nabla operator on a vector:
v = div v

(2.24)

vector v = scalar

v
vy vz

x
vx i + vyj + vzk =
+
+
v =
i+
j+ k
x
y
z
x
y
z

The result of divergence formation is a scalar quantity. The divergence can be regarded
as the formal application of the scalar product between the Nabla operator and a
vector. According to the rule of scalar product formation the divergence of a vector is
a scalar quantity. The divergence, also noted as productivity of an area G, indicates
whether sources or sinks are in this area. If the divergence of a vector eld is equal to
zero (v = div v = 0), the area has neither a source nor a sink.
According to Gauss law the entire source and sink activity of an area G can be
computed by the volume integral of the divergence. At the same time it is known from
the balance laws that the dierence between the source and sink activities, i.e. the ow
rates, have to discharge through the surface:

div v dV =
v n dS
(2.25)
G

For the two-dimensional area follows similarly:

div v dA = v n dL
A

(2.26)

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CHAPTER 2. VECTOR ALGEBRA AND VECTOR CALCULUS

n is a normal (perpendicularly standing) unit vector to the surface or to the circumference. With Gauss theorem the volume integral can be converted into an integral over
the surface and an area integral can be converted into an integral over the bound. Also
the divergence plays a fundamental role in the hydrogeology, since all processes must
be balance in the mathematical description. In particular a large number of further
derivatives is based on the following relation:
div v = div(k grad h) = q

(2.27)

Example of divergence calculation:

We compute the divergence of the velocity vector v for the previous example:
v =

(3 2y)2 103 +
(4 103 x) = 0
x
y

Thus this area is neither source nor sink.

The curl/rotation is the rotation of a vector eld and is the cross product of the
Nabla operator with a vector:
rot v = v
(2.28)

i j k

vz vx
vy vx
vz vy

rot v =
= y z i x z j + x y k
x y z

v v v
x y z

The result is a vector.

If rot v = 0, we say it is an irrotational eld. We can also deduce from it, that
rot grad = 0 always is applicable for irrotational potential elds j (a conservative
vector eld).
Further rules of computation in connection with the vectorial dierentiation yiel as a
result of application of the vector rules and the extended rules for the dierentiation
of products:
(1 2 ) = 1 2 + 2 1 = 1 grad 2 + 2 grad 1

(2.29)

((a)) = a + a = div(a) + a grad()

(2.30)

(a) = a + a = rot(a) + a grad()

(2.31)

If we examine the source and sink activity of an aquifer, we can write the Darcy law

60

2.2. Algorithms

as follows:
div(v ) = div(k grad h) = q

(2.32)

(v ) = (k h) = q
(v ) = (k) h k (h) = q
(v ) = (k) h k h = q
div(v ) = grad(k) grad(h) k div(grad(h)) = q
Only for the homogeneous isotropic aquifer may be set grad(k) = 0 and then the
aquifer equation is:
div(v ) = k div(grad h) = q
(2.33)

Table 2.3: dierential operators in the dierent coordinate systems

coordinate system
Cartesian
cylindric

name/operator
NABLA operator
=

gradient

i
x

h =
grad h = h
divergence

h
i
x

v =
div v = v
LAPLACE operator
h =
h = div(grad h)
= 2 h
curl/rotor
rot v = v
volume
dV

j
y

vx
x

2h
x2

h
j
y

vy
y

2h
y 2

k
z

h
k
z

vz
z

2h
z 2

y
vz
i
v
y
z

vx v
+ z xz j
y
x
k
v
+ v
x
y

v =

dV = dx dy dz

r
r

h =

v =

h =

h
r
r

1 h

z
z

h
z
z

1 (r vr ) 1 v
+
+r
r r

h
1 (r r )
r
r

1 2h
r2 2

vz
z

2h
z 2

1 vz
r
v
r
vr vz

z
+ z r
r
z
+ 1r (rrv ) 1r v

v =

dV = r dr d dz

61

2.3 Examples of vector calculus

1. The lter velocity v consists of the components vx = 3 103 m s1 , vz = 5
104 m s1 and vy = 0.
Outline and compute the lter velocity and indicate the magnitude and the angle.
The magnitude of a vector is:
|v | =

vx2 + vy2 + vz2

For the given vector this is:

|v | =

m
(3 103 )2 + (5 104 )2 = 3 04 103
s

The angle is calculated by the slope, which is equal to the tangent of the angle:
= arctan

vz
vx

= arctan

5 104
3 103

= arctan (0 166) = 350 52 o = 6 12 rad

Thus the vector in Cartesian an polar coordinates is:
v = 3 103

m
m
m
m
i + 5 104 k = 3 04 103 r + 6 12

s
s
s
s

2. A pollutant particle moves by convection (vkonv ) and by the hydrodynamic dispersion (vdisp ). Plot and compute the covered way and the end point, if the
particel is transported from the origin with the following velocities:
m
m
vkonv = 1 104 i + 103 j
s
s
m

vdisp = 3 1010 r + 0 785

s

and

In this task two dierent coordinate representations are used. Since the natural
processes are independent of the type of representation, the task can be solved
with the use of the Cartesian coordinate representation or by means of polar
coordinates. In both cases a conversion between the two systems is necessary.

Systems Analysis in Water Management

PeterWolfgang Gr
aber

2.3. Examples of vector calculus

In this case for the two-dimensional case the following relations are available:
a = axi + ayj
a = arr + a

ar =

a2x + a2y = |a|

a = arctan

ay
ax

ax = cos (a ) ar
ay = sin (a ) ar
ax = tan (a ) ay
It is important that a usually is indicated in radian measure and the following
relation applies:

=
2
360
With the given numerical values we nd:
v = vkonv + vdisp
According to the denition:

m
vx2 + vy2 = (104 )2 + (103 )2 = 107
s

vy
= arctan
= 84 29
vx

vr konv =
konv

3. Plot and compute the end point of a pollutant particle after one day, if it moves
from the origin x = 0m, y = 0m by convection due to a potential gradient of
h = 1m between the points x = 0m, y = 0m and x = 30m, y = 40m with a k
value k = 5 104 m/s.
The Basis of the convection is the ltration velocity v . Accurate the eld velocity
has to be used, however not in this example. The mean transit velocity va is

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CHAPTER 2. VECTOR ALGEBRA AND VECTOR CALCULUS

equated thereby the pore velocity.

va =

v
n

v = k grad h

ltration velocity

n seep through porosity

(Darcy law)

dh
h
vr k
dr
r

r = (x1 x2 )2 + (y1 y2 )2 = (30 m)2 + (40 m)2 = 50 m

vr = k

vr = 5 104

Distance s:
Position:

m 1m

s 50 m

= 105

m
s

s = vr t = 105 ms 86400 s = 0 864 m

s =

x2 + y 2

x2 = s 2 y 2

From the linear equation: y = m x + n or the two points equation of the straight
line follows:
y1 y0
y y0
=
x1 x0
x x0
With x0 = y0 = 0 and x1 = 30m and y1 = 40m we have the results:
40
4
y
=
=
x
30
3

4
or y = x = m x
3

y 2 = m2 x2 = m2 (s2 y 2 )
m 2 s2
(1 + m2 )

m 2 s2
1 3332 (0 864 m)2
=
= 0 4777m = 0 689m
y=
(1 + m2 )
(1 + 1 7778)

y2 =

y
= 0 517m
m
We can insert y immediately into the equation of the length s:
x=

4
y= x
3

s = x2 + y 2

4 2
16
5
2
s = x + ( x) = x2 + x2 = x
3
9
3

64

2.3. Examples of vector calculus

With s = 0 864m we get the value:

3s
= 0 6 0 864m = 0 518m
5
4
y = x = 0 69m
3

x=

65

2.4 Exercises
Exercises to 2:
1. The vectors a b c are given in the coordinates:
ax = 5

bx = 3

cx = 6

ay = 7 by = 4 cy = 9
az = 8

bz = 6

cz = 5

Determine the length of vector d = a + b + c.

2. Given the vectors a = 2i 3j + 5k and b = 3i wj + 2k.
Compute w such that the two vectors are perpendicular to each other.
= x2 yi + y 2 zj + z 2 xk. Calculate:
3. Given = xy + yz + zx and A

(a)A

(b) A

(c) () A

4. A particle moves along a space curve in the coordinates x = t3 + 2t,

y = 3e2t , z = 2 sin 5t.
Compute the velocity and the acceleration of the particle at any time t. Indicate
the distances for t = 0 and t = 1.
5. Plot and compute the end point of a pollutant particle after one day, if it moves
from the origin x = 0m, y = 0m by a convection due to a potential gradient of
h = 1m between the points x = 0m, y = 0m and x = 30m, y = 40m with a k
value k = 5 104 m s1 .
6. Given the scalar conservative vector eld in a lter h = xy + yz + xz.
a) Determine the lter velocity (vector and magnitude)
b) Is the activity source or sink in the lter?
c) Is the ow in the lter irrational?
Given are k = 104 ms1 and grad(k) = 0.
7. A pollutant plume spreads in the underground. The distribution of the pollutant
varies in the range of the values x ::= 0 to 10 and y ::= 0 to 10 with the following
geometry:
C(x y) = 50 ((x 5)2 + (y 5)2 )

Systems Analysis in Water Management

PeterWolfgang Gr
aber

2.4. Exercises

a) Plot the equipotential lines for the concentration values in range of C(x y) =
0mg to 50mg with an increment C(x y) = 10.
b) Compute the gradient at the point P (3 4) and determine the magnitude
and the direction angle.
8. A pollutant plume spreads in the underground. The distribution of the pollutant
varies in the range of the values x ::= 0 to 10 and y ::= 0 to 10 with the following
geometry:
C(x y) = 125 ((2x 10)2 + (y 5)2 )
a) Plot the equipotential lines for the concentration values in range of C(x y) =
0mg to 125mg with an increment C(x y) = 25.
b) Compute the gradient at the point P (5 10) and determine the magnitude
and the direction angle.
9. The groundwater level of an aquifer which one side is limited by a barrier and a
well has the following geometry:
zR =

1 (y 10)2
2
x

a) Plot the hydroisohypses in the range of zR = 1m to zR = 5m with an

increment zR = 1m for the coordinate 0 x 10
b) Compute the ltration velocity with k = 0 0001ms1 at the point P (5 5);
determine the magnitude and the direction angle .
c) Is this eld source or sink?
10. The ground water level of a rift inow in an aquifer is given by the geometrical
function:
zR = y + 3x
a) Plot the hydroisohypses for the range zR = 1m to 5m with an increment
zR = 1m.
b) Compute the ltration velocity with k = 0 0001ms1 at the point P (5 5);
determine the magnitude and the direction angle.
c) Is this eld source or sink?

67

CHAPTER 2. VECTOR ALGEBRA AND VECTOR CALCULUS

68