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5.1. In-plane Problem and Plane Element

z

The previous chapters have discussed 1-D elements (line elements) in

the form of bar, truss, beam, and frame elements.

One order higher than one-dimensional elements are plane elements, or

2-D elements. The simplest two-dimensional element is the membrane
element, which can transfer only in-plane loads; there are no out-ofplane loads. Consequently, membrane elements can carry only in-plane
stress but cannot transfer bending moments or torsion. Figure 5-1
shows structures which can be modelled by membrane elements.

The simplest of membrane elements is so-called constant strain triangle

(CST). The assumption for this element is that the element
displacement field is linear, which thus yields constant strains within
the element. This chapter will discuss the derivation of the CST element
equations using POMPE.
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(a) Plate with hole under in-plane axial load

(b) Spanner under line-pressure load

Figure 5-1 Structures which can be modelled by membrane elements
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5.2. Plane Stress and Plane Strain

z

Plane problem can be categorized either as plane stress or plane strain.

Consider the in-plane loaded plate shown in Figure 5-2.

y
x
Figure 5-2 A plate under in-plane loading

The plane stress condition dictates that the stress component in the zdirection is equal to zero. This situation occurs if the thickness of the
plate (in z-direction) is very small.

The plane strain condition prevails if the strain in z-direction is very

small (zero). Thick structures are normally treated as plane strain
problems.
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The strain/displacement relationship for the plate is given by

x ux
{ } = y = yv
( u + v )
xy y x
or

(5.2.1)

{ } = [ B ]{d }

(5.2.2)

where u is the displacement in the x - direction and v is the

displacement in the y - direction.
The stress - strain relationship is given by
{ } = [ D]{ }
(5.2.3)
where the stress components can be written as
{ } = [ x y xy ]T

(5.2.4)
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The value of [ D] depends on whether the problem is categorized as plane

stress or plane strain.
For plane stress problems :
1 0
E
[ D] =
1 0
2
1
0 0 12
For plane strain problems :

(5.2.5)

0
1
E

[ D] =

1
0
(5.2.6)

(1 + )(1 2 )
1 2
0
0
2
In any case, by substituting Eq. (5.2.2) into Eq. (5.2.3), we obtain
{ } = [ D][ B]{d }

(5.2.7)
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5.3. Derivation of CST Element Stiffness Matrix

z

Step 1 Select Element Type

Consider the basic triangular element shown in Figure 5-3, with nodes i,
j, and m labeled in a CCW manner. Here, all information are based on
this CCW system of labelling. It is important that a consistent labelling
system for the whole body is used to avoid problems in the calculations
such as negative element areas.
Here (xi, yi), (xj, yj), and (xm, ym)
are the known nodal coordinates
of nodes i, j, and m respectively.
The nodal displacement of
nodes i, j, and m are (ui, vi),
(uj, vj), and (um, vm) respectively.

vm
m (xm, ym)

um

vi
i (xi , yi )

ui

vj
j (x j , y j )

uj

Figure 5-3 Basic triangular element

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The nodal displacement matrix is given by

ui
v
i
{d i }
u

{d } = {d j } = j
{d } v j
m u
m

vm
z

(5.3.1)

Step 2 Select Displacement Functions

We select a linear displacement function for each element as.
u ( x, y ) = a1 + a2 x + a3 y
v( x, y ) = a4 + a5 x + a6 y

(5.3.2)

The linear function ensures that compatibility will be satisfied.

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The general displacement function {}, which stores the functions

u and v, can be expressed as
a1
a
2
a + a x + 33 y 1 x y 0 0 0 a3
{} = 1 2
=
a (5.3.3)
a
a
x
y
3
+
+
x
y
0
0
0
1

4
3
1 2
a5

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To obtain the values of to in Eq. (5.3.2), firstly, the nodal coordinates are
substituted into Eq. (5.3.2) to yield
ui = a1 + a 2 xi + a3 yi
u j = a1 + a 2 x j + a3 y j
um = a1 + a 2 xm + a3 ym
vi = a4 + a 5 xi + a6 yi
v j = a 4 + a 5 x j + a6 y m

(5.3.4)

v m = a 4 + a 5 x m + a6 y m
where ui = u ( xi , yi ), ui = u ( xi , yi ), etc. We can solve for a' s beginning with
the first three of Eqs. (5.3.4) expressed in matrix form as
ui 1 xi yi a1


(5.3.5)
u j = 1 x j y j a2
u 1 x
ym a3
m
m
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or solving for a' s, we obatin

{a} = [ x]1{u}
(5.3.6)
where [ x] is the 3 3 matrix on the right side of Eq. (5.3.5). Using
cofactor method, the inverse of [ x] can be found as
i j
1

i j
[ x]1 =
2A
i j

m
m

(5.3.7)

where
1

xi

yi

2A = 1 xj
1 xm

yj
ym

(5.3.8)

is the determinant of [ x], which on expansion form becomes

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2 A = xi ( y j ym ) + x j ( ym yi ) + xm ( yi y j )

(5.3.9)

Here A is the area of the triangle, and

i = x j ym y j xm j = xm yi ym xi m = xi y j yi x j
i = y j ym
j = y m yi
m = yi y j
i = xm x j
j = xi xm
m = x j xi

(5.3.10)

With [ x]-1 known, Eq. (5.3.6) can be expressed in matrix form as

i j
a1
1
a 2 =
i j
a 2 A
j
3
i

m ui

m u j
m um

(5.3.11)

Similarly, using the last three of Eqs. (5.3.6), we can obtain

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 i j m vi
a 4

1
i j m v j
(5.3.12)
a5 =

2
A
a
i j m vm
6

Now we are ready to derive the general x displacement function, u ( x, y )

of {} (v can be derived in an analogous manner) in term of the coordinate
variables x and y, the known coordinate variables i , j , L , m , and the
unknown nodal displacements ui , u j , and m . We begin with Eq. (5.3.2)

expressed in matrix form, we have

{u} = [1 x

a1

y ] a 2
a
3

(5.3.13)

Substituting Eq. (5.3.11) into Eq. (5.3.13), we obtain

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1
{u} =
[1 x
2A

i j

y] i j
i j

m ui

m u j
m um

(5.3.12)

which after multiplication and rearranging can be written as

{u ( x, y )} =

1 ( i + i x + i y )ui + ( j + j x + j y )u j

2 A + ( m + m x + m y )u m

(5.3.13)

Similarly, the displacement function v( x, y ) can be obtained as

{v( x, y )} =

1 ( i + i x + i y )vi + ( j + j x + j y )v j

2 A + ( m + m x + m y )vm

(5.3.14)

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To express Eq. (5.3.13) and (5.3.14) for u and v in simpler form, we define
1
Ni =
( i + i x + i y )
2A
1
Nj =
( j + j x + j y )
(5.3.15)
2A
1
Nm =
( m + m x + m y )
2A
Thus, using Eqs. (5.3.15), we can rewrite Eqs. (5.3.13) and (5.3.14) as
u ( x, y ) = N i ui + N j u j + N m u m
v( x, y ) = N i vi + N j v j + N m vm

(5.3.16)

Expressing Eqs. (5.3.16) in matrix form, we obtain

u ( x, y ) N i ui + N j u j + N mu m
{} =
=

v( x, y ) N i vi + N j v j + N m vm

(5.3.17)
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or

Ni
{} =
0

0
Ni

Nj
0

0
Nj

Nm
0

ui
v
i
0 u j

N m v j
um

vm

(5.3.18)

Finally, expressing Eq. (5.3.18) in abbreviated matrix form, we have

{} = [ N ]{d }

(5.3.19)

where [ N ] is given by
Ni
[N ] =
0

Nj

Nm

Ni

Nj

0
N m

(5.3.20)
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Matrix [N] is the shape function matrix of the CST. This is the same
in concept as the shape matrix of the previous 1-D elements. Eq.
(5.3.19) express the general displacements as functions of {d} in
terms of the shape functions Ni, Nj, and Nm. As the shape functions are
linear, the displacement field, within the element, is also linear. A
linear displacement field yields a constant strain field in the element.

For instance, Ni represents the shape of the variable u when plotted

over the surface of the element for ui = 1 and all other d.o.f. Equal to
zero, that is, uj = um = vi = vj = vm = 0. In addition, u(xi,yi) must equal
to ui. Therefore, we must have Ni = 1, Nj = 0, and Nm = 0 at (xi,yi).
Similarly, u(xj,yj) = uj. Therefore, Ni = 0, Nj = 1, and Nm = 0 at (xj,yj).

Finally, Ni + Nj + Nm = 1 for all x and y locations on the surface of the

element. The proof of this relationship follows that given for the bar
element in Section 3.2.
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Step 3 Define the Strain/Displacement & Stress/Strain Relationships

We express the element strains and stresses in terms of the unknown
nodal displacements.

Element Strains
The strain associated with the 2D element are given by
x ux

{ } = y = yv
( u + v )
xy x y
Using Eqs. (5.3.16) for the displacements, we have
u

= u , x = (N i ui + N j u j + N mu m )
x
x
or

u , x = N i , x ui + N j , x u j + N m , x u m

(5.3.21)

(5.3.22)
(5.3.23)
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where the coma followed by a variable indicates differentiation with

respect to that variable, e.g. N i , x = N i x. We have used ui , x = 0 be cause ui = u ( xi , yi ) is a constant value; similarly, u j , x = 0 and um , x = 0.
Using Eq. (5.3.15), the derivatives of the shape functions in
Eq. (5.3.23) can be expressed
1
( i + i x + i y ) = i
(5.3.24)
Ni,x =
2A
2A
and, similarly,
N j,x =

and

N m, x =

(5.3.25)
2A
2A
Therefore, using Eqs. (5.3.24) and (5.3.25) in Eq. (5.3.23), we have
u
1
( iui + j u j + mum )
=
(5.3.26)
x 2 A
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Similarly, we obtain
v
1
( i vi + j v j + mvm )
=
y 2 A
(5.3.27)
u v
1
( iui + j u j + mum + i vi + j v j + mvm )
+
=
x y 2 A
Substituting Eq. (5.3.26) and (5.3.27) in Eq. (5.3.21) yields
ui
v
i 0 j 0 m 0 i
1
u j
{ } =

0
0
0
(5.3.28)
i
j
m
v
2A
j

i i j j m m

u
m

vm
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10

{ } = Bi

or

Bj

{d i }

Bm {d j }
{d }
m

(5.3.29)

where

0
0

1 j
1 m

[B j ] =
[ Bm ] =
0 m (5.3.30)
i
0 j

2A
2A
m m
i i
j j
In simplified form, Eq. (5.3.29) can be written as
{ } = [ B]{d }
(5.3.31)
where
[ B] = [ Bi B j Bm ]
(5.3.32)

1 i
[ Bi ] =
0
2A

The strains in Eq. (5.3.31) will be constant; hence, the element is

called a constant strain triangle (CST).
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Stress/Str ains Relationsh ip

In general, the in - plane stress/str ain relationsh ip is given by
x
x


y = [ D ] y


xy
xy

(5.3.33)

where [ D ] is given by Eq. (5.2. 5) for plane stress problems and

by Eq. (5.2. 6) for plane strain problems. Substituti ng Eq. (5.3.31)
in Eq. (5.3.33), the stress/str ain relationsh ip can be written
{ } = [ D ][ B ]{d }

(5.3.34)
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11

Step 4 Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations

Using the POMPE, we can generate the equations for a typical CST
element. The total PE of the element is a function of the nodal
displacements ui, vi, uj, ..., vm such that
p = p (ui , vi , u j , L vm )
(5.3.35)

The total PE is given by

p = U + b + p + s

(5.3.36)

where the strain energy is given by

1
U = { }T { } dV
2 V

(5.3.37)

or using Eq. (5.3.33 ), we have

1
U = { }T {D}{ } dV
2 V

(5.3.38)
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The PE of the body forces is given by

b = {}T { X } dV

(5.3.39)

where {} is again the general displacement function, and { X } is the body

weight/unit volume or weight density (typically in N/m 3 or lb/in 3 ).
The PE of the concentrated loads is given by
p = {d }T {P}

(5.3.40)

where {d } represents the nodal displacements and {P} the concentrated nodal loads.
The PE of the distributed loads (or surface tractions) is given by
p = {}T {T } dS

(5.3.41)

where {T } represents the surface tractions (typically in N/m 2 or lb/in 2 ) and

S represents the surface over which the tractions {T } act.
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12

Using Eq. (5.3.19) for {} and Eq. (5.3.31) for the strain in Eq. (5.3.38) Eq. (5.3.41), we have

p = 12 {d }T [ B]T [ D][ B]{d }dV {d }T [ N ]T { X }dV

V

{d } {P} {d } [ N ] {T } dS
T

(5.3.42)

The nodal displacement {d } are independent of general x-y coordinates, so {d }

can be taken out of the integral of Eqs. (5.3.42). Therefore,

p = 12 {d }T [ B ]T [ D][ B ]dV {d } {d }T [ N ]T { X }dV

{d }T [{P}] {d }T [ N ]T {T } dS
(5.3.43)
S

From Eqs. (5.3.39) - (5.3.41), we can see that the last three terms of Eq. (5.3.43)
represent the total load system { f } on an element; that is
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{ f } = [ N ]T { X }dV + {P} + [ N ]T {T } dS
V

(5.3.44)

where the first, second, and third terms on the right side of Eq. (5.3.44) re present the body forces, the concentrated nodal forces, and the surface
tractions, respectively. Using Eq. (5.3.44) in Eq. (5.3.43), we obtain
1
2

p = {d }T [ B]T [ D][ B]dV {d } {d }T { f }

(5.3.45)

V
Taking the partial derivative of p with respect to the nodal displacements
since p = p (d), as was done for the bar and beam elements in Chapters 3
and 4), we obtain
p

= [ B]T [ D][ B]dV {d } { f } = 0

{d } V

(5.3.46)
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13

Rewriting Eq. (5.3.46), we have

T
(5.3.47)
[ B] [ D][ B]dV {d } = { f }
V

Knowing that [k ]{d } = { f }, from Eq. (5.3.47) it can been seen that
[k ] = [ B]T [ D][ B]dV

(5.3.48)

For an element of constant thickness t , Eq. (5.3.48) becomes

[k ] = t [ B ]T [ D][ B ] dx dy

(5.3.49)

As the integrand is not a function of x and y for CST element, it can taken out
of the integral to yield
[k ] = t A [ B]T [ D][ B]
(5.3.50)
where A is given by Eq. (5.3.9), [ B] is given by Eq. (5.3.32), and [ D] is given by
Eq. (5.3.5) or (5.3.6).
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The stiffness matrix of CST element, [k ] is a 6 6 matrix and is a function of the

nodal coordinates (because A and [ B] are defined in terms of nodal coordinates)
and of the mechanical properties E and (as [ D] is a function of them).
The element equation is given by
f1x k11
f
1 y k 21
f 2 x k31
=
f 2 y k 41
f 3 x k51

f 3 y k61

k12
k 22
k32
k 42
k52
k62

k13
k 23
k33
k 43
k53
k63

k14
k 24
k34
k 44
k54
k64

k15
k 25
k35
k 45
k55
k65

k16 u1
k 26 v1
k36 u2

k 46 v2
k56 u3

k66 v3

(5.3.51)

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14

Step 5 Assembling of Element Stiffness Matrix and Introduce BC

We obtain the global structure stiffness matrix and equations by using
the direct stiffness method as
N

[ K ] = [k ( e ) ]

(5.3.52)

e =1

(5.3.53)
and
{F } = [ K ]{d }
where, in Eq. (5.3.52), all element stiffness matrices are defined in
terms of the global x-y coordinates system, and
N

{F } = { f ( e ) }

(5.3.54)

e =1

is the vector of equivalent global nodal forces obtained by lumping

body forces and distributed loads at the proper nodes (including
concentrated nodal loads) or by consistently using Eq. (5.3.44).
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In the formulation of the element stiffness matrix Eq. (5.3.50), the matrix
has been derived for a general orientation in global coordinates. All
element matrices are expressed in the global-coordinates orientation.
Therefore, no transformation from local to global equations is necessary.
If the local axes for the triangular element are not parallel to the global
axes, we must apply matrix transformation similar to those introduced in
Chapter 3. We illustrate the transformation of axes for the triangular
element shown in Figure 5-4. Local nodal forces are shown in the figure.
The transformation from local to global equations follows the procedure
outlined in Section 3.4. We have the same general expressions, Eqs.
(3.4.14), (3.4.16), and (3.4.22), to relate local to global displacements,
forces, stiffness matrices, respectively; that is.

d = Td

f = Tf

k = TT k T

(5.3.55)

where Eq. (3.4.15) for the transformation matrix T used in Eqs. (5.3.55) must be
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15

fmy

fmx

fix

fiy

f jy

x
f jx

Figure 5-4 Triangular element with local axes not parallel to the global axes

expanded because two additional d.o.f. are present in the CST element.
Thus (3.4.15) is expanded to
C
S

0
T=
0
0
0

where C = cos ,

C
0

0
C

0
S

0
0

0
0

S
0

C
0

0
C

0
S

(5.3.51)

S C

S = sin , and is shown in Figure 5 - 4.

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Step 6 Solve for the Nodal Displacements

We determine the unknown global structure nodal displacement by
solving the system of algebric equations given by Eq. (5.3.53).

Step 7 Solve for the Elements Forces (Stresses)

Having solved for the nodal displacements, we obtain the strains and
stresses in the global x and y directions in the elements by using Eqs.
(5.3.31) and (5.3.34). Finally, we determine the maximum and
minimum in-plane principal stresses 1 and 2 by using Mohr circle
formula, where these stresses are usually assumed to act at the centroid
of the element.

EXAMPLE 7.1 and 7.2

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16

Reference:
1. Logan, D.L., 1992, A First Course in the Finite Element Method,
PWS-KENT Publishing Co., Boston.
2. Imbert, J.F.,1984, Analyse des Structures par Elements Finis,
2nd Ed., Cepadues.
3. Zienkiewics, O.C., 1977, The Finite Eelement Method, 3rd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, London.
4. Finlayson, B.A., 1972, The Method of Weighted Residuals and
Variational Principles, Academic Press, New York.

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17