BEOWULF

-An anonymous Anglo-Saxon epic

Historical Context
No one is certain exactly when Beowulf was first composed or transcribed.
Like other early epics, the poem probably evolved out of an oral tradition and was
compiled from several smaller narratives. Some researchers speculate that it was
written around A.D. 700 by an unknown author, perhaps an inhabitant of the
modern-day West Midlands of England.
Although Beowulf stands as one of the earliest works of English literature,
the story does not take place in England. Instead, it tells of events that occur in
Sweden and on the Danish island of Zealand. The epic glorifies the actions of the
Danes and the Geats (inhabitants of southern Sweden). Thus Beowulf does not
reflect English history and traditions so much as those of the Anglo-Saxons and
their Germanic ancestors.
Germanic people began to invade England in A.D. 449. This incursion was
probably complete by the time Beowulf was written. Beowulf is rich in the cultural
legacy of the invaders. This legacy is particularly important when examining two
aspects of Beowulf. The first of these aspects is the depiction of the feudal
system. The second aspect is the peculiar mix of ideas about religion and fate
voiced by the poet.
The feudal system of the Anglo-Saxons was extremely regimented. The
hierarchy of their society ranged from lords to slaves. Of particular interest in
Beowulf is the relationship of a king to his warriors. This relationship hinged on
loyalty bred by warfare and the philosophy of revenge as a way of life . Depending
on his station, each man had a price. When a man was killed by an enemy, his
kinsmen were expected to exact that price in blood or in wergild, a gold payment.
This seemingly pagan and barbaric system existed uneasily with
Christianity. Pope Gregory began the Christianization of Anglo-Saxon Britain about
a century before Beowulf was written. The unknown author of Beowulf was
undoubtedly a Christian with considerable familiarity with the Bible. But even in this
poets work, it is evident that the conversion of Anglo-Saxons was hardly complete.
Paganism and Christianity continued to alternately clash and merge, much as
African tribal beliefs interacted with Catholicism to produce Voodoo in Haiti.
Although the text of Beowulf is riddle with Judeo-Christian references, there
is almost no sense of a loving, merciful Christian God in the poem. Moreover, a
Christian ethic of forgiveness and altruism is hardly extolled in Beowulf. At times,
the Judeo-Christian God becomes synonymous with wyrd, or the pagan idea of
fate. And the poems celebrated Song of Creation, so very biblical in outlook and
imagery, comes quickly after the introduction of the distinctly pagan monster
Grendel.
Critics once thought that Christian references in Beowulf were inserted by a
later author in an attempt to improve the original poem. But centuries of study
indicate that Christian references are too pervasive and integral to have been

merely added on. Long thought to be a problem with the poem, this combination of
Christian and pagan elements is now considered a vivid reflection of Beowulfs
position in English history. The mix produces a tension which is not the least
among the poems wonders.
Philosophy
The tension between Judeo-Christian and pagan thought in Beowulf is
central to understanding the philosophical viewpoint of the anonymous poet. A
reader is confronted by the question of human destiny and freedom. Is the universe
ruled by a benevolent, Judeo-Christian deity who allows humans the freedom to
make their own choices and pursue their own destiny? Or is it controlled by a rigid
wyrd, which humans blindly follow?
The words wyrd and God are sometimes interchangeable in the poem. But more
often than not, the poet seems to offer the bleak view that humans rarely control
their own destiny. And there is very little in Beowulf to suggest the comfort of
Christian immortality. So what can humans do to find consolation in such a world?
Fame may be an equivalent of immortality in the male dominated, warfaring society of Beowulf. The warriors of that culture believe that a man
must achieve all he can in life and broadcast his deeds. Only through deeds
and fame can a man hope to live forever.
Materialism is also a quality of the characters in Beowulf. A mans aim was
to win as many valuables as he could throughout his life. In the prologue to
the poem, the glory of wealth is displayed in the memorable image of great
King Shilds funeral boat. But to the warrior, the vast and splendid riches
aboard the boat are more than a mere lifetime of material accumulations.
They are testimonials to a mans existence, a monument which gives
meaning to fleering mortal life.
There is more depth to the Germanic culture than just boasting and taking,
however. Men achieve dignity in the face of impending fate by maintaining the
code of their society. They revenge the deaths of kinsmen, defend members of
their community, and stand fast by those to whom they have sworn their loyalty.
Abiding by these obligations was seen as adding to a mans fame and even
giving him a kind of immortality in lieu of an afterlife.
But the question remains: How can a man achieve even these things if all
humans are controlled by a predetermining wyrd? The answer may lie in
Beowulfs attitude. The great warrior appears to believe that a man must
constantly test his fate and always act without fear. Perhaps fate may smile
upon a man who stands firm when his destruction seems certain-as it does

when Beowulf battles Grendel and the monsters mother. Beowulfs philosophy
suggests that humans can create changes in destiny through the sheer force of
heroism.
This philosophy sustains Beowulf for a time. And even when it ails him in
his struggle with the dragon, the old king dies in honor and fame. He and his
defender, young Wiglaf, emerge much more nobly than the indecisive warriors
who refuse to help them. All humans must die, and Beowulfs fame- a warriors
dearest possession-endures to his death and beyond.
Perhaps Beowulfs philosophy (and that of his chronicler) can be
summarized very simply: in a word without hope, a brave soul has nothing to
lose.
Analysis

Perhaps the greatest difficulties presented to a scholar of Beowulf are the

extended digressions, flashbacks, and the single great break in time sequence
of the narrative that occurs in Section 31 (beginning c. line 2144). It is
important to understand the purpose of Beowulfs poet in employing this
structure to appreciate the poem.
Digressions and flashbacks are not unusual in epic poetry. But these
devises seem to predominate in Beowulf, almost at the expense of narrative. In
particular, Beowulfs retelling of his adventures to Higlac may seem a bit
redundant to todays reader. Does the structure of Beowulf suffer because of
there disruptions in the narrative?
The modern reader is undoubtedly less prepared for the many digressions in
the poem than was an Anglo-Saxon audience. Doubtless the Anglo-Saxons
recognized references to mythology and folklore that are now obscure. They
probably grasped subtleties and ironies that are lost on todays reader.
But some of there digressions remain intelligible and pertinent, offering
valuable commentary on characters, situations, and events. For instance,
Beowulfs lengthy speech about his swimming contest against Becca tells us a
great deal about Beowulfs character and his manner of promoting his own
accomplishments.
Hrothgars sermon to Beowulf on pride is also enlightening. Beowulf has
just defeated to monsters, and his fortunes are on the rise. Paternally, Hrothgar
wishes to see Beowulf continue to prosper, and the king advises the warrior
well. The speech reflects on the character of both men and the philosophy of
their society.

Beowulfs story of the death of Herbald is another important digression.

Beowulfs recounting of the event expresses his own inner feelingsthe
profound melancholy of a man approaching death. Moreover, the enormous
narrative break dramatizes the change in Beowulfs character, from youthful
confidence to the weariness of age.
Stylistic Devices
The Old English of Beowulf is a completely different language then the
English we speak today. Modern English began to evolve only after the Norman
invasion of Britain in 1066. Without a knowledge of Old English, Beowulf simply
cannot be read except in translation.
Techniques of versification in Old English poetry also are distinctly different
from poetry in modern English. Old English prosody-or versification-was based
heavily upon alliteration, the repeated use of a particular consonant or vowel within
a line. Each line was made up of four stressed or accented syllables and four or
more unaccented syllables. A caesura, or a pause, was included at midline.
During the course of a given line, an alliterated sound would occur three times.
Certain characteristics of the Old English Beowulf are usually not apparent
to the modern reader. One unfortunate loss is the musical accompaniment. Since
the poetry of Beowulf was originally chanted or sung, a harp was probably used for
added emphasis. A sing note may have been occasionally struck during the
midline caesura or at other significant breaks in the flow of the poem.
Another loss in the typical modern transition is the heavy use of formula.
Old English poetry, like Homeric epic poetry, heavily depended on repeated
phrases and descriptions. These formulas offered the poet ready and familiar
means of visualizing a person, place, thing, or event. In Homer, descriptions of the
rosy fingertips of dawn, frequently recur. In Beowulf, the hero is repeatedly
referred as a poet reciting the poem orally. This also has a sense of ritual and
drama to the poem.

Concept of Identity
Ancestral Heritage
Every male figure is known as his
fathers son. Individuals identify
themselves by their lineage.
There is an emphasis on kinship.

Individual Reputation
Establishing a good reputation (by
brave deeds) was the only means
by which someone with no heritage
(like an orphan) can construct

(Johnson, Stevenson, etc.)

an identity for himself.

Beowulf, of a pagan-warrior culture, seems not to have a memory of an afterlife. It

seems fame is the only way man can ensure an individuals memory after death, a
preoccupation understandable in a world where death is knocking on your door.
Values: Heroic Code

In warriors:
Strength, courage, loyalty
In kings:
Hospitality, generosity, political skill
In women:
Ceremoniousness
In all people:
A good reputation