Historical Context
No one is certain exactly when Beowulf was first composed or transcribed.
Like other early epics, the poem probably evolved out of an oral tradition and was
compiled from several smaller narratives. Some researchers speculate that it was
written around A.D. 700 by an unknown author, perhaps an inhabitant of the
modern-day West Midlands of England.
Although Beowulf stands as one of the earliest works of English literature,
the story does not take place in England. Instead, it tells of events that occur in
Sweden and on the Danish island of Zealand. The epic glorifies the actions of the
Danes and the Geats (inhabitants of southern Sweden). Thus Beowulf does not
reflect English history and traditions so much as those of the Anglo-Saxons and
their Germanic ancestors.
Germanic people began to invade England in A.D. 449. This incursion was
probably complete by the time Beowulf was written. Beowulf is rich in the cultural
legacy of the invaders. This legacy is particularly important when examining two
aspects of Beowulf. The first of these aspects is the depiction of the feudal
system. The second aspect is the peculiar mix of ideas about religion and fate
voiced by the poet.
The feudal system of the Anglo-Saxons was extremely regimented. The
hierarchy of their society ranged from lords to slaves. Of particular interest in
Beowulf is the relationship of a king to his warriors. This relationship hinged on
loyalty bred by warfare and the philosophy of revenge as a way of life . Depending
on his station, each man had a price. When a man was killed by an enemy, his
kinsmen were expected to exact that price in blood or in wergild, a gold payment.
This seemingly pagan and barbaric system existed uneasily with
Christianity. Pope Gregory began the Christianization of Anglo-Saxon Britain about
a century before Beowulf was written. The unknown author of Beowulf was
undoubtedly a Christian with considerable familiarity with the Bible. But even in this
poets work, it is evident that the conversion of Anglo-Saxons was hardly complete.
Paganism and Christianity continued to alternately clash and merge, much as
African tribal beliefs interacted with Catholicism to produce Voodoo in Haiti.
Although the text of Beowulf is riddle with Judeo-Christian references, there
is almost no sense of a loving, merciful Christian God in the poem. Moreover, a
Christian ethic of forgiveness and altruism is hardly extolled in Beowulf. At times,
the Judeo-Christian God becomes synonymous with wyrd, or the pagan idea of
fate. And the poems celebrated Song of Creation, so very biblical in outlook and
imagery, comes quickly after the introduction of the distinctly pagan monster
Grendel.
Critics once thought that Christian references in Beowulf were inserted by a
later author in an attempt to improve the original poem. But centuries of study
indicate that Christian references are too pervasive and integral to have been
merely added on. Long thought to be a problem with the poem, this combination of
Christian and pagan elements is now considered a vivid reflection of Beowulfs
position in English history. The mix produces a tension which is not the least
among the poems wonders.
Philosophy
The tension between Judeo-Christian and pagan thought in Beowulf is
central to understanding the philosophical viewpoint of the anonymous poet. A
reader is confronted by the question of human destiny and freedom. Is the universe
ruled by a benevolent, Judeo-Christian deity who allows humans the freedom to
make their own choices and pursue their own destiny? Or is it controlled by a rigid
wyrd, which humans blindly follow?
The words wyrd and God are sometimes interchangeable in the poem. But more
often than not, the poet seems to offer the bleak view that humans rarely control
their own destiny. And there is very little in Beowulf to suggest the comfort of
Christian immortality. So what can humans do to find consolation in such a world?
Fame may be an equivalent of immortality in the male dominated, warfaring society of Beowulf. The warriors of that culture believe that a man
must achieve all he can in life and broadcast his deeds. Only through deeds
and fame can a man hope to live forever.
Materialism is also a quality of the characters in Beowulf. A mans aim was
to win as many valuables as he could throughout his life. In the prologue to
the poem, the glory of wealth is displayed in the memorable image of great
King Shilds funeral boat. But to the warrior, the vast and splendid riches
aboard the boat are more than a mere lifetime of material accumulations.
They are testimonials to a mans existence, a monument which gives
meaning to fleering mortal life.
There is more depth to the Germanic culture than just boasting and taking,
however. Men achieve dignity in the face of impending fate by maintaining the
code of their society. They revenge the deaths of kinsmen, defend members of
their community, and stand fast by those to whom they have sworn their loyalty.
Abiding by these obligations was seen as adding to a mans fame and even
giving him a kind of immortality in lieu of an afterlife.
But the question remains: How can a man achieve even these things if all
humans are controlled by a predetermining wyrd? The answer may lie in
Beowulfs attitude. The great warrior appears to believe that a man must
constantly test his fate and always act without fear. Perhaps fate may smile
upon a man who stands firm when his destruction seems certain-as it does
when Beowulf battles Grendel and the monsters mother. Beowulfs philosophy
suggests that humans can create changes in destiny through the sheer force of
heroism.
This philosophy sustains Beowulf for a time. And even when it ails him in
his struggle with the dragon, the old king dies in honor and fame. He and his
defender, young Wiglaf, emerge much more nobly than the indecisive warriors
who refuse to help them. All humans must die, and Beowulfs fame- a warriors
dearest possession-endures to his death and beyond.
Perhaps Beowulfs philosophy (and that of his chronicler) can be
summarized very simply: in a word without hope, a brave soul has nothing to
lose.
Analysis
Concept of Identity
Ancestral Heritage
Every male figure is known as his
fathers son. Individuals identify
themselves by their lineage.
There is an emphasis on kinship.
Individual Reputation
Establishing a good reputation (by
brave deeds) was the only means
by which someone with no heritage
(like an orphan) can construct
In warriors:
Strength, courage, loyalty
In kings:
Hospitality, generosity, political skill
In women:
Ceremoniousness
In all people:
A good reputation