By Mark Lamendola

We remain alive because grounding and bonding together keep the electricity all around us
from causing fatalities. Sub par grounding causes power quality problems; when done very
poorly, it can cause fires . . . even electrocutions.

rounding errors cause 80% of

all power quality problems.
They also account for a large
percentage of electrocutions, electrical fires, and equipment failures.
Incorrect grounding prevents power
conditioners, surge suppressors, and
circuit breakers from functioning
correctly, if at all.
Unfortunately, the
typical grounding
installation is
wrong . . .
as are most
ground tests. Proper grounding
relies on two laws of
electrical engineering:
Ohms Law: Voltage =
Resistance x Current (E=IxR);
Current = Volts/Resistance (I =
E/R).
Kirchoffs Law: The total
voltage across any branch in
parallel equals the voltage
across any other branch and
also equals the supply voltage.
Figure One
Combining these laws:
For proper grounding, these different electrodes must be bonded together with
Current in any branch follows
bonding jumpers. The earth cannot serve as such a jumper. The installation
Ohms Law; it depends on the
shown, while common, is wrong. Adding the bonding jumpers fixes it.
resistance in that branch, because the voltage is the same regardIndustrial and Commercial Power
What is grounding?
less of the resistance in the other
Systems;
The National Electrical Safety Code
branches. This concept which

NFPA-70, the National Electriand IEEE-142-1 address system

makes
integrated
circuits
cal Code, specifically Article 250; and
grounding, which is normally the job
possible is a cornerstone of the three

IAEI (International Association

of utility engineers. The National
major grounding standards:
of Electrical Inspectors) Soares Book
Electrical Code (NEC) and IEEE-142
IEEE-142, Grounding of
of Grounding
2 address grounding industrial,

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Volume 3, Number 2 Power Outlet

residential, and commercial buildings and equipment . . . which is the

job of everyone else.
As defined in the National
Electrical Code (NEC), grounding is
the intentional connection of
equipment to earth. The usual way
to accomplish this is by driving two
10-foot copper clad steel rods into the
dirt, bonding (wiring) them together,
then bonding one to the ground
system at the service entrance. For
anything fed by that service (see Figure One) to be effectively grounded,
it must be bonded to the service
entrance grounding system through
the bonding system.
Bonding, as defined in the
NEC, is the permanent joining of
metallic parts to form an electrically
conductive path that provides the
ability to safely conduct any fault

current likely to be imposed. (A fault

is a path between a current-carrying conductor and ground a short
circuit). Bonding also reduces the
voltage potential between noncurrent-carrying metallic items (for
example, equipment) and ground.

path to earth. IEEE-142-4 lists the

factors that determine the value of
this impedance:

eres a list of some ground

ing system errors that are,
unfortunately, more common
than one might want to admit:

Load side neutral bonds such

bonds effectively short circuit the
grounding system.

Unbonded grounding electrodes.

Bonding jumper configurations

that form ground loops.

Earth resistance.
Resistance
Grounding provides a low-impedance

62

Reducing potential
Grounding and bonding work
together, so that everything
metallic that isnt a currentcarrying conductor is at the same
potential with respect to the earth.
In other words, there will be no
voltage difference between metallic
parts like rebar, enclosures,
and I-beams.
Unfortunately, many people
forget Kirchoffs Law and try to
make high-resistance earth a
bonding jumper. Those who do the

resistance of the electrode

(or electrode system);

contact resistance between

the electrode (or electrode system)
and the soil; and

resistance of the soil, from the

electrode surface outward (this is
geometry-dependent).
Note that the first two resistances
are in fractions of an ohm, while the
soil resistance ranges from 1,000 to
100,000 ohms per centimeter! Thus,

math can see this doesnt work.

The resistance of 1,000 feet of #4
copper wire is 0.308 ohms (DC).
Soares gives the ohmic values of 1
cm of soil, by type, listing nine types
in descending order of resistivity.
The range is from 100,000 to 1,000
ohms.
Taking typical values for gravel,
sand, and clay, the resistance at
1,000 feet is as follows:

1,000 ft = 30,479 cm

Typical gravel = 75,000 ohms/

cm = 2,285.925 megohms

Typical sand = 10,000 ohms/cm

= 304,790 megohms

Typical clay = 5,000 ohms/cm =

152,395 megohms

Best possible soil = 1,000 ohms/

cm = 30,479 megohms
Per Ohms Law, Voltage =
Current x Resistance. A driven rod

the resistance of the electrode (or

what metal its made of) is inconsequential and can be omitted from
calculation. The same is true of the
contact resistance between the
electrode and the soil, provided the
electrode is installed properly and is
in contact with the soil.
Obviously, the ability to ensure a
low-impedance path to earth depends
on soil characteristics and the geometry of the electrode system all of
which are covered in pages of detail
in industry standards. M.L.

Volume 3, Number 2 Power Outlet

connected to the service entrance

ground by a 150 gigohm bonding
jumper (soil) doesnt equalize
potential between those two points,
because current flow is almost
negligible.
Thus, a charge can easily build
up at equipment grounded to a
driven rod not bonded back to the
main system. This voltage will
eventually equalize (flash over)
when enough of an ionization
trail forms across (or around)
insulation, or when a person
moves close enough to
become a path to ground.
Result: A burned
circuit card . . .
which is to be
hoped for,
because,
in the worst case, the
incorrect grounding can lead
to a workers electrocution.
Fault current
In a fault, the system is not
discharging a static buildup that
drops in voltage as soon as current
flows. A fault has, for all practical
purposes, an infinite power supply
behind it. It will maintain voltage.
Unfortunately, many people
misapply Ohms Law and assume
the presence of a good ground
prevents electrocution during a
fault. The theory is electricity
takes the path of least resistance.
The utility industry used this
theory for decades. But Kirchoffs
Law shows it isnt true.
Electricity takes all paths. The
current through each one is simply
the supply voltage divided by the
resistance of that path. Current flows
in inverse proportion to the impedance of the paths presented to it.
Thus, fault current flows according
to the resistance of each path,
regardless of the resistance of other
paths. The amount of fault current
depends only on the voltage and
impedance of that particular path.
Note that this can be a hard
concept for many people to grasp. It
is sometimes helpful to draw a

64

circuit on paper and look at the current paths, then do the series-parallel current calculations. Understanding this concept is crucial to designing an effective grounding system.
A grounding system consists of:

Earthen connection (for example,

rod, plate, ring)

Wiring from earth ground, via

the Main Grounding Conductor
(MGC), to the main ground connec

Voltage can
eventually
flash over
when a
person moves
close enough
to become
a path
to ground

tion point (MGCP usually at the

service entrance)

Supplemental
grounding
electrodes (for example, water pipes)

The bonding system

The bonding system consists of:

Wiring from equipment to a

local bonding point

Wiring from the local point to

the main bonding jumper (MBJ)

Wiring from the MBJ to the

MGC or MGCP
Ground testing
A common error in
testing a ground
system is applying
a resistance method
(e.g., Fall of Potential) with the
power on (utility
neutral connected). This
test merely proves a good
connection to the utility
neutral.
Absent an adequate ground
system, this neutral takes on
double duty . . . which its simply
not designed to handle. The neutral is the return path for unbalanced current. Why tie circuit
board grounds to the 277V return
current of a lighting system?
To ensure an effective ground,
apply Ohms Law and Kirkoffs
Law during design, construction,
and testing. The three main
standards codify the permutations
these laws produce in grounding
systems. Following those standards
eliminates the major cause
of power quality problems and
allows protective devices to
function properly.

Lamendola, an electrical industry

expert who has written for several
industry magazines, is the
proprietor of www.mindconnection
.com and www.codebookcity.com.
Volume 3, Number 2 Power Outlet