Abstract
Colour has always been an intriguing aspect of cinematography. For this dissertation I
have chosen to focus on its role in aiding storytelling and genre depiction. Colour is a
part of everyday life and it impinges upon almost every facet of our lives, influencing us
whether emotionally, physically or intellectually in any number of different and
unpredictable ways.
Three attributes, physical, physiological and psychological play an important role in the
perception of and response to colour. The use of colour within films has evolved through
artistic vision and technical innovation. Technicolor dominated the industry for nearly
three decades. Their leading colour consultant, Natalie Kalmus, had a distinct style and
a particular idea of what colour on the screen should look like: Some believe she played
a major role in the development of colour palettes to aid storytelling.
However, when first used colour was considered a diversion and reserved almost
exclusively for some musicals and fantasy films. The Elements of Color in Professional
Motion Pictures (1957) produced by the Society of Motion Pictures and Television
Engineers stipulated that colour should be subordinate to the narrative and, in no
circumstances, constitute a separate entity to compete with or detract from the
dramatic content of the picture. Despite the conservative tone of manuals and
guidelines on the use of colour a few directors experimented.
Today the use of colour in cinematography is considered a vital part of creating a movie.
Colour can communicate time and place, define characters, and establish emotion, mood,
atmosphere, and a psychological sensibility. A single consistent colour in a story can be
used to depict associations whereas; a change in colour shows transition. Due to the
importance of being able to discern between genres and the visual cues in form of genre
specific colour grading, standardised colour palettes for different genres have appeared
and are almost expected. To fulfil the practical element of this dissertation I have filmed
short clips and exposed them to colour correction templates to demonstrate how specific
genres can be produced with little more than a laptop with a discussion on what this
means for colour in the film industry.
Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... i
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. iv
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vi
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1
What is Colour? ................................................................................................................ 1
Physical Properties of Colour ....................................................................................... 2
What is light? ................................................................................................................... 3
Physiological Mechanism: How the Eye Sees Colour ............................................... 5
Structure of the human eye.......................................................................................... 5
Psychological Processes ................................................................................................. 6
How do we Perceive colour? ......................................................................................... 7
Effects of Colour on Emotion ........................................................................................ 8
History of Colour in Cinema ............................................................................................. 10
Late 1800s to Early 1900s ............................................................................................ 10
1920s-1950s ................................................................................................................... 12
Technicolor.................................................................................................................. 13
Modern Day and Digital ................................................................................................ 17
The Role of Colour in Film ........................................................................................... 20
Early thoughts on the use of colour in film ................................................................... 20
Expanding the Use of Colour in Film ............................................................................ 21
The Use of Colour to Aid Storytelling ........................................................................ 25
Associative Colours in Storytelling ............................................................................ 25
Transitional Colours in Storytelling .......................................................................... 27
General Use of Colour for Audience Benefit ................................................................. 30
The Use of Colour in Genre Distinction .................................................................... 33
What is Genre? ............................................................................................................... 33
Genre Specific Colour Grading ...................................................................................... 33
Horror ......................................................................................................................... 34
Romance/Comedy ....................................................................................................... 37
Post-apocalyptic / War ................................................................................................ 38
Science Fiction ............................................................................................................ 41
Western ....................................................................................................................... 42
Action, Drama and Thriller ........................................................................................ 44
ii
iii
List of Figures
Figure 1 Three factors which can affect colour perception ............................................ 2
Figure 2 The wavelength (nm) for different visible colours ............................................ 3
Figure 3 How the reflection/absorption of light alters the appearance of an object...... 3
Figure 4 Isaac Newtons Colour Wheel........................................................................... 4
Figure 5 Diagram of the human eye and its main components. .................................... 6
Figure 6 Lightsabers from Star Wars 1977. ................................................................... 8
Figure 7 Hand coloured film - The Infernal Cauldron 1903. ....................................... 11
Figure 8 - Flowers and Trees 1932. ................................................................................. 12
Figure 9 On With the Show 1929. ................................................................................. 13
Figure 10 Gold Diggers of Broadway 1929 ................................................................... 13
Figure 11 Example of Natalie Kalmus colour palette from Its a Pleasure 1945. ....... 15
Figure 12 The Adventures of Robin Hood 1938. ........................................................... 15
Figure 13 The Wizard of Oz 1939 ................................................................................. 16
Figure 14 Gone with the Wind 1939. ............................................................................ 16
Figure 15 - Up, 2009 ....................................................................................................... 17
Figure 16 Subdued palette used in True Grit 2010...................................................... 18
Figure 17 Isolated colour (red) used to add contrast in Sin City 2005 ........................ 18
Figure 18 Screen shot demonstrates the red and green used throughout Amlie ...... 19
Figure 19 Subtle colours depict reality in Slumdog Millionaire 2008......................... 19
Figure 20 A more realistic colour palette in Apocalypse Now 1979 ............................. 19
Figure 21 Image showing sallow yellow-green colouration in Seven 1995 .................. 22
Figure 22 Contract between blue and gold in Eyes Wide Shut 1999 ........................... 22
Figure 23 Surreal colouring used in The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover........ 23
Figure 24 The use of red throughout Raise The Red Lantern 1991............................. 23
Figure 25 The colour red appears regularly in We Need to Talk About Kevin 2011 .... 26
Figure 26 The use of orange throughout The Godfather 1972 ..................................... 26
Figure 27 The use of three colours to depict different areas in Traffic 2000 .............. 27
Figure 28 Green associated with Madeline in Vertigo 1958 ........................................ 27
Figure 29 Images showing the colour transition throughout The Last Emperor 1987 28
Figure 30 Colour Wheel ................................................................................................ 29
Figure 31 Walter revealing a deeper shade of red below his shirt in Breaking Bad .. 29
Figure 32 - The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari 1920. ................................................................. 30
Figure 33 The Wizard of Oz 1938 ................................................................................. 31
Figure 34 Paranormal Activity 2007 ........................................................................... 35
iv
List of Tables
Table 1 - Results from the practical element of the project, showing screen shots from
the three clips subjected to colour correction .................................................................... 51
Table 2 - Major changes and theories that contributed to modern colour correction
techniques .......................................................................................................................... 52
vi
vii
What is Colour?
Colour is a part of everyday life, we are surrounded by colour, and it impinges upon
almost every facet of our lives, influencing us whether emotionally, physically or
intellectually in any number of different and unpredictable ways (Byrne and Hilbert
1997; Everett, 2007). Consequently, humans have evolved with a certain understanding
of colour, partly because the survival of our ancestors depended on it with regard to
what to consume and avoid: for example the colour of berries (Ambroseand Harris, 2005;
Mather, 2006; Fagerholm, 2009).
There are three main processes that contribute to how we see and perceive colour, as
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Three factors which can affect colour perception (Yurek, 2013)
What is light?
Light is a form of radiant energy made up of varying wavelengths (Figure 2).
Figure 2 The wavelength (nm) for different visible colours (Source: Barolet 2008)
These different wavelengths result in objects being seen as different colours, dependent
on which colours of the spectrum they absorb and reflect (as shown in Figure 3). A red
object, for instance, reflects the red light on the spectrum and absorbs most of the other
colours (Mather, 2006).
Figure 3 How the reflection/absorption of light alters the appearance of an object (Source:
Darling, 1991)
Newton (1706) was the first in establishing a colour wheel and describing a
prismatic spectrum of seven colours linked in a circular arrangement, as he did not
consider any one colour to be more important than the others. The colours are listed
below along with a diagram showing the circle designed by Newton (Figure 4).
Red,
Violet
Indigo
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
This circular arrangement has remained standard in the colour theory until today,
despite other colour order systems of Ostwald and Munsell. However, it is now
understood that there are three primary colours (red, blue, green), mixtures of these
primary colours can produce all the other colours in the spectrum, and when added
together, they produce white. Conversely, when any one of the three primaries is
subtracted from white, the result is a light composed of the other two. Colour can thus
be produced by the subtraction as well as the addition of the three primary components
of white light (Moser, 2003; Aslam, 2006).
Whilst wavelength is a primary factor in the colour that is seen by the human eye, it is
also argued that the interaction of their three basic attributes (hue, intensity and
saturation) that produces various colours and play a far more important role in colour
perception (Crozier 1996; Hupka et al,. 1997; Aslam, 2006).
Research indicates that the brain translates wavelengths of light into colour sensation
through the use of nerve connections and of the brain (Kodak, 2007).
Figure 5 Diagram of the human eye and its main components (Fuensanta and Doble, 2012).
Whilst the eye is responsible for effectively gathering the light and converting it into
electrical impulses, it does not determine how we perceive colour. That is done
neurologically in the brain and is where perception of a colour starts to have greatest
meaning.
Psychological Processes
Colours play an important role in affecting our perceptions. They form an omnipresent
part of our daily lives, influencing our interactions with other individuals and with
inanimate objects (Bagchi and Cheema, 2013). Above we have mentioned the mechanical
side to colour vision and the physiology of the human eye that allow colour to be
processed within the brain. However, seeing colour is just the first step in a multitude of
processes that allow us to interpret the meaning and context of colours we see in
everyday life. In fact, the physical world has no colours. There are only light waves of
different wavelengths. It is left to the retinal cones of the human eye (shown in Figure 5)
to distinguish among such bands of light and make this world a rainbow for us (Madden
et al., 2000).
So is colour created in the brain to act as a perceptual tool for our visual-cognitive and affective functions? In 1623, Galileo remarked that colour represented secondary
qualities of matter that were perceiver-dependent, dispositional, laid in the minds of the
6
observers and were not really a property of the object (Galileo, 1989; Aslam, 2006),
initiating the debate on the psychological effects of colour and its relation with emotions.
Whilst this project cannot delve into the debate on psychological impact of colour it can
give a brief overview of how the perception of colour may be used to enhance a viewers
experience of a film.
Knowing that colour perception is a psychological process and that applying it can
create certain atmospheres: creating a scheme around that colour can then emphasise
that atmosphere (Creswell 2015).
The usual reaction of a colour upon a normal person has been determined that they fall
into two groups; warm and cool.
Warm/Advanced: Red, orange and yellow and can be associated with sensations
of excitement, activity and heat.
Cool/Retiring: Green, blue and violet and can be associated with rest, coolness
and ease (Vacche and Price, 2006).
The psychological response of an audience to a particular colour can then in turn have
an effect on the emotion they feel when watching a film or scene. According to Bordwell
and Thompson (1990), the essential features which contribute towards the enjoyment of
a film are the emotional responses of the audience towards the image they are
confronted with, their subjective evaluation of its aesthetic characteristics, and their
recognition of the meaning that the relevant film carries (Maszerowska, 2012). Some of
these ideas are discussed in the following section.
that brighter colours (e.g., white, pink, red, blue) elicit more positive reactions (e.g.,
happy, excited) than do darker colours (e.g., brown, black). Red induces aggression and
excitation, while green induces withdrawal, and black, anxiety (Bagchi and Cheema,
2013).
Much of the emotional impact of colour results from its multiple and rich associations,
but since such associations vary according to historical period, cultural contexts, and
individual experiences, yet again no definite emotional categories can be established
(Riley 1995; Everett, 2007). One of the reasons that colour can have such an impact on
emotion is it is often associated with memories. Henry et al., (2008) explain that we
have three types of colour memory: two types of long-term recall and one type of shortterm storage:
Long-term colour memory seems to have a cognitive component in
terms of users preferred colours and is also influenced by an individuals
precision of matching.
The colours people tend to remember and perceive are often very common amongst
groups and there are expectations of what commonly perceived colours should look like.
However, Hurkman (2011) points out that memory colours are not the same colours we
see in reality and are more saturated than actual measured saturation of the original
subjects (Berens, 2014). In 1946, Bodrogi and Tarczali presented their results of an
Investigation of Human Colour Memory. This showed that a brick appeared to be
remembered as redder than the object, sand as more yellow, grass as greener, dry grass
as more yellow and pine trees as greener (Hurkman, 2011). This raises the question; if
what we expect to see is different from reality, should cinematographers and colourists
aim to reproduce these memory colours? Boust et al. (2004) have shown that viewers
prefer images that use memory colours over those that use original colours (Berens,
2014). This is probably due to the fact that these memory based colours hold a more
personal emotional response that the real colours.
So if colour can affect us in such an intrinsic and emotional level, surely it can be used to
add improved visual context to the image (Marshall, 2015). Since the days of black and
white film, before we could even place sound into films, weve been obsessed with the use
of colour and how it can change the emotion of a film. The expressive use of colour in
film has evolved through artistic vision and technical innovation from hand tinting to
Technicolor experiments to faster stocks and digital processing. In the following
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sections I consider some of the key aspects in the history of cinema that led to the
technological advances we see in colour today.
10
Figure 7 Hand coloured film - The Infernal Cauldron 1903 (Source: Yumibe, 2013).
As films increased in length, and the number of prints soared, hand-colouring became
increasingly less practicable. New methods were being developed to mechanise colouring
and improve the practice of tinting and toning. As a solution, Pathe Freres patented
Pathecolor, a semi-automated device for stencilling prints according to simple colour
correspondences (Cook, 2008).
In America, less expensive tinting and toning processes converted black-and-white
images to colour chemically. However, as soon as the sound-on-disc device was replaced
by the recording of sound directly on film, the practice of tinting and toning was
threatened because it became evident that the process affected the quality of the optical
soundtrack.
To combat this problem, Kodak immediately introduced a range of 17 Sonochrome
Positive stocks whose soundtrack areas were not affected by the dyeing process. In spite
of this, however, it was eventually decided that post-production conversion of black-andwhite images to colour was less sensible than actually filming with colour stock (Cook,
2008).
Other processes such as Kinimacolor (which had been patented in 1906), first began to
appear in public films in 1909. This method employed a standard Bioscope projector
fitted with a shutter of red and green filters rotating at 32 frames per second, and was
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1920s-1950s
Between the 1920s and 1940s there was an increased interest in the development of
colour in film, as companies realised the power that colour could have when telling a
story and inferring emotions. Early silent films created an impression of colour film by
hand-tinting each frame but because of the time and labour involved this never became
a widespread phenomenon. When Walt Disney released Flowers and Trees (1932)
(Figure 8), part of the Silly Symphonies series of short subjects, its full colour visuals,
compliments of the new three-strip Technicolor process, were a sensation (Corrigan and
White, 2012).
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Technicolor
In the mid-1920s Technicolor developed a two-colour process, in which two filmstrips
one red and the other green biased were pasted together to produce a composite print,
but the limited effects and the various technical limitations, including the double
thickness of the filmstrip and the high light levels required during filming to obtain a
bright enough final image, hardly justified their expense (Cook, 2008).
Finally, in 1929, Warner Bros. released two all-colour, all talking features On with
the Show (Figure 9) and Gold Diggers of Broadway (Figure 10), the first results of a 20feature contract Jack Warner had signed with Technicolor.
13
At the beginning of the new decade, when the industry began to feel the effects of The
Depression, the major studios, unable to withdraw from their commitment to sound,
chose instead to reduce their interest in colour cinematography, and the musical the
genre with which colour had been most closely associated was briefly considered to be
box-office poison.
Undaunted, Technicolor invested a further $180,000 in their three colour process, and
instead of entering the market themselves, offered exclusive contracts to two
independent production companies Walt Disney and Pioneer Films. Disney acquired
exclusive rights for colour cartoons and released a series of Silly Symphonies that won
critical acclaim, Academy Awards and massive box-office returns.
It wasnt until 1932 that the three color process was perfected. This was a complicated
process that used three strips of black and white negative, filtered so that each would
capture one of the traditional primary yellow, green, and cyan colours. The negatives
were then literally printed onto the positive in ways that allowed dyes, corresponding to
the colours filtered on the negative, to be transferred to the film. The process was
expensive, the equipment huge, and the lighting demands enormous. Also, Technicolor
was a proprietary process so that each studio had to lease equipment and adhere to
protocols (Kolker, 2005; Frisvold Hanssen, 2006).
To ensure control of the colour achieved with their product, Technicolor introduced
colour consultants, who planned the colour schemes and compositions. The leading
colour consultant during the 1930s and 1940s was Natalie Kalmus, who understood the
cinema of sound and colour in terms of an ultimate art form. The principal task of the
colour consultant was to prepare a colour chart or colour score for the entire
production; and compare the preparation of such a chart to the writing of the films
musical score (Frisvold Hanssen, 2006). Natalie Kalmus had a distinct style and a
particular idea of what colour on the screen should look like: bright, with a tendency to
vibrant pastels (Figure 11) (Kolker, 2005; Cook, 2008).
14
Figure 11 Example of Natalie Kalmus colour palette from Its a Pleasure 1945 (Source:
TheBlondeattheFilm, 2014).
Following Technicolors eventual collaborations with Walt Disney and the Oscars for the
best animation shorts at the Academy Awards in 1932 that resulted, the use of colour
began to flourish with The Adventures of Robin Hood in 1938 (Figure 12), The Wizard of
Oz (Figure 13) in 1939 and Gone with the Wind also in 1939 (Figure 14).
15
This time was seen as the golden time for both Hollywood and Technicolor, who
continued to improve their processes into the 1950s. However, by 1953 Eastman Color
had replaced Technicolor as a negative source, because of the convenience of shooting a
single negative in a smaller camera. From 1955, the name Technicolor only referred to
the laboratory process that produced three technically dyed negatives (Cook, 2007).
16
17
Figure 16 Subdued palette used in True Grit 2010 (Source: Gould, 2015).
The transition from analog to digital video now opens the possibilities for developing
methods of video colour management. Digital video colour management can potentially
be implemented using common computer platforms, and equipment which costs a
fraction of todays dedicated video editing and colour correction equipment. At the same
time, the processes can be simplified and made less time-consuming (Hardeberg et al.,
2002).
Digital effects and colour grading have opened new possibilities to the use of colour in
films. In Sin City (2005) it allowed colours to be selected and isolated against black and
white backgrounds (Figure 17); producing striking symbolic and a unique film noir
aesthetic.
Figure 17 Isolated colour (red) used to add contrast in Sin City 2005 (Source: MovieSpot, 2010).
18
In Amlie, a film about pleasure, colour grading has allowed the film to be graded to
such a degree that it is essentially composed of just two main colours, red and green
which symbolise pleasure (Berens, 2014) (Figure 18).
Figure 18 Screen shot demonstrates the red and green used throughout Amlie 2001 (Source:
Miller, 2014).
However digital technology does not always change the way we use colour in films. In
Slumdog Millionaire (a film showing more realism), colour usage is used more subtly
(Figure 19) and realistically like in The Last Emperor and Apocalypse Now (Figure 20)
(Berens, 2014).
Figure 19 Subtle colours depict reality in Slumdog Millionaire 2008 (Source: Screenmusings,
n.d).
Figure 20 A more realistic colour palette in Apocalypse Now 1979 (Source: Slarek, n.d.).
19
21
Figure 21 Image showing sallow yellow-green colouration in Seven 1995 (Source: Thoret, 2010).
Many directors subtly choose colour combinations that relate emotions and express their
characters state of mind. For example Stanley Kubricks last film, Eyes Wide Shut
(1999) (Figure 22), uses blue and goldyellow lighting throughout the film so that it
renders and almost painterly coherence of colour (Kolker, 2005).
Figure 22 Contract between blue and gold in Eyes Wide Shut 1999 (Source: Fantasmagorie,
2012).
In The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover (1989) (Figure 23), colour is used to
emphasise or distinguish with the characters themselves rather than just the spaces of
the restaurant. It neutralises the environments, adding a surreal quality to the scenes
(Asm architecture, 2010).
22
Figure 23 Surreal colouring used in The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover 1989 (Source:
Kafka, n.d.).
Raise The Red Lantern (1991) is about sexual enslavement between four concubines
living in a neutrally toned compound. The internal rooms however, are bathed in rich
bold colours passionately and predominant in bright red (Figure 24), particularly the
lofty red lanterns which is a symbol of passion and power (Classic art films, 2015).
Figure 24 The use of red throughout Raise The Red Lantern 1991 (Source: Reddit, 2013).
23
From those early days of colour in movies it was realised that colour not only had a
scientific place but that:
Colour can have political, religious and cultural connotations, represent
gender and as believed by Kandisnky, have emotional and physical effects
on us. Colour can also improve our memory, influence buying decisions,
indicate meaning and tell stories (Mills, 2015).
Today the use of colour in cinematography is considered a vital part of creating a movie
and the story it wants to tell. Colour is not only used to achieve verisimilitude in the
images; colour can communicate time and place, define characters, and establish
emotion, mood, atmosphere, and a psychological sensibility (LoBrutto, 2012). As a result
colour palettes for different genres have appeared to become standardised and almost
expected. However, the unusual use of colour can still grab the attention of an audience
and make a film more visually striking.
24
Associative Colours
Transitional Colours
These two contrasting concepts will be discussed in the following sections to help show
how a films narrative can be enhanced, thus helping the audience follow the story.
25
We Need to Talk About Kevin (2011) is a film with very violent scenes that features
almost zero violence, however, the constant appearance of the colour red (Figure 25) acts
as a reminder to the audience that violence is the under-currant to the entire story.
Figure 25 The colour red appears regularly in We Need to Talk About Kevin 2011 (Source:
Harrison, 2012).
All associations dont have to follow the same social constraints of a colour, for instance
in The Godfather orange is associated with death (Figure 26). This shows repetition of a
single colour in a scheme, shows some kind of inter-relation to an idea (Criswell, 2015).
Figure 26 The use of orange throughout The Godfather 1972 (Source: Gonzalez, 2014).
In Traffic (2000), colours mark different narrative strands and indicate spatial
differences along with the mood and atmosphere of the place. Thus we have grainy,
washed-out yellow for Mexico; a solemn blue palette for Cincinnati; and sun-drenched
full colour for San Diego (Cook, 1999), as shown in figure 27.
26
Figure 27 The use of three colours to depict different areas in Traffic 2000 (Source: Gwilliam,
2014; Mills, 2015; McLeod, n.d. respectively).
Vertigo (1958) uses another example of this, however instead of just one colour it uses
both red and green to its advantage, Scottys passion is represented by red and
Madeleine is associated with the colour green (Figure 28). Scotty first sees Madeleine
wearing a green dress surrounded by red the reds intensity implies thats Scottys
fantasy is dangerous and throughout Vertigo red is noticeable in scenes that are
perilous as Scotty pursues his obsession everything relating to Madeleine is green from
the clothes she wears to the car she drives, later in the film Scotty meets Judy who he
cant help but imagine as Madeleine so as he wants Judy to become more like her green
begins to re-enter the colour scheme until finally the green from outside the hotel room
fully engulfs Judy in its ominous glow (Criswell, 2015).
Figure 28 Green associated with Madeline in Vertigo 1958 (Source: Hamer, 2012)
27
In The Last Emperor1987, as the character discovers more about the world around him
the colour palette shifts. The world of tradition in the characters nave years is
displayed by the colour red, however as the character begins to learn more, the colour
goes from red, to orange, to yellow and finally when he becomes appreciative of his
surroundings hes bound to green (Figure 29).
Figure 29 Four images showing the colour transition throughout The Last Emperor 1987
(Source: The Last Emperor film, 2015).
This effective system of colour transition becomes even more unique when its examined
on the colour wheel (Figure 30). Red, orange, yellow and green are consecutive to go
from red to green shows that both the character and the wheel have turned 180 degrees.
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When you use transitional colour with a character, by altering the colour scheme
associated with them, it can be use to show a change within the character. In Breaking
Bad transitional colour was used to convey the change in moral standing of the main
character, Walter White. Having transgressed into a more villainous state our main
character wears red, a much more nefarious colour. Then just before he travels further
down his own dark path he removes his shirt to reveal a darker one (Figure 31). This
visual presence represents his character arc, something dark lies beneath the surface of
Walt.
Figure 31 Walter revealing a deeper shade of red below his shirt in Breaking Bad (Source:
Breaking Bad, 2012)
29
30
This is still relevant in the digital age whether the tone is cold and hopeless or gritty
and dangerous the colour serves a purpose, humans will always have certain
psychological reactions to certain colours. Consequently, particular colours are used to
achieve certain reactions. For example red seems to be the colour we have the strongest
reaction to but where one may use it as a depiction of hate and cruelty another may use
it to show passion and love. The same with green, a luscious green field gives us hope
and shows fertility, but green locations show the mundane and lifeless and the green on
a person tells who the monster is (Criswell, 2015). An example of this is the Wicked
Witch from The Wizard of Oz, as depicted in Figure 33.
Hullfish (2008) argues that colour is part of the storytelling tools and as such you need
to know the story so you can utilise the correct colours to create the appropriate mood.
Boust et al.s (2004) study agrees with this and argues that an image can tell two
different stories depending on the colour scheme and gives an example with serious
moments being less saturated. He further comments that serious moments do not have
to be in low saturation but he finds that it help to convey a message to the viewer (LindValdan, 2013).
Whilst colour can be used in specific ways to indicate a specific subject, they can also
offer a mood/style/look/theme to an entire movie. Bordwell and Thompson (2010) discuss
colour as being a variable in genre classification and state that movies are grouped into
genres by similar plot patterns, thematic implications, filmic techniques, and
recognisable iconography. Even further support of colour grading being a genre specific
31
is seen in cinematographer Diogo Martins (2011) blog where he states that different
genres have had different colour schemes for the audience to discern between, for many
years. Also Brown et al. (2013) supports this phenomenon about displaying genreappropriate colour schemes for classification.
32
genres have had different colour schemes to be easily distinguished between (Martins,
2011; Lind-Valdan, 2013). Due to the importance of being able to discern between
genres and the visual cues in form of genre specific colour grading having led the
viewers to expect something familiar from the genres, however, they also do demand
some variations (Bordwell and Thompson, 2010).
Not everybody thinks this is a good thing; in fact many think that the use of standard
templates for colour grading genre type films has become predictable and overused.
Everything became the same if a Sci-fi doesnt look like a genre
film, everyone is afraid no one will see it. The same goes to any
other genre that garners to a niche audience. Mainstream movies
all tend to look the same, everyone afraid to break the mold of a
standardised colour correction, manipulation (Martins, 2011).
So what are some of these standard genre specific templates and why are they used. In
the following sections we will considered the most common colour correction options
used to depict films from the following genres:
Horror;
Romance/Comedies;
War/Post-Apocalyptic;
Science Fiction;
Western;
Action, Drama and Thriller.
Horror
Horror movies tend to have hard, cold blue borderline purple colours, high contrast,
white skin tones, and dark red, borderline black blood (Seitz, 2010; Martins, 2011;
Singh, 2011; Rozier, 2011). This is because there are often negative emotions associated
with these colours. They also fit the criteria for creating tension, isolation and mystery
which is often key to this genre:
Examples of movies that fit into this genre include; Paranormal Activity (2007), A
Nightmare on Elm Street (1984), Saw (2004), Poltergeist (2015) and The Cabin in the
Woods (2012) (Figures 34 - 38) respectively.
34
35
36
Romance/Comedy
These films can vary from bright saturated colours, to have a softer palette using
pastels, although they usually consist of warmer colours in general as we associate them
with:
Examples are Amlie (2001), Titanic (1997) and Love Actually, as depicted in Figures 53
to 55 respectively.
37
Post-apocalyptic / War
Post-apocalyptic movies tend to have desaturated and washed out gray/yellow/green
(earth) colours (Seitz, 2010; Martins, 2011). This can give a softer, more personal feeling
where life and its colours are abandoned for harsh reality. We perceive these as:
Examples of movies are The Book of Eli (2010), Children of Men (2006), Death Race
(2008), Terminator: Salvation (2009) and The Road (2009) (Lind-Valdan, 2013). War
movies also tend to be completely desaturated, if not completely, black and white
(Martins, 2011). Examples are American Sniper (2014) and Saving Private Ryan (1998).
38
39
40
Science Fiction
In futuristic and sci-fi movies the reality is usually displayed in realistic colours but
when the reality is off we see a sodium look by a monochromatic tinge varying in blue
or green colours (Martins, 2011; Seitz, 2010; Singh, 2011). This colour is usually used to
question reality, if something is right or wrong.
Examples of movies are The Matrix (1999), Fight Club (1999), Blade Runner (1982) and
Tron: Legacy (2010) (Lind-Valdan, 2013).
41
Western
Being one of the oldest film genres, Westerns have had a very varied colour palette,
ranging from Black and White, to the Spaghetti Westerns; in which washed out
yellow/brown/green colours would be used, or saturated to emphasise the location
(deserts) and weather (heat). Examples of this are Once Upon a Time in the West (1968),
The Quick and the Dead (1998) and Django Unchained (2012) (As seen in Figures 53 to
55).
42
Figure 53 Once Upon a Time in the West 1968 (Source: Thesouloftheplot, 2013).
Figure 54 The Quick and the Dead 1998 (Source: TheFilmGiant, 2015).
43
Figure 57 The Hunger Games: Mockingjay Part 2 2008 (Source: Highfill, 2015).
44
Figure 59 Image showing retrograde colouring in O Brother Where Art Thou 2000 (Source:
Filmap, n.d.).
Since then, the trend has caught on, but the most common concern is the objection to
genre specific colour grading. According to bloggers all movies are starting to look the
same due to the teal and orange look (as seen in Figures 60 66) but they are also
genre specifically colour graded, so all movies belonging to a specific genre look the
same, but differs from other genres (Lind-Valdan, 2013).
45
Hollywood movies usually try to use complimentary colours on the opposite side of the
colour wheel. Examples are green and red (Figure 18), yellow and purple and blue (teal)
and orange (Figure 30).
46
The present problem that is derived from bloggers statements, suggesting genre specific
colour grading in films, making every genre movie look alike (Lind-Valdan, 2013), is
explained and verified by Lee:
Common colours, like common foods, are monotonous: they may become tiresome
(Lee, 2005)
47
As previously mentioned, audiences expect something familiar in genre films (LindValdan, 2013), however the demand for something fresh seems to be present (Bordwell
and Thompson, 2010). Some of the arguments as to why these bloggers get so distressed
by the teal and orange look are that they think it becomes an unnatural (Seitz, 2010),
fake, manipulated, and abused distortion (Martins, 2011) of something that does not
need the visual colour aesthetic (Singh, 2011).
One example of a film that utilises a limited colour scheme is Black Hawk Down (2001).
Predominant green and sand tone, the military is associated with green, with terrain in
Somalia sand-coloured. So the colour scheme is consistent with the environment and
characters. But Scott and his creative team go too far.
Figure 65 The overuse of green altered the appearance Black Hawk Down 2001 (Source:
WallpaperUP, n.d.).
LoBrutto (202) states it is so heavily green-toned that the colour extends to the sky and
skin tones, it distracts from the characters and action, leaving the viewer wondering
why this colour dominates; consciously looking for a metaphor or meaning that is never
delivered. The film quickly begins to look more like a music video than a dramatic
motion picture story.
Subtle use of a wider palette, at least in some locations and scenes, would have
tempered this obvious exercise in style as style and not as storytelling.
As previously mentioned in an earlier chapter, the manual Elements of Color in
Professional Motion was produced in 1957. This stipulated that colour should be
subordinate to the narrative and, in no circumstances, constitutes a separate entity to
compete with or detract from the dramatic content of the picture (SMPTE 1957).
48
Figure 66 Screenshot of Red Giant Magic Bullet Looks 3 (Source: MBL1, 2015).
Figure 67 Closer view of the preset options in Red Giant (Source: Toolfarm, n.d).
49
Some examples:
The practical element of this project aims to take short, simple pieces of footage and
demonstrate how by applying colour correction, a specific genre can be recreated.
Methodology
In order to demonstrate how the colour of a film can alter the impression the audience
can have of a move, I used colour grading to recreate industry standard genre templates.
I produced three video clips each were filmed according to the following criteria:
Neutral colouring;
Static camera;
Small amount of movement within the frame;
Natural light;
No modern objects;
No additional sound.
This was designed to give me a neutral image, with some movement to keep the viewer
stimulated and not distracted by anything other than the colours. Each 10 second clip
then had a colour treatment applied to the raw footage. This was done in Premiere Pro
CC with the aid of colour correction programs. The templates chosen were based on four
of those discussed in the sections above and are widely known genres. The basic colour
description applied for each is below:
It should be noted that other effects were kept to a minimum in order to ensure the
colour was the main factor altering the appearance of the video clip.
Results
The results of the practical application of colour grading can be seen on the memory
stick attached in Appendix 1. On the next page, Table 1 shows screen shots of the clips
with different colour grading applied.
50
Table 1 - Results from the practical element of the project, showing screen shots from the three clips subjected to colour correction
51
Conclusion
The review of literature and practical application of colour correction confirms that
colour plays an important role in films. Like any three dimensional character, colour
often has complex and seemingly contradictory properties (Berens, 2014), even within a
certain cultural perspective, thus giving richness to cinema. Whether the goal is to
convey realism, to invoke certain emotions, or to use the diverse symbolic meanings of
colour, colour is a very important part of the visual integrity of motion pictures (Jrholt,
1998).
Since the introduction of colour into film, we have been programmed to associate colours
with particular cues and emotions, be it tension, anger, sadness or laughter.
Consequently, by learning more about colour science, cinematographers will gain
improved knowledge to aid the creation of ever more meaningful and more emotionally
powerful narratives (Berens, 2014).
As has been demonstrated throughout this project, the use of colour correction to
achieve a certain look has always been an option desired by film makers. Though no
definitive reasons, other than the initial conceptualisation of pioneering
directors/cinematographers, give a reason to why genres are depicted with certain
colours. The use of colour to enhance the storytelling quality and manipulate a films
audience has been influenced by several key changes in industry and theories (Table 2):
Table 2 - Major changes and theories that contributed to modern colour correction techniques
Industry Changes
Contributing Theories
52
As we discovered in previous sections, Natalie Kalmas had a large impact on the use of
colour in film. She had creative control over how colour was depicted, when the studios
used Technicolor. Since then it has often been asserted that genres give cinema an
effective model for industrial production, because they provide a proven formula that
precedes and determines what should be produced. By applying a tried and tested
method, usually including a standard colour template, that will guarantee the success of
a film to a new subject, producers minimise their risks and justify their production.
This is a significant problem as it suggests that commercial or popular cinema, along
with cartoons, television, or popular fiction, are only capable of endlessly and
mechanically reproducing prefabricated models. Furthermore this vision of mass culture
is completely static: we now have a generation of films that all look the same. Artistic
vision is far less common, as if it doesnt fit into a typical genre model, it may be too
risky to back financially.
This is especially true in Hollywood where criticism of the continual churning out of
movie clones (in terms of colour) has led to some directors turning away accepted colour
standards. European filmmakers seem to have more creative freedom in this respect, as
their productions show, this system of rinse and repeat only serves to stifle creativity
and would seem to imply a rather low opinion of popular culture (Morin 1962; Moine
and Radner, 2008).
The overall goal of film makers is to make sure that the creative use of colour in the
production of all types of moving pictures is not compromised because of technological
limitations. However, the establishment of digital cinema now ensures the future of
colour grading is one that will be more accessible to consumers, as work stations and
software are becoming cheaper, easier to use and more accessible. This will help smaller
production houses with limited resources, therefore increasing the possibilities for
production and distribution (Hardeberg et al., 2002) and hopefully differentiation from
the accepted norm. At present the ease of colour grading and the economic drive for
genre films have essentially restricted the use of artistic colour and vision to a greater
extent than the standards published by the Society of Motion Picture and Television
Engineers in 1957. It would appear conformity is preferential to imagination, which is a
shame for an industry that brings dreams to life. There is also a worry that the skills
once required to produce unique colour techniques - colouring for the camera instead of
doing it all in post production - will be lost.
53
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61
63
Filmography
Film
Year
Director
1985
Wes Craven
Amlie
2001
Jean-Pierre Jeunet
American Sniper
2014
Clint Eastwood
Apocalypse Now
1979
Battleship
2012
Peter Berg
2001
Ridley Scott
Blade Runner
1982
Ridley Scott
Book of Eli
2010
Breaking Bad
2013
Children of Men
2006
Alfonso Cuarn
Death Race
2008
Paul W. S. Anderson
Die Hard 5
2013
John Moore
Django Unchained
2012
Quentin Tarantino
Drive
2011
1999
Stanley Kubrick
Fight Club
1999
David Fincher
1932
Burt Gillett
2013
Jon M. Chu
1929
1939
Its A Pleasure
1945
William A. Seiter
Love Actually
2003
Richard Curtis
2011
Brad Bird
2000
1929
Alan Crosland
1968
Sergio Leone
Paranormal Activity
2007
Oren Peli
Paris
1929
Clarence G. Badger
Poltergeist
2015
Gil Kenan
1991
Yimou Zhang
64
Reboot
2012
Joe Kawasaki
1998
Steven Spielberg
Saw
2004
James Wan
Seven
1995
David Fincher
Sin City
2005
Slumdog Millionaire
2008
Danny Boyle
Star Wars
1977
George Lucas
Terminator: Salvation
2009
1938
2012
Drew Goddard
1920
Robert Wiene
1989
Peter Greenaway
The Fighter
2010
David O. Russell
The Godfather
1972
2008
Gary Ross
1903
George Mlis
1987
Bernardo Bertolucci
The Matrix
1999
1998
Sam Raimi
The Ring
2002
Gore Verbinski
The Road
2009
John Hillcoat
The Wizard of Oz
1939
Victor Fleming
Titanic
1997
James Cameron
Traffic
2000
Steven Soderbergh
Transformers
2007
Michael Bay
Tron: Legacy
2010
Joseph Kosinski
True Grit
2010
Up
2009
Vertigo
1958
Alfred Hitchcock
2011
Lynne Ramsay
65
APPENDIX I
Attached to the hardcopies of this document are memory sticks with the film clips for
the practical element
66