ARISTOTLE

ON

EDUCATION

Honfcon:

C.

MARIA

AVE

(Slasgofo:

50,

ILetpjig:
i%*to

gork:
ant)

THE

Calcutta:

[All

SONS,

AND

PRESS

UNIVERSITY

CAMBRIDGE

Eotnbao

CLAY

J.

LANE.

STREET.

WELLINGTON

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A.

WAREHOUSE,

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MACMILLAN

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AND

Rights

reserved]

CO.,

LTD.

ARISTOTLE

edited

ETHICS

and

Poz/r7"Ltranslated

by/foHN BURNET, Professor

^-^^^

of Greek
of St

the

from

being extracts
and

EDUCATION

on

irr-tfec^t?mted

Salvator
St

and

St

College

Leonard,

Andrews.

Cambridge :
At

the

UniversityPress.
,903

r
tv-'

I
a

LTcr^VY

p;xrv,'v
Sr-

"

CambrtUge

BY

PRINTED

AT

THE

J.

UNIVERSITY

AND

C.

F.

PRESS.

CLAY,

EDUCATION.

ON

ARISTOTLE

INTRODUCTION.

Aristotle's

IN

is

it

and
,'olitics,

aims

at

producing

to

promote

such

of

soul

the

have

and

practical

is

education

of

art

As

will

education

lature,

therefore

science.

speculative

the

system

not

In

end.

double
character

theoretical

has

man

the

double

first

place,

issue

in

in

second

will

as

of

part

acts

ending

"lace, it aims

possible

becomes

for

soul

the

the

of

happiness

preparing

at

which

Mvure

the

state;

of

right enjoyment

that

been

have

needs

practical

when

the

l.tisfied.
These

the

are

if

nderstand

Aristotle

rhich

raphs

intended

are

jie

apt

is

in

iTOstract.

Science

ense

it

knows
that

books

he

not
can

of

but

exists

merely
produce

it

only

in

so

far

potentially
the

of

from

following

"

knowledge

the

soul.

at

some

as

that

is

We

that

something

as

looking

of

way

view

Science.

activity

an

now-a-days

this

of

clear.

Practical

and

to

necessary

The

problems.
them

activity', and

an

think

to

'"pntained

nd

make

Theoretical

science

too

to

point

the

appreciate

educational

regards

(i)
AH

to

are

we

it is

which

ideas

fundamental

it is false
one

to

knows
say,

if it is wanted

in
"

is
and

it,
the
but

Aristotle

for instance,only
geometricalproposition,

actively. A
when

exis;s

it actuallybefore

it has

understands

who

one

some

Education.

on

consciousness.

which

which

life.

far

The

definite

more

;s

word

meaning,

in the Greek

language, but

of

"completion,"and the Greek ^or}

by "complete" or "perfect"is simply ths

It meant

translate

we

had

technical

in Aristotle's

only
everyday
not

This, too,

end.

an

misunderstand.

to

apt

"end"

by

translate

we

has

science

all
Being an activity,
conceptionwhich we are

first .ml
derived from this noun.
Now, Aristotle was
adjective
and this conception,like others, naturill/
foremost
a
biologist,
All becoming and molioi
form in his mind.
took a biological
and activity
is a form of motion
was
to him
a
process fion
The
matter
to form.
completion or "end" of the process *ral
"

"

the

attainment
whatever

or

of

it

else
is the

grown

oak

of the

seed, the

might

"end"
of

man

till we

the

completion of
if

Now,

science,we
a

have
a

the

see

at

sciences
In the
the

are

case

not

the organ

becoming.

was

the flower

acorn,

have

We

embryo.

in what

to

where

"end]'
got tte

never

Aristotle speaks ab
the end

sense

The

is the

in

si}

iuli

)it

questionIs

process.
this

from

that

complete

of geometry,

the form

to

that

once

different character

natural

was

that

passage

seen

apply

we

be

of the

of any
rightinterpretation
"ends"

which

the form

the

at

the

of

"end"

of others.
the

same

which
activity
of

some

In

":|1

we

sciences

other

itts

words, at

stage of their grou th

is complete when
activity
studying; there is nothing more

we

knou

wan
ec
propositionwe are
than the activity
itself. But, if we
take a science like enginee~
is quite different. The
ing, we find that the case
theory Q
is certainly
construction
of the soul, but it cannr|
an
activity
be called complete ; the
is only completed by
h[
process
actual
otliJ
construction
of a
road
or
a
bridge or some
product beyond the activityitself. Such sciences are cal ^:
while those which
find their completion in the sim
practical,
of knowing are
theoretical.
called speculative
and
I
activity

PREFACE.

^HE

underlies

and

present,

its

explanation.

make

substantial
any

must

is

justify

generally

it

refer

differs

in
some

which

to

which

thought

translation

following

that

impossible

been

for

the

from

respects

Aristotle's

of

interpretation

fully

volume

in

like

the

of

the

Ethics

my

have
seen

modification

has

edition

to

It

accepted.

no

reason

in

as

the

to

yet

view

there

"taken.

J.

B.

Theoretical

is evident
It is

not

their

that the

of soul

be

may

(2)

becomes

for

hardly

anything

in

ders

the

to

ristotle

science

for

character

production

of

that

which

may

the

produces
sake.

own

As

the

call the science

that knows

entitled
On

parts.

brief

quite

architectonic in relation

is therefore

of

another

science makes

one

we

end

of

master-builder

or

make

doubtless

was

The

name

for its

science

with

can

that

and

building and

himself

we

having

another

workmen

practicalsciences, but
another.

that

uses,

Science.

realisingthat

of

It is the architect

contents

gument,

the

class.

knowing

certain

and

one

constantlyfind

of the whole

plan

that

of

of

means

worth

product of

that other.
e

number

think

we

another

the

are

the

turn

put it,we

uses

worth

highestPractical

practicalscience

any

ing which

the

as

independent

not

that

had

the former

to

think

we

in the young,

produced

Politics

are

one

at

things which

find that there

they

ato

belongs

is its end.

that character

that

Science.

sake; it exists only in order

own

We

Practical

of education

art

of those

one

and

to

this

give
point

of Plato's

summary

familiar

to

the audience

times
in Plato's
It occurs
several
tending his lectures.
alogues, and is stated at length in that entitled "The
wishes
atesman"
the student
and
who
281
D
(Politicus,
if.),
do
appreciate fullythe first chapter of the Ethics would
ill to read this passage
it will
in Jowett'stranslation.
Here
in the
occurs
enough to give a shorter form of it which
nthydemos. Socrates is repeating to Crito his conversation
th a youth named
Cleinias,which proceeds as follows:
:

"

Did

not

we

conclusion?

our

cnowledge?
Y"t

the

"

said.

i" knowledge

haps

we

Yes, he

"

And

of the

should,

he

said.
to

answer

"

And

that, A

But

studied

? and

philosophy is the
knowledge ought we
knowledge that will do

what

we

places where
"

be

And

replied.
"

should

said.

should

philosophy

he

Yes,

"

simple

thinly,he

that

agree

have

be

any

most
we

the

gold
not

was

better

if

buried

we

acquisition
to
us

went

in the

already proved,

not

was

acquire?
good?
"

about
earth?

"

I said, that

Aristotle

4
we

should

be

the

gold

that

how

also knew

we

he said.

making,

of medicine,

thing,and

that true?
make

He

that which

use

"

the

my

well

makes?

as

makes

the

which

of

and

is one,

that

sort

art

which

the

thing,they

same

the

plays upon

And

"

"

divided

from

maker;

for that is another

agreed.
"

of the

same

the

they

makes

art

lyre-

which

art

have

to

and

the

Am

But

do
art
not

flute-

of the

"

as

uses

skilful

be

assented.

He

"

that

them

the

want

not

sort?

argue

may

another.

one

'

to use

agreed. Then,

to

which

able to

was

we

not

"

Though

; for the art

lyre differ widely

do
clearly we

right?

for with

Is

us.

one

is not

is another.

uses

is

want

desire

our

that, if

make

to

the way

of

all this he

we

far otherwise

are

To

And

He

"

said.

in

use

any

which

knowledge

True, he

"

artists

players,or
with

I said, the

boy,

be

previousinstances?

of the

analogy

dear

there

the

to

which

knowledge
knowledge

how

only
use

quite

of money-

whether

of any

I said."

knows

be

were

givingthem

would

neither
immortality,

the
from

which

to

to us, unless

value

no

how

knew

we

remember?

knowledge,

art

is made,

if there

And

agreed.

immortal, without

men

other

be of

not

you

other

any

of any

or

Do

if

And

diggingall

and

trouble

ours?

were

gold?

would

Nor

"

to

not

"

the

to use

remember,
or

earth

the

gold, the knowledge would

into

stones

convert

is in

there

if without

off,even

the better

none

Education.

on

suppose,
"

said, that

art

we

make

would

which

have

proof

what

speeches

who

do

they make, justas the makers

lyres;

and

but

able

are

to

that the

proves
them.

who

some

did think

direction ; for the

appear
and

and

divine,

enchantment,
the enchanter

is

other

and

Do

them.

of

mode

agree

"

I
And

do

not

what

replied.
of the generalis
"

the

shall

see

is your
one

of

me?
we

my

is

proof

go,

notion?

of
the

said.

asked

"

to

what

But

Cleinias.

possession of which

in that

them, always

whereas

art

"

art

juriesam
consoling

that

are

qut(

shall

we

hav"

that

you

think
I think

is most

art

of

and

art

the

lofty!

scorpions,anc

members

I think

of

yet I

part of the great

charming

using
art

And

their

spidersand

said,

said,and

he

the

for the

I meet

this

and

;
art

happy.

man

it: and

and

upon

Yes, he

way,

the

acts

men

"

speeches,

that

Cleinias,and

art

snakes

charming

bodies

you

their

art

the

the

use

seeking might be discovered

all, inferior to

pests, this

right. Whither, then,

speeches

to

compose

as

speeches,whenever

For

with

same

sufficient

how

for them

make

the

extraordinary
men,

other

to

the

use

know

not

others
not

is

to

unable

will make

are

of

hardly,if at

"

recourse?

we

wonder.

and

monsters

assemblies

very

no

and

which

one

composers
be

to

me

not

art which

that the

to

that I think

"

how

lyresdo

speeches which
making speeches is

of

speeches is

making

of

see,

know

not

of themselves

are

I said ; and

"Yes,

"

And
rejoinedCleinias.
that
he replied,
there are

not,

the

use

art

I think

"

that be the

making speeches, would

asked.

which

also

of

art

happy?

us

of that?

you
of

composers

some

learn the

to

were

that

likelyto

do,
the

ar

make

^olitics

"man

of

The
art
Why not? I said.
happy.- I do not think that, he said.
of that?
I
What
general is surely an art of hunting mankind.
beyond hunting and
Why, he said, no art of hunting extends
"

"

the

said.

"

"

fisher

or

hands

nan

make

not

contained
their

transfers
whirl,

does

the

not

make

'iA*s, the

of

art

(288

1)

the

find

in them.

able

hands
to

If

which

is able
the

looking for

are

we

to

wisest

that

which

that

use

and

one,

makes

other

some

art

be

must

Jowetfs translation.}

it is clear that this art, which

Now

and

just as a general when

new
acquisitionto the states
himself; or as the quail-taker

them

is not

applied

be

to

catch

to

said ;

of them.

and

general

use

only

said, fairest

Good,

his

over

but

use

they

previously

was

dialecticians

the

"

which

to

and

class ; for

hunting

that

out

huntsman

the

geometricians

the

the

to

Certainly,he

keeper

D,

290

"

belong

to

blessed,

us

all

inventions

how

the

cook,

only

it ; but

use

and

the

being

"

camp,
know

quailsto

is to

,."

true?

it cannot

say, not

sense

any

is this

city or

for he

(who

their

over

And

takes

to

over

they, I

"

'f they have

Cleinias.

man,

them)

hand

prey,

is taken

diagrams, but

their

in

by them,
he

it

calculators

and

astronomers

do

the prey

when

and

capturing;

or

Science.

highest Practical

the

as

products of all
other than Politics,
the

uses

be none
practicalsciences, can
the products of all the other
It alone
the kingly art.
uses
anything for any
practicalarts, and does not in turn make
It is Politics that produces happiness in/
other art to use.
goods, the''
a
state, and happiness is the highest of all practical

the

other

one

thing

that

of

the sake

choose

we

anything beyond

follows, then, that

It

ordinate

to

his orders

that

He

produces goodness

that

good

good

of

be

citizen of

an

that
to

educator

the

the

makes,

the

not

own

constitutions

he
of

The

of

democracy

and
oligarchy,

the

is

methods

must

lyres
only

so

as

is this the
of educa
which

that which

educator

be

uses.

character

education
not

of

does

much

So
the

to

artist who

an

end.

maker

sub
take

must

character

of

sort

Like

quite different.

citizen

for

not

will be

education

character, but

of his

different

to

of

requires goodness

statesman

under

tion will have

make

an

the realisation

to

means

as

artist who

bridles,he is
the

art

of the citizens.

and

and

sake

own

it.
the

statesman

in the souls

because

for its

have

Politics,and

of

the

from

produced

case,

to

will

makes

therefore

Aristotle
his instructions from

take

just

art

from

as

musician

the

further

national

and

In
the

citizen is also

but

ideal

the

it is the

things are,

type of citizens which

tion it is his business

has

business
the
to

of

matter

left to

public

control of

the

education

the

education

the

state

be

It follows

families.

doubt,

no

be

must

his

take

must

them.

upon

not

must

fathers of

ideal state,

the

best

man;

and

and

play

education

concern

privatecitizens

is to

Ij

architectonic

"

of the

instruments

musical

who

this that

from

the possessor

of

maker

the

Education.

on

that

the

the

bast

realised.

\s

\ucator

produce

to

4uiresf"r

statesman

produces

produces

yet been

nowhere
of

that

the

constitu

tne

preserve.

(3) Happiness.
hitherto

It has
which

is the

follows

be

no

it.

at

end

or

from

once

at

process
should

We

been

assumed

completion of
the very

all if there
never

desire

is

that there
all human
of the

nature

good
activity.This

some

case.

one

completion at
anything if there were

were

would

There

no

the end
not

o;~

some

of
sake
and
for the sake
not
thing we desire for its own
anything beyond. We cannot
wishing one
indefinitely
go on
thing for the sake of another, and that again for the sake of
.somethingelse. If our appetitionis to have any meaning, it
must
be directed in the last resort
to something worth
having,
for the sake of something else,but for itself.
not
It has also been assumed
that this something is happiness.
is Plato's way
That
Aristotle
has simply
of speaking, and
We
must
adopted it from him.
not, however, be misled by
the

modern

associated

associations
with

is the greatest
or

for all

nor

them

men.

Aristotle
in

the

word.

the doctrine
Utilitarianism,

It has

utilitarians. The
to

which

no

school

word

to

come

that the end

of pleasures,whether
possiblesum
It is hardly necessary
to say that

were

sense

of

of life

for ourselves

neither Plato

happinessis

of moralists

be

need

used

by
object;

Happiness.
it

simply stands

for human

beings

question what
a

the

be

Aristotle

with

When

we

shall

We

of
activity

of

are

certainlyan

shows

us

which

we

Politics
duced

call it the

good

Platonic

the

term

the

is the

or

have

deliberation

the
But

of

and
political

for
means

go

dis

of

the human

the

taken.

human

nature

Even
cannot

man

beyond

hitherto

divine

intellect.

good

to

of such

we

well

is intellectual ; for the

as

goodness

It is this which

requireto

which

of mind

an

it is clear that the

man

not

as

in

in

for, though he is
other animal
is,a political

no

him

has

of

highest form

examination

Our

all.

nature.

consist

form

Now

animals

should

of education

name

the

at

are

double

must

man

of

other

intellectual process.
animal
intelligencein
an

of

practicallife.
the

man

give the

without

that is
from

that

find

has

one.

distinctive

all,we

were

is not

if

as

happiness is,we

man

with

than

more

from

view
purely political
that

spoken

activity. We

use

with

animal, he is,what

If that

But

that

happiness

the

word,

tinguisheshim

fact

in accordance

activitymost
a

the Aristo

SpeculativeLife.

this

what

in accordance

it,or

social, in

animal.

the

soul

if there

goodness
form

the

to

proper

the

by

the

and

ask

to

that

see

an

to

is

there

possession,while

prefers to

quite content

Practical

come

confronted

be

rather

that

and

had

the

to

answer

just mentioned.

The

(4)

once

himself

he

the Platonist

must

the best life

however,

see,

Platonists

it

be

to

state, condition, or

reservation

the

between
The

is also

he

shall

We

find

anticipatesthe

way

insists that

always
accordinglythat

shall

we

no

term.

happiness might

life,
though

is.

difference

of

use

in

and

that

considerable

telian

for whatever

element,
the
be

art

to

of

pro

it,and
realising
intellect differs

this,that it is capable of appre

himself.
For
hending higher objects than the good for man
is by no means
There are
the highestthing in the universe.
man
Aristotle
divine than he is,for instance,
as
thingsfar more
many

Aristotle

says, the fixed stars, or,

than

the

as

might put it,he

we

angels." Now,

Education.

on

far

so

man

as

is "a littlelower

live the intellectual

can

and political,
and in so
merely practical
his
doing he lives a life which is in a higher and truer sense
For
own.
intellect,though it is small, as Aristotle quaintly
he rises above
life,

says, "in

the

bulk," is yet

trulyman's

more

self than

own

any other

part of him.

highestlife for

The

retic life.

last word

This

and
is
spectator,"
at things. There

visitors

to

the

to

contend

look
of

and

on,

come

last

these

of

Life.

is the

and

honour,

those

lives,"the

"three

Political Life,and

Aristotle

has

no

doubt

into three
who

who

This

best of all.

the

are

of

looking
Pythagoras that

saying ascribed to
Olympia might be divided
sell wares, those
to buy and

enjoyment),the

Theoretic

these

at

theo

life of the

ways

classification of the

the

(thelife
or

was

prizesand

for

"the

means
literally

characteristic of Greek

very

games
who

those
classes,

then, is the speculativeor

man,

corie

come

to

is the

origin
ApolausticLife
the Speculative

that

the

last of

highest.

However

we

the

translate

English,it is very hard

In particular,
must
we
"Contemplative Life"

to

words

escape

be

from

careful

not

"Theoretic

Life"

into

misleadingassociations.
confuse

to

it with

the

of the

mystics and ascetics, so far "t

that is to be
least as
What
regarded as a passive state.
Aristotle calls theoria is emphaticallyan activity,
and is indeed
the typical
activity.The fact is,that he includes a good man;'
thingsin it which we are too apt to regard as wholly different,
things of which we fail to realise as he did the fundamenta1
identity. In the first place,scientific research isj"oria, anc
doubt Aristotle was
no
thinkingchieflyof that. But so too is
the artist'slife,
so

enjoyment

of

art

who

religiousman
fulness

is the

though

he

far

as

and
sees

life which

is well

aware

he

is

not

literature.

mere

So

and
artificer,
too

is the

so

is all

life of the

This, then, in its

things in God.
Aristotle regards as
man's
true
life,
too that in its fulness it is impossible

all

and

TJte Practical
for man,

and

that

it is the

life

we

in the

happy

but God

none

lead

must

only

true

live it

can
as

we

Business

atid

this

formulates

of the

in

He

matter,

says

as

and

between

determined

by

for the sake

is useful

their

is

be

must

Aristotle

suggestiveway

in these

selections.

but
We

what

still

all these

fine.

are

the

all to

same

to

part

choose

war

leisure,what
the

Now

legislates
; he

he

be

at

peace

are

the

of children

be

the

and

go

have

we

people

to

enjoyment

useful

and

to

in view

busy

in the

and

aims

and

to

and

parts and

keep

must

have

We

better

the

wiiat is necessary

These

in the education

of

lower

is fine.

when

he

way

business.

_must do

Our

necessarilybe

must

for the sake

in view

into

respect of the parts of the soul

in

more

is fine.

as

of what

and

divided

are

such

of actions

for the sake

In

lives and

parts, business

two

and

business

and

them

complete.

leisure.
more

besides.

actions

our

useful

functions,looking above

war,

It

preference for the higher or

respectiveactivities ; we must

keep

must

of
diversity

view

our

necessary

estimate

into

all

classes

of peace

and

statesman

and

these

of the soul and

to

making

altogetherin

its aims.
more

that

once

of

art

be

must

included

not

and

peace,

necessary

are

choice

|their
Iwhat

the

interestingand

very

of life is divided

whole

leisure,war

must

at

The

such

in

be

would

we

see

we

as

great deal

of the Politics

passage

"

be

point

if

may,

of education

previouslytaken

indeed, but it must

continuously.Still,

Leisure.

good citizens for a given constitution

of that art and
adequate as an account
that

of that word.

But, if this is the truth

view

SpeculativeLife.

far

so

sense

(5)

the

the

to

of every

but

still

keep
age

of

in

that

require education."
We
of the
than

see,

then, that the practicallife is only the handmaid

and
speculative,

that it makes

the

it has

ultimatelyno

other

higherlife possible.All

our

justification
toilingand

Aristotle

io

Education.

on

meaning except to make leisure possible.

life is "busied about many things,"
but
Like Martha, the practical
the rightenjoyment of leisure is the "one thingneedful,"and the
highestaim of education will therefore be to prepare us for this.
in a very simple form the perennialproblem
have
Here
we

can
striving

have

whether

as

to

to

fit

Aristotle's
number

of

suspicionsof
possibleto get

be

chief end
that

you

they

retire ; the

education

work

that

they

by

life of toil would,

we

do

which

rest

see, have

can

not

will tell

be

able

to

they are

have

deal

An

in such

they

good

is

their time.

people

"

yet it

men

retired

have

pro

culture

and

may

with

train

to

the

rightlyenjoy

they

business

that

they
to

its aim

as

that

when

what

loss

took

could

order

word

business

ardent

"

people,

admit

to

most

is that

quite at
which

The

excellent

them

in

hard

large

very

misunderstandingsthat

many

The

misfortune

often

very

of life.

follow

to

escapes

always engenders.

the

might

he

it is

whether

or

is instructive

It

it, because

ambiguitiesand

controversy

arouses

the

of life.

business

treatment

of the

is culture

of education

end

the

for the

us

tracted

no

"

way

earned
say for

to

"

practical as one which merely

might be quite as
the "useful and necessary" activitiesof the business
anticipated
^
it
but
would
life itself. It might sound
be
at
not
first,
strange
and
itself,

amiss

"

if we

sense.

Even

instance

for

if

our

plainthat

literature

and

what

education

art

of

which

the

of the noble

in

its

typicalbusiness
the

highest

unfavourable

most

prepared

science, and

or

Aristotle

education

seems

that of the

purpose,
an

end

the

as

take

we

speak with

to

more

of leisure

enjoyment

very

once

were

him

to

"fine"

it is I

man,

enjoy great

things

of

life

"

I
*

in
generally,
on

his

Aristotelian

such

an

times

lines than

education

are

Ethics

taken,

are

and
two

on

that makes

cheap substitute
The

of rest

for

might
any
men

be

defended
It is

other.

theoria^the life of

Politics,from
courses

of

which
lectures

just the

with

put up

easily

more

wrant

that very

of
'

poor

amusement.

the

followingextracts

intended

to

form

BOOKS

FROM

A.

III

I"

THE

OF

ETHICS.

The

(i )

object of

Every
is

ursuit,

and

art

"

it

for

investigation,

give

of

Man.

for

is

the

The

highest

the

of

2.)

aim

to

to

Politics

Good

the

at

the

it

good\

some

good

it

call

to

occupation

every

therefore,

was,
"

and

What

everything

at1."

is

is, however,

There

thers

or]

"

goods

ends

In

results

the

difference
Some

others.

sciences

activities,

obvious

an

and

certain

are

ctivities.
ie

every

believed

account

orrect

is

(I.

Sciences.

Practical

is

POLITICS.

OF

SCIENCE

inquiry

our

this

of producing

cience

'

THE

INTRODUCTORY.

I.

that

arts

or

results

have

over

and

above

ends

over

and

higher

stand

naturally

some

activities,

are

products

or

between

while
the
above

than

the

ctivities2.

Now,
nd

arts,

The

end

definition

This

is

see

the

more

rgument

state

but
which

is

health,

the
the

the

theory

of

see

and

the

good
of

p.

practical

activity;

construction,
or

3.

of
the

ends.

ship,

that

Plato.

the

practical science,

than
of

different

shipbuilding
of

sciences

and

many

theoretical

realisation
Introd.

of

school

completion,

practical

follows,

case

be

also

the

important
the

occupations

that

between

more

end,

in

current

In

than

important
too

is

2.

p.

will

there

distinction

activity

So

that

was

Introd.

eutics.
f the

the

different

many

medicine

This

bove

are

it follows
of

/hich

there

as

and

the

good

end
road

health

Politics

is not
for

science,

man.

and

over

or

bridge

than
the

for

thera-

theory
For

the

The

14

Ethics

of strategy

and
victory,

moreover,

that

subordinate
bridles

to

and

subordinate

art

militaryexercise,is

other
same

other

way

such

having

worth
because

of

ends

those

than

of the

arts

sciences

or

former

subordinate

the

mastercrafts

of the

subordinate

that the latter

arts.

pursued

are

above

and

them

in the

as

the

at

It is

only

all.

Nor

'

the activities
result

of the sciences mentioned

case

naturallymore

are

any difference in this respect whether

the ends of the processes
themselves
or
some

are

be

may

arts, and, in all

it make

does

find,

strategy. In

to

their subordinate

have

arts

the

cases,

such

We

one

of

the

to

of

wealth.

of making
art
higher art. The
making the rest of a horse's harness are
of riding,
while that,in turn, with every

some

those

of economics

that

number

Aristotle.

of

over

above2.

If,then, there is any end in the sphere of practicewhich

sake alone, if it is not
desire for its own
the case
that we

we

'

desire

everythingfor the

involve
vain

futile3,it

and

thing. Surely we

may

decisive influence

on

to

aim at, we
1

Or

all

arts."

hit upon

the

have

best

mark

"

rightthing; and,

expressionis borrowed

The

the

good,

this will have

knowledge of

to
likely

more

the

our

from

Plato./

p. 3.

also among

found

make

so

life. Like archers,if we

our

meaning seems

The

say that

architectonic

"the

Introd.

See

are

"

is clear that it will be

"

would/
appetitionjd

something else, that

and
infinity,

to

process

of

sake

to

be that the

sort

same

the theoretical sciences,though

of subordination

they do

not

is to be/

concern

us

atf

present.
3

an

any
to

the

To

fiction. It is noi
simplya mathematical
of going beyonc
but only an expressionof the possibility
reality,
be assigned. It is, accordingly,
sufficient in his eyes
that may

Aristotle,the infinite was

actual

limit
condemn

present

for
appetition

its

sake

own

desiringA

theory if

case,

anything

at

alone.

It

be

shown

all unless
is

this.

to

infinite process.

should

We

have

never

In
an

we

cannot

of C
we

simplybecause

having for V

something worth

was

that

something which
but

an

there

obvious

imply

to

of B, B for the sake

long run
anything else whatsoever,
is,good.
come

can

applicationis

the

for the sake

in the

it

and

do not

so

indefinitely
f

on

go

forth.

We

must

desire for the sake of

it is itself worth

having, that

I.

\
\'
A

Book

if that

is so,

is, and

it

what

authoritative

ought

I all

subordinate

jmakes
/

it

we

point.
highest esteem,

in

held

as
legislates

(ends
\It may

\hat

the

be that

of

state

Preservationof
j

we

It is

complete.

more
can

this

manage

for whole

of

good

the

end

we

of

peoples and

This, then, is the aim

for

state

for

of

are

follow

to

are

Politics

to

that
is
be

and

the

for Man.

is the

same

as

attainment

and

something grander

and

for, indeed, if

thankful

; but

it

do

to

godlike thing1.

more

it may

and
investigation,

present

our

what

include

must

the

finer and

that

further,since

single individual

is

states

up
are

Economics,

single individual

something

even

and

therefore,be the Good

of

art

sciences

and

arts

the

study them and

practicalarts which

Rhetoric

still it is clear

but

is the

Since, then, it is Politics

must,

good

most

should

occupations

of all the rest, and

other

those

as

It

practicalsciences,and

alone, the

leave

to

are

that

Politics.

what

to

who

such

of all the other

use

of the

the

to

highest degree

evidently Politics.

too

see

to

is in the

which

outline,

belongs.

belong

must

which

state, and

We

what

to
i

exist in

to

is

that

determines

that

it

least in

at

it

art

or

that

that

to

art,

mastercraft, and
Politics

science

admitted

15

comprehend,

to

try

what

to

be

will

It

must

we

be called Politics.

(2)

The

method

of

be

It cannot

Politics.

science.

exact

an

(I-3- "" I-5-)

Our
made
1

as

clear

Aristotle
to

name

any

rate

not

be

form

is here

give

The

meeting
science

of

the

or

that

mutilated
we

can

when

term

expressions,from

form

only see
full-grown.

"subject-matter"
the

medieval

of

the

Politics
Now
a

thing

would
of

one

rendering

so

of

this

we

is at

would

merely

many
the

one-sided

Aristotle's

reallyis if
like

individual

for the
it

it is

is

must

we

that

answers

good

is derived,

Latin

Politics

He

good.

of it.
what

allow ; for

objection that

human

science
A
highest form.
fundamentally different from

it attains
2

the

to

subject-matter2will

its

undeveloped
doctrines

the

as

if it is

quite adequate

will be

this science

of

account

be

an

leading

take

it in the

other

current

Aristotelian

term.

Ethics

The

16

expect the

not

than

expect the

we

and

crafts.

the

finish in all the

same

that

view

the

has

been
nature

not

by

of fluctuation

our

estimate

has

man

from

in

truth

of

only

outline.

admits

demonstration
bilities from
what

it
Literally

It is

just as

from

"the

still feel the

"high finish,"and
in

attained

well

degree

materials

some

of finish in wood,
of human

account

life

propositionin geometry,
uuchanging
1

The

contrast

thought during
there

was

to

justas

the

habit

and

to

and

which

bronze,
with

deals

law

law

and

had

nature

before

that

otherwise

controversy

convention.

plausi:

as

mind

"

and

justin the

look

the

of the

type of

would

all

through
means
literally

used

not

to
man

hearer

do

in

The

Greek

it in

We

some

case/

cannot

be

for the

same

same

same

no

way,
sense

simplestand

so

as

most

knowledge.

century

been

demand

with

taken

Aristotle.

as

which
or

to

had
not

whether

nature

added

been

by

at all.

beauty is

or

in Greek

what

meant

was

which
original,

been

have

played a great part

By

could

is not

not

and

man,

We

andf

of the

of that.

the word

"finished"

be

ever

one

"highly finished"

means

begin with, the primitiveand

well have

well-known

can

between

otherwise; by

been

the

of

elements

as

every

up

being
in.

in others.

marble,

take

is competent

man

bear

"

this

nature

put

work

"

"exactness

in Latin

exactus

to

it is necessary

metaphor,
The
pointis that

to

wood

have

instance, to

good judge

have

may

and

the

also

exactness

expect

for

as

underlyingwood,"

the craftsman

must

Every

is

knows, and

means

this section.

absurd,

rhetorician

must

as

of the

premisses admit

our

to

"

and

subject

We

courage.

such

you

far

so

things;

of

rough indication

culture

mathematician.

he

material

any

It shows

department only

it.

again to

or

that

too

sort

good things. Many

conclusions

our

form

same

goodness

subject and

It is in this way

of

judge

Our

general truth,so

finish in every

from

wealth,

to

is the

There

of the

premisses,with

arguments.

my

!.

arts

fluctuating
these qualities

that

then, in dealing with

such

mere

character.
of

his ruin

content,

arguing

taken

injuriesarise

cases

owed

be

must

in

even

in many

more

Tightnessand beauty of
admit of such varying and
Politics,

exist by law only and

for

alike,any

products of the
actions,which

The

subject of

estimates

in all sciences

exactness

same

Aristotle.

of

may
an

have

might

compare

affair of

Book

'

of

is

specialculture
of

man

I.
in

good judge

is the

general culture

17

specialdepartment, the

subjectsin

of all

judge

proper

general1.
(3)
We

now

Politics.

He

and

are

these

has

experienceof

no

difference

no

juvenilein

not

the data
we

defect

fit student2

occupations of

the

whether

The

character.

is

man

young

justthe subjectsand

it makes

And

the

why

see

(I.3. "" 5"7.)

of Politics.

student

The

is

of

life,

real

discussion.

our

in years

say young
not

of

time,

of

one

or

but

livingby feelingand lettingour pursuitsbe directed

feelings. Theory is as unprofitableto persons of this

arises from

by

our

character

it is

as

the

to

morally

weak3.

On

other

the

hand,

appetitesand acts are guided by a consistent rule

will find a knowledge of the theory to be of the highestvalue.
So much, then, by way
of prelude as
the student
of
to
its results are
the way in which
the
to be taken, and
Politics,
subjectof which we propose to treat.
those

whose

is

by

We

can

(i) of
of the beliefs
science
subject
; for no
with
which
definitions

the

on

principles,the
Let

us

resume

pursuitis

every

MAN.

FOR

criticism

Wise

GOOD

THE

II.

directed

to

is the

good

fore arises: What

or, in other

argument

our

words,

it starts.

far.

so

which

its

prove

can

good.

some

is the

What

the

only discover what this

Many, and (2) of the
first

own

(I. 4.)

Every science and

The
question there

Politics aims

highestof all

producing?
practical
goods ?
at

is meant
By "general culture"
mainly a knowledge of the methods
applicablein all sciences alike,what we call Logic now-a-days. The name
Logic is of later date than Aristotle.
2
The
word
"listener"
and serves
means
that this
to remind
literally
us

is

lecture

a
3

and

book.

type of character

speaking they
Those

not

who

life has

no

do

are

not

discussed

those
act

in

fixed purpose,

who
a

in another

do

consistent
and

wrong

against their

manner

it is useless

part of the Ethics.

so

to

better

far resemble

appeal

to

them

Roughly
knowledge.

them.
as

Their

to what

truly good.
B.

is

Ttie Ethics

Now

find

we

for both

the

pretty general agreement

"livingwell"
happiness1. But, when we
find

with

agree

the latter

those

it is health

above

Good, alone

of time

examine

to

which

those

is

reasoning up
of
principles"
to

to

them

reconcile

it

does
it has

not, of course,

They

The

good

See

now.

thus

of

from

is

studies the

Plato

to

which

he proposes
4

The

Here

good
to

geometer

simple that

of each

confine
have

we

we

in the

happiness is

Aristotle's

the

believed

are

to

to

first

the

with

of

or
starting-points

science

present

and
can

case

first

"

the wise, and

prove

own

the

and

his

derived.

It

Plato

was

its
like

utilitarianism which

wisdom.

his school.

be

are

"happiness"

the

cause

of the

Plato's treatment
he

of all

sought for
knowledge

single

and

all

impossibleof attainment, and he

thingsby itself. The present discussion
for

man.

great difference

between

definitions

certain
look

raise this

to

ideal

good

begins
have only to

and
principles

used

chieflyin this,that

should

class

another

and

this

be clear,the

must

the

No

that the term

them

that

imply

waste

something immediatelyknown

"wise"

good"
Aristotle
thought
reality.
"form

which

possess any of the associations with

Introd., p. 6.

reference

differed

The

gettingat

criticism.

with

start

from

was

be

be sufficient to look

the beliefs of the many

possibleby

of geometry.

school, and

of

adduce

to

first principles;
it must
axioms

whc

People

doubtless

beliefs;it will

regularway

if

givesa

person

their favour.

science

honour,

or

he says
If he falls ill,

point as to which we
from
reasoningdown
first principles4.
Plato

It is Aristotle's

wealth

same

one

difference between

often the

prevalentand

most

are

there

But

former

Now, it would

all these

something in

have

do
many
it some
make

own

of all the rest3.

goodness

The

of the

ignoranceadmire those who talk

their heads2.
Some
again have thought
the many
good thingswe know, there was
which was
and by itself,
the cause
of the

above

and

over

another

at

of their

and

happinessis,we

is in poverty, that it is wealth.

; if he

they

identical with

are

views

thinglike pleasureor
Very

of it at different times.

conscious

grandly

wise.

name

Happiness,and

well"

the

its

to

as

ask what

to

come

something else.

different account

that

"doing

and

of the

obvious

palpableand

are

call it

difference of opinion, and

not

wise

the

and

many

that

assume

of Aristotle.

at

the

and

figurehe

geometry

and

axioms

which

constructs

to

politics.
are
see

so

their

The

2O

(a)

The

Lives:'

to

left off.

Many

A ristotle.

as

to

of

our

"

The

Happiness.

there

For

their

expect,

happiness.

Enjoyment.

discussion

from

should

we

is,as

that

thread

Judging

as

appear,

good,

Life of

the

the

resume

we

multitude
the

beliefs
of

of

Three

(I.5.)

But,
where

Ethics

three

are

point

lives1,the

to

is

That

the

at

vulgar;
regard Pl"a"iire_as
why they prizethe

lives thaj;stand

out

that justmentioned, the Political life and

conspicuously,
I was
the Speculativelife. As
saying, then, the multitude
strike us as utterlyservile in their preference for the life of
beasts ; but they have to be considered, because many
persons
share
the
of
in positionsof power
feelings
Sardanapallos2.
cultivated and active persons, again,make
More
Honour
their
be said to be the end
of the political
good ; for honour
may
life. This, however, strikes us as something more
superficial
in
than what we
the
search of.
Honour
on
are
depends more
it is given, and
to whom
people who give it than on the man
be something that
have a presentimentthat the Good
must
we
is a man's
and
cannot
easilybe taken from him.
very own
in seeking honour
be to
motive
to
seems
Further, men's
themselves
convince
of their own
goodness, at any rate, it
is at the hands
whom
of the wise and of those among
they are
known
that they seek to be honoured,
it is plain that,on
so
their own
Perhaps,
showing,goodness is better than honour.
then, it may be supposed that Goodness, rather than honour,
is the end
life ; but this also strikes us
of the political
as
most

"

"

We

theories
lives
2

"

see

have

to

of the

good.

Introd.

Aristotle

is

potentates.

tutor

the luxurious
for

For

the

lives because

origin of

continually
making

when

was

their

had

had

the

oriental

some

Alexander

to

remarks

experience of

despot in

the

the

Great.

romance

fitfor

formulate

not

classification of

like this about

life at the

the

"

three

which

an

ox

than

passed among

king.

his
as

princesand

Macedonian

Sardanapalloswas

Assyrian history. The allusion here is speciallyto

began "I have all that I have eaten," a motto,

which

said, more

do

the many

p. 8.

He

he

judge by

the

court,

type of

the Greeks

legendary epitaph

Aristotle elsewhere

Book

something

\ you

goodness and
suffer misery

possess

can

",lifelong, and

call

would

besides.

fortunes

for

that ;

of

popular

literature.

have

plain that

wealth

is

to

useful

thing,that

else.

Accordingly
claim

more

be

to

their

prized for

regarded
sake.

own

either, though

many

Enough, then,

of this

The

(")
of

the

Good,

and

to

This, however,
And

ours.

yet

sacrifice

truth

not

to

give the

they

are

not

are

so

them.

spent upon

well

be

Form

Universal

the

that

is used.

term

approach with reluctance,seeing

friends of
are
theory of Forms
I

admitted,
in the

views
dear

to

dare

all for

right, above
both

consider

to

in which

sense

the

own

Plato's

8.)

i"

the

it will

are

they

Good.

the

to

as

subject we

their

even

friends and

""

indeed

and

desirable

been

have

Wise

introduced

who

that those

that

have

would

it has ; for

than

something

of

above

it is clear

Yet

the

discuss
a

sake

It is

for.

looking

are

we

it is

compulsion, and

under

ends

as

doubtless,be
is

we

subject.

(I.6"7,

It will now,

in

Speculative,and

enumerated

arguments

beliefs
of

Good.

is

say, it exists for the

things

So

sequel1.

only so
the good

the

surely,

one,

paradox.
discussed
sufficiently

life is the

third

all your

greatest mis

the

no
life,

idea that

an

nothing

defending

is

not

such

were

it in the

is

do

or

with

meet

subject

The

money-maker

The

and

is

There

end.

an

yet sleep

he

the

discuss

to

21

that leads

man

unless

happy,

enough
shall

for

incomplete

too

I.

philosophers, to

interests
; but

us

it is

that

say,

Our

of truth.
be

it would

impiety

first place to truth'2.

***"*""*"*"**

"

See

This

Plato

the

extracts

has

is my

diatelyfollow

become

from

friend, but

truth

in the

are

of

is
a

anything to the elucidation of the

to Aristotle's
audience,
intelligible
were

keenly

discussed

at

the

the

proverbial in

almost

text

below.

Book

more

so."

form

The

given

time,

but

they

deal

they

They

with

could

do

and

be

not

would

imme

contribute
be

at

once

questions that
here by
made
so

certain

only

by Cicero,

which

arguments

peculiar character
subject in hand.
as

it

to

The

22

Ethics

it will be well

Perhaps,however,
for the

present

minute

Aristotle.

of

dismiss these arguments

to

discussion

of them

would

be

more

appropriateto another branch of philosophy. And the

if there is some
Even
appliesto the Form of the Good.
it is plainthat
Good
existing
apart, alone and by itself,
be

not

that

one

man

attain

can

to

or

and

possess,

that

same
one

it will

is the

Some
good we are lookingfor just now.
think,
may
indeed, that it would be as well to attain a knowledge of it as
a
help to the goods that are attainable and capable of being
sort

of

possessed. If
be better able
know

is

what

obtain

not

seem

of
practice

the actual
seek

model, it will be said,we

is

good
ourselves,we

for ourselves
shall be

certain

to

be in accordance

universal

Good.

Now

find in

we

at

hardly

can

the arts and sciences would

practise
and not even
feel the want
of
auxiliary,

that those who

be

of such

it.

it easy
a

an

to

better

how

how

see

tradesman

man

does

by

made

the

"Form1."

not

look

of man,

to the health

at

that he

cases
particular

"

of the

it is

or

some

the

suppose

Nor

be

is

made

itself,"
or

Good

general by

plain that

in this way, but confines

of

even

by

ignorant

carpenter would

better doctor

Why,

health

or

or

knowledge

will be

templation of
doctor

shoemaker

good

some

yet they pass

we

we

this argument;

all aim

and
deficiency,

if

likelyto

with what

They

shall

; and

more

in
plausibility

the sciences.

supply some

to

of the

theory

is

as

what

for

good

There

it.

but it does

and

know

to

it

have

we

man
particular

even

con

the

himself
; for it is

treats.

of

disproportionate
length. I have therefore thoughtit best
to omit
them, taking up the thread of the argument at the point where it
more
once
begins to have a direct bearing on our
subject. It will be
himself admits
that these arguments reallybelong
noticed
that Aristotle
of philosophy.
branch
to another
a

commentary

that

This
the

shoemakers

has

been

Platonic
and

thought
Socrates

an

unfair argument,

is himself

but

responsiblefor

carpenters into the discussion.

The

we

the
real

must

remember

importationof
point is

that all

sciences have to do with the particular,

and therefore the universal
practical
will
of
be
This must, however, be understood
not
to them.
good
any use
in the lightof what is said below in Book
X, c. 9.

Book

Let

however,

return,

us

consider

search, and

in different

different

the

which
is

in any

good

all the other

is

something

and

arts; it is

one

thing

art?

in architecture
health, in strategy victory,

occupation or pursuitit is

it is in

every

that will be the

that

is any

practicalgood,

the

all

it has

So, when
the

the

of

some

instruments

practice,

of

ends

more

for
are

processes

are

is

only

than

if there

call

complete

more

Aristotle

into

think

line with

worth

are

that

the

which

good

be

have

(i) complete,

rather
to

The

than

position of
If

apply

to

point of

the

plain by referringto
Aristotle

and

ends
fingers'

meaning

of

his
and

"

else.

reference
the

hearers
could

complete

to

passage

These

Plato

evidentlyhad

"

see

Introd.

p.

on
2.

to
on

be
to

(3) what

with

quoted
the

Platonic

the

com-

sake

as

we

means

been

has

good,

it falls

the

good to any
quite satisfactory.
lay down
one

Introd.

that

would

Aristotle

wealth
in

are

we

own

universal

gone

along

what

Platonists

confine

we

seen

these

recognise them

the

requirements

flutes
of

be

pursued

the

and
(2)self-sufficing,

anything
happiness.

of

sake

complete

not

for its

theory of

started.

we

is

his

must

flutes2 and

it will be

pursued

the

once

will

one,

which

that

abandon

from

is

which

that, when
to

than

more

than

than

ends

are

to

try

now

for the

having

that

of it is
single art, the Platonist account
entitled
the
dialogue
Philebos, Plato had

one

must

we

evidentlybe complete. If,then,

must

That

means

criticism

theory comes

evidentlymore

are

complete end,

one

them.

by

but

the

these, wealth, for instance, and

pletestof

forced

own

There

is best

what

looking for;

our

ground,

else ; it is clear, then, that all ends

Now

there

as

generally,we

something
ends.

its
'

it still further.

and

one,

on.

so

end

or

sphere

if there

and

house, and

other

of

in medicine

This

completion

in the

end

shifted

thus

thing

same

elucidate

ceeds

sake

for the

it will be these.

one,

to

this

to

case

If, then, there

directed.

to

that

in

then, is

What,

performed.

In every

In

forth.

so

Surely

are

processes

in

are

we

Clearly it

strategy, and

given

one

which

of

good

be.

can

occupations

in

medicine, another

23

the

to

it

what

will

now

pro

be

made
Both

p. 4.

arguments

allusion.
slightest

the

choose

at

For

their
the

The

24

something

to

chosen

both

in

and

call

we

is

call

and

sake

the
and

as

means

complete

to

means

things which
to something

if it is

are

else ;

chosen

always

for that of

never

honour, pleasure, intelligenceand

having for

worth

have

to

them,

but

"

the

sake

but

itself.
The

their

also

we

take
the

the

By self-sufficientwe

do

in

extend

we

the

here

and

so,

so

self-sufficientin the

to

sense

of that

self-

man

parents, children,
fix

include

consideration

of

suffices for

must

process

happy.

be self-sufficient.

fellow-citizens ; for

as

of

having for
of anything

sake

to

include

we

sake

us

requirement

what

mean

however,

shall have
future

the
is held

must

idea of self

however, is a pointfor
term

from

follow

the

thinks worth
for the

choose

to

were

having for
they will make

indeed

We

general friends

friends' friends,
we

the

not

result

no

one

no

complete good

political1.Even

nature

and

hand,

solitarylife.

leading a

if

goodness

should

"

worth

them

follows

of

certainly,we

even

things,nor

form

every

granted that

for

result

sufficiency
; for

wife,and

think

other

of these

same

sakes

own

of these

one

every

happiness and
Happiness, on

if

than

as

anythingelse.
in
Now
hold that Happiness answers
to this description
we
sake
highestdegree. We think it worth having for its own
think
to
never
means
as
a
we
anything else, whereas
own

and

end

an

chosen

never

complete

more

for themselves

general we

for its

of Aristotle.

else ; that which

else

anything

Ethics

man

is

by

limit; for

parents'parents

That,
infinity2.
here we
are
using

to

which

taken

alone

life worth
having and free from every
by itself makes
hold
that happiness answers
this
to
we
deficiency. Now
descriptionalso.
Thirdly we hold that happinessis the most worth having of
that it is itself one
all things,
but not in the sense
of the series
of the series,
of good things. If it were
the addition
of
one
and

animal,"
"political
which
Aristotle
sufficiency
-

Cf. p. 14,

n.

3.

as

he says in the Politics.

is here

attackingwas

that

The

false ideal of self-

of the

Cynics.

Book

I.

25
make

very least of the other goods would

having. The addition would produce an
the

the greater,of

is

goods

two

always

it

and

of

good,
having than

excess

worth

more

worth

more

the

less1.

conclude, then, that Happiness is something complete

We

and
self-sufficient,

and

it is

that

the

of

end

practical

all

activity.
DEFINITION

THE

III.

OF

GOOD

THE

Our

MAN.

FOR

that both the Many

us
of received beliefshas shown
the Wise, when
and
as
for Man
they speak of the Good
some
by that term
form of "living well."
Happiness, wean

criticism

shows

This
which

the

like

seems

distinct

the

of

case

The

all the
2

other

goods
The

"or

for

instance,because

prune

can

do

we

have

can

certain

pruning

can

do

they

or

the

of

translated

it best
to

Plato

you

with

with

find

do

now

is still on

it

with

of

of other

pruning-hook,

relative

to

the

it.

is

simply

Sight

function

some

for

include

sense

from

is derived
the

is the

of the

the eye.

for

only

can

you

function

than

Plato's

word

common

that which

anything else

eye,

Again,

pruning-hook because, though you

things,such as a kitchen-knife, you

which

may

Platonic ground.
strictly

others

it.

function

is made

is,accordingly,something
we

Just as in
and
artist,

other

in

must

meaning

as

with

function

number

best ; for it is in that

everythingbeing

function

"

see

that will

at

happiness + health, for instance, was

to

best

more

good thing among

one

good

defines

want

arrive

any

contributoryto

of
"

cannot

is the

vines

vines

be

must

still

of man2.

Happiness, then,

relation

thing or

that

say

alone.

"task, "and

with

to

merely

must

we

highest Good

the

to

sculptor or

be

cannot

have

word

do

the

function

theory of

Republic.
"work

is the

under

To

23.)

"

we

way

definition

being

and

find what

happiness

This

truth

The

should

we

than

admitted

fluteplayeror

(I. 7, "" 9

it is.

highestgood

if it were,
better

to

human

identifyHappiness

to

the

for

science.

our

of what

account

be

that

stating an

probably

Man.

function of

be

It may

look

must

we

the

form

what

ascertain

direction

of
starting-point
for a
"living well"" means

is to

stand

in what

us

expect
it has

to
to

for
that

the

alone

man

find his

good,

perform.

What

purpose.
can

the

Here

do

good

or

of

Aristotle

26

The

in

general of

to

perform,the good
if he

has any

The

must.

tasks and
made

eye, the

task

without

"

Aristotle.

of
have

is

"

and

the

shoemaker

And

giving him

something

of

surelyhe

that

proper
has

nature

do.

to

the

case

their

have

hardly suppose

can

we

in the

perform.

to

lyingin

as

be

must

function

and

regarded

that it

function

or

certain task

"

well

admitted

functions,so

Again, the

hand, the foot,and

have

body,

the

"

carpenter

man

who

people

it will be

function, so
man,

all

Ethics

lay down

all their
that

generally,the several parts of the

tasks or functions,so we
safely
may

own

has

man

task

some

function

or

and

over

above

all these1.

What, then,

thing that
peculiarto
a

would

man

life of

with the

horse, the

is still left the

in

It is therefore

life of

sensation

is what

life of
we

give

that there
man

of

of the
their
shall

"

is

differentiates

animals

part differentiates

action
see

But

God.

even

be

may

later

animal.

rule

or

There

whether

us,

meaning

as

Further,

be

It may

ways.

taken

as

their proper functions.

himself has a function which
have

man

man

that

which
the
who

it is in

no

from

is

the lower
that

sense

which

follows.

lawgiver, who
do

not

the

the

who

man
we

Ultimately
can

give a

fullyunderstand

practical

animals.

he acts;

When
lives it

only mean

it is

rational
the

life of

only

the

account

of
principles

obeying a rational rule. We

the
than
possibleto man
higher
his proper
function, seeingthat he shares

that

conscious

he

The

its lowest.

at

plants,while

from

of the rule upon

men

there

man

is life

necessarilymean

not

account

rule somewhere

life,but
practical
it with

do

wisdom,"
practical

rule.

that

suppose

growth

rational
a

two

and

call it rational,we

could

to

clearly.share

exercisingthought2.

all parts of

nutrition

rational

the

and

in the scale

part of

to

therefore,

must,

we

every

something

such.

as

The

and

men

and

it is

Next

too

rational

the

of in

spoken

this

of obedient

sense

rule

reasonable

him

belongs to

the

be

classes of

All

life; for life is

not

growth.

with any

practicallife of

possessionof

this life may

and

life; but

and

ox,

rational in the

take

we

nutrition

sentient

the

come

It is

be ?

evidentlyshare with plants,and

that we
are
looking for. We

we

aside the

set

this function

can

they

still

are

life

The

28
make
or

Let

afterwards.

ture

been

Anyone
outlined, and

well
in

assistant

as

first sketch

must

we

day

one

this,then,

take

us

course

of Aristotle.
short time

or

make

blessed

man1.

happy

does

nor
spring,

Ethics

outline

an

outline and

the

can

is

; for of

fill up

elaborate

just

how

the

pic

what

has

inventor

excellent

an

is

That

this process.

and

on

carry

time

of the Good

the

have

arts

supply their deficiencies when

progressed. Anyone can
bear
in mind
But
what
must
we
we
they are started.
said already,and
; in

subjects alike

demand

not

every

the

subjectwe

allows and as
subject-matter2
The
inquiryin hand.
carpenter
search
of the right angle, but
the

for it

carpenter

seeks

while

the

geometer,

what

it is and

same

course

being

what

in

all

only
are

its

as

and

of

in

the

it is of

as

finish in all

same
use

are

properties.We
as

to

must

prevent

as

the

both

way.
for his

spectator of truth, wants

subjects alike,so

have

only as much
is appropriateto

the geometer

not

once

ask

must

much

far

so

degree

same

or

to

The

work,
know

follow
our

in

the

main

Again, it is wrong to
in all subjectsalike.
it is
ask for the cause
In some
inquiries
sufficient that the "that"
should
be clearlydisplayed,as for
first principles
instance in the search for the starting-points
or
"that'"' is the first thing and
of a science.
The
forms
our
Such
first principlesare
apprehended in
starting-point3.
different ways,
some
by perceptionand
by induction, some
therefore
We
must
some
by a certain habituation4.
try to
each
and
class in the way appropriate
to its nature
investigate
task

for

being swamped

By
to

us

is

which

attain
"

an

to

end

our
or

Cf. p. 15,

n.

2.

Cf. p. 19,

n.

i.

The

those

19,

n.

we

must

to
i.

science

enable

us

ones.

simply a life long enough

point short of this,happiness,
fullypresent.

understand

At

growth.
completion,cannot

of geometry
first principles

of natural

necessary

life"
full

"

p.

"complete

by secondary

are

any

be

apprehended by perception,and

in good activities is
Habituation
by induction.
Cf.
of conduct.
to apprehend the first principles

Book

pains to

take
a

influence

decisive

is

that

at

we

arrive

as

from

view

which
got the definition

is

at

clear

they exercise

them.

The

it is

know, and

we

of

once

Having

now

theyconfirm it or

whether
We

views

consider

must

clusion

the

it is

the

start

its

by

help
points

of the

many

first

our

All facts

subject.

to

form

never

long till truth and

good

things

only

also in the
in

to
beliefs

12.)

"

principlenot

are

starting-

our

received

lightof

(I.8

not.

premisses,but

certain

from

on

afreshin

it

examine

must

point^we

but

follows

; for

discussion.

under

see

whole,

29

well denned

being

all that

on

half the

than

more

their

secure

as

light of
with

harmony

falsehood

current

the

felt

are

con

truth,
be dis

to

cordant1.
Now
external

of the

these

the

goods, goods
the goods of
ascribed

be

to

course

this

according to
acts

and

soul

and

that

the

in

not

happy
is

is

definition.

But, if
that

we

life and

The

We

as

"many

by

our

definition.

cannot

had
the

of

prove
a

and

the

wise"

well"

it, and

to

saying that

we

see

ask

more

more.

See

p.

18,

of

one

for
and

n.

i.

the
more

is

theo

them,

arrived

we

not

must

happiness

happiness

things or

by which

shall

of

proceeds.
once

is also

practicalor

whether

process

good training,we

discussion

"do

think

Some

wisdom,

the

certain

end

The

make

men

it is all these

that

correct

well.

that all the demands

continuation

and

is

of

are

goods of the
requirement

goods.

too

it is

the

; for it amounts

doing

soul

but is accepted

of the

one

Of

body.

definition

making

"live well"

good

have

it is true
2

it

external

should

man

that
goodness, some
others again
retical,
This

the

this definition

satisfied

in

classes,

strictest and

the

only ancient

not

too,
right,

with

It appears
are

of

one

of the

in

our

so

activities ; for this makes

harmony

the end

is

is

three

activities of the

the soul ;

view, which

into

goods

good

are

and

acts

to

by philosophers2.It

soul, and

soul

the

Now

highestsense.

divided

been

have

at
"

our

why."
clearly

3O

The

accompanied by,

or

still include
held

by

external

totallywrong
in

unaccompanied by pleasure;
prosperity1.Of these views some

large number

ancients,others by

of the
is

likelythat either
expect both to be rightin

we

of Aristotle.
others

not

high reputation. It
even

Ethics

few

of these

not

some

are

of

men

be

should

point or

one

most.

Now

definition is in harmony

our

with

view

the

of those

form of goodness ;
happinessis goodness or some
for activity
accordingto goodness impliesgoodness. Yet there
the conceptionof the
is,I take it,no small difference between
and
that of the highestgood as
highestgood as a possession,
the conception of it as a condition,and
in use, between
the
conception of it as an activity2.A condition may exist in us
who

say that

and

yet produce

asleep

in

or

be

who

life are

In

the

same

those

who

act

Again
of

and

actuallycompete

torious.

fine

the

goodness
as

current
2

to

The
at

for it is
those

way,

here

views

is

who

man

win

who

is said

man

him

lover

of

"

lover

war

with

of

horse

be
to

the

are

those
vic

fine

things of

is

condition

lover

the

the

the

But

all referred

are

in

just

pleasuresof
they

are

not

the lover

it is actions

Now

to

horses,
way

pleasuresof

pleasures.

of

in accordance

generally,acts

while

anything,

same

another, because

one

lover of

in the

goodness.

natural

mentioned

to

and
sights,

of

and
justice,

the

are

that

of these

some

but

aright.

pleasantby nature,

beautiful

of the
1

the

at

are
are

pleasant to
lover

many

such

when

sight to

things to
with

is

thing

strongest that win the crown,

their life is pleasantin itself. Pleasure

soul, and

the

that
a

and

the handsomest

not

of

case

from
But
inactivity
any other cause.
with an
case
activity
; it will of necessity
it is
In the Olympian Games
good action.

the

produce action

in the

of

state

this cannot

good result,as

no

Plato's

Philebos

as

the time.

Cf. p. 27,

"condition"

.body. The

n.

3.

It should

be

observed

here

properlya medical term and refers

dominant
metaphor is the health of
is

"

that
to

the

word

translated

the constitution

the soul."

of the

Book

according

pleasant both

are

like

an

add

of any

appendage

; it has

no

that

this

to

fine
in

need

has

then,

No

acts.

just acts,

would

one

if this is so, it follows

pleasant in
beautiful, and

as

of the

of

good

said.

have

we

each

just who

man

acts

in accordance

And
in

the

beautiful

these

qualitiesare

thing

rejoicein

took

delight

no

with

goodness
and

good

are

highest degree, if the

is right: and he judges

them

is the

Happiness, then,

most

even

may

not

further, they

about

man

it

to

delightin liberality.But,

no

these

life,

attached

does

took

themselves.

are

judgment

that

acts

Their

itself1. We

if he

good

call

liberal if he

nor

pleasure in

is not

man

pleasure

extraneous

its

such

character, so

in themselves.

and

the agents

to

31

this

have

that

goodness

to

best

thing and

the

pleasantest thing there is, and

in the Delian
specialisedas they are

and

not

the

inscription:
~

Fairest
To

is

win

justice,but

what

health

long

you

is

for

pleasantest

is

"

they are all inherent in the best

in these, or in
happiness as consisting

for

is the

yet it is clear that

external

goods,
for

point

of

easy,

The

soul which
many

pleasures are

from

good

the

Such

6th century
were

thyself."

many

the

delight
to

them

such

one

was

other

in the

those

at

the

hand,

to

and

is

the
The

therefore

pleasure derived

Therefore

activities

of

it.

closely bound

more

soul.

soul

the

proper

state

external

or

to

is

rate

any

the

of

the

up

with

pleasure of

inseparable

from

the

accidentallybut essentially.

not

reflections
This

in

internal

itself is far

being wholly

Pleasure

external

the

On

soul

addition

impossible,or

follows.

as

things either

upon

of

takes

moral
B.C.

is

argument

accidental.

it belongs
activities,

there

which

of them

one

things without

fine

do

to

man

activities

who

said ; for it is

we

both
activities,
man

some

define

we

happiness requiresthe

pleasure in something

their

the

as

depend

may

find their

those

activities ; and

best of all.

And

not

best,

were

often

in the

the
inscriptions,

inscribed

temple
most

of Leto
famous

temples during

on

at

Delos.

of which

At
was

the

Delphi
"

Know

The

32
accessories1.
it

There

Ethics

are

political
power.
besmirches

of

help

be

to

friends

done,
wealth

or

as
or

again there are things,the lack of which

such
as
felicity,
good birth,fine children, and
A

is

man

look

very

ugly

and

still less so,

to

the

have

And

our

looks.

good

thingsthat

many

by instruments, by

were

of Aristotle.

at,
we

not

very

badly born,

or

say, if he

may

friends,or if he has had good ones

have
said, then, happiness seems
and
prosperity;

that

likelyto

is the

or

has
and
to

utterlybad

is

childless,
children

dead.

are

require the
some

if he

happy

and
solitary

they

why

reason

be

As

sunshine

or
we

of

identify

persons

good fortune with happiness,just as others do goodness.

This, too, is the originof the disputeas to whether
happi

thing that can be

kind of discipline,
or

is

ness

other

tion of heaven
the

of

gods

or

to

by

even

men

learnt
whether
chance2.

or

acquiredby habit or any

it comes
by the dispensa
Well, if there is any gift

all, it is reasonable

at

to

suppose

that

happiness is heaven-sent, and that in a higher degree than

other human
it is the best of them.
as
things,inasmuch
That,
in place in another
however, is a question that would be more
than
this.
if
It is plain,however, that even
investigation
happiness is not heaven-sent, but is gained by goodness or
form
of learningand
of the
it is still one
some
discipline,
is the prize and
divinest of things; for that which
of
crown
goodness is the highestgood, and is a divine and blessed thing.
also be a thing that many
share ; for with
it must
But
can
it may
the portion of all that are
become
not
study*and care
morally halt

The

the
in

and

deformed.

And,

if it is better that

is taken
from the language of
(choregid)
chorus, dresses, etc. were
suppliedby a wealthy citizen who
and it does
choregos. The happy life is like a fine drama
The

word

used

these accessories ; but,

for its

on

the other

hand, it also, like

we

should

the

theatre.

was

called

not

consist

drama, requires

complete realisation.
If happiness
be identified with
goodness, it is a thing we can
the other hand, it is to be identified
; if,on
acquireby trainingand discipline
chance or Providence.
with good fortune, it would
to depend on
seem
the mise
2

en

scene

is to

happiness to

our

owe

Book

this than

to

that it is so, since the works

in the
other

fairest way,

all

are

works

the

of

assume

produced by
and

art

her

of every

then, with the highest

is greatest and

leave what

To

of all1.

nature

too

so

chance, it is fair to

of all will this be so,

Most

cause.

cause

and

of

33

beautiful

most

to

quite out of place. But the definition itself

throws
lighton the point. We defined happiness as a certain
said
of the soul,while of the other goods we
kind of activity
concomitants
of happiness, while
that some
were
necessary
and useful as its instruments2.
others were
auxiliary
be

would

chance

conclusion

This

laid it down

We

with.

is also consistent
that the

with

the view

started

we

of Politics is the

end

highest

is

nothing that this science takes so much

that
painswith as producing a certain character in the citizens,
No wonder,
is,making them good and able to do fine actions.
then, that we do not speak of an ox or a horse or any other
is able to participate
animal as happy ; for none
of them
in an
is the reason
That
too
activityof this nature.
why no child
good

there

; and

can

be

acts

as

; his

happy
yet, and

when

him

prevents

age

do

we

use

from

the word

performing

of

such

children,it is for

their

promise that we call them happy. For happiness,as we

said,requiresfull-growngoodness and a complete life. There
all manner
in this life,and
of changes and
chances
it
are
be that the man
flourishes most
who
exceedingly will in
may
fall into great misfortunes.
age
of Priam
in the tale of Troy.
Surely

his

old

such

by

fortunes

miserable

who

one

death

at

the

case

with

meets

will be called

happy

none.

Are
so

dies

and

Look

long
1

to

we

say,

he

as

of causes,

being sometimes
extent

lives?

Namely, thought

enumeration

then, that

The

they are
B.

at

one

we

all is

always

"to

Aristotle

is

look

intellect.

as

Nature, Necessity,Chance,
for the

goods, then, are

its necessary

be called

to

or

substituted

external

Are

no

to

the end"

referringto
and

happy

the

Man

as

popular
(Thought

last of
not

these).
part of happiness,but

to

certain

conditions.
3

The

34
'

to

And, if

put it ?

Solon

that

would

is

man

if

activity.But
if Solon

safe

to

and

misfortunes,even

that the

does
man

dead

too

we

general the

old age

good

may

with

meet

site with
related

his

of

children

man

lived

have

may

vicissitudes.

many

others.
him

Of

Some

in the

But

this,

happy life to

be

may
be

and

good

just the

descendants

the

too,

course,

in

and

yet his descendants

and
accordingly,

life they deserve,while it may

the

of evils

failure of his descendants2.

died

and

it is not

dispute. People believe

being affected by good and
though unconscious of it,for

dishonour

or

and

through

pass

say

to

be

may

A
difficulty.

who

us

not

capable of

are

success

too, raises

died?

has

all for

this is open

evil,just as a livingman
instance,by the honour

after he

going
Surely that
happinessis
as
happy,
we

speak of a dead man

not
this,but only that
reallymean
happy tillhe is well out of the range

and

call

do

adopt this rule,are

to

are

we

Aristotle.

of

happy
be quite absurd, above

say

an

Ethics

oppo
be

may

It
varying degrees of closeness.
be a strange thing,then, if he were
would
share all their
to
and become, now
wretched
vicissitudes,
again; nor
happy, now
it be less strange if the fortunes
would
did
of their offspring
to

affect the parents

not

We

must

look

saying "Call
place. Aristotle
passage
relation

second,

how

value

it shows

how

us

littletime.

call Croesus

to

everythingand see
happy till he dies" became

end

popular

for

we

to

as

two

are

the

state

In

reasons.

external
to

dead

first

the

much

goods

the

understand

out."

turn

from

see

we

of the

said,

common
proverbial

and

manner,

it will

meeting

and

happy,

how

of

of the

story in Herodotos

refused

happiness and

between

for

even

the well-known

ideas

Greek

great

all

it in

treats

hazy

is of

man

no

at

Solon

the

to

The

cussion

to

Croesus.

and

-of Solon
"

is

reference

The

most

the
But

were.

place,it makes
clearer,and,

phrase

"

in

dis

the
the

in the

complete

life."
2

nothing
"

"

Poor
What

it.

about

fellow !
would

failure may

ruined

be

may

man

We

It's

his poor

affect

our

while

should
mercy

not

he

of

is absent

call

doesn't

father think
estimate

he

if he
dead

such

father's

happy.

"

So

too

we

We

say,

still say,

implying that
happiness.

alive ?

know

journey and

man

yet."

know
were

on

son's

The

36
with

Ethics

calmness

complete

Small
of

due

are

but great
life,

with

here

even

because

fine

accumulation

of

is

them

he

has

wretched

on

he

; for

no
life,

makes
the

the

field,and

with
man

not

the

mishaps

be

wise

no

only recover
period,\vhen

will

to

On

the

they

an

but
insensibility,

is

man

can

forces

him.

had

time

in

ever,
to

disposalin
possible

so, the

be

should

happy

that

meet

and

he

with

subject

his

happiness
dislodged,it
; but once
will
happy again. He

him

make

of the

his

be variable

misfortunes
to

most

good general

easilybe dislodgedfrom

not

all the

it may

if he

In

bears

the

And, if that is

will he

bad.

the best shoe

miserable,though
Nor

become

and

at

the

have

ever

who

one

makes

makes

happiness,if

he has

man

himself,justas

shoemaker

little time
his

grace

bears

man

is hateful

of the

use

commonplace

any

to

activities.

our

from

not

what

finds

Priam.

He

change.

will take

he

become

of

of

many

out, when

wholly blessed,for instance

will

by

good

never

added

add

blessedness

our

dignityand always

suppliedto

the leather
can

nor

the

mar

impede

do

effective

most

do

goodly thing.

trulyhappy

never

in which

circumstances

many

the scale

turn

give an

truly

magnitude.

numerous

fair and
and

are

said,the activities that

have

we

will

of life with

chances

are

to

calmly,

view, the trulygood and

our

in

clearlycannot

they

there

vary

is

he

high, proud spirit.

decisive influence

Now

they

shines

nature

reverses

If,then, it is,as

enter

long

into

the

and

complete

enjoyment

of

blessings.

many

What,

happy
ness

when

in their train and

bring sorrow

to

failures

small

hand, great failures crush

other

Yet

and

It is their nature

meet

to

chance

successes

its blessedness.
and
life,

flaw1."

free from

to

and

successes

reasonableness,since

and

good, "foursquare and

things that

of Aristotle.

then, is there

whose

and

who

activities
is

are

to

hinder

us

in accordance

adequatelyequipped
A

from

quotationfrom

with

with

callingthe

complete good

external

the poet Simonides.

man

goods, not

Book

for

and

any

every

Perhaps, indeed,
continue

from

this is so,

As
to

say

our

own

only

differ in all

men1.

as

to

the future
end

and

requirements,

This

point,then,

in

and

the

difference

to

the

dead,

far

and

outrages

occurred

stage.

and

still more

perhaps

the

good or
anything

them

cannot

else

that

have

possiblefor God

at

are

touch

very

us

more

this view

others

are

only

But

of

good

less
those

great

livingor

the

crimes

tragediesas having

in

be

is

any

or

real

appear

evil,it

in the

true

or

account,

happiness we

is

what
that

if
be

must

in relation

magnitude
sense

on

as
difficulty

by

way

it in itself
of such

it is human

into

also

good
at

complete happiness

of

it makes

it would

all,whether
look

Now

actuallyrepresented

are

affected

we

be

gravity and

this difference

are

outline.

an

certain

in

granted

that

it will

alone.

life

between

that

the fact that there

whether
slightly,
or

of

complete

it affects the

whether

for

take

On

reverse.

naturally hold

than

those

departed

touches

feeblyand

present.

indeed

must

we

the

whether

Man

So

in

in

generally. Further,

taken

are

already and

the

them,

that

and

Some

lives, while

experience

greater

have

will

same

any

events

generally and

our

friends

our

in

them

on

doctrine

clearlybe a long, nay,

detail.
It will,I dare say,

misfortunes

own

influence

affect

of

general,
slightestdegree to

the

of ways.

in

it would

them
classify

speak

of friends

and

The

sorts

to

our

moment,

beliefs.

less,so

to

of

decisive

at

fulfilthese

to

of descendants

some

task

sufficient

is

continue

blessed

received

to

and

endless

that

he is

that

accordingly; for
that happiness is an

they do not contribute

happiness is plainlya cold

nearly and

life?

complete

condition

the

that

some

for

die

hold

likelyto

are

the fortunes

to

numerous

to

add

and

we

but

complete in each and every respect. But, if

shall call people blessed
during their lifetime,if

we

opposition

to

time

determined.
regarded as sufficiently

be

that

and

shall call them

we

may

to

37

be

they fulfil and

but

ought

we

us,

therefore

must

of

live in this way

to

is hidden

length

I.

of
are

the

and
word

discussing

The

38

Ethics

of

Aristotle.

be

incapable of making those happy who are

of robbing those
who
of their blessedness.
not
are
so
so, or
of
the successes
We
conclude, then, that to all appearance
their friends,and in the same
do contribute
way their failures,
something to the happiness and unhappiness of the departed,
but
them
not
enough to make
happy if they are not so or
anything of that sort.
these points,we
have
now
to consider
Having determined
whether
happiness belongs to the class of things that are
praised or of thingsthat are precious. For it is evidentlynot
a
mere
capacity1.
Now
it is clear that everythingwhicr^is
praised is praised
because
and stands in a certain relation to
ithas a certain quality
and the brave man
something else. We praisethe honest man
because
of the
and, in general,the good man, and goodness itself,
actions
deeds
and
they produce. So too we praise the strong
because he has a certain natural quality
and the swift man
man
and is related in a certain way to something good and excellent.
of praisegiven to the
This is made
plain if we take the case
be
gods. It strikes us as ridiculous that the gods should
character

referred

as

to

reference

to

we

have

Now,

if

for, as
else.

something

be no
plainthat there can
be something higher and
for

out;

and

gods

of the

most

that

said, all praise is

praise is a thing of
praise of

what

is such

there
a

this

is best ; there

So

men.

among

too

it

This

praisedand
had

in

hearers

the

goods.
he

calls

godlike.

implies a classification of good things into capacities,

things
things preciousor above praise. The point of the argument

clear

not

turns

of

with

one

must

it

praise. And so
''blessed"
and
"happy"

divine

to

sort, it is

better than

terms

reference

praiseshappiness as he praisesjustice,but
more
blessed, as
being something better and

No

is

the

use

we

it follows

standard, and

our

to

view

might

us, but
some

be

the

reference

contemporary

presumed

to

to

Eudoxos

below

shows

philosophicaldiscussion
take

an

interest.

that Aristotle
in

which

his

Book

is held

Eudoxos1

made

have

to

I.

39
able

an

for

plea

awarding

prizeof highest excellence to Pleasure on this very ground.

The
fact that pleasure is a good thing and
yet is not praised
showed, he thought, that it is something higher than the things
the

which
Good.

is

Praise

that enables
to

of this

make

of the

body
encomia

proper

we

God

and

it is

; for

soul.

is the

subject,however,

specialstudy of

the

or

of

encomia

; but

fine deeds

do

to

us

character

appropriate to goodness

deeds, whether

ment

this is the

praised,and

are

goodness

appropriate

are

The

minute

task

of those

clearlyfrom

see

the

treat

who

what

has

happiness is something preciousand complete.

And
the same
thing may be inferred from the fact that it is a
first principle. It is for the sake of happiness
or
starting-point
been

said that

that

do

we

everything else
good things we

of all

cause

IV.

THE

to be

found Happiness
shall

we

ness^

FORMS

Two

have

first to

necessary

goodness

in

it.

regard

consider

about

Now

the

soul

the

shall

and

divine.

that

we

It

is.

soul ;

be

not

principleor

have

according to good

Goodness

about

it, we

first

precious

as

what

something

say

the

GOODNESS.

OF

activityof

an

to

knowing something

do, and

we

will

for

able

be

without

produce

to

(I. 13.)
is

Since, then, happiness

activityof

an

the

in

soul

ac

with

cordance

complete goodness, we shall have to consider

goodness ; for this will doubtless
help us to a clearer view of
happiness. Besides, goodness is the thing that the true states
takes

man

citizens

there
1

and

his

accept
2

of

Eudoxos

Plato

In

his Laws

legislationwith
that

the

much
of

the

of Crete

admired

aim

is to

laws.

We

and

Sparta

kind2.

same

great

his

astronomer.

by Aristotle,

the

see

and

had

who

others

any

been

did

not,

the

type of

if this

Now,
He

make

subject
disciple

however,

pleasure.

Plato

had

introduced

Athenian.

an

Spartans

the

for

to

of the

Knidos,

was

view

those

been

have

may

about

obedient

and

good

good lawgiver in

the

of

trouble

most

and

the

Cretans

Aristotle
alone

Spartan

and

follows

his

Cretan

master

deliberatelyset

before

to

in

discuss

the

view

themselves

77ie Ethics

4O

plain that it will be quite in ac

with our
cordance
original
plan to consider it. It is,of course,
have
human
to
consider; for the good we
goodness that we
are
good, and the happiness,
looking for is, we saw, human
human
not
mean
goodness we
happiness. But by human
that of the body, but that of the soul, and
besides we
define
happiness as an activityof the soul. That being so, it is
have a certain knowledge of the
clear that the statesman
must
theory of the soul, just as a doctor who is to treat the eye
have
must
some
knowledge of the whole body, and all the
Politics is better and
more
as
more
preciousthan Medicine.
that enlighteneddoctors take a great deal of pains
Now
we
see
in the same
with the theory of the body, and
way the states
make
the soul.
But he need only study
must
a study of
man
for his particular
it with this view and so far as is necessary
minute
of it would
more
a
no
investigation
; to make
purpose
laborious task than the subjectin hand calls for.
doubt be a more
is

Politics,it

of Aristotle.

part of

there

Now

discussions outside
which

and

we

school1

the
make

may

whether

"parts"
they are

in

two

and

like the

convex

another

questionwhich

aim

the

of

be
1

aimed

introduce

had

but

that

The

it here.

that
we

have

planationsof

to

deal

them

we

but

no

difference to
shall

We
very

narrow

of
us

with
may

circle,is

present2.

at

see,

however, that he

idea

of the sort

of

was

goodness

the

Introd.

Cp.

p.

will, he

no

practicalimportance.

remain

give.

the

same

Aristotle
not

says,

openly

furnish

i r.

believe in "parts of the soul"

holds, is of

point,he

the

body, or
inseparableby nature,

generally accepted views

himself

not

parts of

writingsof the Platonists."

psychologicalsystem, but he does

for discussion.

Aristotle did

the

indeed,

Whether,

4 below.

vin.

"in

means

elaborate

an

sufficient basis

Pol.

Cp.

Practicallythis

himself

makes

good citizens.
that they had a

at.

adequate enough,
instance,it is said that

in the circumference

concave

in

current

are

For

alone

name

making

conscious
perfectly
to

like

soul

the

part rational.

and

distinct

are

which

of.

use

part of it is irrational
these

about

statements

some

are

is

whatever

or

The

"faculties";
facts of life

psychologicalex

Book

Again, in
and

of them

one

shared
the

him

by

there

is

even

in

with

the

the

as

than

same

this part is in

no

for it is

it

goodness. Indeed,

sleep,and in sleep the good

comes
tinguished from the bad, whence
the miserable.

and

of
inactivity

that aspect

far, better

it is

as

than

of

enough

those

that ;
its

by

far

so

we

the

of

the

human

not

is least

easilydis

saying

it is

happy

sleep is the
called good

reach

it

good

are,

the

by

to

a
so

people. But
principleof nutrition,
of

run

the

in
participating

of

for

that

the

; for

natural

common

incapable

nature

of

goodness

impressions

exclude

may

it

regard

to

between

in dreams

seen

fully-

especially

in which

soul

certain

as

visions

and

slightextent,

of

quite

is

force is

the

difference

no

this is

And

bad, except in

or

is

their lives there

of

man

be

that

in

found

it is

or

to

nutrition,and

that the

this part

active in

one-half

is

that

man,

parts,

but

assume

may

reasonable

It follows

that

seems

we

two

part which

the

there

more

peculiarto

way

man,

then, will be

different.

as

For

wherever

same,

developed organisms ;

peculiarto

growth1.

and

be

to

seem

vegetables,namely

The

embryos.

41

there

be

to

of this kind

force

not

seems

nutrition

of

cause

"

irrational part

"

the

I.

human

goodness.
There

yet in

and
irrational,
1

by

above

See

The

name

be

to

appears

p. 26

fittingit into

"irrational

part."

badness
and

to

badness

much

as

that

the

either
but

the

belong

"

part

"

in

not

tition

from

kinds

of

the

to

which

part

the

He

(i) irrational

Academic

distinction
least

(or at

part, and

same

gets

of

out

but

capable

sense

intellect,
upon
lies at

of
which
the

the
for

of

the

wishes

to

is

goodness
as
we
difficulty,
goodness

and

the

who

has

some

and
to

seems

and

rational
that

show

that

goodness

appetitivejust as

shall see,

badness

may

by saying
be

called

or
(2) rational,
partaking in rationality,

word.

is based
root

to

He

"rational"

Xenokrates,

goodness

Aristotle

; but

of

called

himself

he

is what

"appetition."

translated

is answerable

fullest

goodness,

here

to

distinction) referred

irrational

badness.

the

refers

Platonists

The

this

is

soul which

2.

n.

"part" that Aristotle

is best
(orexis]which

originated

in the

element

aspect of it partakes of rationality-.

one

in
difficulty

have

another

of

his

Aristotle's
his

distinction

distinction

whole

between

educational

of

appe-

the

theory.

two

So

The

42
In

the

of the

case

Ethics

Aristotle.

of

and

morally strong

the

morally weak1,

we

praisethe rational part of the soul (forit urges them on in the

rightdirection,that is,to what is best); but it is evident that
is naturallyopposed
which
there is also something else in them
with it. Just as
to the rational part and
fightsand contends
them
to
to the
move
paralysed bodily organs, where we mean
right,swing round in the oppositedirection,to the left,so with
in the opposite
the soul ; the impulses of the morally weak
are
the
direction
to
bidding of the rational part. The
only
difference

moving,

while

in the

that,however,
in

the

in

is that

soul

case

must

we

In what

of

case

bodies

of the

soul

doubt

hold

no

which

too

againstit.

the

the

opposes
it is

sense

to

we

do

we

rational
called

organ

In

not.

is

that there

be

the

see

spiteof
something

part and

strains

different

thing is
said,to
morally

consequence2. Yet this part too appears, as we

of the
partake in rationality
; at any rate in the case
it obeys the rational part, while in the case
of a
strong man
it is doubtless
still more
obedient,
trulymoral and brave3 man
being in complete harmony with the rational part.

of

no

It is

"

evident, then, that the

fold ; for the vegetativepart does

at

all,while

long
of

as

rational
and

doctrinaire
1

the

See

or

17

p.

n.

that there
bad

tween

and

as

part,

two

in rationality
participate
soul, and appetition4in

due

the

simply to

system

our

is itself

of

preponderance

education

will

be

ineffective.

morally strong

proves

badness

irrational

the

not

of the

desiringpart

regard goodness and

we

the

the

"

irrational part

The

3.

have

man

be

must

point is

that both

the

their rational part in

something

else

good conduct, beyond the

which

morally weak
a

condition.

good

makes

the

distinction

mere

and

man

This

difference
of rational

be

and

irrational.
-

Cf. p. 40
As

n.

2.

distinct from

indeed, but only after

4

Having
He

word.
forms
and

of

made
says

the
a

morally strong
struggle.

it clear

"appetition

appetitionbesides

temper

what

(or spirit).

he
in

man,

means,

general"

in whom

Aristotle
because

desire, namely, wish

prevails

reason

now

there

(of which

uses
are
more

his
two

own

other

hereafter)

The

44
V.

Ethics

How

GOODNESS.

character

does not

(II.1-2,

" 5.)

of

Goodness

PRODUCED?

IT

is

by nature,

come

Aristotle.

but is produced

of

habituation.

by

Goodness, then, being of two kinds, goodness of intellect

and goodness of character, intellectual goodness is both
pro
increased
duced
and
therefore
mainly by teaching, and
time

and

experience

the

character, on

other

is the

hand,

it.

for

required

are

Goodness
of

outcome

of

habit, anc

"

from
ethos, character, is derived
accordingly the word
in the quantity of
"ethos"
habit, by a slightmodification
the

vowel.

this it is evident

From

is

character
nature
a

in

produced

stone, which

habituated

to

naturallytends
rise upwards, not
an

indefinite

else

in

one

another

by
of

acts

in

or

by

receiving it, and

nature

other

we

train it

in

by

anything

can

habituated

to

act

in

either

us

naturallycapable

are

full

our

be

cannot

to

produced

is

by
example,

For

times, nor

not

nature

try

we

be

nature

attain

we

of

which

downwards,
if

of

goodness

it is.

than

even

of

nothing

fall

to

then, is

oppositionto

form

no

number

way

Goodness,

way.

nature

be

to

throwing it up
that

by

us

be habituated

can

that

development

by

habituation1.

Secondly, in
nature,

we

activities.

the

of

case

first

acquire

the

This

is clear

if

"good" and "goodness." To

nothing else was.
1
This reallydepends upon
where

and

natural

between

give rise to

kind

of

we

to us
everything that comes
by
capacitiesand then produce the
It is not
test it by the senses.

all

Greek

distinction

rational

efficiencywas
which

Aristotle

makes

and

else

natural

capacities. A

while
activity,

goodness,

rational

capacitycan
capacityis essentially

a
one
only
That
of
is
why
trainingand habituation are necessary
capacity opposites.
for the production of goodness of character.
The
capacity of being bad

is the

thing as

same

trainingand
active.
based.

This

the

habituation
is the

capacityfor being good, and

in which

fundamental

of the two

fact upon

ways

which

it all

the

depends

on

the

capacity will become

all education

must

be

Book

by seeing often
and
hearing.
various

hearing often

or

the

On

them

used

then

the

had

we

the

on

as

we

sight

of

senses

first and

senses

by using

other

activities,
just

of

previous exercise

got the

we

get them

not

goodness,

45

that

contrary,
did

we

of

forms

IL

them.

The

get by the

hand,

we

do

the

The

arts.

things which we are to do when we have learnt them, we learn

by doing them ; we become, for instance, good builders by
building and good lyre-playersby playing the lyre. In the
become
that we
it is by doing just acts
just,by
same
way
temperate, and by doing
doing temperate acts that we become
brave

deeds

states

is evidence
citizens

make

just

bad

this

and

between

is

goodness

produced

This
destroyed are the same1.
for it is by playing the lyrethat

that

otherwise, we

were

; all would

in

too

this

aim, and

constitution

is

and

the

and

those

both

with

too

so

good

the

This

is

become

and

is also

the

of

materials

and

The

same.

feelingsand

by suppressing

wrong

action
the

wrong.

actions

do
shall

same

is

feelingsor

It

same

and

is

bad

the

and

is the

by removing

Not

their

form

all

in

So

business

only

actions

fact

teach

be.

in

but

same,

If it

to

might

principle.

fundamental

and

builders.

case

rest.

builders

of anyone

goodness
feelingsand

art

lyre-players

by acting

the

of

form

any

it is

are

material

consists
are

the

also

education.

in
the
It

opportunitiesfor

make

can

you

feelingsand

feelings and

the

one

very

also

the

which

of

these
This

badness.

that

badness

matter

actions, and

is not

have

goodness.

the

as

which

by

and

which

by

means

bad

need

no

bad

or

applicationof

further

have

good

of

case

will become

they

should

capacitiesfor goodness

in

lawgiver.

every

with builders
produced, and it is the same
is by building well that they will become
good

by building badly

us

of
their

good

which

from

material

the
of

form

any

It

aim

is the

one.

Again,

are

What

it well, fail in

do

not

difference

the

It is

of this.

good,

actuallyhappens in
that lawgivers
by habituation

brave.

become

we

do

who

Those
is

that

the
form

people good. It is by letting them

that these
actions, and by directingthem
so
a

trainingin right feelingand

action, not

The

46
transactions

between

unjust as

the

of

and

danger

case

desires
and

and

and

man

or

brave

feelingsof

anger.

they

in these

have

differences

is of
this

way

that

or

rather

portance,
Now
The

of

become

to

In

word, conditions

one

and

bad-

one

way

in

of soul

the conditions1.

to

What

since
activities^

of

soul

correspond

give rise
should

we

youth

they ought

inquiryis not
good ourselves.
We
be

to

entirely
upon

to

be

them.

to

It

habituated

it is of great im

actions

know

to

be

of

actions,and

have

we

one.

goodness is,

it would

consider

for,as

what

what

Otherwise

therefore

must

performed

our

the

all-important.

our

whatever.

use

immoral

our

moral

present study is not, like others,a theoretical

our

object

but

fear that

it is with

themselves

earliest

moment

to

behave

conditions

the

from

the

not

too

become

importance,then, that

or

just or

people become

Some

activities which

of the

little

no

So

qualify our

to

the

between

differences

the

is

do, then,

to

fear and

men.

activities of like character

arise from
we

matters.

become

we

by acting in

to

others

while

tempered, according as
or

it is

habituatingourselves

good-tempered,
another

that

man

be, and

may

cowards

become

we

of Aristotle.

Ethics

how

said,it depends
of

the character

no

our

conditions

of soul will be.

That

how

we

the

At

This

should

is the

conditions

one
on

This

formula
must

of soul

which

is

Platonic

class of

exists in

habituation

we

the

He

activities

these activities

and
feelings

be

proceeds.

that

the

man

conscious

There

of
of

right
we

kind

rule2

must

is

come

descriptionof

; it cannot

the

of

be

exact.

discussion

of Aristotle's whole
certain

produce
is

actions.

But
every

sketch

lies at the root

give the

of

that

mere

laid down

which

it.

outset

formula.

soul
must

the

the

to

assume

may

be

must

We

in every

educator.

act

start

very

of education.

we

understanding at

an

according

act

and

ground

common

to

should

we

will

always
This

rule

theory
qualityand then the
have that qualitytoo.

rightrule
Aristotle

and

tells

us

wrong
later

practicalwisdom, the lawgiver or

the rule or
principleupon which

Book

requiredin
of, and

that

And, if this is
that

true

tradition,but
what

the

the

present

subject-matteradmits

action
than

of

and

about

themselves

agents

art

any

demands,

just
Still,though

medicine1.

subject,we

do

must

be still more

in

as

this

what

we

of

no

professional

or

in every

must

health.

admits

particularpoints

for

good

case

the

of

case

is the
to

can

con

nature
to

come

rescue.

that the sort

shows

Analogy

activities in

goodness are

of

activities which
The

mean.

of goodness. (II. 3, ""6

The

first

point

this character
must

use

evidence

as

clear, and

we

drink

and

this

in

temperance,
that

man
comes

is

and

shuns

and
; the

coward

forms

intemperate,and

ticular
The

act

rule

given

reach

give

cannot

The

performed.

in

the

no

which

particular.

fast

is that

every

rules

at
a

all without

matter

of

and

action

the

power

perception.

exercises

is

defect

and
of

to

goes
the

meet

who

man

becomes

any

actions

particular,it

No

of

with

same

pleasures,like
how

to

as

and

goodness. The
faces nothing be

way,

all

particularcircumstances,

use

is

and

same

shuns

are

of

refrains from

never

who

man

hard

reason

certain

is of

case,

the

is the

It

nothing

the

In

as

right proportion

everything and

that fears

man

the

the

rash.
danger becomes
indulges in every pleasureand

You

while

We

health

and

excess

it.

fears

of

gymnastic

way

other

things

case

of

preserves

every

same

destroy health,

courage,

materials

destructive.
such

in the

so

defect

the

produces, increases, and

both

are

is obscure

and

excess
strength. Both
destroy strength,and

food

defect

of what

that

see

the true

are

observed, then, is that in things of

and

excess

produce
feelingsand

n.)

"

be

to

will

is in

mean

actions,mainly in pleasure and pain, which

is

what

statements

fall under

not

occasion

the

navigation and
of the

do

the

subject generally,it will

discussion

They

47

as

more

of the

true

the

exactitude.

sider

fixity,
any

no

such
about

statements

our

have

can

us

be

must

case

any

II.

the

rule

seeing how
science

and

are

to

is this

the
be
par

is universal.
it
no

appliesin
rule

can

The

48

insensible.

boors1, becomes
both

destroyed

Ethics

by

So

and

temperance

and

excess

Aristotle.

of

defect, and

are

courage

preserved by

the

material

the

mean2.

conditions
from

the

This

is

conditions

just the strong

that

that

again with

courage

objectsof

fear and

it is when

be able

activities
the

careful

the
3

This

goodness
for the

case

become

that

become

we

that

courageous

pleasures
become

have

from

it is

So

them.

So

despise

to

courageous,
we

shall best

of

pains that

stock

condition.

our

character

more

analogy
account

it

misunderstood

All

than

important to bear
practicalrule to guide us

in

The

other

any
in

for

mind

of the

Mean

"qualifyingour
the way

doctrine

of

the

part of Aristotle's
here

we

are

habituation, and

we

must

that

so

comedy.

this prepares

little later.

It is

to

go

beyond

what

the doctrine

that

of medicine.

of

who

man

Greek

in contemporary

practicalrule

The

upon

actuallyenjoys doing

of Aristotle's method
as

supervene

only
be

in which
The way
actuallysays.
been
looking at goodness, namely as a "condition," suggests at
analogy of the arts of medicine and gymnastics.

not

have

once

been

for

best.

we

abstain

to

pleasuresand

the

on

teaching.

looking

the

is to

scientific

more

ethical

we

based

has

Mean

in the

by habituatingourselves

the first place simply

in

"

things

it is when

and

bodily pleasures and

reference

appeared
for

the

It is characteristic

arise

objects3.

same

by abstainingfrom

It is

by facingthem

symptoms

as

from

The

; it is

have

take

must

abstains

the

for instance

these

best able

are

we

we

actions

our

of these

face them.

to

We

have

do

temperate,

temperate

and

destruction

and

cases,

can

goodness.

become

we

and

is

that

man

of

the

produced by taking a great deal of

undergoing a great deal of exertion,and it is

and

case

formed

when

strength. Strength

in the

that

also that the activities which

less obscure

in the

nourishment

but

the same,

are

so

find

we

production,development

of the

means

of

do

only, however,

Not

for the
us
prepares
in the sense
is itself,

activities which

view
to

which
be

then

we

shall

come

explained,a

to

Mean.

later on,
We

practicalpoint that the activities which go to

known
as
goodness are of the very same
qualityas
from
is
that condition
it
formed.
once
proceed

present

condition

Aristotle

as

that
note

form
the

Book

is temperate,

while

intemperate.

The

at

faces
to

who

man

who

man

faces

coward.

For

pleasuresand pains. It
is bad, and pain that makes

with

what

49

does

pained by it,is

not

pain is

it with

do

do

is

rate

any

the

II.

so

danger
brave;

but

dislikes

and

enjoys it,or

but

the

it is

who

man

goodness of character
is pleasurethat makes
us

abstain

from

has
us

is

what

right. That is why we requireto be trained from our earliest

youth, as Plato has it,to feel pleasure and pain at the right
is just that1.
things. True education
and every
Again, the sphere of goodness is acts and feelings,
feelingand act is accompanied by pleasureor pain. That too
shows that goodness has to do with pleasureand pain. Another
indication is afforded by their use
of punishment ;
as
a
means
for punishments act as it were
medicinally,and the natural
medicines
those which
are
are
opposite to the diseases. Again,
stated on
a
as
was
previous occasion, the very things which
are
a
given condition of soul better or worse
naturallymake
it shows
its nature, the
also the things in relation to which
it is pleasure and
pain
sphere of its activity. Now
proper
that make
men
bad, when
they pursue and avoid the wrong

at

or

ones,

other

the wrong

of the

ways

in

time, or in the wrong

which

we

may

violate the

in any

or

manner,

rule.

That

is

people define all forms of goodness as absences

of feeling
or
"quiescences2"; but they are wrong in so far as
they speak of absence of feelingwithout reservation,and do
add the qualifications
of the right way or the wrong
not
way,

justwhy

some

righttime

the

We

been

towards

This

is the
and

the wrong

time, and

the

rest

of them.

then, that goodness is that condition

assume,

attitude

and

best

should

pleasures and
account

of

the

pains

that

trainingof

of soul

produces

character

that

the

has

best

ever

engraved in the heart of every educator.

is to Speusippos, Plato's nephew and successor.
The
view
of
in
different
forms
and
same
has,
over
over
course,
reappeared
in
the
of
The
chief
of
Aristotle's
value
educational
again
history thought.
theory lies justin its oppositionto all views of the kind.
2

given
The

B.

be

or

reference

The

50
actions
clear

the

we

make

also

may

There

way.

choice, the

of

objects

Aristotle.

of

opposite,and

in another

ourselves

to

the

are

badness

and

Ethics

three

are

beautiful,the

this

thingsthat

useful

and

the

pleasant,and there are three things that we shun, the ugly,

with regard to all of these
the harmful, and the painful. Now
the

good
above

but

is

object

an

of choice

with

up

the bad

to

us

of

be
necessarily

must

it is like

great deal

Herakleitos

says,

in all

it is the
of

form

any
best
of

cases

in it.

art

stain in

That

pains;

and

the
We

who

man

take

may

the

is

bad

of

of its

character
be

in the very

found
The

account

which

is produced raises

ness

thingsby
we
a

have

which

Philosophy, p.

140.

But

this does

of

out

comes

nor

have

not, of

good

man,

man.

of its

in which

the way

that it is

the

was

been.

course,

is
activity

to

produced.

was

// appears
p.
difficulty

The

kleitos

it

given of

quotationis not quite accurate

quite what Aristotle takes it to

sphere

sphere of goodness is
its production are also
its destruction, if their

the

causes

developement, or of
be reversed,and that the sphere

means

anger1,and

is the

arightis

these

wrongly

the

with

why goodness and the art

all through with pleasures

uses

it, then, that

pains,that

pleasuresand

present study

their excellence

themselves

them

uses

and

thing that

reason

who

man

Again we
pain as the

our

pleasure than
; for

goodness

is another

for the

reasons

to

throughout with pleasure and

difficult

busy

it is hard

feelingsof pleasure and pain have

actions.
our
Again, it is harder, as

more

to

useful

life.

our

pleasure

these

fightwith

to

or

Politics have

and

wrong
with

do

to

For

concerned

right and

for

pain ;

the

and

earliest infancy, so

our

actions.

our

beautiful

the

even

all,though in varying degrees, take

standard

go wrong,

pleasure is

For

has
pleasant. Further, this feeling

as

from

us

to

man

thing
accompanies everythingthat

it

and

; for

it,engrainedas

remove

rightand

go

all animals

present themselves
grown

to

regard to pleasure.

all with
with

share

we

tends

man

meaning

See

my

good

by doing
of

Hera

Early Greek

affect the argument.

The

52
the

who

man

justand

deeds, but the

people do
quiteright,then, to
is

just man

these

Aristotle.

of

made, and

that

indeed,

in the

take

They fancy that they

them

But

good.

they

refuge

Most

process.

theory

and
philosophers,

are

of

men,

goodness.

that this will make

reallyjust like people

are

as

by doing just deeds

is made
by
temperate man
the slightest
prospect of

other

it and

them

say that it is

is not
acting temperately. There
being made
good by any
anyone
shirk

does

who

man

them1.

temperate

It is
that

does

Ethics

listen

who

what
has to say and
their doctor
do not
to
attentively
obey
of his prescriptions.There
is about as much
chance
of
one
those who
study philosophyin this way gaining health of soul
of such
as
people gettingwell and strong in body2.
VI.

GOODNESS.

WHAT

// is

IT?

is

(a) a Condition,(b)a

Mean.
The

(a)
with

rega rd to
The

of

genus

Goodness.

is

condition

the soul

of

feeling. (II.5 )
.

questionwe

next

It

have

to

consider is what

goodness is3.

saying that, though the activities which go

those which
condition
as
are
a
proceed from
outwardly the same
inner
is
their
different.
Good
is
conduct
nature
it
formed,
quite
merely the doing of certain things,but the doing of them from
and
in a certain spirit.
motives
2

This

amounts

It is well

disparage theory,
to

while

worth

between

relation

the

to

theory

indeed

anything without

do

the

in

theory

to

he

it.

carefullyall

note

practicein

and

that

holds

it is

he does

What

Aristotle

education.

He

it when
is not
certain

says

as

does

is the

tendency to

point that

same

had

we

to

not

absolutelyimpossiblefor

object to

is the

place of practice. It

that

form

to

us

put

above

p. 17.
3

We

might

inclined

be

settled, but Aristotle

order,

and

it is

to

has

be

of

reasons

own

observed

nature

By

this

scientific definition of

that

formal

definition.

we

but

the

was

for

taking the

have

hitherto

to
to

it.

question

to

be

subjectsup
not
discussing,

in this

been

prepared

come

only

first

which

acts

been
we

now

this

of the

have

when

goodness
already familiar, and we have

are

that

say

good acts as such,

preliminary discussion we

the

of

his

to

produce goodness.
to

Most

put them

understand
of the
into

the

the

points

shape

Book

Now, there

thingsby

three

are

three1.

of these

one

fear and

boldness, envy

tion

pity,and

and

respect of which

of which
towards

of

joy, love

mean

and

getting angry

be

qualified,
therefore, will
desire, anger,

hate, regret, emula

of

feelings.

having

as

For

of

or

feelingpain

qualitiesof

those

mean

spoken

are

these

may

Goodness,

By feelings I
and

capacity

we

the soul

in

conditions

pity. By

which

general,everything that is accompanied

in
those qualities
pain. By capacitiesI mean
said to be capable of such feelings,
for
we
are

by pleasureand
instance, the

53

conditions.

feelings,capacitiesand
be

II.

good

example,

or

soul in respect
attitude

bad

attitude

our

or

towards

of too great tension or relaxation2;

anger will be bad if it is one
if it is in the mean
between
these, it is good, and the same

appliesto

the different

Now

feelings; for
good or bad, while
not
are
praised or
them

afraid
for

praised

and

found

be

is

goodness

for

blamed
for

quality,and

for

granted

"

is

17

the

feelingsarise.

hearers

the

classification

the

In

of

affections,conditions,
capacities,
account
as
having no applicationto

of

name

Again,

we

is

who

man

man

blamed

in

certain way

goodness

the

simply
but

"

badness.

and

first

second

which
qualities,
forms.

and

the

place he
the appetitivepart of

qualityof

our

In

i).

n.

angry

of

none

good deal of his own

teaching which
he
probably regarded as a part of

which

and

part in which
know

are

the

feelings

our

only for being

(cf.p.

badness

or

feelingsthat get us
goodness and badness do.

praised for it,nor

elsewhere,

goodness

the

blamed

takes

culture"

"general

of

not

our

not

but

here

forms

it is

angry,

Aristotle

to

is

angry

are

is

or

being

we

feelings.

the other

he

Form

soul, and

the

place he
or

the

that

assumes

the

soul, the
that

assumes

gives elsewhere,
shape is left out

other

three

are

his
into
of

under

naturallyhave as applied
they would
having the meaning which
to the appetitivesoul.
2
the tuning of musical
in passing this metaphor from
It is well to note
and
instruments.
It had
passed at an early date from music to medicine
stood

as

is of great
we

see

that

resembles
too

high

in

use

our

that
nor

too

helping us
condition

of

low.

to

in

well-tuned

understand
relation

to

the
the

of the

doctrine

feelingof

instrument, tuned

to

anger

Mean.
is

pitch that

Here

good

if it

is neither

The

54

Further, we
is

goodness
will.

are

Lastly, we

said to be
The
forms

of

without

at

reasons

be

to

necessarily
implies
in respect

"moved"

badness

"disposed" in

be adduced

may

we

certain

show

to

will,while

of

act

an

rate

any

be

to

Aristotle.

respect of goodness and

moved, but

same

will,or
said

are

in

but
feelings,

of

of

afraid

or

angry
form

Ethics

of
are

our

not

way.

that the different

capacities.We are not called good

or
we
bad, nor
are
praised or blamed, simply for having a
capacityof feeling.Again, our
capacitiescome
by nature;
but we
do not become
That
good or bad by nature.
pointhas
been
settled already1. If, then, goodness in all its forms
is
neither a feelingnor
be a
a
capacity,it remains that it must
goodness

condition

(b}

of the soul.
The

and

excess

We

it

of

ness

it is

by

same

at

eye

the

if this

makes

take

well.

between

carryingits rider

at

that

of

all cases,

makes

function
we

the

good

well.

also make

can

it is.
of

we

goodness

pro

goodness, and

and

and

have

well.

see

horse

of

enables

In the

good, good

facingthe

goodness

man

We

condition

example, the good

also its function,since

and

good

For

eye'sgoodness that
goodness of a horse makes

this will be2; but

to

the eye

it as

it is the

of which

that

applies in

his proper

In

Mean

goodness belongs.

form

every

of the

reason

nature

which

of condition

sort

perform its function

to

condition

form

true

in

state

running,and good

the

to

genus

lay down, then, that

an

way,

Now,

the

explainwhat

good

enables

It is

however, enough merely to describe

must

duces

stated

now

also

must

Goodness.

defect. (II.6.)

It is not,
we

specific
difference
of

have

We

not

are

man

him

enemy.
will be
to

per

already explainedhow

it plainby

consideringthe

goodness.

it is possible
and divisible,
everythingthat is continuous
is greater, smaller,or equal to a given
a quantitywhich
1

See

above

p. 44.

See

above

p. 47.

Book

and
quantity1,
The

is the

equal
in

mean

for

if

not

the

to

and

one

and

at

the

It does

not

arrive

method.
and

two

exceeds

and

is exceeded

relation

follow, if

be
pounds ; that would
beginner in gymnastics, and

racingand
1

The

that

of

between
to

"

and

zero

take

the

of

amount

that

mind,
is the

from

that
Both

two.

of

It is not

us."

himself

x,

This
is

simple
which

is the

and

to

be

the

the

the

on

process

ascertained

by

hold

of

than

the

without

that

of

will

and

the

the

is

two;

applicationof

infinitely

be
note

doctrine, but

the

to

of

exactly half

must

first

quantity

to
relatively

highest

it is at

the

number

"

be

is not

mean

this it

between

adding

anger

extreme

from

infinite

all instruments

lowest

right
point

one

of discrete

an

the

in Aristotle's

intermediate

is

anger

be

The

highest,and

there

mean

of

intermediate

say

like

degrees

absence

endure.

may

rather

dividing by
some

proceeds

number

is much

in

good

who

total

can

the

misunderstanding of
the subject. The
of

much

are

quantity, which

right degree

between

this

graduated scale

some

we

other

that

out

which

continuous

of

to

something

or
boiling-point,

common

arithmetical

being

of continuous

speak

that

perfectlyclear

must

of

to

pitchexactlymidway

scale.

the

say

zero

be

bring
feeling.

enough

cannot

between

way
to

We

of

and

will

speaks

wishes

possibledegrees

scale

we

by

boiling-point will

the

illustration

the

of

the

be

will

instruments,

instances

are

Aristotle
he

of

But

the

infinite

an

human

equal

an

meat

will

think

and

"

other

right pitch

these

just because

tuning

in the

note

divisible, and

the

of

same

necessarilycorrespond

take

to

the

the

that

anger

will

Or,

lowest

follows

above

example given

anger

in the scale.

Zero

boiling-point.

amount

greatest

of

admits

which

thermometer,

the

is to

this

understand

to

way

by

it is that everyone

wrestling2.Thus

best

in relation

trainer will pre

little for Milo, but much
for

eat, that

to

man

instance,

For

ourselves

pounds

ten

the

and
little,

mean.

to

is

ourselves

too

mean

arithmetical

the

and

to

nor

the

as

us.

By

one

relation

much

to

or

point which

this is

in
too

scribe six
a

the

in

defect.

take

the

mean

little for

are

and

point for everybody.

same

object

and

mean

is neither

is therefore

and

cannot

the

we
little,

for

object;

number,

the

the

understand

extremes,

By

that which

is much

10

both

from

to

excess

I
object,

everybody.

I understand

that is

the

to

55

relation

in

between

mean

relation

equally distant
same

either

that

II.

be
an

tuned
of

the

Aristotle
found

unknown

rule of three.

by

The

56

Ethics

Aristotle.

of

and
avoids both excess
defect; he pursues
scientifically
in relation to
and
mean
adopts it,not, however, the mean

object,but

that in relation

the

ourselves.

to

Every science,then, dischargesits function

its attention

the

well

if it fixes

brings up all its products to

that standard.
That
is justthe meaning of the praisecommonly
bestowed
successful
on
works, that it is impossible to take
anythingfrom them or add anything to them, a way of speaking
which
and
defect alike destroy excellence
impliesthat excess
it. So too, good artists,
while the mean
as
we
say,
preserves
the

keep
aims

mean.

for it is that which

in

them

that

instance,it
to

angry,
a

greater

have
and
the

is

find

of

goodness of character;
with feelings
and actions,and itis
course,

and

excess

defect

and

the

For

mean.

less

degree,

in

and

both

wrongly

cases

; but

to

and on the rightoccasions

at the righttimes
feelings
and in
towards
and with the rightmotive
the rightpersons
therefore
and
rightway is the mean
rightin the highest
these

that is what

degree, and
have

may

excess

feelings1.Now
whereas

wrong,

then, is

evil

belongs

for

Take

defect

and

the

sphere

of

in

it is

so

instance

virtue

in

either

all ; but
persons

in

circumstances

will

points.
meanness.

To

given

give more

will

be

the

in

wrong
the

give

away

found

we

well

as

as

just feelingsand
defect

alike

are

right. Goodness,
ways

many

Pythagoreans said

being who
be

way,

mean.

which
liberality,

for us,

then

at

go

of

feeling. We may
the preciselyrightsum

not

is

praisedand

as
infinite,

the

is
and

excess

it aims

as

same

in actions

mean

goodness

possibleto

the

to

is

far

the

that

them

mean

In the

goodness.

and

the

mean,

Further,

shows

it is in

actions, and

and

nature

possibleto fear or feel bold, to desire,to get

pity,and in general, to feel pleasure or pain,in

feel
or

speak, of

goodness is more
is,and therefore

But

art, just as

any

has to do

we

work.

they

as

higher than

the

at

and

mean

in view

mean

and

exact

the

on

all

we

we

is

mean

have

or

are,

somewhere

and
prodigality

to

to

in

in action

nothing

give

at

to certain

between

give

for

"

these

less will

be

Book

and
figure1,

the

of

is

good to
being right. That

difficult ; it is easy

then, also goes

and

badness

The

We

good

may
wills

which

determined
it

mine

rule

in

one

an

extreme3.

at

is

be

to

are

Greek

either

part of the

to discuss
3

This

by

to

the
do

is the
between

same

would

man

soul

which

mean

in

is

deter

given
it

how

this

But

good.
of

as

them

depends
that
can

of

form

Pythagoreans

of

number

there

true

if

though,

only

formless.
in

degrees
is

every

the unlimited,

is otherwise

what

to

in its

excellence,it is

or

the

the

the

scale

point that

one

circumstances.
educator

determines
for

back

is his

goes

mean,

secondly
beyond

discovers

of the limit with

lawgiver or

comes

by

To

defect, while

given

or

goodness

at

312.

circumstances

determines

It

of

forms

two

in defect, and

look

we

infinite

an

or

is the

Aristotle

shows

is

excess

Ethics

goodness

lying between

the combination

to

the

be

has

degree

of

the

this, and

feelingwhich
In

of

find that

we

the

till

out

later
the

what

that

means

fullyworked

in his

rule

particularpeople.

knowledge

cannot

who

tend
we

to

come

intellect.
absurd

it is to

between

quantitativeelement

so.

wise

falls short

Philosophy,p.

in the

us

quantitativedistinction
out

of

of the

condition

actions,goodness

If,then,

in the last resort

that

human

produce

either

there

here

man

preciselyright
man

the

the other

gives definite

is that

wise

It is he

wise

sign

are

This,

manifold.

lightof its definition,it is

the point of view of worth

preciselyrightfor

soul.

it.

explained by

wrong

The

and

feelingsand

limit that

point here

is

in

Early

my

it is the

that

hit it.

to

are

as

way

the other

the poet says

bad

goodness

whatever

badness

it from

look

The

the

one

and

defect

As

goodness.

by

or

excess

in the

we

and

hard

and

in the first place,as

adopts

and

thing was

and

to ourselves,
the
relatively

mean

mean,

and

See

one

the

right point

excess

is easy

define

because, whereas

nature

that

only

by2.

of badness,

mean

mark

is

therefore

by

It is

the

simply good,

are

there

the

justwhy

of

mean

57

but

"

show

to

the

finite

miss

to

II.

upon

in

be

the

and

Aristotle

that

virtue."

If that

is so,

quantitativeso far

that

he

the

that

he

merely
brings

perfectlyright
material of goodness

it is clear
as

"makes

It is true

distinction,and

his great doctrine

badness.

only

vice

say

was

that

their material

the difference
is

concerned,

T/te Ethics

58
it is

But
a

not

; the

mean

action

every

of

names

very

of Aristotle.
or

feelingthat admits
once
imply badness ;

at

some

example, malice, shamelessness, envy,

All these and
adultery,theft,murder.
have

been

named

in themselves

as

defect.

It is

just as

great

of

every

actions,

and, among
of

others

bad,

and

like kind

bad

merely

not

for

in

then, ever to perform them

impossible,
aright; they are always wrong.
Right is not distinguished
from
in the case
of adultery by its being committed
wrong
with the rightperson
at the righttime or in the rightway
or
;
but
do anything of that kind
is always wrong.
to
And
it
excess

or

would

be

and

mean

immoral
an

defect.

there

courage

is, in

mean
a

of

mean

or

they

in

in the

an

an

can

sense,

they

excess

are

should

we

of

in the

an

extreme,

mean

and

excess

but

cases,

be

there

can

excess

the

be

there

can

however
is

For, in general,there

wrong.

or

of temperance

neither

so

defect, because

in these

defect

have
an

case

or

excess

be

must

unjust, cowardly

excess

an

no

in

so,

defect, nor

or

no

defect

or

mean.

Applicationof
The

were

be

or

insist that there

defect

But, just as

excess

done

are

mean

one

to

defect, and

or

excess

defect

and

and

excess

actions ; for, if that

within
a

an

mistake

Table

of the

It is not,

the

to particular
forms of goodness.
definition

Virtues.

(II.7.)

however, sufficient to

make

of

general statement

be shown
fit the particulars.In all
this kind ; it must
to
number
discussions of actions,
cover
a larger
general statements
of cases,

but

matter.

The

ones
particular

sphere

but the material

made

that

upon

half

as

than

the brave

brave.

The

man

man,

would

doctrine
twice

was

What

he
and

does

as

brave

say

the coward

to
paragraph seems
such possiblemisunderstanding.

true.

next

is

the

so
particulars,

of the

Some

everything.

Aristotle's

rash

the

is not

of action

to

nearer

come

only have
as

any

is that the

rash

that have

point if he
man,

of the

statements

our

criticisms

the brave

truth

and

had

been
said

the coward

fears less
habitually
habituallyfears more, which is obviously
of some
have been written in anticipation
man

The

60
With
the

regard
is

excess

is

there

Vanity

as

having

with

for it is
to

greater

the

of soul

ambitious
each

the

own

property, why

sometimes

'.

man

must

discuss
hitherto

extremes,

if

And

but

there

they

to

The

that

of

the
it is

explains why

interveningspace

unambitious,

conditions

other

the

of excess,
but

the

we

man

as

its

who

hits the

and

why

three

to

in the

the bad

differ in that
and

with

we

It is

that

with

the

the

has

other

two

and

amusement

we

may

to note
interesting
that
of the
sponds exactlyto

see

These
more

who

hits the
Of

the

of excess,

we

Irascibility
; if he
itselfImpassivity.
have

yet differ from

do

with
the

in

with

another.

and

truthfulness

deeds,
in such

agreeableness,one
with

other

must

that
distinctly

in these

certain

one

words

states, too,

that the usage

Greek

They

Gentleness.

which

means

to

mean.

condition

intercourse

one

man

direction

the defect

other

the

call the

another, and
do

and

condition

wrong

in all the relations of life.

order

in accordance

defect

may

mean

goes

one

agreeablenessin

that

sometimes

are

have

all

intercourse

in

that falls short

and

irascible and

resemblance

They

This

or

that

man

is nameless.

mean

except

the

the

call the

by defect,impassive,and

errs

rightway,

sometimes

man

call him

may

in the

followed.

and

gentle

mean

great honour

we

Anger, too, admits

mostly nameless,

are

claims

do

to

praisethe ambitious and sometimes the unambitious

The
explanationof this will be given later on ; we

now

method

too

Ambition.

extremes

ambitious

hits the

has

state

with

do

to

honour

nameless

is called

man

of

This

objects.

who

man

are

that

mean

smaller

degree than is right. Now

called ambitious,and the man

unambitious, but
conditions

spirit.And

less

or

in this is

exceeds

of

to

strive for such

possibleto

is Pride ;

mean

is Want

defect

just as pride has

honours

small

the

pride just as we said that

from it
munificence, that is,differing

to

with

do

to

the

Aristotle.

dishonour

is related

related

was
liberality

and

which

of

and

honour

to

state

Ethics

of the

agreeableness
be discussed,
in all

cases

English language

respects.

with

the
corre

Book

condition

mean

of these

clear and

the
takes
who

is in

who

With

is

excess

With

condition

in

may

Pretence,

Boastfulness, and

Irony, and

if it

the

witty,and

man

who

man

dispositionWittiness

the

the

the

amusement,

who

man

may

be

the

to

with

the

remaining

kind

of

business

the

it is called

has
called

churl

and

is called

right way

The

object in view,

is called

man

who

that

one

also

are

feels shame
is said

man

of

evasiveness,
for

than

"mock

the

in

course,

and

this

is
to

bashful

was

the

pretending to

conditions

mean

instance,is

for

"sly,"

word

the

excess,

mean

if he

obsequious, if his object

the

who

man

be

may

falls short

called

quarrel

morose.

for instance

Not,

to

goes

is

who

man

friendly,and
who

man

agreeableness,that

life,the

of

while
advantage, a flatterer,
disagreeableon every occasion

Shame,

meant

mean

braggart; but,

is called

own

There

be

may

ironical1.

is Friendliness.

and

some

called

is called

state

is deficient

who

do

further

is

and

he

to

agreeable

is his

the rest,

argument

that hits the

agreeableness in

to

regard
has

no

of

case

most

Churlishness.

state

has

are

doubt

itself Truthfulness.

mean

Buffoonery and

buffoon, while

which

this

is called

mean

extremes

No

the

man

is
exaggeration,

it is called

regard

hits the

his

the

depreciation,it

of

the form
possesses

the

the

of

the form

man

that

so

names,

truthful,and

if it takes

blameable.

butj justas in the

regard to truth,then,

called

the

follow.

to

easy

With

invent

to

try

praise,while

of

right,but

also nameless,

are

must

be

object

an

praiseworthynor

neither

we

is

IL

the

not

hit the

modern

common

modesty."

the

of

goodness,

and

and

mean

The

applied especiallyto
out

defect.

doing

abilities.
It

another

is ashamed

sense.

of

is

feelings.
yet the

this respect, too,

In

who

man

regard to

form

praised.

tendency to get
depreciateyour own
very

with

Greek

foxes.
what

It is

It

exceed

to
at

it,

everything.

word

originally
generally implies

is

expected
pitywe have

something

find

we

rather

more

of
no

you

by

current

definite

The

62

He

who

defect

by

errs

Ethics

shameless, while

called
called

is

who

or

Aristotle.

of

the

ashamed

never

malicious

of

fortunes

joy

The

undeserved

this and

pained at

is

falls

another

show

relation between

We

see,

in

the

form

of

some

and

mean

to

The

the word

states

of

points

is used

in

senses,

(II.8.)
conditions

or

in

which

mean,

all

are

extremes

other, and

each

all these

the extremes.

These

other.

or

misfortunes

badness, one

of

forms

goodness.

way

condition,the

one

the malicious

mean1.

three

are

exceeds

man

these
distinguish

to

and

mean

there

being

defect, and
in

other

then, that

of them

sponding

the

feel at the

the

at

to discuss

it is

of them

The

one

occasion

shall have

we

one,

we

whatsoever,while

success

as
regard to justice,

in each

how

soul, two

to

than

sphere of

envious

the

of

In

place.

senses

but

envy

The

righteously
indignantis

is

who

man

shall,however, have

We

and

all

of others.

being pained
in them.
actuallyrejoices

that he

others

more

is

mean

between

pleasure which

or

success,

far short

so

pain

the

others.

pained by

in

the

state

mean

the misfortunes

at

feelingsis

all these

man

thing is

any

modest.

again,is a
Righteous indignation,
and

observes

who

man

at

is the
to

corre

each

opposed both
is opposed to

are

the

and

excess

opposed

of

mean

equal is greater if compared with

the less, but less if compared with the greater, so mean
con
or
ditions,whether in feelings
actions,exceed if compared with
the

extremes.

the

defect

and

the

brave

man

cowardly

Just

Third

Book

Fourth
main
to

objectin

them

all.

and

while

the

every

case

these
Fifth
is

in contrast
the

rash

to

are

discussed

the

to

contrast

in the

second

selections),Liberalityand
Book

is

show

how

coward, and

similarlythe

and

man,

entirelydevoted
the doctrine

of

Thus

excess.

the

to

intemperate in

Temperance
in

compared with

with

appears

(omitted

Book,

if

rash

appears

man

Courage

the

fall short

compared

as

temperate
1

as

the

the

in-

part of the
rest

in

the

Justice. The
the mean
applies
to

Book

sensible
So

the liberal

too

with

the

mean

from

mean

man

and

as

the

to

the rash

intemperate.
a prodigalwhen
compared
when
compared with the

contrast
as

us

calls him

the

to

fact that

other ; the

man

63

mean

explains the

one

rash, and

strikes

man,

That

prodigal.

in

insensible

and

man,

II.

the

coward

the brave

calls

coward, and

drive the

extremes

man

in the other

so

cases.

But, while
and

the

are

separated by

the

mean,

Again,
as

the

that

furthest

that is

to

courage,

its oppositewhich
rashness

is believed

cowardice,
; for

courage

strike

mean

The
"

genus.

so

the
us

then, that which

1

we

as

mean.

sometimes

For

instance,it is

the

not

two

nearer

is

"

the

the

to

the

and

more

that

it.

This

is in

extreme

similar
we

to

is

extremes

For

mean.

nature

are

that

not

furthest

things that

more

of these

of the

one

very

the

not

opposed

One

it is

it is cowardice

excess

is the

more

causes.

chieflyoppose

the

be.

but
defect,insensibility,

is the

which

the mean,

arises from

equal.

the mean,

and

it is

be

the

to

and

to

small, and

is from

defect,cowardice, which

to

from

oppositethey will

more

things which are

more
opposite to

full definition

the

the

similar

more

than

other

they

and

thing itself;where

of the

and

nearer

the

two

; for

resemblance

defect

the

arises from

This

temperance.
nature

one

intemperance,

excess,

we

the

to prodi
liberality
greatest possible dissimilarity
define oppositesas the things
another1,so that the further

another, the

oppositeto

each

courage,

the

apart from

rashness, but

opposed

to

extremes

mean

apart from

certain

Now,

extremes.

more

excess,

than

has

it is sometimes

Now

from

either of them

always

apart from

thingsare

the

is

there

between

the

have

rashness

for instance

gality,but

interval

the

and

the great is further

extremes

some

of them

the great, than

from

are

wider

justas

the small

either

between

than

the
opposition between
more
opposition between

is

there

mean,

extremes

is this

there

to

instance,
courage

chieflyoppose
removed

but

from

to

the

is the first cause,

of the

furthest

thing;

apart in the

the
same

Ethics

The

64
other

arises from

cause

ourselves

are

opposed

It is the

ourselves.

naturally more
the

to

A ristotle.

of

Thus

mean.

that

prone

be

to

appear

all

are

we

which

thingsto

we

more

naturallymore

prone

pleasurethan pain,and therefore we have a greater tendency

those thingswhich
Now
to intemperance than
to temperance.
in the line of our
natural developement, we
lie most
speak of
to

being more

as

for the

intemperance,being
is.
insensibility

Practical
It

has

is

character
further

in

and

excess

lyingbetween

the

at

in

to

of

forms

two

alike in

and

mean,

defect,and

mean

temper

goodness

it is

sense

other

the

it aims

because

so

what

condition

mean

in

and

reason

(II.9.)

Mean.

that
sufficiently

shown

mean,

it is

that

badness, one
it is

been

now

opposed

more

for attainingthe

rules

this is another

and

the mean,

to

excess,

than

ance

opposed

of

lastlythat

feelingsand

actions.
is

That

task

hard

circle

knows

the

and

the

that

anyone

"

man

from

This

is the advice
Far

The

Od.

XII.

219.

slipis due

goddess

had

to

who

man

that is

; but

give
at the righttime,
is no longer a thing
is why excellence
is

money

That

must,

mean

which

to

is the

in the first place,keep

contrary

more

given by Kalypso1 when

this smoke

there

extremes

the

at

extreme

from

is it easy.

nor

aims

the

can

of

centre

get angry,"

can

anyone

way

always

fair.

and

who

It is

good.

in

same

do

away

be

the
anything; even
by anybody, but only by the

anyone

can

rare, laudable

Of the

to

giveor spend
rightpeople and the rightamount
rightmotive and in the rightway,

with

the

In

task

mean

be found

how.

to

hard

so

find

to

cannot

quiteeasy,
it

it is

why

is

and

confused

something

to

do

hold

thou

that is

always one

It is not,
a

swell

she

more

says

thy

the

to
:

course.

and

wrong

however, Kalypso, but Odysseus who

recollection

with

warning with regard to Scylla and

the

on

mean.

Aristotle's

part

speaks.

that

refer

one

some

the
Really they
Charybdis given by Circe to Odysseus.
words.

to

Book
since it is hard

that is less so, and

take

must

the

next

shall succeed

We

II.

best

course

best

in

65
hit the

to

the least of the evils.

choose

and

this if

doing

we
precisely,

mean

follow

we

the

rule

just

given.
most

have

people

what

find

out

and

pain.

direction

ours

is wrong,

what

we

if

ourselves

remove

we

reach

shall

we

the

are

bribed

to

felt towards

it the words

sending

away

the

sum

enable

they

use1.

Helen,

we

this is

course,

particularcases.
is the

what

rightway

duration

and

in anger

If

it away

not

It is not,

far and

//.

Trojans
suffer

what

in.

156,

thus

brave.

and

stay

even

to

so,

man

translated

vex

us

and

Of

all easy

at

point

though
our

as

to

To

go wrong.

gentle,and

that

shall

we

by

she

be

is she
so

to

before

"Small

goodly,

such

blame
a

immortal
let her

after us."

go

slight
in

is felt at

go

wrong

we

whether

by

for
the

determine

Leaf:

should

children

to

not

deviation

who

sometimes

great one,

may
Mr

to

come

we

it is

course

; for such

and

Yet
not

always apply
for
they were

praisepeople

even

right,but only

well-greaved Achaians
hardships; marvellouslylike

upon.
and

to

up

the

rightobjects,occasions

we

call them

indeed,

we

pleasure as

in this way

the

or

Sometimes

defect, that is blamed

once.

guard

our

determine, for instance,

to

easy

excess

or

just how

concerned,

should

less liable

be angry

is

is

task, especiallywhen

from

what

from

mean.

is

and

manly

send

we

call angry
deviation

men

feel towards

to

we

easy

to

it is

Helen, and

no

of anger.

deficient

are

It

may

can

we

on
specially

Where

by behaving

hit the

to

we

warped.

are

be

shall be

up, it is

matter

ourselves

Of

ought

as

That

that

pleasant.

We

jury.

elders

Trojan

the

far

as
mean.

people straightenpieces of wood

in every case
Thirdly, we must
against pleasure and

Some

others, but

have

others

are

we

tendencies.

natural

own

which

in

feelingsof pleasure
by observing our
in the opposite
must
drag ourselves

are

Then

; for

our

tendency and

one

direction

the

watch

must
Secondly, we
easily carried by

how

rule

he

is it that

long
goddesses to

woman

upon

is

their

time
look

ships,

The

66

blamed, but

is

that

Ethics

of Aristotle.

which
difficulty
appliesequally to every
object of perception. Such things are all
be judged by perceptionalone1.
We
can
a

thing which is an
and
can
particulars,
see
plainlyas much as this,that in
is the object of praise,but that
the

towards

is the

that

easiest way

condition

mean

sometimes

must

we

towards

hit the

to

the

cases

sometimes

and

excess

all

the

mean,

to

CAUSE

OF

incline

defect ;

attain

for

excel

to

lence.
VII.

THE

of

WILL,
will

THE

EFFICIENT

is

voluntary, we
by voluntary. (III.i.)
act

every
mean

(a)As

ACTION,

firstconsider

must

what

we

of

goodness,then, being feelingsand actions,

and
being attached to such of these as are
praiseand blame
voluntary,while such as are involuntaryreceive pardon and
sometimes
compassion, it is doubtless a necessary part of the
the voluntary from the
of goodness to distinguish
discussion
The

sphere

is

This

of

one

Aristotle's

fundamental
and

action ; it is this act

particular
On
certain given circumstances.
throughoutwith universals,and no
a

hive

We

scale, but

of the

Now

perceptionis

from

it which

degree of
hotter

or

colder

will feel at
is too

is

The

that
too

as

in the

small, just as
cold.

has

who

immediate

immense

retical
case.

importance

teachingcan

of

take

the
its

who

education

then, that

been

can

perception.

feel that

not

it is

all.

only what

in

will

health

we

have

well

never

to

that

just the
good habits

do

with

this

the

his

form

perception
Hence

amount

reach

of anger

feel that

trained.
No

is

It is

given degree

of character.

place; for that

do

trained
a

of the scale, and

have

the other

to

of

We

well

in normal

man

ends

too

been

particular.
the
starting-point,

apprehending deflexions

bodies

circumstances

perceptionat both
impossibleexcept to those

or

some

own

the

reach

of heat.

our

is concerned

form

object of perception at

an

man

for him

its

cannot

of

power

case

of

that

see,

hot

is too

the

reach

can

prove

that it

supplemented by

Aristotle

instance, the
same

rule

cannot
see

we

We

bath
of

or

to

that becomes

once

great

for

is the

actions.

with

same

always

Take,

mean.

now

be

must

hand, science

universal

science

our

of happiness,and

definition
end

already that

seen

other

Every action is
it is performed in

and

another,

not

the

doctrines.

the

of theo

particular

The

68
with
difficulty

for,while

one

ship and

of the
would
are

of

do

like

more

to

actions

Such

so.

and

end

the

of

of its

moment

Now

the

our

own

to

power

act

it may

voluntary,though
choose

of such

painfulfor the
the opposite case

sake

of moderate

value.

which

and

we

die the

miserable

Alkmeon

in

one

be

cannot

no

in the
would

one

ab
ever

even

which
could

it shows

; for

worthy

no

also

are

end

or

when
too

are

resist.
to

The

reasons

murder

his

inferior

an

man

is

which

one

which

actions

some

compelled

death.

Euripides to

them

in itself.

blamed

motives
no

the

actions,then, are

regard

we

be pardonable, as

may

of their

praisedon the strength

they submit to something disgraceful
and in
something great and glorious,

are

There

thingswhich
most

that,if

disgracefor

to

praisedbut which
thing from
wrong
nature

of

they

submit

to

Such

act.

sometimes

when

actions,as

or

nature

to

of them

perform any
Further, people are
to

time

the

acts

to

involuntary,
seeing that

stract, they appear

the

at

his organs is within

is within ourselves,it is in

power

not

be

it has

at
questionacts voluntarily

gives motion

or

performed,

are

which

that

regard

must

in

the motive

himself,and, when

they

they are

Accordingly,in speaking of

man

that

cause

character,but they

when
be

to

involuntary,we

voluntary or
performance.
time ; for the

time

is said

performance.

as

mixed

involuntaryactions,as

the

at

act

an

of

are

than

voluntary

preferablealternative

the

Aristotle.

of

in a storm
throwing goods overboard
;
throws
his
overboard
in
voluntarily
property
the safety
specialcircumstances,yet to ensure
that of his fellow-passengers,
all men
of sense

regard

no

absence

the

Ethics

not

are

does

the

strong for human

Yet

do ;

there
we

which
mother

are

should

some

rather

"compelled"
are

evidently

absurd2.
1

The

legal text-books

chapterin Holland,
2

him
curse

The
a

referred

which

reason

he

dying injunctionto
if he did

not

still discuss

obey.

to

this

question at length.

See

the

above.

that his father Amphiaraos had left

alleged was
slay his mother
Eriphyle,and that he feared his

Book

It is
order
and

always easy

not

certain

gain a

to

it is still harder
result which

the

pelled

accordingas
What

something

to

it1.

chosen

which

at

looked
in

and

in the

at

view

that is
what
ends

; for there

If anyone

compel

are

lay

readiness

the credit of
of

our

bad

the

In

greater evils
2

In

external.

who

It

on

his
cases

is not

appetition of it.

hope
the

of greater

really the

It is
not

and

us

everything
for their

do
and

involun

motives

the

are

absurd, then,
our

upon

inducements2, and
It appears,

the

agent

then, that

contributes

to

own

take

all

his

an

action

fear of

own

goods.
action

cause

of

the

pleasant

or

beautiful

efficient

to

make

pleasure.
and

exercise

ourselves,while layingthe blame

to

above

to

as

certain

to

external

are

whose

causes,

pleasure.

discussed

view

compulsion

those

such

to

rule

everything we

under

with

act

action
particular

the beautiful

this would

while

fine actions

cases

these

of

cases.
particular

that

act

our

prey

in

they

external

on

with

chosen

all do

we

ones

or

is

cause

nothing
involuntary,

lay down

to

that

answer

fall

to

the

given result,and

pleasantand

ground

pain,

blame

the

compulsory?

which

of

it is the

easy

be

the

the beautiful

pleasantor
to

with

so

blame

not.

or

are

say

of

case

differences

that

must

we

not

to

are

many

the

on

it is

Further, those

tarilydo

com

though involuntaryif
voluntaryat the particulartime

in this

compulsory, seeing that

sakes.

are

is in the agent,

and

So

says

us,

we

like
more
particularresult.
They are
are
involuntaryactions,however ; for particulars

of actions

compulsion,

act

rule,

the

voluntary.

sort

for, as

to,

he contributes

in view

and

cause

of action

sphere

we

those

are

compelled

must

abstract,are

of

voluntary than
the

be

submit

to

get praise or

we

the agent, and

to

ought

we

in

choose

to

which, though in themselves

efficient

the

then

given time

what

to

abstract,they

actions

But

is

ourselves

external

ought

we

and
disgraceful,

of actions

in the

at

in

are

is

what

by our decisions
painfuland the

abide

expect

allow

we

class

Looked

result and
to

we

perform

to

decide

to

69

///.

is

only apparently

object, but

our

own

Ethics

The

7O

its efficient

is only compulsory when

nothing

the

when

and

agent

Aristotle.

of

under

person

is external

cause

the

to

contributes

compulsion

it.

to

ignorance is always non-voluntary,and

it brings pain and
when
man
regret, it is involuntary. The
has performed any action from ignorance,
and yet feels no
who
at
having performed it, has not, indeed, acted
annoyance
voluntarily,
seeing that he did not know what he was doing ;
the other
hand
has he acted
since he
nor
on
involuntarily,
feels no
of actions done
from
pain. In cases
ignorance,the
feels regret is held to be an
who
man
involuntaryagent ; the
An

who

man
a

done

act

feels

from

Since

non-voluntary agent.
should

that he

There

is

regret, since he

no

have

seems

name

also

to

his

is

doing,and
Indeed

he

just this

do

to

that

not
we

and

of

sort

ignorancein
attribute

can

in

acts

what

he

bad

ought
makes

speak

we

The

is drunk

who

man

does

not

know

is

man

the

are

It is in
for

man

he

to

of the

undone, and

leave

unjust and

men

what

it is

wicked
do

we
involuntary,

in
not

It is
ignorantof what is good for him.
willingnor ignoranceof the universal to which
involuntaryaction ; for we are blamed for such

cases

who

what

is

object of the

such

acting

ignorantof

ignorance,and it is badness that we attribute to it.

ticular ignorance,ignorance of the particular
persons
that

be

to

or

ignorance.

he

which

error

when

man

though

anger,

well

actingfrom

ignorance,but

say that every

must

general. But,
mean

or

therefore

we

ought

be actingfrom

to

drunkenness

from
is

held

not

called

it is as
different,

difference between

ignorance and actingin ignorance.

angry

is

case

be

himself.

to

be

different,
may

is

that

action,that
there

ignorant of

is

room

any

make

may

of

for
these

it

It is par
or

things

involuntary.

pity and pardon

is an
particulars

involuntaryagent.
It will doubtless
and

number

(2) the

act,

of

be

as

well, then, to determine

these

(3) the

particulars.They
object (whether person

(i) the agent,

thing)of the act,

are
or

the nature

Book

III.

71

(6)the manner,
(4)the instrument, (5)the effect,e.g. saving life,
e.g. hard or gently.
be ignorant of all these,
but a madman
Now
can
no
one
be ignorant of the agent.
How
and clearlyno
he
can
one
can
But a man
be ignorant of
fail to know
that it is himself?
may
what
he is doing, as when
men
put out
say that they were
it was
forbidden
when
to
speaking or that they did not know
that
utter
it,like Aeschylus and the mysteries1,or, like the man
discharged the catapult,they may
say that they only intended
it.

show

to

did2,

Merope
a

button

Or

on,

you

kill

Once
or

you
the

or

you

or

stone

wound

take

may

take

may

when

to

only

you

an

for

save

meant

pumice-stone3.
life and

touch,

to

with

one

man's

as

enemy,

for

spear

throwing

medicine

for

son

pointed

a
are

you

administer

may

him4,

more,

in

as

of ignorance
sparring-match5.As, then, there is a possibility
in regard to any of these particular
circumstances
of an action,
is held to
of them
the man
acted in ignorance of any one
who
and
have
acted involuntarily,
especiallyif he was
ignorant of

the

decisive

most

held

be

to

the

them, and

of

persons

are

man,

should

act

Since
from
that

the

which

the

would

hardly be rightto
1

This

In

:"

is the

the

Examples

of

Ignorance

of the

Ignorance

of

tragedy of

ignorance
the

to

the

that

of the

and

involuntary

an

of regret.

an

due

the

that

Plato

had

the

knows

of the

temper

or

act.

It

desire"

story.
now

name

lost.

instrument.

effect.
You

manner.

only

meant

to

hit

gently,but

hard.
6

or

voluntary is

who

agent

to

that

compulsion

under

the material

that actions

the action

matter

follow

form

are

require besides

is in

cause

of them

we

is done
to

which
say

be

and

what

earliest reference

celebrated

then, is called

seem

efficient

particularcircumstances
can

pain

involuntaryis

ignorance, it
of

him

cause

objects of

ignorance,but

agent in respect of such

decisive

most

the

who

the effect of the action.

the

the

mentioned

these

along

with

ignorance in

the

Laws.

you

hit

The

72

the

involuntary. In

are

the

idea

the

second

no

act

it

does

bad

actions

that

one

and

the

it is absurd

too

directed

same

give up
act voluntarily,
even
or
meaning of the state

the

from

temper

fine actions

our

Surely that

is answerable

person

have

should

to

is

desire

or

voluntary,
is absurd,-seeing
are

in both

And

cases.

thingsto which our appetitionought

involuntary. Now we ought to be angry at
certain thingswe
there are
ought to desire,

say that

to
are

health

that

mean

involuntary?

things,and

as

place, is
proceeds

which

our

such

animals

In

and

certain

place,we

of the lower

voluntary,or

be

first

any

that

ment

Aristotle.

of

that

children.

to

Ethics

and

in

progress

studies.

our

is

Further, what

involuntaryis regarded as painful,but acts which proceed from

desire are
do actions which
pleasant. Again, how
proceed
reflection and acts which
from
proceed from temper differ in
respect of their voluntariness ?
irrational

nature,

acts
even

or

these

count

(b)
but

not

more

as

and

so,

as

actions

so

This

is shown

proceed

It is

from

absurd, then,

be

something voluntary,
voluntary. It involves (i) the in
of -Deliberation,
(2) the appetitiveelement of
to

is

everything that

tellectual ele?nent

that

human.

quiteas
involuntary.

Will.

The

; but

be shunned

to

are

less characteristic of human

no

desire will be

passion and
to

regarded

are

Both

Wish.
Now

that

have

we

distinguishedthe voluntary from the

subject we have to deal with is the will ;
be closelybound
up with goodness,and

the next
involuntary,
for will is thought to
to

afford
Now

the

lower
not

Greeks.

is

animals
will.

being voluntary,but
The

contrast

actions1.

than

clearlyvoluntary,but

Voluntary

action, but

of character

test

all will is

identical.
and

better

between

wider

share

Besides,
not

as

us

we

the

the will and

the

power
of

speak

being willed.
deed

thingsare

two

willed

than

term

with

the

of

sudden

Those
was

; for

who

not

children

voluntary
acts

as

say that

quite familiar

to

the

Book
will is desire

Will

be wrong.
while

desire

and

the

on

man,

is

not

temper

Further, desire may

desire1.

Lastly,

will has

painful,but

and

and

desire

of

neither

to

animals,

does
the

the

desire.

from

not

is

with

appear

morally weak man

the morally strong

desire

will,but

do

the

will

sort

the lower

will,while

object
to

man

from

oppose
the

to

from

acts

contrary,

belief of any

Again,

are.

not

73

or

wish

or
common

desire,but

from

acts

temper

or

III.

not

oppose

pleasant

and
the

pleasant nor

painful.
Still less

passion seem
Nor

yet

and, if

would

as

well

wish

and

will

of

and

a
no

certain

something impossible,

think

we

may

is

wish

actor

wills

one

Further, wish

or

we

directed

mainly

much

about

For

point as

to

desire

will

to

to

keep

This

bring out

to

weakness

desire
be

make
its

may

be

moral

illustrated
the

Therefore
is directed

willing too

same

be about

eternal

are

and

asleep at

awake.

section

belief2 ; belief may

things that

moral

and

seemed

will be

to

time,

desire

You
but

is not

appetitivecharacter

in

p.

cannot

you

the

generally against
intellectual

the

wish
that
to

appears

the

17,

to
we

be

n.

about

The

3.

desire

to

be

desire

to

sleep and

Platonist

Aristotle
this.

we

anything,just

thing as

same

process.

opposition to

may

end

and

impossible as

or

strength, cf.

thus.

athlete

in

be

to

our

anything of that sort ;

possibly be effected by

happy; for, to put it generally,will

to things in our
own
power.

can

certain

good health
Or, again,we
attaininggood health.
say so ; but it is inappropriateto say

means

means

Nor

the

to

confined

willed

be

to

evidently

possibly be performed by

not

that

prize; but
things that we

will

happy

will

could

the

agency.

will the
be

that

for instance

win

own

it is

willingof impossibilities,

no

say that he

to

wish, though

as

be

can

from

proceed

of will.

acts

same

that

thought a fool. But we wish for impossibilities

for instance, immortality. Again, we
possibilities,

as

our

There

were

things

only

we

be

to

actions

be

for

should

it.

man

as

agency,

temper

will be the

can

to

he

as

least of all

akin

near

will be

can

awake

will.

view,

which

is anxious

Cf. p. 41,

n.

2.

to

74

things that
as

true

in

is

is

is

good

good

this

bad

or

it is

be

but

good,

of

will

we

belief

in

bad.

or

belief

another,

or

what

to

as

accept
what

to

or
a

Belief

way.

of

form

any

but according as
belief,

have

and

with

sort

one

Again,
we

good

identifies will with

identified

that

or

bad.

or

distinguishedas

it be

can

will

hold

we

Further, belief is distinguished

then, who

one,

character

for whom

or

no

Aristotle.

of

will is

neither

but

according as
what

power.

probably

Our

will what

our

false,while

general;

belief.

Ethics

in

are

or

There

The

not
we

avoid

thing is,
does

not

acceptingor rejectingthings. Again, will is praised

the ground that it is directed to the rightobjectrather than
on
for being right itself,
while belief is praised for being true.
well to be good,
Further,we will those things we know fairly
but we
It is not
believe things we
know
very little about.
commonly thought, either,that the same
people can will best
beliefs are
and
believe most
truly; there are
people whose
better than
will the wrong
of others, but who
those
things
apply

to

of their bad

because

precede

may
no

difference.

will

of will

accompany

That

is

be

What, then, can

the

not

be identified with

can

it is

It may

act

every

be

character.

nature

some

us

belief

that makes

it,but

questionbefore

it is whether

of belief.

form

any

the

or

that

and

of

character

will,since

things? It is clearlysomething voluntary,

but not
everythingthat is voluntary is willed. May it perhaps
be that which
is the result of previousdeliberation,
seeingthat
of it
The
will implies reasoning and
thought ?
very name
thing to another1.
suggests that it impliesa preferenceof one
of

none

these

The
We

must

elements

we

which

understand

must

The

an

(i) Deliberation.

Will,

ask, then, whether

May anything be

thingsabout

of

object

of

we

deliberate about

or
deliberation,

are

everything.
there

some

Of course,
impossibleto deliberate?
not
by a possibleobject of deliberation,

it is

literal translation

of the word

is

"choosing

before."

The

76

Deliberation,then, has

them.
as

Ethics

general rule,and

be, and

for

visers,when

to

do

importance

with

thingsthat happen
what

the result will

call in the

we

in

confident

not

are

we

Aristotle.

it is uncertain

where

of

matters

of

to
ability

own

our

of ad

help

decide

them.

Again,
The

doctor

does

patientswell,or
nor

does

be

end

and

there

appears

be

may

be

to

realised

only

by

realised,until they

one

it

what

all

how

it in

first cause,

can

if

best, and

consider

how

it

in several

be reached

they

assume

means

easiest and

it,and

the

to

his

make

They

by

can

the

way,

of

means

come

and

how

will be

which

consider

they

shall

end.

the

that

if it appears

reached, and

ways,

consider

then

he

means.

persuade his hearers,

produce law and order,nor

about

else deliberate

about

shall

he

shall

he

ends, but

whether

whether

orator

an

whether

anyone

certain

deliberate

not

statesman

about

deliberate,not

we

the end
is

turn

be

to

is last in the

which

is deliberating
who
discovery. For the man
appears
to be seekingin the manner
justdescribed and to be analysing
it is
his end
like a geometricalfigure1, though of course
of

process

"

evident

that,while all deliberation

This

in

be

may

is said

geometry

briefly
explained

to

something

untrue.

case

where

been

done

thing that

something
(the Q.
is in

E.

this method.

We

the

arrive

order

of the

steps of

That

which

comes

our

last

diagram

proofsare

be

to

done,

do,

to

when

The

process.

end,

that

arrived

so

the

of

to

or

problem, we

we

at

whole

is in

our

power,

of

be

till

we

proved
come,

something

the

the Ethics
we

and

shall be able

analysis comes

to

come

we

see

In

that

assume

make

can

The

by Plato,
something is to

the latter character.

happiness,and

analysis,we
in

hunters.

where

case

quoted

invented

analyse the diagram tillwe

then

something

already to be true,

the

assume

till we

at

has

power
of

the

indirect

F.) and

our

reversingthe steps

duction.

know

we

Euclid's

In

been

process

passage

the truth of the conclusion

proved, a theorem, we assume

(the Q. E. D.) and then analyse
to

have

to

follows.

as

be

be

every

is the

analyticalmethod

either

search, not

Plato
in the
point of view from which
Introduction
(p. 5) classes geometriciansamong

in the

and

is

to

the

it has
some

construction
is based

by
upon

analyse its conditions

the
then, by reversing
to

first in

produce happiness.
the

process

of

pro

III.

Book

that which

last in the

comes

first in the process

analysiscomes

production.

of

deliberatingwe

If in

raise it ;

impossible to

set

work.

to

by our own
seeing that
before
be

agency

used, and
sometimes

and

by his agency,
something beyond

how

do

his actions

are

and

sake

themselves.

the

with

the

it has

whether

been

properly

perception. Further, if we
we

fall into

should

end

for it is that

of deliberation

which

is

always gives

man

traced

up

the efficient

ruling part

adopted

asking

up
cause

himself, and

of

ancient

as

how

constitutions

which

kings simply reported their

Since, then, the object of will
the

our

p.

analysis of
Neither

is

particulars
this is

loaf

for

matter

object of

ever,

will

are

that

power

14,

the

of these

n.

3.

The

intermediate
falls

has

been

sphere

of

deliberation.
when

This

to

an

within

the

has

end

for in

the

people.
object of appetition
upon,

will

practicalscience, then,
the

he

is illustrated

represents

deliberated

steps between

strictly
speaking

Homer

is

act

himself, that is,to the

to

will

of the

shall

that is the will.

them

Cf.

the

he

of action

the

and

the result

by

within

be the

cannot

for
deliberating

on

go

for the

except that the object of will is already determined

the same,

'A

; that

can

infinite process1.

an

object

the

Now,

to

were

efficient

performed

The

baked

to

means

whatever

but only the means.

Nor can
objectof deliberation,
be the object of deliberation,for instance,whether
or

it is

how

be

to

to

own,

question

the

get it.

to

said, appears
has

effected

our
virtually

it is sometimes

be effected
of

be

can

sometimes

and

cases

been

has

us.

use

actions,deliberation

of his

cause

as

to

is

it

and

possible,we

Sometimes

using it or

of

the way

then,

Man,

possiblewhich

is in

cause

be

to

friends' agency

our

in other

just so

is wanted

money

but, if it appears

instrument

is what

us

; for

efficient

the

instance, if

things are

Those

something impossible, we

to

come

for

purpose,

our

renounce

is

mathematics, is deliberation,"and

in

search, for instance

of

77

and

science

the

is

must

be

only the
particularact.

itself.

The

78
A

deliberate

an

object as

with the lines laid down

will be sufficient for

That

it shows

and

of Aristotle.

of something within our power1} we adopt

appetition
the result of our
and then appetition
deliberation,

in accordance

follows

Ethics

its

what

by

outline of what

an

that

objects are,

we

deliberation.

they

will ;

by

mean
are

and

means

ends.

not

elements

The

We

have

Some

it is directed

object
the

by

hold

people

that
the

that

seen

it is wish

(2)

it is directed

the apparent

is the

bad.

be

Those

and

who

be

good,

whereas

hand

who

others

say that
is chosen

wish

object of

an

the other

on

good

Those

the end.

to

say that what

to

wrongly is not
object of wish, it must

an

the

to

good2.

have

good

Wish.

is directed

that

wills

who

well

just as

to

of wish

man

for,if it is

that

Will.

of

all ;

at

it may

make

the

object of wish have to say that there is no

natural object of wish, but that in every case
such
it
thinks good ; but different things,
and it may
is what a man
be,
good to different people. Well, if these
oppositethings,seem
neither of them
conclusions
are
satisfactory,
perhaps we may
say that,speakingin the abstract and in the true sense, it is the
good that is the objectof wish, but that in reference to a given
the true good will be
individual it is the apparent good. Then
good
thingas a

apparent

that which

appears

will be

good

the

good

but

some,

those
to

element
appetitive
The
givesus the end.
The

both

in

Will, then, contains

solelywith
The
"

in

the

happens
the body.

both

be.

to

To

people
which

intellectual and

an

is wish, and

we

shall have

intellectual element

is

find

We

condition

morbid

while the bad

man,

wholesome

things are
those

good

it

whatever

difference with regard to

of health

the

to

an

to

in

are

man's

the

same

good

state

trulywhole

it is

something

element.
appetitive
consider

and
deliberation,

it next.
it has

It
to

da

means.

objectof this
our
power."

discussion

is to show

that

goodness

and

badness

are

Book

different,and
and

weight
every

case,

There

is

seeing the
standard
to

and

deceive

if it

As, then, it is the

that

means

have

have

badness
to

too,

act, it is also in

is in

our

do

to

power

it follows

saying

that

badness

is

Or
and

are

to

say

his actions

other

within
And

is

one

that

and
causes

that

ourselves
this view

is

we

than

those

supported by

that

of which

our

the

it is in

our

If,then, it
also be in

our

be

good

rightand

help it,and

can

wrong,

bad.

or

our

The
that

no

is

apparently a halfhappy against his will,but

trace

everything
is itself in

is

conclusions

cannot

power

But, if it is in

power

have

we

the efficient

not

our

assent.

could,

he is of his children

justas

say

is

man

goodness
goodness, and

where

what

if he

that

with

right,it will

to

if he

quite voluntary.
to
we
dispute the

efficient

must

no

is

doing

bad

happy

that

true

clearlytrue

are

we

is

be

to

to

power

the

therefore

it is in

Where

power

will be

one

fail

It

truth.

no

our

and

that

is wrong.

refrain from

to

it is in

that

would

one

and

our

action

when

follows

refrain ; and

to

action

when

willed

accordance

power.

our

act

refrain

to

power

to

power

in
It

power
it
is
in
also
refrain,

to

power

the

were

will,actions

and

be

must

our

good,

object of wish, and

deliberation

means.

within

are

is the

that

means

the

appears

as

if it

evil.

activities

all

with

do

to

the

Now

voluntary.

end

them

pleasantas

of

it were,

pleasure that

itself to

the

were

objects of

with

do

to

the

are

choose

his power

is, as

he

It presents

they

in

as

It is

all.

of them

so

much

department

every

pain as

shun

and

so
superiority

people.

most

him.

to

appears

measure

it is not,

though
good

in

truth

judges rightlyin

that

man

heat,

pleasure which corresponds to every

there is hardly any
point in which the

and

his

shows

good

the truth is what

case

soul, and

of

man

It is the

in every

beauty

79

appliesto bitterness,sweetness,

same

forth.

so

and

condition

good

the

III.

cause

just reached
and begetterof

For, if our

actions

our

internal

are

the
and

conclusions
back
to

efficient
therefore

to

any

ourselves,
cause

lies

voluntary.

practiceof privateindividuals

The

8o

lawgiversalike

and

of Aristotle.

Ethics

; for

and

lawgiverscorrect

punish evildoers,
under
unless their actions have been done
compulsion or from
while
ignorance for which they are not themselves responsible,
with the view of repressing
the
they honour those that do right,
class of actions and encouragingthe other.
Yet surelyno
one
would
to do thingsthat are
not in our
us
one
encourage
power

convinced

that

anything of

or

if it

ment

lies within

law, which

know

without

the
it

of the

double

offences

when

drunk

the drunkenness

they

The

plea

of such

formed

such

answerable

are

they

character
for

as

to

be

being

on

his power

not

to

of his
any

which

and
do

the

due

to

attend

to

they
in

same

can

cases

carelessness,on
to

not

ignorance.
provisionof

be

what

put in that

ignorant;
they

the

were

offenders

incapableof attending; but

answerable
themselves
for having

to

are

by

punish

efficient cause

The

cause

power

themselves

character

'.

know

to

own

perhaps

of

penaltiesimposed

ignorant of

are

in their

may

is that

answer

the

was

who

were

pain or hunger
all the
feelings

these

quite in

was

supposed

are

on
depended entirely

the

it

we

agent is responsiblefor his

the

feel

or

if

ignorance a ground

case

that it was

ground

were

that

forward

have

Moreover, we
difficulty*.
held that the ignorancewas

it is

doing.

makes

punish people

the

should

agent himself

get drunk, and

get hot

to

; we

held

further

no

not

even

in the

the

Again, we

sort

be

commit

who

where

that

can

ignorance,as
those

ought

we

the law

Why,

same.

be

should

We

voluntary.

or

be

careless

dishonest

course
or

of

life,
justas they
immoral, seeing that

of misdeeds, and immorality

dishonestyis produced by a course
and the like. It is,we
by a life spent in drinking-bouts
repeat,
activities in a given sphere that produce a given character.
We
this clearlyin the case
with
of those who
see
are
practising
"

This

referred
where
we

law

of

by Aristotle

to

the

have
2

was

agent

the

case

Cf. the maxim

Pittakos, tyrant
with

contributes
where

he

of

Mitylene, and it is elsewhere

have
already had the case

approval. We
the compulsion under
to

contributes

ignorantia juris

to
non

the

which

he

ignorance in which

excusat.

acts

here

he acts.

Book
view

is,indeed, utterlysenseless

It

of character

wish

not

acts

be

voluntary.

do

so, he

do

than

having
but

once

any

more

it in his
he

once

be

time

to

Yet

for all that

who

and

or

immoral

an

honest

again,

by merely wishingto
his illness is voluntary,

that

was

disobedience

who

him

to

open

man

it is
has

not

to
to

the

be

ill,

longer open,

no

thrown

stone

to

in his power
throw
not
to
in himself.
In the very same
the immoral
had
man
originally
was

dishonest

become

to

not

leads

become

his chance
a

was

man

it

it

cause

so, it is

become

it is

some

cases

blame

we

of exercise
and

of

blind

or

we

body

No

them.

and

defects

born

of the

those

cases

vices

only the

not

naturally
ugly,but

on

be

well

it is open

has

man

get better

can

than

power

given sphere,and
who acts dishonestly

in his power

longer

no

immoral

or

but

not

to

so.

And
in

man

away

efficient

that conditions

actingin ignorance,performs

be dishonest

one

dishonest

the

way,

man

not

thrown

it ; for the

all

pass

dishonest, then his dishonestywill

follow,however, that,if he wishes to

very

At

has

he

they

intemperate livingand

from

orders.

recall it.

not

sick

it may

arisen

doctor's

him

that
or

man,

to

though

so,

It does
cease

can

more

any

If

will make

as

argue

be dishonest

to

life to be immoral.
such

to

know

to

not

activities in

produced by

are

quiteindefensible

does

any competitionor performance; for

in activities of that character.

to

their time

it is

III.

blame

do

carelessness.
No

body.

who

had

one

lost his

blame

would

drink
him

or

would

B.

must

The

same

would

any

on

in those

and

people who

are

ugly from want

applies to infirmity
are

blame

illness

sightfrom

voluntary;

are

who

man
or

was

wound,

"

pitied, but if his blindness were

other form of intemperance,
everyone

for it.

depend

that

blame

people who

Such

"

bodily vices,then, as

ourselves are
blamed, while such
upon
if that is so, it follows that other than

blamed,

soul

voluntarytoo,

are

be

the contrary, he would

produced by

one

of the

as

do

not

are

depend
not, and,

bodilyvices,if they are

ourselves.
6

Ethics

The

82

If it is said that
us, but

takes

have

that

same

that is so,

will do

belief that

The

who

man

for he
he

to

would

could

would

it

possess

sense

Unless

wrongdoing ;
aiming

our

election,but

each

it were,

as

select that which

in the

and

is

man

it,to

for

trulygood.

be

specially
gifted by nature ;
that
a gift
greatest and fairest of gifts,

the

receive

never

good.

for his

of eye,

sort

this would

possess

him

to

of free

matter

his

character,he will be in the

appears

judge arightand
had

is in

us

ignorance of the end

gain the highestgood, and

born, with

be

him

enable

be

of

to

the end

that

from

wrong

will not
to

for what

will thus

he

the end

will have

of his

good

corresponds to

that, since each

all will be answerable

at

one

no

everybody
at

each

answer

answerable

sense

but

appears,
of us which

be

to

appears

what

for the condition

answerable

what

at

over

to

appearance

character, we

own

all aim

we

control

no

of Aristotle.

the

at

it

just as

hands

of another
him

given

was

by

He

learn.

or

and

nature,

to

giftin its full excellence would be complete and

genuine nobility. If,then, this is the truth, what is there to
both
make
To
voluntary than badness?
goodness any more
alike,the good and the bad, the end presents itself and is set
and it is
before them
by nature, or in some
way not explained,
this

possess

to

this end

that

refer all the actions which

men

character

of whatever

they

that

it is

man

presents itselfin whatever

inasmuch

in

by
good

is

much

as

if it is

his,even

an

not

of the

ourselves

in

character,and

sense

that

goodness

as

in his

power,

as

contributorycauses

it is in virtue of

our

is

voluntary

all the other

bad

the
as

the

good

agreed,
"

character

our

will be

man's

conceptionof
of

given

badness

case

is

say

say that the end

we

in his actions

element
our

; for

we

that in part its

goodness

end, in either

to

appears

whether

but

element

If, then, goodness is in

which

then,

voluntarily
performs

man

an

Whether,

lightit does, but

nature,

voluntary

as

the end

himself,or

on

for the sake

bit

agency

the

as

processes
every

him

before

set

that

nature

depends

appearance
is

by

not

be.

may

they perform,

own

man's

the end.

for

we

condition

being in

are

of

certain

B.

I.

(i )

it is not

but

different

only

FINAL

of

forms
for

happiness

it

sake

own

alone
^

regard

we

had

we

to

of

account

the

as

end

about

friendship1,it

completion

or

the

for it

happiness ;
if we

discussion

our

say

and

pleasure

give a rough

to

said, then, that

were,

its

of

all

recapitulate

said already.

have

We

and

It will shorten

things human.
we

having for

what

goodness

us

that

ETHICS.

HAPPINESS.

OF

said

have

we

THE

(X. 6.)

amusement.

remains

what

ACCOUNT

activityworth

an

that

Now

is

is

It

OF

BOOK

FROM

be

might

happiness

possessed by

one

not

was

who

passed

condition

; if it

his life in

sleep,

who
in the deepest
was
vegetable,or by one
misfortune.
If,then, we rejectthat, and preferto make
happi
of some
an
ness
kind, as we said above, and if activities
activity

livingthe

be

may
chosen

to

sake

into

for

sake

the

the

and

be in

further

of

sake

is demanded

of them

according to goodness
The

is clear that

appear

subjectsof

we

are

and

those

must

chosen

are

necessary

and

that

are

assignhappi
for their

own

anything else ; for happiness cannot

is self-sufficing.
sakes when
for their own
nothing
but their own
exercise,and actions

of

chosen

are

that

something else,

anything,but

activities

classes, those

activities which

of

for the

of

two

sake, it

own

class

not

want

Now

divided

for their

chosen
ness

life of

the

to

to

answer

Books

here

this

omitted.

description;

for

The

its

sake.

own

sake

actions

is

amusements

as

are

description1.We

this

to

answer

Such

; indeed

anything else

of

Aristotle.

of

good

of fine and

doing

the

Ethics

the world

who

people

which

things on
kind

the

that tyrants
Now

the

leisure

them

tasted

body,

in

instructive.

calls

by

shall

the

see,

Aristotle

the

their end
a

an

The

end

relaxation

of

the

sake

exertion

Introd.

The

is

of

of

the

only

but

of this

of

in

so

in

be

as

highest activity.

this

This

it makes

we

he
we

superficial
solution

form

rest

of

do
On

this

is

not

the

own

further
it must

character;
which

rest,

for its
for

us

of

make

persons

value

amusement.
as

these

of leisure

use

which

It is, as

The

It is

not

is

play

or

it prepares
have

that

to' the

certain

end.

life.
do

we

far

again

especiallyprinces,

"

which

cannot

man

therefore
its

But

over

people

amusement

soul.

useful

quite

"pastime."
has

worth

it is

something

as

of the

things that

amusement

their

make

anything beyond itself,as we do

is serviceable
only in so far

p. 9.

life

This

legitimateplace

of the

It will

soul

of

sort

its

of

end

many
"

and

it and

leisure.

which

happiness

true

in itself.

all

conceived
the

those

over

translated
literally

amusement

relaxation

Relaxation

exertion.

be

he

as

enjoyment

has, indeed,
or

people

best, and

are

back

comes

regarded

maybe

this.

think

way

remarks
characteristically

recreation

sake.

same

Aristotle

too

the

is
difficulty

it is

the very

be that

themselves

happiness
that

to

the

among

noble

resemblance
as

in

He

word

not

which

distinction between
very

pleasant in

why

in the

high

pleasure,take refuge in those

pleasures of the body are the things most

Children

way

that is

refuge,and
pastimes stand

liberal

and

that the

The

great majorityof

the

is set, and

the

people of that sort prove

do not
sense
depend upon princely
follow, because
princes,never
having

and

highly valued

are

it may

; but

it does

pure

having.

in

persons

Goodness

position,and

and

things are regarded as bringing

princely positionsdevote their

these

why

reason

is that

nothing.

harm

want.

happiness
to

tyrant'sheart

to

for the

bodily health

themselves

for

also

more

us

take

such

make

They

do

to

apt

are

happy

in
versatility

show

of tyrants.

courts

calls

chosen

them

choose

not

good by leading us to neglect our

It is in these that
making of money.
whom

85

be

thing to

than

those

X.

pleasant appear

do

they

Book

no

choose

mere

for

contrary,

possible. Cf.

86

Ethics

The

natural

that, as

Aristotle.

children

and

men

of

different views

have

is

and
valuable,so should good men
often said already, it is the things which
that are
pleasant to the good man
trulyso.
what

activitywhich

is in

worthy

most

appears

with

accordance

As

have

we

valuable

are

To

his

be chosen, and

to

bad.

and
the

everyone

of soul

state

own

accordinglyto

to

as

the

good

it is

according to goodness that appears so.

activity
Happiness, therefore, does not consist in amusement.

man

be

would
that

monstrous

should

we

We

ment.

hold

to

toil and

suffer all

say that

may

that

the

lives

our

choose

we

is

end
so

It
and

amusement

gain amuse

to

as

everythingfor

the sake

of

something else except happiness; for it is the end or com

pletion. But to take trouble and pains for the sake of amuse
hold to be foolish and
ment
we
altogetherchildish ; the right
to
should
be, as Anacharsis1 put it,that we
principleseems
in order

ourselves

amuse

is

ment

form

continuous

of

work

life is

that makes

not

ness,

better

as

which

that
first

those

comer

are

laughable and
a

things as
amusing, and of
of

better

; but

no

one

allows

have

as

has

been

Scythian prince,who

mentioned, but

that
would

he

man

the

of
activity
happier. The

Now

is

as

slave

admit

well
can

him

as

par

into

consist in

in activities

pastimessuch
accordingto goodness,

said.

travelled in Greece
short and

serious

involves

or

man

happy

serious

of

better.

in happiness any more

than
ticipate
his society. For happiness does not

that

of the

that the

necessarily
higher and
enjoy bodily pleasures,a slave just as

can

been

hold

speak, too,

and

for
incapacity

our

for it is for the sake

We

serious

amuse

amusement.

Further, we

better part of

is better

it is only

want

end

an

serious ; for

be

may

goodness, and

to

that

best of mankind

the

not

amusement.

than

us

relaxation exists.

activityof the
being always more

the

is

life according

we

and
relaxation,

Relaxation,then,
that
activity

that

in the

pithysayingswere

was

days

representedin

of the

Seven

attributed.

Wise

Greek

Men,

romance

and

to

as

whom

having
many

Book

will

(2) Happiness

be

X.

87

activityaccording

an

only

reasonable

to

have

of

power

being

in other

the intellect

right to

natural

divine, or

as

or

fair and

being

the

of

anything

goodness, it is

to

activity
according

an

words

guide

and

rule

conceiving things

itself

it will be

that

assume

it be

Whether

us.

activityaccording

an

highest goodness ',or

the

to

happiness is

if

highest

(X. 7.)

wisdom.
form of goodness,namely speculative

Now,

the

to

best part of

the

else that is held

and

us,

have

to

to

the

divine, either in virtue of

divine

most

thing in

it is

us,

in accordance
with the form of
of this part of us
activity
goodness proper to it that will be complete happiness. That
this is a speculativeactivityhas already been
shown, and this
is a conclusion
which
will appear
with all our
to be in harmony
the
truth.
with
This
is the highest
and
previous argument
activity;for the intellect is the highest thing in us, and the
objectsof the intellect are the highestthings that can be known2.
continuous
Further, it is the most
activity; for we are more
easilyable to speculatethan to do anything else whatever con
tinuously. We hold too that happiness must have an admixture
of pleasure,and
the activitythat is according to theoretical
wisdom
is admittedlythe most
pleasantof all activities according
to
goodness. At any rate, philosophy is thought to possess
in purityand permanence,
both
and it is
pleasures, marvellous
the

fair
1

to

that

assume

This

point

those

know

who

for

already prepared

was

their

pass

in

the

time

definition

of

more

happiness.

Cf. p. 27.
2

This

had

been

goodness

which

Aristotle

had

sophia
to

be

for

is

now

two

with

equivalentof

to

of

"

for wisdom

The

sophfa,more

often

means

the

form

"

of intellectual

"

so

its

wisdom,"

which

practicalthan

able

was

But

"prudence,"
changed

discussed.

was

practicalwisdom.
word

phronesis, has

employ it, and

where

speculativewisdom
his disposal,and
at

phronesis for

periphrasis.

Book,

Sixth

translate

to

words

rendering

misleading

English.

have

in the

speculativeand

content

traditional

we

shown

meaning

use

have

we

which

is the

to

is the
that

it

traditional

speculativewisdom

in

88

The

Ethics

pleasantlythan

those

temperate

the brave

who

of Aristotle.

do

The

too of
self-sufficiency
which
to
in the
we
spoke seems
belong to speculative
activity
and everyone
highestdegree. The wise man, like the just man
else, requiresthe necessaries of life;but, if we
that
assume
further
they are adequatelyequipped with these,the just man
holds good of the
requirespeople to be just to, and the same

man,

is able

man

he

more

to

but
fellow-workers,
them

No

so.

all the

will

be

he

the wise

the wiser he

is the most

admitted

But

rest.

it is better

doubt

for all that

Lastly, it

all.

and

man,

speculateall by himself,and
do

can

not.

for him

is,the
to

have

self-sufficientof

that

the

speculative

is the only one

that is prized for its own
sake alone ;
activity
for nothing comes
of it but just speculation,
whereas
from
activities we always gain something more
less over
practical
or
and

above

the action itself.

(3) Happiness

is to be found in leisure.

(X. 7.)

depend on leisure ; for the

is peace.
business is leisure justas the aim of war
aim of all our
of goodness are dis
the activities of the practicalforms
Now
and war, and occupationsof this kind clearly
played in politics
is altogethertrue
admit
of leisure. This
of warlike
do
not
Again, happiness is

activities; for

no

produce

war.

monster

if he

were

believed

one

chooses

man

would
to

turn

to

war

be

for war's

regarded

as

sake
a

or

tries to

bloodthirsty

his friends into enemies

so

that

But political
activity
might be fightingand bloodshed.
and above
the activity
it
too is incompatiblewith leisure. Over
and power, or again the happinessof
has to produce reputation
which is different
himself
the statesman
and his fellow-citizens,
and
which
from
the political
we
are
looking for as
activity,
something different.
and
conspicuous
Now, if political
militaryactivities are
good activities for their beauty and grandeur, but are
among
for their own
incompatible with leisure and are not chosen
there

Book

aim

sakes, but

at

intellect which
and

ness,
a

not

helps

speculativeseems

to

aim

at

that it is in this

and

of
possibility

as

the
is

possibleto
if

of man,

ness

be

can

leisure and

too

he

will be

high

element

for

in

and

with

far

so

I say,

from

perfecthappi

of

life ; for there

such

as

he is

as

he

divine

in

life will

a
a

this divine

man,

so

far will this

of

forms

with

comparison

divine

as

other

that

man

has

If,then, the intellect is divine in comparison with

of intellect will be

weariness

much

the

it is

the

But

far

so

it, but only

in accordance

that

surpass

in

not

by just so
of
composite nature

the

surpasses

live

to

in him

have

we

pleasure

self-sufficiency

freedom

happiness '.

It is

man.

able

such

Here, then,

nothing incomplete

be

shall find

we

have

to

of

sort

this is so,

"

give it a complete length

we

in serious

them

that is the

that
activity

man.

activityof

beyond itself,and

and

"

if the

and

surpass

activity, if

an

evident

to

end

any

is all its own,

enhance

to

89

beyond them,

is

pleasure that

that

end

an

X.

element

activity

goodness.
the life

man,

merely

human

life.
We
think
we

to

be

are,

is

do

to

put

We
the

if that

1
2

is

n.

originatedin the
3

This

ought
This

to

shown

love

not

choose

to

as

have

we

and

may,

us

do

all

highestthing

in bulk, yet in power

rest.

man's

self,since it is

true

It would

live his

to

What

life of the

of him3.

finds many

the

age

of the

be

life but

own

that

expressionsin

tragedians.

been

that which

is,of course,

that

and

point had

It is there

all the

part

we

bid

strange,
that of

i.

thought

all in Herodotos

as

is small

us

better

did

man

Cf. p. 28,
This

far

who

not, mortals

should2.

livingthe

beyond

and

estate

mortals

part of

far

sovereign and
a

of

of those

counsel

hold, too, that this is

must

then, if

than

the view

priceit excels

and

the

immortalityso

on

with

Even

us.

follow

to

proud

more

do

we

not

man's
thoughts befitting

the

that
in

ought

"Seven
made

man

is

in

It

to

IX., where
love

highest in him,

intellect.

of the

above
literature,

commonplaces

that

Men."

Book

ought

one

was

Wise

Greek

and

himself

Self-love
in

therefore

the
most

is discussed.
sense

that he

trulyhimself.

90

The

Ethics

rule which

something

else.

The

here

That

which

too.

and

is

for man,

since the

therefore,be

life of the

the

intellect is above

happiest life as

the

(4) Comparison of

laid down

we

given thing'sown

pleasantestfor it,so

of Aristotle.

the

before

is

by

applies
best

nature

intellect will be

all the man's

self.

best

will,

It

well.

practicallives

speculativeand

in

respectof happiness.
In
of

secondary

goodness will

sense

be

happy

speciallyhuman.

and

observe

is

what
strictly

relation

brave

of services and
these

are

of

have

even

in

to

and

the

clearlyall human.

and

are

that

we
we

relations

of
feelings

hold

We

that

too

that

bodily origin,and

forms

rest, when

in all business

actions

our

other

another

one

deeds

becoming

exchange
kind, and

with

activities of that kind

; for

too

is in

It

perform just actions

these

life in accordance

and

every
some

of

goodness

is very

closelybound
up with the feelings.Again,
is intimately conjoined with goodness of
practicalwisdom
with
character,and goodness of character
practicalwisdom,
character

since

are
given by
principlesof practicalwisdom
and
the
goodness of character
right direction is given to
character
wisdom
'. Now, as goodness of character
by practical
it will belong to us as com
is closelylinked with the feelings,
as
a
composite being2
positebeings,and the goodness of man

the

This

first

is

brought

meant

wish

in

action, which
wishes
2

are

Book

VI.,

but

the discussion

of the

"

he must
is

Man

III.

Book

of

of

of the

an

aspect of him

intellect

to

man's

in

knows

lawgiver, who
a

good

he is
which

himself"

man

in which

as

something
the

animal

he is pure

composite nature

of what

have

we

animal, though,

partlyan

"composite nature,"

there is

be

course

all the rest ; but

higher than

ideas

the

course

wisdom

is the

wisdom

the

in
clearly

most

clearlyenough what is
(pp. 78" -83) shows
of
by saying that goodness of character gives us the first principles

object of

his

out

is

how
can

is

what
be

Practical

good.
the

good

realised.
he

animal,
political

more

and

even

than

the divine

this.
are

intelligence.The
thorny

and

man

stands
Besides

blended,
relation of

difficult question.

The

92
different forms
to

enable
There

him

of
to

Ethics

goodness.
live

is another

as

way

of
He

human

Aristotle.

will,then, requirethese things

being.

in which

it may

be

shown

that

com

speculative
activity.We conceive the gods
as
being in the highestdegree happy and blessed,but what
Shall we
of actions can
attribute to them ?
sort
we
rightly
say
it
the
actions
?
But
is
ludicrous
to
as
just
picture
gods
making
and
contracts
restoringdepositsand that sort of thing. Shall
we
actions, then ? Fancy the gods tryingto win
say brave
glory by facing dangers ! Or liberal actions ? To whom
are
they to give money ? Besides,it is ridiculous to suppose that
they have a coinage or anything of that sort.
Again, what sort
of temperate actions could
we
assign to them ? It would be
of the gods to call them
a
vulgar commendation
temperate ; for
they have no bad desires. And so, if we go through the whole
shall find that these actions are
we
list,
petty and unworthy of
the gods. And
yet the gods are universallyregarded as living,
and
therefore as displaying
not
as
activity,
certainly
asleep like
Endymion, and if we deprivea livingagent of action and still
of production,what is left but speculation
So then,the
?
more
of God, which
excels all others in blessedness,will be
activity
which
is most
and
speculative,
activity
accordinglythat human
akin to it will be the happiest. And
it is a proof of this that
the lower
cannot
animals, having no capacityfor speculation,
attain to happiness; while the life of man
is blessed in so far
it possesses
that form of activity.
certain resemblance
as
to
a
But none
of the other animals
is happy ; for none
of them
is
capable of speculation. It follows, then, that happiness is
with
coextensive
speculation,and that those who have the
of speculation
will be happiest,
not accidentally
greatest power
but in virtue of their speculation
is
; for speculation valuable in
itself. Happiness, then, is a form of speculation.
will stand
in
But, being a human
being, the happy man
need of external prosperity.His nature
is not of itselfsufficient
for speculation
food
and
of body and
; it requireshealth
plete happinessis

Book

attention

though

even

the

We

blessedness

is

who

man

such

kind.

of every

depend on
without
being

not

actions
This

actions
and

It looks

man

the

with

of

power

Another

Anaxagoras

popular

mind

are

mouth.

quite

popular

mind

at

he
a

while

showed
corner

means

to

Anaxagoras*

did

directed

sober

the

do

think

not

the beliefs of the wise

and

life ;

right

of

the

was

by

them

that

it

in olives

the

on

the

certainly

of

There

not

the

be

we

stories

and

turned

strengthof

to

at

all the

test

purely speculativeactivity.

nowhere

can

that
to

the

better

mouth

to

present the specula

tale of

that, when

Thales

he

uselessness

practicalaccount

his scientific

see

from

pass

being laughed

is also the story

his fellow-citizens

our

speculative philosopher
important to notice that the

all intended

stars

them

the

is,for instance, the

studying the
there

of

it is the

on

to

be

Croesus.

this ; for

from

are

and

is

idea

prove

than

truth,and

ought, then,

We

the

stories

might

of

test

to

appear

beliefs have

such

story of Solon

which

light.

he

resources,

in practicalmatters
Still,

seized

servant-girl.But

the taunts

of moderate

are

thinks

Naturally these

Thracian

lived

the

anecdotes

many

well

actions

regular type
Philosophy, p. 273). It

had

is moderate

and

us.

the

to

was

tive life in the best

a

noble

depend.

reference

(Early

the

perform

may

according
displaysactivity
likelyrightwhen he described
very
moderately equipped with external

statements,

our

must

Greek

into

So

facts of life that

There

man

powerful when he said that he would not

should
seem
a
happy man
strange being to
world judges by externals,the only thing it

persuading

final decision

what

if

as

perception of.

harmony

actual

sea.

or

; for the

many

has any
in

too

rich

as

surprised if

the

goods,

if he

happy

was
goodness. Solon
the happy man
one
as
goods who has performed
for it is possible for men

be

and

All that is wanted

life will be

to

happy

external

with

thing.

impossible without

land

of

master

princes.

than
man's

that

imagine, however,

not

small income.
a
on
goodness even
thing that we can see quiteplainly; for privatepersons
be no
less given, or rather to be more
given, to good

to

seem

must

be

to

in accordance

is

93

of
happy will require a large amount
of action do
and
the possibility
Self-sufficiency
and it is possibleto perform fine actions
excess,
is

goods.

X.

knowledge.

at
was

falling
by a witty
annoyed

of his wisdom,

by establishing

The

94

been

have

that

statements

Ethics

of Aristotle.

made

by applyingthem

if they harmonise
with
to accept them
life,
theories.
they do not, to regard them as mere

of

Again,

the
his

cultivates

intellect
the

apparently also
take

and

most

akin

that

they

reward

it

believe

to

selves

it is

their

by

the

likelythat

this is another

II.

The
the

for

set

we

but

we

and

to

good1?
1

as

us

that

action,so

but

the

before

in

and
speculation

not

This
course,

man.

TO

prizeit and

who

also

must

do

well.

Now,

forms

which

to

value
them

that the wise

POLITICS.

completed

endeavour
else

to

that

if arguments
the

transition

deals

with

adequate account,

are
friendship,

knowledge
not
enough

and
to

the

the

regard

to

we

is it the case,

Or

of
the
as

the
of

completionor end
givenclass of objects,

be

it and

make

necessary

theories

in

goodness,
of it,
use

to

able

were

Politics,the

realisation

about

know

to

possess
may

of laiv;

of the different forms

practicalmatters
the

the agency

given an

subject and

now

it is

anything

Now,

is dear

for what

THE

have

pleasure and

say, that

always

we

"

highestdegree,is perfectly
be most
beloved
by the gods. And
is beloved by the gods will be the
for believingthat the wise
reason

we

this

outline,of
and

goodness
task

people think they do, it

they rejoicein what is best
that will be intellect,and

can
only be realised by
goodfor man
have force to back it.
rule of lifemust

least in

is

in the

TRANSITION

Assuming, then, that

at

condition

happiest.

will be the

man

who

man

who

For, if the gods

gods.

blessingsall

he will therefore

happiest,so

for

and

"

fulfilsall these conditions

plain,and

is

that

themselves,

to

best

the

if

facts,and

as

highly,seeing that they care

and
and
that they act rightly

most

man

the

to

the

intellectual and

are

it in

has

dear

most

only reasonable

is

and

for the affairs of men,

care

any

activities

whose

man

the facts

to

make

by

constructive

human

life of

us

thempart of

the

good

X.

Book

selves

95

people good, they would, in the words

entitled to receive high and great rewards, and

of

make

to

Theognis, be

it

But
provideourselves with.
the truth apparently is that, though they are
strong enough to
of liberal minds, though
stimulate
and
men
young
encourage
able
to
inspire with goodness a character that is
they are
naturallynoble and sincerelyloves the beautiful,they are in
of men
to goodness and
beauty
capable of converting the mass
It is not
shame
of character.
they are naturallyobedient to,
them abstain from
but fear,and it is not its uglinessthat makes
what is bad, but punishment. Their life is ruled by feelingand
of gaining
they pursue their proper pleasures and the means
and they shun the pains opposed to them ; but
those pleasures,
they have no notion at all of the beautiful or of what is truly
having tasted of it. What argument or theory
pleasant,never
at any
reform
or
can
ever
people like this ? It is impossible,
far from
rate
by argument what has long been
easy, to remove

is theories that

in the

embedded

lucky

if

Now

hold

some

we

become

to

nature,

be

may
the

case

him

from

that

of

is

the

not

our

; it is

power

listen

his ways,

nor

to

student

nourish

to

enjoy aright and

to

feelingwill

in

divine

truly fortunate by some

and
teaching are
argument
soul

an
even

ourselves

goodness by a combination
of becoming good.
that
become
good by nature, some
others that it is by teaching. As

clearlynot

of all ; the

think

may

the

that

too

first,like land
character

is

that
to

we

by habit, and

so

vouchsafed

that

we

of

share

some

recognised means

of all the

to

Indeed

character.

get

can

we

have

should

we

hate

not

aright1.

One

understand

efficacious in
over

trainingof

that

It

cause.

be worked

must

seed, by

argument

something

that lives

is intended

it if he

the

to

did, and

by

turn

how

It is
in this state
to change ?
possible to persuade one
yieldsto argument but only
apparentlya rule that feelingnever

is it

to

force.

We

must

have, then,

to

Cf. p. 49,

start

n.

i.

with, a character

that is

The

96
akin

somehow

fair and

get

brought

are

is

endurance
are

is foul.

what

under

up

The

young.

they have
think,to receive
shall also have

to

to

that

too

and

generallyfor

obedient

are

swayed by

the

beautiful.

That

the

of its

reason

is

beauty,

rather

as

be

not

those

shall

we

than

to

rather

painful

who

laws

want

most

for
men

and

argument

are

by love of
should
legislators
than

that

goodness

to

must

young

life,
seeingthat

hold

some

men

they

is it

so

whole

punishment

why

exhort

hand

one

fear of

the

will

they

Nor

them,

our

and

enough, I should
and supervision
in youth ; we
thingswhen we are grown men

to

constraint

to

law ; for

to

easy

life of soberness

pursuitsof

rightnurture
practisethese

habituated

become

and

however,

earliest youth unless

one's

familiar.

become

all that is

by

when
people, especially

most

accordinglybe regulated by
once

from

and

nurture

It is not,

laws ; for

good

pleasant to

not

is attracted

that

righttrainingin goodness

we

from

Aristotle.

of

goodness,one

to

shrinks

Ethics

and

them

encourage
had

have

the
on

by

their characters

previouslytrained will listen to them, and on the other, that

they should impose punishments on those that disobey and are
banish
from
the incurable
the land
less giftedby nature, and
The

altogether.
beautiful

the
but

argument,

pleasure
burden.
be

the

they

say,

guiding principleof

his

That

bad

the
be

must

brought
pursuitsand never
well

man

whose

by pain

is the reason,

too

we

man,

corrected

his favourite

oppositeof

If,then, as
be

good

have
up

said,he

and

well

makes

who

life,will obey their

appetitionis
if he

as

they

is

what

say,

directed
a

were

why

beast

to

of

pains must

the

pleasures.
who

is

to

be

habituated,and

good

then

man

live in

either

must

good

or
voluntarily
involuntarily,
with the
this can
only be achieved by livingin accordance
and
of a
dictates of reason
right rule of life invested with
strength1.Now the order of a father is lackingin strengthand
of compulsion,unless he is a king or something of
the power

An

do

wrong

of
anticipation
interesting

the

theoryof

"

sanctions."

X.

Book

that

sort, but

ceeding
who

do

is

from

compulsory

feel that the

not

rule pro
dislike people
a

Again, we
but
if they do so quiterightly,
it orders what
is grievous when

impulses,even

our

is

and

power

wisdom.

and

reason

oppose

we

has

law

97

law

right.
it is in

Now

the

of

state

Lacedaemonians

the

alone

or

lawgiverunder
and pursuitsof the young.
this is systematically
of states
In far the greater number
lives as he likes,"giving laws to wife
neglected,and each man
like the Cyclops, faow it is certainly
best that
and children
be public and of the
the supervisionof these matters
should
along with one or two others1 that
takingthe supervisionof the nurture

find the

we

"

right kind

be the

seen

to

own

children

if he

has

been

said

the

exercised
but

duty
and

friends, or

legislation.It

or

laws

the

are

to

of

it is in the

case

For, justas

in

is

and

that

good

written

the will

have

from

seen

what

his
so

has

if he

acquires
public supervisionis
so

if the

laws

unwritten

or

do

to

be

are

good

laws,

whether

single
to be indifferent,
number, will be seen
justas
of music
and gymnasticsand other pursuits.
in
that prevail,
it is law and custom
state
so

intended

laws

individual

least

at

is evident

laws

the

through

they are

of every

It will also be
power.
he will best be able to do

that

whether

neglectsit altogether,it will

citizen to promote goodness in

state

the

not

of

art

but, if the

to

prescribethe

education

of

of the father,and even

familyit is the words and customs
in a higher degree, owing to the family tie and
the benefits
which
he confers ; for the family are
naturallypredisposed to
the

affection and

Cf. p. 39,

J~. It

obedience2.

n.

2.

is to be observed

"of fathers of families

makeshift
Even

here

to

appears

arrangement

education
B.

at

this date
than

he

educate

for

so, it is a concession
to

did

that there

cases

their
where

of which
have

later

we

looked
on.

is

questionof the "natural right

children
as
they please. It is only a
the state neglectsits proper
function.

hear
with

"

no

no
a

more
more

in the Politics.
favourable

eye

Aristotle
on

private

Cf. p. 106.
7

98

The

And

is

is

there

Ethics

even

pointin

certain

superiorto public.

Aristotle.

of

It is the

same

general rule that a

get no food, that may

kept quiet and

privateeducation

in

as

it is the

although

which

medicine, where,

in

man

'

fever should

be

apply to a particular
take it,prescribe
the

not

Again, a boxing-masterdoes not, I

of boxing for all his pupils. It will be seen, then,
sort
same
that the particular
be most
case
can
minutelystudied when the
supervisionof education is private; for then the individual has
better chance
of gettingwhat suits him.
a
But, for all that,the
in medicine
whether
best individual supervision,
or
gymnastics
who knows
the universal
or
anything else,will be that of the man
case.

rule

is

what

to

as

for the sciences

the

At
a

is

who

man

of the

results

people

seem

to

be

would

for persons

or

be of the

to

is,I

there

dare

universal,and

say,

so

class ;

they are.

nothing to prevent

even

has

looking after an individual case

minute experimentalobservation
a
a
given procedure, just as some

made

which

follow

be admirable

in their

doctors

quite incapable of coming

Yet, in spiteof all this,anyone

artist in education

and

himself

far

be

that may

wishes

make

to

try

through

own

cases,

though

the assistance of

to

to

the

the

wishes

who

universal

possible. And

learn

law

that

the
we

any

art

of
be

can

become

to

no

and

doubt

too

they

to

get
be

good.

given subjectsubmitted

To
for

it as

know

that

everyone
few

seeing that
legislation,
made

an

it will be

theory of it must,

people better,whether

to

in
disposition

know

to

allowed, betake

must

given

else.

anyone

as

of

scientific

not

if he
successfully,

they

said

are

time

same

for all

good

or

many,
it is only

produce

good
is

treatment

not

in the

of anybody and
everybody, but only, if in any
power
body's, in that of the scientific educator, just as is the case in

medicine

and

in every

other

art

that

requiresattention

and

wisdom1.
practical
1

fact
There

Aristotle,then, is
that

the

not

an

particularis the

is not, of course,

any

empiricistin spiteof his

object of perceptionand
inconsistency.

It is

only

insistence
never

the

on

the

of science.
scientific

man

The

ioo

Ethics

evidently
politics,

do

They do
objects.

know

with, or
it

an

not

even

that

rule

it is

what

have

what

or

have

they

and

if the

as

selection

are

so1.

its

it identical

made

would

generallyapproved,

are

them,

of

best

as

doing

near

legislate
by simply making

to

matter

of all laws

anywhere

come

they did, they would never

inferior to, rhetoric,nor

If

easy

the

even

not

of Aristotle.

thought
collection

picking out

then

itself did

require

not

if the great point were

and
the formation
as
not
intelligence,
It is only people who
of a rightjudgment, exactlyas in music.
have experienceof a given art that can
judge its products,and
and manner
of their execution,and feel
appreciatethe means
harmonious.
combinations
what
are
Inexperiencedpersons,
the other

on

products of

learn

the

art

the

learn

only

in which
each

laws
of

art

give the

to

medicine

this is

it is useless

who

the

or

but

in the

as

from

cured

but

the

admittedly useful
who

do

of

law

and

able

are

to

opposite,and

to

people
try

not

different constitu

experienced,but
science.
Possibly,

the

will be

and

scientific frame

the

of

explainthe way
way of treating

judge what is
is adapted to cases
of a

what

that

can

the

constitutions

consider

how

yet books

proper

to

know

not

find

see

painting.

the power

or

not

books, and
and

of

case

them

do

We

fail to

not

Politics,so

of

art

of treatment,

be

people

to

then, collections
those

best ?

do

they

from
legislation

are

may

the

if

their
patients,distinguishing

of

All

of

methods

people

class

tions.

ill done,

the

which

judging

or

glad

too

are

laws

person

only

are

is well

the work

whether
Now

hand,

useful

well

to

arranged

certain class ;

of mind

right
unless by happy chance, though they
judgment is quiteimpossible,
such questions.
increase their power of appreciating
may possibly
to

those

reference

The

of Rhetoric
cared

to

who

be

had

be

not

fessionalism

in this section

Plato

of abuse

term
a

not

is

reallyto Isokrates,the great teacher

in the days of Aristotle's youth. He would
not, however, have
called a sophist; for he wrote
a
pamphlet Against the Sophists,

meaning mainly
to

have

bad

in

sense,
art

or

and

his followers.

hurled

at

each

except

in

so

science.

The

other

far

as

by
the

word

was

rival

schools.

Greeks

already beginning

Originallyit

always disliked

pro

X.

Book

it

legislation,
whole

of

things

on

insert,

as

is

human

Aristotle

course

it

modified.

The

on

the

well

of

politics
be

to

on

theory
does

be

may

goes

the

doubtless

directly

will

subject

the

writers

previous

then,

As,

not

of

in

later
which
of

education.

of

which

the
I

exactly

follow

so

to

and
from

have
the

the

be

to

as

it

Politics

be

are

his
to

necessary

have

we

would

in

treated

thought

Politics

and

possible1.

subjects
not

of

philosophy

the

as

plan

the

subject

ourselves,

that

complete

as

work,

it

investigate

general,

sketch

the

overlooked

to

us

made

correspond

extracts

have

for

legislation,

somewhat

subject

give

1 01

it.

That

subsequently

those

that

bear

C.

I.

children

the

Once

strength.

From

of

which

peoples

like condition

',we

best

to

adapted
of

account

them
make

that

at

deformed,
bodies
to

themselves

among

To

wrapper

as

beginning
though

the

the

stream

habit

every

habituation

bodily condition
natural
1

In

derived.

warmth

of
for

the medical
See

p.

30,

as

war

of milk

wine

is
on

for

the

recourse

their

too

to

children's
them

accustom

serviceable

most

have

from

the

preparation for military

which
custom
prevails
of

dipping children

after

of

or

It
that

covering them only with a light

is better to practisefrom the very
be
can
produced by training,
"

should

be

children

of the
2.

of

much

day

make

to

it is

of

trainingin

sense
n.

and

reason

Celts do.

the

and

possiblefor them to
tender
limbs becoming

thing

good

animals

Further, it is good

present

appliances
is

bodily

it is

barbarians,either

the

cold

the

the

their

creation

without

their

at

that

consistingmainly
one

prevent

health

is
of

many
a

It

of

and

to

lower

the

to

that

even

understood

of the

produces.

early childhood

This

into

it

mechanical

view

service.

bodies,

peoples

from
of

point

diet

movements

age.

straight.

cold

birth

devote

diseases

some

certain

to

observation

find that

be

great difference

careful

all the

(VII. 17.)

born, it must

are

their

the

make

to

INFANCY.

OF

their diet makes

of

character

CARE

THE

POLITICS.

THE

FROM

is
the

word,

gradual

process,

"

admirably adapted
endurance

from

which

and

by

the

its

of cold.
its

use

in

the

Ethics

is

The

Politics

This, then, with

the

of

sort

stage of life.
too

exercises.

get motion

The

neither
character

be told

these

of

the

of this age,

the

most

will have

Laws

hibition

is

soft.

which
fictitious,

or

the way

of their games

should

in

later

earnest

children's

put down

to

slack and

too

must,

vulgar, and

be

not

must

pave

do

to

It

sluggishnessof
above
occupations,

receive

must

compulsory

or

to

are

the best attention

Inspectorsof Children1.

things should

later life,so

they

they
fatiguingnor
stories,true

first

the

to

growth.

certain

games,

too

its

counteract

to

provided by

the

of the officers called

All

with

is

the fifth year, it is

to

of lessons

sort

any

enough

be

children

to

to

apply

to

stage, up

interfere

be

body, and this must

all by play. As to
must

next

might

That

however,

they

the

to

put the child

to

soon

As

103

similar character

it is desirable

that

treatment

things of

other

some

VI L

Book

Aristotle.

of

for the

occupations of

be imitations
The

on.

shouts

of what
in

attempt made

crying by

and

pro

complete mistake; they are good for the growth2.

of gymnastic for their bodies; it is
sort
fact, they are
a

In

holding

the

breath

children

get the

Inspectors of

Children

exercises, and
The
vision
that

the

over

they are

Children

little as

this

at

they

way

as

necessarilyto

be

taint

of

above

lowness

all, the

step

to

up

at

that

at

what

legislatormust

Frorriastly^iessnessin the
/

exercise

their

time, and

possiblein

brought
from

must

use

indecent

acts.

point upon

which

the
the

to

up

in

gymnastic
advantage by shouting.

same

pass

and

age,

expect that, even

to

gives people strength

that

of

they

see

of

age

it is

servants.

seven,

only

and

of indecent
the

have

reasonable

life,they will catch

the

hear.

Indecency,
from
the city.

utterlybanish
From

of

company

home, and

time

general super
see
especially

language it is but
however, it
young,

is

on
"

This

is the

Stll2

The

idea

that children's

later life is also

his desire

to

Plato's.

put down

He
the

games

Plato

lays such

should

be

influenced

probably
crying of children.
was

stress

imitations

in his
of

the

Republic.

operations
by Spartan example

Politics of Aristotle.

The

104

especially
necessary
neither

saying or
free

hear

nor

see

doing
but

to

indecency,so

all

remove

anything of the

forbidden

of these

any

sort.

yet old enough

that

they may

If anyone

is found

things,and

be

entitled

if he

is

place at
the common
meals, he is to be punished by degradationand
whipping; if he is above that age, by degradationsunworthy
of a free man,
to
punish him for behaving like a slave. And,
since we
are
banishinglanguage of this kind, we must clearly
man

do

the

not

with

same

to

to

sight of improper picturesand

the

plays.

no
statue
or
magistratemust see to it that there
picture
representinganything indecent, except in the temples of those
is recognisedby use
and
gods in whose
worship scurrility
wont1 ; and in this case
the law allows men
to perform divine
behalf
their
of themselves, their children, and
worship on

is

The

wives.

As

the

when

they

entitled

are

take

strong drink, and

them

immunity

cursory

then

the bad

from

way

point more
1

indecency,

Iambi

thinking
licentious

were

rather

us
more

that

they are

if

us

know

the

not

Aristotle
other

needed

the

difficulties involved
that

remember

we

from

determine

and

pause

in India.

of

they

the

The

the kind

of them

people.

by

works.

Plautus

the

were

mimes,

short

ourselves

we

felt very

stronglyon

of his

passages

ear-protectors

and

from

scenes

recentlyrecovered

thinghe means.
day with that of
commends

But

even

would

the Ethics

the older
the

common

Mimiamboi

In

they, if we

Terence,

kind

coarse

originof comedy.

of

comedy of his own

by Aristophanes,and
modern

of

originallylampoons

character.

specimen of

the

we

to

that children

said

vintage festivals,and

as

law

even

writings.

more

than

did.

boxers
2

must

we

similar concession

Xenokrates

too

on

less strange

seem

subjectof

the
So

will

make

to

we

clearlyby discussingall

This

have

later

pass

Comedy2 tillthey reach the age

place at the public tables and to
will have
their education
given
effects of such things.
have only discussed these matters

or

to

Well, for the present,

in

must

we

young,

spectators of Iambi

be

to

to

associated

with

Ari?tr"f1" Js

the
here

life,o.
of HerondljP""
Aristotle contil the

generation,represented-its
from
indecency of i
judge from the adaptatu

freedom
may
not

always

be

suitable

for yours

is

in

both

There

the

on
was

point
the

them1.

to

touched

audiences

are

won

everything that

above

all

the

of

age

to

divided, one
from

the

from

puberty

tillthe

by periods

man

learn

but

wrong;
has

nature

seven

aim

keep

to

of all

art

the deficiencies

of

EDUCATION

THE

II.

look

to

the

first place

(2) whether
and

on

as

in

the

lastly(3) what

(i)
the

have

That

the

education

lawgiver'sattention

place, any
stitution.

of the
is

This

promise

being

"

3.)
we

children,
or

the

of

next

private

present

supervisionshould

young

state

is not

is

has

are

day,
be.

specialclaim
beyond question. In the first

neglect of this by a
A
given constitution
1

(i) whether

at

states

of this

the character

which

YOUTH.

consider

of

majority

the ages

nature.

OF

to

be

the other

all education

and

are

must

divisions

of supervisionfor our
any system
this supervisionshould
be public

establish

character,

we

there

the

speaking broadly,

the

to

at

on

divide

who

up

years

For

(i) Preliminary Questions. (VIII.

In

two

next

education

not,

and

young,

till puberty, and

are

years

must

we

malice.

to

which

So

the

to

age.

twenty-first.Those

the

just to supplement

that

at

year

it is better

made,

begin

with

seventh

of

first.

depravityor

should

stages of life in accordance

two

far

will have

they

hear

past, for the

are

of

one

even

him, holding that

strange

seem

they

seven,

they

put the

that

not

anyone,

only

purpose.

our

tragicactor

part before

involves

the first five years

lessons

of

is bad

for

their

have

we

necessary
the

what

by

everything that

When

was

in

spectacles and

allowed

create

over

make

to

fa:*as

never

to

105

present occasion

the

Theodores

He

actors,

poorer

such

subjectso

well.

very

from
On

saying of

V'L

exclusion

their

admission

Book

injuriousto

demands

fulfilled.

an

its

education

con

in

106

The

conformity with
like its first
of

the

Politics

Aristotle.

of

maintenance

it ; for the

establishment,is due,

spiritor

establishment

character

proper

maintenance

and

of any

that

to

of

the

rule, to

as

constitution,
presence

constitution.
is due

democracy

The
to

the

democratic

and
that of oligarchy
to the
spirit,
of an
the
oligarchicspirit.The better the spirit,
presence
better the constitution
it givesrise to1.
In the second
requirea
place, in all arts and crafts we
preliminaryeducation and habituation to enable us to exercise
will hold of the production of activities
them, and the same
accordingto goodness.
of

presence

Again, since the state as a whole has

be one
it is plainthat the education of all must
and that the supervision
of this education
must
the present system,
not
private,as it is on
(2)

after his

looks

everyone

children

own

singleend,

and
be

the same,

publicand

under

privatelyand

which

givesthem
trainingis

Public
privateinstruction he thinks proper.
wanted
in all thingsthat are of public interest. Besides, it is
for any citizen to think that he belongs to himself.
All
wrong
be regarded as belonging to the state : for each man
is
must

any

part of the state, and

determined

by

that of the

Lacedaemonians

the

in earnest

about

Cf. Introd.

the

their

of the

treatment

whole.

This

is

part is naturally

thing for which

deserve
all praise; they are
thoroughly
children,and that as a community2.
a

p. 5.

of fathers of families acquir

about the possibility
now
Nothing
Cf. p. 97, n. 2.
of
The
for domestic
sort
art
use.
ing the legislative
that which
divides
as
questionthat Aristotle raises here is reallythe same
France
The
at the
objectionof the French Government
present moment.
is just that it does
the teaching of the religiousorders
to
not
produce
in
is
in
that
it
Aristotelian
a
not,
phrase,
"Republican spirit" the pupils,
is
the
in
It
constitution.
education
with
not
an
conformity
likelythat
is said

Aristotle
French
bound

would

Republic;
to

defend

found

have

and

but

he

preserve

much
would

to

have

it,and

admire
said

in
that

that therefore

the

constitution

French

they were

statesmen
so

far

of

the
were

justified

The

108

children

such

useful

but

it is

for

education.

studies

and

unserviceable

freemen
is

why

condition

of

That

down

to

which

acquisitionof
of

level.

lower

mind

the

no

There
to

up

are

are

described.

manner

also

study them
sakes

that

or

The

Greek

Apparently it
contact

word
was

intellect of

or

of

goodness.
inferior

an

liberal arts, the

some

point

of

it

is

not

orthy

unv

devotion

excessive

or

being injuriousin

the

which

we

produce goodness, they are

pursuits
engaging in the very same

man

has

all

in or
engage
great difference ; if it is for our own

almost

Aristotle

to

become

naturalised in the form

of all

used
originally

fire,but

with

charge

friends,or

our

while
illiberal,

not

understand

wage-earning occu
leisure,and they drag

with

object with

The

makes

of

the

to

open

into

enter

produce

even

freemen, but which, if studied

minuteness

should

all

certain

knowledge

exercise

and

use

liberal and

such

must

pursuitsas

such

allow

only

body, soul,

mechanical, and

body

pations. They

the

for the

call

we

that

subjects we

make

that

between

mechanical1

learner

By mechanical

education.
arts

the

make

not

indispensablefor them ;
knowledge is not suitable

distinction

it is clear

subjects,and

does

is

as

all useful

is

There

Aristotle.

of

knowledge

equallyplain that

illiberal
as

Politics

uses

occupations

it in

wider

"

banausic."

involved

that

much

It is sometimes

sense.

unduly sensitive to the dangers of mechanical

and
This is partlytrue, but
that they despised honest work.
occupations,
side to the question. It is just as well to be reminded
there is another
of life in a factoryare
that the conditions
not
exactlyfavourable to the
attainment
of the good for man,
of this fact need not
though a recognition
to
lead us
despisethose who have to lead such a life. To the Greeks
slaveryafforded an easy way out of the difficultyThat way has become
impossiblefor us, but the price we have to pay for our superior Tr.""ral
is the degradation of free labour
the servile point. A
sentiment
little
to
tolerant of Aristotle's
of this will perhaps make
consideration
us
more
said

that

the

Greeks

were

defence
not

of

slavery, and

yet found

further

it will

anything

to

take

do

us

its

place.

no

harm
Time

to

reflect that

will show

developement of labour-savingapplianceswill

life of the workman

employer.

to

the

same

extent

as

they have

we

have

whether

improve
alreadyenriched
ever

the
the
his

Book

VIII.
in

please strangers would

followingthe occupation of
to

double

face, as

above.

remarked

was

regarded

as

serf.

or

widely disseminated

subjectsmost

the

Now

be

cases

many

slave

109

present show

at

There

speaking
education, (i) Reading
are,

into
broadly, four which usually enter
add
some
and writing,(2) Gymnastics and (3) Music, to which
ground that
(4)Drawing ". Reading andjmtingjsja^
for practical
it is of the highest utility
life,and gymnastics as

tending to promote
feel

may

at

courage

the present

At

loss.

but, when,

with the idea that its object is

its

education

place in

observed, seeks

we

business,

is

amusement

is rather

in

games.

It

object

of

involves

play

hard

applying

"

and

the

education

see

the

in

to

motion

for

rest, and

football.
we

repeat here

The
shall

times

that

games,

and

seasons,

is

this character

of

pleasantnessgivesit rest.
regard as containingpleasure

we

"

point

in itself.

life
"

of

view
felt

Greeks

here
the

if

at

about

not

leisure.

of

think

we

same

is

That

music

"

pro
and

see.

of

range

narrow

Education
what

the

its

from

blessed

the

to

recourse

introduce

we

it

be, and

busy people, but only in people

apparently
Bosanquet,
to

regard

our

it is business

that

So, when

due

hand,

understand

things, as

On

unnecessary

with

have

needs

that

than

imply

would

cannot

should

we

find

we

strain.

and

find in

we

other

many

is rest, and

it

end

employ

; for that

That

wanted,

an

to

are

often

matter,

are

of

more
we

man

of the soul, and

shall

fessionalism

hardworked

the other

thing that

that

medicinally;

happiness

We

times

so

them

Leisure,on

busy

work

do

relaxation

nay,

our

end

is the

should

we

and

how

out

whole

Both

more.

of life.

is the

of the

root

once

having

find

must

we

point

worth

more

is the

That

have

we

it

gave

also the power

rightlybusy, but

be

to

herself,as

Nature

we

it up

take

the ancients

but

Not, surely,in playing games

leisure.
that

so

the

to

recur

may

leisure

but

only

not

using leisure aright.

of
if

because

people

day, most

pleasure;

music,

to

come

we

has

of

subjects

Young, "rc.,

the

been

so

well

in

included

said

pp.

there.

ff.

Greek
It

is

The

no

busy

The
he

has

when

in his

Aristotle.

end,

some

which

"

implies that
end
and
by

happiness is itself the

involves not pain but pleasure. To be
the question "What
to
pleasure?" we
"

consent
come

we

find

longer

for

busy

of

got it, while

not

universal

is

man

Politics

own

universal

the best

way,

Each

agreement.

no

it

determines

man

best and

choosing the

man

sure,

that which

the fairest source.

has

It is

clear, then, that there

leisure,and

of

ment

exist for their

studied

are

solelywith

part of education

form

sake, while

own

is

education, not
about
it, nor

why

as

education

for the

studies

those

and

business in view

that have

and

to

rightemploy

the

to

ought

sake

of

music

something
in

place

thing, there is nothingnecessary

thing,as readingand writingare
"

useful

as

view

predecessors gave

our

necessary

yet

"

those

being necessary

as

That

else.

this

that

subjects which

are

and the management

of property and
making money
occupations. Even drawing is supposed to be
political
many
better.
work
of craftsmen
to judge the
useful in enabling us
Nor
again is music useful like gymnastics for health and the
such result accruing
see
no
productionof military
; we
prowess
it. There
is no
from
object left for it,then, but the right
useful for

of

employment
is

just in

time

our

this way

leisure,and,

that the ancients

what

they regard as

that

they give

it

beginning

verses

in

'Tis

for free

is why

alone

meet

Homer

to

bid

to

others, adds

minstrel

in another

that

says

the

minstrel,all
We
in which
1

Od.

quoted.

And

all."

spending time
banquetersthroughout the

best

"the

and

merry

delightthem

seated

of

way

in

xvn.

On

must

educate

382 ff.,ix.
the

subjectof

the

made

the

bid the

"who

place Odysseus

is when
hall

bounteous

are

men

give ear

to

the

row1."

conclude, then, that there is such

we

enjoy leisure

feast,"and, after mentioning some

to

it ; for it is in
to

men

fact,it

of

matter

introduce

do

That

place.

a
"

rightway

the

as

our

7 ff.
"

sons,

The

leisure

text
"

not

is,as

cf. Introd.

thing as

because

subject

it is necessary,

usual, rather
p. 9.

inaccurately

Book

is

it is fine and

because

but

only

such

one

later~ort: "At

present, from

our

subjects,we

have

gained

this

evidence
music

shows
be

must

ancients

of the

educated

for instance

free

shall have

consideration

point, that
of

found
the

some^of

discuss
received

The

that

of

case

children

our

"useful"

the

quote

can

view.

there

to

the

of

we

our

have

we

in

even

Whether

men.

we

in favour

Further

that.

of

worthy

in

larger number

or

VIII.

subjects,as

in

readingand writing,not merely for their utility,

but because
other subjects.
they enable us to acquire many
from
us
Drawing is to be taught, not merely to save
making
in our
blunders
us
against being
privatepurchases, to secure
in the buying and
cheated
sellingof furniture,but still more
it enables
because
to
us
see
bodily beauty. To seek utility
with a sense
the way of free men
everywhere is by no means
of their own
dignity.

(2)
Education

theory, and

the

the mind1.

We

the

to

The

education

given in
thougtCjform the end
the

habits

the

ional

the

and

body

to

two,

we

of

with

Now,

human

view

there

and
the

as

to

their

these.

is

birth

and

Secondly,

parts of the

prior

in

as

soul,

corresponding

states

body

gives a

former

two

two

of

children

our

that

so

are

that

precede that of the

beings reasoning and

must

nature,
a

that

(of.p. 41),

thought.

body

their

also

entrust

drill ; the

In

passage:

see

irrational

appetition and

"

ordered

be

the

before

precede

must

must

we

of

completion

or

are

the

education

earlier

an

ought

/ and body

"

the

why

reason

in
trainv-eg

then, that

see,

is "hus

soul

of the

its instrument

as

gymnastic trainingand

of

arts

habit

clearlyuse

must

(VIII. 4.)

Gymnastics.

to

of

order

xtion

gen
evic
of

from

the
the

reasoning
care

of

the

appetitionshould
the

sake

of reason,

soul, so
fact

cf.
als^"etition,

whik
the

lht

to

that

p. 42,

and

n.

is the

wish,

temper,

4)

are

found

thought only

body

must

come

next.

Yet

that

of the

and

irrational

the

and

in

arise

precede

prior to

as

that

desire

children

they grow
of

the

the

rational.

too

(the

three

from

their

very

older.

soul,

and

the

sake

of the

is

forms

birth,

That

is

why

that

of

be

for

trainingof appetition should

body for

This

soul."

why

The

U2

character

proper

Politics

the

condition

states

which

to

Aristotle.

of

of the

body, the

latter to its

exercises '.
Some

day

present

for their

of

their growth.

stunt

into this error,

ruin

and

have

fallen

neither

not

by

excessive

to

produce

this is the

that

best way
been
more

has

as

in them

their appearance

they brutalize their children

but

the

at

produce

Lacedaemonians

Courage, however,

observed, is

but

body,

The

exercises,with the idea

courage.

celebrated

most

are

of their children

care

condition

athletic

an

the

of

than

once

only thing nor the chief thingto keep

in view in the supervision
of children; and besides,even
if we
attention to courage,
confine
our
they do not go to work in
the

with

the

and

lion-like.

about

most

and

"

Further,

courage.
selves

excelled
that

people
that

devoted

militarytrials
The

know

we

of

lower

find

courage

we

"

animals

the
have

for

equal

an

to

gentle

more

scruples
instance, the
no

in

even

brigandage but
the

so

long

themselves

or

they

Sea,

higher

destitute of

Lacedaemonians
as

nor

associated

the tribes of the Black

that

else

with

rather

beings,

among
in

given

are

of the

tribes that

many

races

everyone

they are

now

do

eating human

which

and

degree,

are

continental

other

There

the Heniochoi

and

case

natures, but

savage

killingand

Achaioi

nations

barbarous

of

in the

Neither

rightway.

in that

the

them
the

were

only

gymnastic pursuits,but
distanced by others both in gymnastic and
due
not
to
was
strength. Their superiority

gymnastic trainer

to

after the

looked

bodily condition

gener

",

the

"ows
taught particularaccomplishments,such as shootingwi
and easy militaryexercises.
In the best days of Gree(/sseese
javelins,

drill-master
and

carefullydistinguished; in
everything,the science
performanceswere

two

the

arts

art

later

were

of

the

drill instructor

and

the

of

days, when

display amd
was
1)" in

physicalculture

teacher

of what

was

then

lied

Plate .and
"gymnastics." It is very important to notice that, when
the art of performing
Aristotle speak of gymnastics, they do not
mean
scientific
and
but
the
feats of strength
agility,
trainingof the bodilyconsti
tution.

In

everywhere

later
to

be

days Greece
found

and

"

became

soldiers

land

nowhere."

in

which

athletes

were

Book

VIII.

113

they trained their youth, but to their having

as
competitorsonly people who did not train at all while they
did.
not
So it is beauty and
brutalitythat should play the
in which

the wiy

for it is not

leadingrole ;
animals

the

rather
a

that

can

rein in such

the

if/we
i'or

pursuits and
of

take the

view

true

or

other

any

of the

lower

fine and

Those

man.

elements

necessary

wolf

in any

engage

good

the

who
leave

dangerous contest, but

give their boys too -free
without
them
trainingin
mechanical,

them

education, make

them

thing,by making

of the

function
political

useful

only, and useful for that, so says

in an
inferior degree to others.
"che argument,
We
must
not
by their record in the past, but by
judge the Lacedaemonians
their present achievement
competitors
; now-a-days they have
one

"

"

and

in education

find, then, that there is

We

to

the

method

of

generalagreement

employing gymnastics, and

of

need

they had none1.

in the past

also

to

as

as

the

prescribe
Up to the age of puberty we must
employment.
the lightergymnastic exercises,
excluding all forced diet and
compulsory exercise,so as not to interfere with the growth
in any
As
the possibility
of their producing this
to
way.
that in the list of Olympic victors
effect,it is very significant
its

find

can

you

two

being victorious

both

of men2.

reason

The

three

or

at

cases

in the

of the

most

competitionsof boys

is that

the

and

robbed

are

young

same

person
in those
of

their

trainingby compulsory gymnastic

exercises. When, on the other hand, they have devoted themafter puberty to
studies, then
other
.tKr^- years
tor
Sfives
it is fitting
the succeeding age with exercises and
tr' occupy
strength

in the

of

course

'tec''
1

of

Plat*

the

his Laws

had

training.

Spartan

already pointed
No

Spartan

the

out

knew

how

one-sided

charufter

enjoy leisure, says

to

Aristotle2

Aristotle himself compiled lists of this kind, which

strange

occupation

remark, :that

he

knew

for

so

how

great
to

use

man.

his

We
lists.

see,

He

some

have

however,
was

thought
from

really the

statistician.
B.

this

first

The

114

hard

the

at

and

time.

same

is

of exercise

mind

it is wrong

diet,

compulsory

raised

have

mind

the

effect of these

natural

and

body

two

dnds

opposite ; bodily exercise impedes

exercise

mental

work

to

The

the

just

(3)
We

of Aristotle.

Politics

the

body.

the

(VIII. 5-7.)

Music.
of

some

difficulties with

the

regard

to

strike the

previous discussion, but this is the rightplace to

again and develop them ; they will serve
up
tp
views
shall
have
of
the
to
we
key-note
express abouf

it.

not

music

in

take

our

them

It is

effect of

an

music

Is it for the sake

These

time

what

in

they

"chase

themselves
away

is

why people put music on

them
all, sleep, drink, and
adding dancing to the list.
"

music

tends

is able

to

us

in

some

enjoy rightly,
just as

to

qualityof body ?
right employment
as

the

be

no

third

among

sake

of

the

as

an

is

not

it is

amusement.

it up.

take

drink?

sleep and

"

Or

are

rather

we

hold

to

goodness,

promote

aims
not

in

it contribute

leisure ?

the

like

rest

to

that

music

that

for

some

set

must

we

business

They

to
not

are

that

educate
ai

the

down

Well, there

enumerated.

our

to

way

can

the young

olay when

they

Nor again
learningis accompanied by paiM.
rightemployment of leisure be appropriau'*
^assigned

learning;

can

of

ought

real

qualityof character by habituating

gymnastics produces in us a certain

does

Or

question that

for the
are

certain

object we

is the

good but pleasant,and at the

care," as Euripides says1. That
level with them, and
a
employ
music, in the same
some
way,

to

way

producea

either what

and

of amusement

not

are

same

with

nor

settle

to

matter

easy

for

object to children and the early stages of life vforwhat

Jt may,
full-grown has nothing to do with the end2.
,

V
1

In

the great chorus

Euripides,pp.
2

They

do

95
not

"

of the Bacchae,

for which

see

Professor

^Murray's

98.
fulfil the

requirement "in

complete

life."

Stee p. 28,.

u6

The

Politics of Aristotle.

admittedly involve
happinessis made up of
must

Now

Musaeus1

"Sweetest

says

explainwhy people
leisure,for

of

seasons

alone

ground
education

only

we

of

positionto enjoy

of

of the

not

of

pleasure,it may be well to

time to time in the pleasureof music.
make
It happens, indeed, that men
; for the

not

end

and

any

one,

seeingthat it has

their action.
of

sake

the
same

The

of lifeis

end

pleasures we

why

reason

pleasures; but,
the

not

only

This
and

if

to

after all

only

relaxation.

See

of the

verbal, the point

it would
previously,

whom

here
not

p. 86.

from

There

we

that

if the

require relaxation.

the

exist for the

is past,
is the

of what

of

were

had

told

in

it,while
were

giving

whether
its

Ethics

true

as

that relaxation

been

is

attributed.

the difference
not

such

music, that

in the

statement

soul

of all

in

consider

of

use

subsequent activity. But

being

wrong

it,and

to

to

right

for

means

earlyhymns
the

for

choose

it is useful

have

many

their

fairly
assume,

their devotion
because

as

from

rest

end

we

not

that

may

incidental

differently
put

is rather

view

an

to

of

come

make

the

the

thingthat

But, for all that, we

in view

to

get happiness by

It is also

mythical personage

requiredin

to

consider

we

reason.

rest, it seems.
.this is not

seek

they

end

off with

put

we

and

seeking

are

solelyfor

That,

rest

pleasure,though

describingdo

but

of

not

is

that
are

anything to come,
namely, painfulexertion2.

sake

certain

in

seldom

amusements

certain resemblance

anything else

the

way

their

be

let themselves

they

part of the

find

let them

pleasure. They

every

pleasure,but

involves

doubt

no

further

for their

end

form

this

On

pleasures are adapted not

end of life,
but also for rest.

with

much

so

it is easy

so

gatheringsand

but
are
fact, men
but often
life fully,

of

rate

any

giving pleasure.
it should

that

innocent

All

the end

of amusement,

use

its power

matter

song," and

it into social

enjoyment

since, as

is

At

introduce

assume

may

youth.

the full

to

Now

rest

all say that music

is
it be simple instru

we

mortals

to

for

pleasure;

pleasantestof things,whether
music
with a vocal
or
accompaniment

mental

to

both.

of the

one

but

only beauty

not

is

to
\vas

mainly

overstrained

Book

is

nature

that

something

VIIL

stands

ii

in

higher

the

scale

of value

In that case
do more
must
we
just mentioned.
than appreciate the universallyfelt pleasure of it, everybody
is conscious
of that ; for the pleasantness of music
is natural,

the

than

use

"

and

the

it is

of

use

characters,

we

"

have

also

and

the

character

upon

if

has

our

but

there

is

admittedly

better

no

make

modification

the

of

we
feelings,

imitations

the actual

hatred

and
learn
and

and

habituate

such

return

The

We

could
us
a

in

understand
remember

soul

that

(so far
Greek

particulars. In
unknown

to

the

the

place,Greek

were

It is

some

as

of

as

it is

music
first

Greeks

the

in

things2,

real

certain

attributed

were

orgiasticforms

strangest of all
imitative

most

that

"

for
possible

could

except
were,

what

so

far

of

wild

of

modern

give a
the

form

of
it at

several

harmony
have

any

because,

they agree
a

body.

all)we

of
To

must

important
altogether

very
was

means

it

with

imitation

closer

rudimentary
we

reader.

all arts, not

imitation

in

call

most
as

to

understand

ours

we

the

in

to

us

from

differed

of

of

sort

music

because

place,

melodies

the

of anger

way.

nature

but

Further,

worship,
mostly imported from Phrygia. We
enough to point out here that Aristotle
did
fact,namely that this wild music

sounds

music

"

whom

sculptureor painting could

than

this

in

what

to

thinking inartistic
of

things

judging aright

as

closelyto

used

admitted

an

sounds

the

which

soul

regarded

imitate

state

second

was

now

come

Greeks

the class of

to

find likenesses

we

most

were

presently.

of the

state

listen

we

fine actions.

and

that

to

flute which

these
what

referringto

affect the

the

on

to

feelings,
quite apart

much

so

characters

personage

of Sabazios,

those

as

shall
is

to

melodies

mythical

compositions

belongs

ourselves

and

rhythms

Another

these

is

sphere of goodness is just right enjoyment

love.
to
Obviously there is nothing we want

gentleness that approach

1

enthusiasm

Further, when

These

melodies.

and

enjoyingarightgood

it is in

character

our

Olympos1.

enthusiastic,and
all share

there

Now

the

and

and

affects

it

that

clear

it.

and

bearing

any

be

by

the airs of

then, that music

pleasant,and

music

soul's character.

rhythms

It appears,

than

souls

of

altered

that

proof

our

it will

way

all ages

to

it has

whether

soul, and

show

things which

attractive

see

is in any

many

from

to

character

are

to

therefore

form.
of

In

the

judging,

The

Ii8

and

with

so

Facts

joy

beholding some

at

look

mere

it ;

for

we

of

habit

as

we

of

feelingpain and
habit
acquiringthe same

to

view of the

actual

it,the

character

in soul

altered

are

acquire the

to

of
qualities

and

originals.For example, if
for no
other
one's portrait

the

regard to

Aristotle.

temperance

prove
Now

of

likenesses is next-door

the

at

with

them.

to

and

courage

generally.
listen

Politics

man

feels

joy

than

the

reason

whose

person

portrait

necessarilybe pleasant to him too.

contemplates must
Further, we find that,in the objects of the other senses, such as
touch and taste, there is no
resemblance
to characters,though
he

in those

of

possess

this

of

other

the

and

hand,

there

first

In the
times

as

from

one

idea

of

modulation

than

of scales, each

points,
rhythms
writers

it sometimes

(r) Greek

the
with

and

appears
music

modes.

speak

when

major
its

martial

conscious

or

to

such
and

languid, as

are

discussingthe

things that

only

able

distance

to

imagine
of

these

Greek

even

of the soul.

statelyor

playful,and

between

the

feelingsintensified

feeling

on

the

the

had

subject.

varietyof its

to come

For

of the modes,
account
see
Bosanquet,
intelligible
Voting in the Republicof Plato, p. 92, n. 2.

that

Greek

of

music.

certain

The

of

speak of rhythms

forth, and

as

extrava

followingthree

character

and

see,

may

le"s

modes

too

major
so

music

our

conscious

so

to

not

was

We

and

and

We

any

sensitive

more

appreciatequarter-

number

are

the state

have

whereas

imitative
we

was

music.

this power

in mind

the

surpassed ours
always of the rhythms

of the ethical difference

have

bear

On

we

o.wn

if we

ours.

music

peculiarcharacter.
theory on this subjectwas

us,

not

minor, the Greeks

the

(2) It is

(3) It is preciselyin
between
music
affinity
as

able to

and

in

they

far

was

presentlythat

see

are

modern

greater than

were

all

complex. Such
of passing
possibilities

the

ear

and

and

then, that
surprising,

not

then, that it is quite possibleGreek

gant than

Greek

elaborate

more

They

simplest of

varied

much

very

shall

we

experts*
recognisesonly two "modes,"

large number

which

forms

are

which

most

and
lyrics,

is.

ours

It is

to

were

the

in

place, the Greek

and
difficulty,

without

tones

far

were

the second

In

the

in Greek

another

to

than

respects

than

rhythms

quite common

are

now.

confined

certain

elaborate

place,Greek

rhythm

pitchand

primitivetype

were

complicated and

more

There

one.

only to a slightdegree,
perception. Besides, the forms

of

sort

rudimentary

more

faint

character, but

in this

share

is

sightthere

within

brief

is

everyone

the minor.

and

Education

We

measur

easily
of the

Book

and

which

colours
in the

only

forms, it is
at

but

those

of

this

That
distinction
hear

we

each

Polygnotos2,

and

such

character.

But

is

between

them

and

put into

are

into

and

this is held

scale,while
have

the

made

is

fundamental

that, when

scales, so
frame

mind

of

condition.

the

of

have

more

cases

it and

makes

so-called

the actual

has

the

if it has

educate

motions

of the

others

more

refined.

modifying

this power

the young

by

it.

And

young

nature.
adapted to a young
tolerating
anything unsweetened

music

is

a
essentially

certain

be

to

Pauson
stands
3

Aristotle

is

"

i.

is said

to

have

blush

drew

holds

the

they

of shame

them

of

painting.

been

invented

true

Pauson

can

the
as

made

by Sappho.

of the
of

use

music

is

prevents the

help it,and
seems

rhythms
pallorof

better

life."

some

proves

there

and

and

to

this

make

Besides

soul

in

character

age

of

others

are

teaching of

Their
if

All

course

Polygnotos painted men

inferior,Dionysios

for the ideal school

This

the

the

thing.

affinitybetween

thinking of

Cf. Poetics,II.
as

sweetened

latter

the

of

must

we

well

very

thing too

statelycharacter, while

of

who

the evidence

same

the

power

Dorian

education

of

derive

The

facts.

have

vulgar, in

they

mood,

Those

of this branch

for

scales.

of the

enthusiastic.

us

points;

rhythms ; some
motion, and

music

soul; and

these

from

more

that

peculiar property

by

make

Some

like

oppressed,

philosophicalstudy

their theories

good

the

Phrygian

quiterightin

are

be

to

of

melodies

Mixolydian3, others gentlerin mind, like the "relaxed"

Another
scale again puts us into an
intermediate,calm
and

all

be found.

to

are

different

different

mournful

more

the

For

people should look

other
painters and

There
of

arise

contemplation

of characters

nature

forms

these

it is in the actual

evident.

the

we

feel

is

so

the

feelings\

the

young

them,

of

us

works

that the imitations

themselves

in

that

express

that

say

of the

difference

Pauson's

not

sculptorsas

the influence
is

there

as

to

signs of character, and

are

under

body

far

that, so

occur

119

; it is truer

of character

reallylikenesses

VII I.

than

and

fear.

they

are,

Polygnotos, then,

caricatures.

The

120

scales, which

Politics

for

accounts

either that the soul is

We

raised,whether

they

manipulationof

be

doubt

of

no

wise

many

men

say

musical

musical

that it makes

certain condition

fact that

pitch1.
discussion
of the difficulty
previously
to learn
and by
by singingthemselves

are

actual

the

has

or

the

to

now

come

of Aristotle.

instruments

great difference

of character

if

can

the

production
part personally
least extremely
without
taking

to

takes

one

There

not.

or

in

playing. It is a thing impossible,or at

become
to
a
difficult,
good judge of music
actual part in playing it. Besides, children must
have
some
thing to do with their time, and the "rattle of Archytas2"
is given to children
it instead
which
that they may
so
use
of breaking the things in the house, is an
invention to be
is able to keep quiet. This
commended
; for nothing young
to children when
they are quitesmall, but all
appliesof course
1

refers

This

wrongly, referred

to

stated, the Greeks

word

knew

scales

the various

Pythagorean doctrine was

body was
supposed to be
the

regarded
as

lowest

note

the

pitch

true

of

or

scale.

great deal

this.
made

up
moist

to

do

to

The

modes.

the

and

of

Aristotle's

meaning

of certain
Life

dry.

string stands

afterwards

of

used

was

of

the

the earliest view, the human

combination

It

octave.

proportionof these, as

passed

with

of

mean

called

of

generally,
though quite
harmony. As already
harmony, and the Greek
this. It meant
originally

is

extension

According

tuning

This

not

natural

otherwise

the

warm,

in the due
consisting

as

in fact

had

the

and

cold

by

is

the soul

here, does

then

octaves,

or

that

nothing
practically

is used

pitch,and

then

tuning,

the doctrine

as

which

harmonia,

which

Pythagorean view,

the

to

health

standing

the

to

opposites,

and

highestand

into medical

theory,and

of the doctrine

formulation

were

them

to

the
so

of the

mean.
2

Archytas

statesman,
of
that

think
follows

education
even

Italywas

in Southern

one

of

general and
distinguished

He

a
was
Pythagoreans.
of his time.
of
the
first
mathematicians
The
being one
be pleasingto
mechanics
its originto him, and
it would
owes
remark
he also invented
form of baby's rattle. The
that
some

besides

is not
does

intended
not

in childhood

mischief.

(Tarentum, Taranto]

generationof

the later

science

of Taras

to

depreciateeducation.

produce
it has

Aristotle

its full effect till the child

the

secondary

purpose

of

only

grows

keeping

that

means

up,

him

but
out

that
of

Book

is

education

just
it is

and

playing;
who
since

task

study is
acquire the

they are

to

of

older

an

they ought
to

ages, and

what

find

answer

to

so

the

actual

or
fitting

those

to

first

playing in order

of

art

is

the

In

growth.

learn

to

determine

mechanical.

the

that

urge

hard

no

certain

for
fitting

not

that

show

121

children

rattle for

considerations

Such

VIII.

place,

be able

to

practiseit when they are young and be let

judge, they must
off from playing when
they get older, but so as still to retain
of distinguishing
the teaching of their youth the power
from
fine thingsand enjoying them rightly. And, as for the criticism
to

sometimes

made

hard

not

who

those

find

to

music

that
the

if

answer

being brought

are

people mechanical, it is
consider
point
up to what

makes
we

to

up

be

citizens

good

should

actuallylearn to play,and what sort of melodies and rhythms

they should be taught. A further point is what instruments
they should get their teaching on ; for we may expect that to
difference too.
It is on
make
such points that our
to
answer
a
this

criticism

must

of music

forms

It is
such

impede

mechanical

bodies

exercises, that
burden

them

with

have

on.

The

entered

those
into

music

of

rightrule

for the

only wanted

their

make

civil

and

now

for

study is not to ;
for professional

marvels
out-of-the-way
such

be

not

militaryand

for

exercises

is

some

effects.

must
to

nor

bodily

for

that

allegedbad

activities

unserviceable

anything that
with

the

study

subsequent

is, useless

performances, nor
tion that

their

denied

be

cannot

their

that

and

studies later

other

for it

possiblyproduce

may

obvious, then,

to

as

turn

performances

at

of
the

execu

present

And
even
passed from them into education1.
what
they do study they should
study only so far as to be
capable of feelingdelight,not merely in that part of music
that everybody can
of the lower animals
some
appreciate,even

day

or

and

and

have

crowd

of

servants

children,but

and

in

fine

melodies

rhythms.
1

Another

problems.

touch

which

makes

us

feel how

near

Aristotle

is to

our

own

The

122

This
We

shows

must

what

us

instruments

of

sort

Aristotle.

of

into education

admit

not

Politics

flutes

such
skill,
requiringprofessional

ment

instrument

kind.

of that

them

musical

of
good recipients
Besides, the flute does

not

intended

be

to

or

other

any

be

to

by

the

or

use.

instru
other

any
will

as

character;

express

produced

harp
form

to

other

any

such

want

is therefore

instrument,and
orgiastic
effect

only

We

or

the

as

ought

we

make

of education.
it is rather
when

employed

performance

an

the

is the

rather than instruction.

We
must
feelings
add too another
objectionto the use of the flute in education,
in the way of using the voice
stands
namely that flute-playing
for singingthe words.
The
therefore quiteright
ancients were
in rejecting
the flute as an
instrument
for boys and
freemen,
their
though at an earlier period they had adopted it. When

purgation-of

material

the

resources

their

when
leisure,
and

when

they

clutched

at

form

every

led

education.
the

chorus

instrument
men

At
in

became
able

were

to

was

there

Lacedaemon
with

person
much

so

the

This

is

was

choregos

that the

proved by

Plato

also

Bosanquet,
2

"purgation" see below p.

Properly speaking, the duty

the

century
Cf.

of

the

fact that
B.C.,

what

there

Professor

been, perhaps, no
the

of the Young

Education

French

play. See

p. 32,

in

124,

n.

of

the

n.

free

the votive tablet

chorus
led

to

its

to

Cf.
the clarinette).
accurately,
the Republic of Plato, p. 96, n. i.

(or,more

On

accessories
out

The

flute

rejectedthe

the

majorityof

up

who

Athens

at

the
he
furnished
by Thrasippos when
however, experience
Ekphantides3. Later on,
set

achieve

earlier,they

even

flute,and

home

at

play it.

their

in an
learningindiscriminately
that they introduced
flute-playing

of

it

So

but

more

higher,

became

pride of

wars

had

they

excellence
the

Persian

after the

experimentalway.
into

with

flushed

when

and

after
aspirations

were

only

not

ments,

increased

were

2.

i.

choregos was
Aristotle's

to

provide

researches

the

brought

fifth
beginning
of the choregosplaying the flute in person.
cases
were
has
There
Murray says in his Euripides^p. xxi :
the openings of
period in the world's history,not even
in

that

Revolution,

wonderful

period, the

of

the

"

when

the

prospects

of the human

race

can

have

The

124
their

bodies

Politics

which

motions

the

through

Aristotle.

of

it

from

expects

them.
That
Are

being so,

of

use

make

to

we

are

make

to

we

different

and

one?

influence

of

believe

that

and

each

of

music

be

must

of

of

work

or

prefer

to

Now

purpose.

the

same

educational

ought

we

or

by melody

the

to

this

musicians

the

the

produced

as

for

make

in educational

whether

rhythmical

rhythms.

in education

to

we

is

clear

these, and

or

are

engaged

that

scales and

rhythms

And

are

see

we

music

melodious

who

We

and

rhythm,

all scales

classification?

classification for those

a

stillto consider

have

we

we

day

treat

subject very well, and also such philosophersas have

shall therefore
experience in musical education
; we

had

some

present

this

'

those

wish

who

shall

of

only speak

We

discussion

classification of

that

benefits

and

given by some
of action,
character, melodies

education,

to

music

is

of

not

studied

for

It is

be

only.

one

with

be

to

view

to

"

explanation for the present ; when

shall give a clearer account
poetry, we

As

Unfortunately

Plato

says,

"

Let

the

us

refer these

part of the

to

matters

Poetics

where

of

it.

We

sake

of

use

this

we

come

to

it2,
"

and

controversy

regarded
fundamental

coming anywhere
as

as

to

the

to

near

details

of the

firmly established, and

importance

Aristoxenos, who

was

in the

the

real

they

theory

must

be

speak

thirdly

purgation"
great authority

its main

given

writers.

than
did

not

is still much

There

meaning.

theory, but

term

of"

the doctrine

down
to us.
Owing to the
fullyexplainedhas not come
in many
has enjoyed the subjecthas been discussed
this work
which
it
the first to see
that
meant
something more
Lessing was
practically
but even
he
and
of
the
terror,"
mere
"purification
feelingsby pity
in

view

Damon."

was

succeed

many
a

we

of

these
say,

with

studied

purgation,

to

each

the

without
of

We

melodies

philosophers into melodies of

and
orgiasticmelodies.
They say further that
which
has
scale
a
naturally corresponds to
however,

them.

to

sake, givingthe outlines only.

it for form's

the

accept

minute

full and

refer

outlines

may

be

they are

of

last survivors

of

here

as

of education.

personallyacquainted with

the

Book

with

view

scales, but

bodies

tells

is

that

us

music

and

katharsis

to

medical

that

it is clear

intended

(cf. p. 117,

an

We

and

If

fear, and

restored

this

all, in

are

is

at

once

emotion

ing

all

are

constant

safely go

may

Plato's

Puritanism,

value.

It is

comes

very

and

to

is

the

upon

is Nature

for

in

so,

that

modern

herself

subject

Chapter

vi.

see

other

great and
in

our

up

Milton, in the

poems
or

terrour,

temper

by reading
in her

sour,

Butcher,

or

seeing

or

own

melancholick
salt

to

efforts
hue

to

Aristotle's

those
to

and

remove

Theory

are

of

of
form

Samson

Agonistes,

"Tragedy,

by

Aristotle

the

mind

to

of

good
humours."

of Poetry

and

and
of
and

with

well

quality are
salt

these

it

as

be

to

just measure

passages
make

we

to

answer

gravest, moralest,

purge
them

we

highest paedagogic

says:

said

reduce

be

can

far, I think,

It is his

to

He

the

life.

good
and

way,

So

of the

Preface

therefore

our

theory.

held

ever

the

senti-

accumulations

lives.

conception

pity and

worthy object instead

own

else.

morbid

emotions

that

tragedy,

great

in

of

these

art,

surplus

everywhere

to

the

Aristotle

feelingslike

lead

outlet

interpretation.

wanting

against

sour

been

fear,

is to

find

requirements

natural

obviously

physick, things of

melancholy,
whole

that

delight stirred

Nor

the
any

weakness

powei\by raising pity and

suchlikepassions;

or

find
see

anciently composed,
most/Workable
of all other

Here

we

who

frenzy by

to

up

from

it were,

as

condition.

and

us

cured,

off their

what

in

with

we

note

was

of

of

was

worked

they

normal

case

music

they

be

the

to

associated

persons

degree, susceptibleto

hath

kind

and

here

experience that
could

uses,

purifications

absent

was

is

foremost.

not

interpretationof Aristotle's

worthy of

near

or

of

source

in the

of

Olympos

word

he

terms

first and

reference

idea

the

Aristotle

all ritual

The
of

that

was

calm

extreme

discharged

of

this

fact

him

to

music

that

result

less

up,

"purge."

systematicallyroused

were

When

alleviated.

meant

their

purge

that

of the

purposes

to

doubt

no

religiousemotion

an

of

means

systematicallystirred

means

word

is inconsistent

by

is

associations

flute

was

to

it

easily accumulate

may

which

If, however,

only

greater

these

mentalism

show

they

medicine

"cleanness."

to

It

used

and

all the

use

educational

religioussense

the

flute,the

the

were

that

us

in

of wild

excess

of

strains

tells

the

which

either.

mind

from

emotion

what

i), seems

n.

homoeopathically.
wild

by

was

orgies,with

Corybantic

suffered

that
medical

must

we

For

There

and

produce ceremonial

to

Aristotle's

souls.

the

term,

this

way.

Pythagoreans

used, however,

also

was

same

their

purge

for relaxation

and

clear, then, that

the

strongly influenced

always
and

all in the

not

school,

the

It

It is

after exertion.

rest

125

leisure

of

rightuse

the

to

VIIL

imitated.

his assertion,
used

against
On

Fine

the

Arf,

126

The

must

we

melodies
where

other

only

and

people perform.
of

one

of

they

if

as

Those

purge.
and

in the

we

who

are

; and

way

for

use

concerts

feelingthat

affects

less;the difference

or

that, when

see

fill the
these
been

have

melodies

to

emotions

of

the

will

will other

normal

and

to

made

orgiastic
feeling,

medically treated

subject

so

they

with

soul

sacred

feelingsgenerally

the

same

had

more

may

pity and fear, for example, or

people are liable to become possessed

by

they

melodies

every

all souls

which

back

brought

are

condition

fear

melodies

the

For

we

Take

degree.

Some
again enthusiasm.
by the latter emotion, but
use

character,but

enthusiastic

affects
violently

souls

some

is

action

of

of Aristotle.

that best express

those

use

Politics

taken

pity and

necessarilybe affected
in exact
proportionto
All experiencea certain

men

their

emotions.
to such
susceptibility
manner
purgationand pleasant relief. In the same
purgative
melodies
the
Such, then, are
give innocent
joy to men.
scales and
melodies
must
we
prescribe for professionalper
in the

formers

theatre

however,

there

educated

men,

labourers

and

spectaclesfor
audience.

vulgar

latter class

too

melodies

and

their souls

there

are

are

is

which

that

other

must

the

which

melodies

employ in their performances.

kinds
of audiences, one
of free

like, we

the

Just as

condition, so
Now

the

these

In

rest.

two

are

the

to

and

mechanics, day-

appoint competitions
with

scales

view

relaxation

correspond

and

to

unnatural

are

and

the

their natural

from

which

scales

to

will

distorted

are

some

of

crowd

As,

and

high-pitched and unnaturally coloured.

is what
nature
appropriate to his own
and
allow public
must
so
we
every man,

produces pleasure in
performers to employ this kind of music with audiences
lower type1. For educational
however, as has
purposes,

been

MusT6

Hall.

This

Aristotle
there

did

is not,
would

as

might

doubtless

be

have

held

represent character, only

correspond

to

the

painting of

apology

supposed, an
that

that

Pauson.

the

the
The

sort

of

character
curious

for the
music
was

that

bad.

point is

of

prevails
It would

this.

The

Book

said,

only

must

we

character.

Such

above

we

; and

must

who

those

by

127

melodies

use

scale

is

also

admit

and

scales

Dorian,

the

as

others

any

initiated

been

have

VIII.

that

express

remarked

was

into

both

that

approved

are

philosophy

and

The
Socrates
of the Republic is wrong
study of music.
in leavingonly the Phrygian scale along with the Dorian, and
after rejectingthe flute ; for the Phrygian scale has
that too
the

the

exactly

instruments.
is

Both

of

all

other

in

the

similar

character

instruments, and
above

Phrygian

find

all other
the

Philoxenos, when

to

driven

in the

back

by

Phrygian.

tried

he

Dorian

all

But

statelyand

most

between

^nenean

most

for the education

qujtfcale

the

manly.

And

nountnd that is just the natural

that
** ^s evident
so
fferen-a^es"

of the

instance

For

fact of which
others

that

appropriate scale, the

Dorian

of

say

is the

that

the

sought after,

Dorian

the

is the

scale

again, we
praised and

Dorian

the

dithyramb, "The
impossible,and was

the

be

to

relation
the

it

found
into

is

and

his

compose

that

extremes

two

This

frenzy

proofs, among

agree

men

Bacchic

All

among

emotion.

express

scales.

many

herself

flute

Phrygian scale, a

mode,

nature

the

as

adapted to the flute above

their appropriate expression

are

dithyramb1 is admittedly in
musical
connoisseurs
give
Mysians,"

scales

among

orgiasticand
compositions.

are

actual

proved by

emotions

effect

same

most

to

the other

appropriate

young2.

:cord
for the relaxation
he recommends
of
compositions which
the
that which
deals
most
artificial,
day-labourers is precisely

,..-J5ort of
of
fO
.e

"

mtoneS)
ar

diatonic
sav

"wn

climinished

that

scales.

sevenths,
If

Aristotle

j-affordingrelaxation
eisure

we

want

and
a

suggests that
to

the

eccentric

modern
such

varieties

parallel,it
music

as

of

the

would

the

by
trulycultured, we requiresomething
of Dionysos, but
Originallya h^mn in honour
math,aterdate for any elaborate lyricalcomposition of
1

may

the

of

the

in

quarter-

chromatic

almost

Wagner's

overstrained, but that, for

crowd

"a

and

be

fair to

be tolerated

as

of

-rightenjoyment
more

name

what

we

classical

type.

used

was

should

at

call

an

^e cabperaticcharacter.
2

ances

Lit

th

Milton

has

expressed

the

Greek

feelingabout

the

Dorian

mode,

the

128

The

Aristotle's

has

old

It

national

minor

and

lower

of

abouts

probably

the

he
of

is

is

the

age

of

the

left,

and

gymnastics,
till

at

21,

in

in

the

mind

the

time

do

hands

not

the

exactly
of

the

writer

Book

modes,

for

I.

pitched

ff.

250

it.

to

and

has

nothing
have

we

The

highei

of

the
the

tender
know

gymnastic

been

the

of

mercies
for

from

feelings.

youthful
age

said

nothing

through

not

\vhen"at
to

later

natural.

glimpse

moment

first

the

seemed

latest

is

ending

applied

mean

major

directly

Lost,

unfortunate,

the

wre

lost.

Paradise

complete

not

The

omit^.

of

more

"Our

out,

for

committed

is

still
of

obtained

which

alone

music

training

is

care

which

of

been

rudimentary

were

Dorian,

points

has

doctrine

here.

ends

Greeks,

the

the

What

Newman

Aristotle's

form

to

as

of

scales

account

rhythm.

Aristotle
Mr

the

much

section,

find

Lydian

the

that

scale

to

than

Even

clear

Aristotle.

of

Education

of

short

interesting

As

is

another

Phrygian

yet

it

added

is

and

discussion

and

abrupt,

Politics

object
19

of

what
trainer."

or

the

of

there

sterner

period,

but

CONCLUSION.

main

THE

object

against

certain

they

of what

(idit is necessary
at

see

d which

of

are

of Plato

fferent

quite at

with

one

Accordinglyhave
0

Vo
ne

different
of

men

Plato

in

the

north

lie can

belonged

to

with

Macedon

as

/ut they
B.

; Aristotle

undoubtedly

'tances
in

detect

the methods

are

Aristotle

; Aristotle

married

1mathematician

while

and

connexion
"peditary
never

something.

by

no

means

and

was

the

Plato

the

belonged
from

to

small

all

above

was

foremost

of the
to

writingsmake/

came

influence

sufficient

shall

points,we

had
a
family which
court
physicians. Plato

first and

theories

breathing

were

Plato

was.

personalityof

for

counts

course

certain

realise that Aristotle

The

us.

value,

reading a

all fundamental

on

impression upon

an

if he
to

which

from

interest.

temporary

first as

details in

of permanent

first why it is that their

ask

to

at

view

Aristotle after

it is essential

aristocracyof Athens,

own

as

to

As

atmosphere.

feel

to

equal importance,

point of
and

accidental

we

the

master

these

see

all of

not
some

approaches

is apt

to

essential and

are

merely

who

find

to

us

which

once

student

ount

for

learn

are

only

not

must

must

we

say ;

perspective. They

true

The

aright,we

education

theory of
rjie

the

Aristotle

and

Plato

of

contributions

appreciate the
.fould

can

following pages is to guard

natural
misunderstandings. If

of the

biologist.

of all these
two

account

things

circum-

great thinkers,
for the strong
o

Conclusion.

130

impressionleft

their

by

us

upon

writingsof

gulf almost

com

parableto that between poetry and prose.

The
explanation of this is really a very simple one
Both
Plato and Aristotl
though it is constantlyoverlooked.
of works
for publication,
and
botl
wrote
a
very large number
whole
The
of lectures.
delivered many
courses
styleand ten
aims at being more
less a work
of art, will
of a book, which
or
differ completely from that of a lecture intended
of course,
:c
it is a remarkable
Now
far
deliveryto professedstudents.
of Plato's publishedWOT!
that, so far as we can tell,every one
has been
preserved,while, with the partialexception of th
treatise on
the Constitution
of Athens, nr
recentlyrecovered
have
only scraps and fragments of Aristotle's. On the oth
of Aristotle's lectures,
have
while
a
hand, we
great number
know
Plato's we
We
do kno
practically
nothing at first hand.
that, if we dt
enough, however, to be able to say positively
it would
be so very unlike 01
not
possess a lecture of Plato's,
of Aristotle's. It would, no
doubt, contain a good deal mo
but

mathematics,
we

are

that

in the habit

of

be

would

regardingas

Aristotle

would, for the

it would

take

chief difference.

the
the

peculiarterminology

part, be found

most

Wh

there

already,an

a
distinguish
fragment of the or
from
if we
could
a
recovt
fragment of the other.
Similarly,
it would
of Aristotle's lost dialogues,
one
probably be hard ft
but an
it from
of Plato
one
one
expert to distinguish
any
one
slighterliteraryproductions. These
dialogues were
admired
for their style,and
Cicero
speaks of the "golde
of Aristotle's speech. So far as we
make
stream
can
out, hi
florid than Plato's,and this i
a
good deal more
writingwas
quiteconsistent with the fact that Cicero admired it.
We
the extar
to
see, then, that it is quitewrong
compare
an

expert

to

"

of Aristotle with

works
"our

guard against all

between

attention

them,
has

so

far

just been

as

those
that
it

of
may

Plato, and
be

said

that
as

to

we

the

differenc

ignoresthe elementary fact

called.

be

must

to

whic

Conclusion.

132

circumstances,we

modern

modifications
the idea

which

have

time

and

only to examine carefullyth

experiencehave introduced int"

community.
Now, the simplestform of community is the family,an"
with
it is no
doubt
feel the greates
regard to it that we
modern
ideas and
those
of the Greeks
divergence between
Plato proposed to abolish the familyaltogether,
at least for th"
"guardians," a proposal which will strike us as less extravagan
remember
when
did tb
we
that,at a later date, the Church
for its clergy. Aristotle did not follow Plato in thh
very same
of

held

He

object,and
affection."
should

to

be

will

as

it is usual

Now

familyis
we

due

understand

for it must

in the

what

it.

Plato's

It was,
and

in

hear

subject i
something c

this

comparativeneglectof th
had no
Greeks
familylift;a

the

is

There

certain

of truth in this

amount

that,at least in Athens, the positiono

as

This

give the mother

point,however, has
be easy enough to

her proper

to

unlike

our

own

been
prove

very

plac
m

ic]

that Gr^e

after all. The

reasoi

fact,the

familyis reallyalmost the opposite

only community besides the state as a whole

struck

free his

thinkers

Greek

competitor that the state

the familytie just because
to

thar

that

upon
to

seom

distrust of the

it therefore

desire

expect

He

influences

home

says

should

fact that

exaggerated,and it would
familylife was not so very
for

"

of

he

say that

hardly such

household.

we

owi

picturetoo.

be confessed

was

women

but

to

the

to

dangers

course,

side of the

he other

the

to

ever,

he

educative influence.

an

its

defeat

to

making all citizen

dilute
happily calls a
not
stress a
lay as much

Aristotle does

familyas

Of

tended

insist upon

what

only get

alive

now

unification

that,if you

even

the

on

value1.

true

Sis

But

more

their

said

he

brothers,you
we

excessive

that

had
it

was

highestclass
Cf. pp.

fear.

to
so

as

the

They

strong, and

of citizens from

103"105.

serixi;

most

afraid

were

Plato's intens"

it is

proo

i
,

Conclusion.
roof

popular notion of the Greeks, as

is quite incorrect.
The
Greeks
familyinterests,

wanted, that the

were

eople without
id not happen
and

terature

long
nd

; but

art

the funeral

everyday life. We
bout
the French, who
if

can,

are

in

It is

ends

present

the

at

in

the

form

of

to

conflict

it is

that in France

of the kind

something

day

in many

Greeks

ways.

just the

family life which prevents it

shall not be far
and we
literature,

itself

present

between

the

the

to

problem

French

mind

the pere

and

state

of the

true

was

that the educational

significant,
too,

greeksalso.

mistake

same

of

character

that

supposing

like the

so

the

make

to

for ourselves

playinga large part

vrong

monuments

apt

very
are

will,see

we

self-centred

:lose and
rom

subjectsof their
of Athens, taken

the

matters

.1

domestic

make

to

of references,especiallyin comedy
large number
largely
oratory of the law-courts,show that they bulked

with

the

Ve

133

de

famille\
It is easier
the

or

French,

state, because
of many

reconcile

for the

claims

Greeks,

smaller

larger.

hold

We

that

sentiment.

The

very

imaginaryantagonism
But, it
a

must

be

us

againstthe danger

between

ever

observed, all

complex

if the smaller

communities

Politics.

Cf. p. 97,

stand

n.

this is

ideal.

part of Politics with

intricate and

and
of

enemy,

healthy imperial
to

of

which

we

settingup

an

them.

contradiction,of the Greek

than

of all

turn

the

not

to

is the

municipal

that

of the communities

number

allegianceprotects

owe

is in

that

learnt

school

family affection

preparation for loyalty to a school,

provincialfeeling is the handmaid, and
patriotism,as

best

the

existence

have

We

is the

community

best

national

family and

of the

associations.

and

it is

than

or

willingto recognise the

perfectly

are

the

for the

was

the

communities

that

us

it

than

us

to

we

other

fthe lesson
prepare

for

us,

development,

Education
but

in the way

and

p. 106,

will be

part of

It will stillbe

n.

and

much

not
more
more

true, also, that,

of the greater, they

2.

Conclusion.

134
will be

is still

selfishness

weakness

great

as

it is still true

and

was,

of

sources

naturallydetermined

by

of any

from,

hostile to, that

than

that

the

"

of

treatment

that of the whole1."

of the

are

have,

we

so

ev"

the

Above

communities

whole,

Fa

strength.
it exists,as

evil,where

an

subordinate

of the

the ends
or

rather

pai

all,\v*
d verj

far,a

rei

"Cyclopic" state of things2described by Homer,

it is the business of the sul
the Platonic phraseology,
use
dinate communities
make
what
the higher communi
to
to

the

"

"

"useV

can

III

thing which

Another

that, while
is

Plato's

has

in

other,

fragment4.

of

education

the

Politics

of the

in

is,for

clearly intended
body, secondly, the

He

thirdly,the education
body belongs to the

character, and,
education

the

the

constantlyin

education

of

treatment

complete, Aristotle's

be borne

to

some

R*put
reason

discuss,

to

education

of
art

the

mine

the

cf

mind.

that

upon

subject5. Music

character, and

of

intended

to

we

say about

the instrument

was

seem

that6.

have

to

As

to

Gymnastics,ai*

of

have, apparently,nearly all that Aristotle intended

we

.irst

to

for the educati"

about

half

the education

of

what

11

of the r.iin

of the v ho ;
emphaticallydeclared to be the crown
have
not
a
we
singleword in the Politics as it hi
process7,
Here
to us.
down
again,if we are not careful,we ai
come
Aristotle and
between
Plato wiei
apt to imagine a contrast
he

which

of his
as

Plato, in the Republic,has

exists.

none

an

1
4

for the trainin

scheme

guardians in science,so far as science can be regaide

of Mathematics, leadingup finally
to a kr.o\\
application

ledge of
views

the universal

as

Good.

scientific education

to

106.

Cf. p.

128,

n.

r.

Cf. p.

1 1

r,

n.

I-.

Cf. p.

have

We

at

no

record

of Aristotle'

all,and, unless

we

Cf. p. 97.

Cf. Introd.

Cf. pp.

Cf. pp.

in

"

114.

r?a"

p. "-,.

114"118.

Conclusion.
we
carefully,

writer

able

very

fail

may

has

time, was

within

nothing higher

of

had

been

it would

was

not

was

born

had

so.

No

Greek

so,

this

mistake

writer
life for

been

strange indeed

by

up

insisted

has
a

of the best

for
justification

making good

swallowed

man

and
city-state,
If it

Aristotle

; for

in which

state

Macedon.

he

it was

But

not

did

stronglythan he
something far higher than

was

more

that, in the

state, and

state's existence

the

of his

citizens.

than

little

quite recently.

the great Greeks

the

last resort, the

it should

that

was

35

accident.

an

limits of the

the

citizen,and

been

that the best

life even

have

Athenian

an

this is

into

fallen

quite content

thought

that

Aristotle,alone among

has said that

He

notice

to

the

only
make

life possible.
jthis
the scientific

What

,'J
e

only

can

guess

be
egitimately

trainingrecommended

; but

there

are

/interests lay rather in the direction

in that of mathematics.
of the

It is

subject would

confirmed

by

immediately

his

remarkable

followed

that

seventeenth
matical

activityof

mathematical
the school
a

science
of

to

that

mathematics

What

we

successor,

scientific

inquiry or

do

are

Plato,and

fair inference

time.

that

Aristotle

sure

that

place

did

find

is that

Zoology, and

of education

Theophrastos,

scientific

founded

that

Botany,
it

in the

and

scheme

as

as

It

The

in

closely,to
is,perhaps,

high place

same

Aristotle's

immediate

had

in such

be,

done.

had

Plato

founded

branches

However

that

the

theory of

the

Heavens

for

these

the

subjectsof

may

art

mathe

that Aristotle's followers

are

is-

names

less

he himself

either

was

in historical research

Physics

or

give the

not

by

the

great

that of Aristotle.

in his scheme

themselves.
distinguished

('

to

this

And

science.

the

more

treatment

marked

were

all

attached,

not

his

only parallelto
But

said,his

generations which

mathematical

the

may

historythan

bias.

The

Aristotle

of

affords

century

fact.

of

extraordinary development

biology and

personal

was,

which

been

has

probable,then, that

reflect

very

of

Aristotle

inferences

the first place,as

In

drawn.

certain

by

we

chiefly
may

held

of

be

high

Aristotle's

Conclusion.

36
carefullywritten

most

whole

intended

was

lectures.

We

lead

to

to

up

may
what

also be
we

call

that the

sure

Metaphysics,

Theology and First Philosophy. We know from

in that
that Happiness at its highestis to be found
the Ethics
which displaysitself in the contemplation of
form
of activity
Aristotle is quiteas em
the divinest things in the universe.
and

he called

that

phaticabout

as

Plato

was.

ever

IV
We

regard
that the

see,
to

then, that Plato and

the

true

function

trainingof character

of

Aristotle
education.

must

come

are

quiteat one
They both

first and

with
agree

that it must

practical
requirementsof the community. On \
the other hand, they are both equallyclear that the highestfunc-^
tion of education goes beyond tHe practical
lite, its aim, in Plato's0
words7isTo~"makelis
spectators of all reality or, as it was
put
to ser/e
by Eudemos, a discipleof Aristotle,to enable us
l
and contemplate God."
In this Plato and Aristotle were
only ^
carryingon the best tradition of Greek thought, and they we:*e
tie
as
opposing the views of the teachers generally known
this,it will be necessary to glance
Sophists. To understand
of Greek
at the history
briefly
philosophy.
is nothing more
There
certain than that science only makts
it is pursued in a disinterested spirit,
real progress when
i
an
fatal to it than a constant
that nothing is more
preoccupation
with its practical
results.
It is just because
the Greeks
had
this disinterested curiosity
that they were
able to invent science
that the Egyptians had an elaborate system
It is true
at all.
of land-surveying;but it was
all an
affair of rule of thumb
o"
no
sufficient,
doubt, for its purpose, but with no possibility
development. It is true also that the Babylonians had made
of astronomical
number
a vast
observations,but their interest t
in these
was
Greeks, of course,
purely astrological.The
assimilated all this,but they transformed
it in so doing. Their
have

in view the

"

"

"

Conclusion.
interest

in

was

the

and
applications,
in

century

had

attitude

The

learnt from

by

be known

but

of it.

The

kinds

sakes, and

of

the

the

of

end

geometry,
have

the

it

as

5th

theory of infinitesimals
of imaginationfor us
made.

We

That

of

glance, we
change
one

It
l|it.

was,

ttfirst
entered
ever

marvel

the

at

that

too
no

century

doubt

By

of

plane
to

appears

of the

4th century
already born, while
been

faced

means

the

only

the

effort

but, if

was

and

certain

rapidity of
this

began

B. c.

part

requiresa
this

after for

we

progress
of the

one

important,

most

active.
day were
historyof the science

was,

indeed,

System succeeded
theory displaced theory so quickly that, at a first
only
might be disposed to think that there was

without

of these

had

It

realise what

first period in the

and

were

more

of geometry

by Euclid,
end

that

extraordin

an

greater

the

established.

of that

brilliant
extraordinarily

system

the

by

sought

of the 6th

codified

science, though

the Greeks

place
to

show

can

was

study

Sections

remember

must

departments
in which

shall

we

so,

The

century,

to

its

takes

now

result

incommensurability

of

do

were

immediate

Conic

and

more

the Greeks

what

term

of

place

nothing

Nothing

knowledge

afterwards

was

Geometry
problem

once

studies."

quite familiar,and

been

Solid

the

that took

came
space and number
'
mathematics
'),and
(whence

in the first half

the Greeks

among

difference

of

of them.

arily
rapiddevelopment

another

progress

Babylonians

means

describes

long

science

"the

simply means
clearlythat these
own

before

mathemata

the

as

word

their

geometria

practical

more

the

see

slightchange

old word

Egypt,

side

the

We

years.

"land-surveying,"and

less than

their

they made
Egyptians and

the

from

well

very

in

than

that

was

half than

terminology.

nor

result

in five thousand

made

mental

in

and

rather

problems

the

137

and

progress.

fertile in ideas.

And

yet it can

be

shown

systems left something of permanent

in

fact,during that period that the

behind

value

human

intellect

possessionof all the provinces it has

this is what
gives it its unique interest.

into

since,and

that every

ruled
What

Conclusion.

138
concerns

is

here

us

to

possiblejust because
sake, and

time

scientific research.

besides

Wars, when
it

also

was

the

Besides

this,the

nature

of

atomic

theory.

for the

body

first

No

it was

not,

first time

as

that

to

react

schools,but

they all

th".n

it

inquirywas
of the

made.

We

science.

of

these

possibleon

affirmed

real without

be

see

All

real

the

discover

to

or

sooner

fact, until Plato

was

sophistshad

rapid strides

seemed

of

disappointment with
been disciples
of one
or

everywhere

The

in the formulation

progress

progress

democracy.
upon

been

thing might

of the Persian

of scientific

ended

matter

further

any

more

had

object

further

rise of

impulse

stirring

successfullyagainstthe

even

bound

it had

matter1,and

that

for its own

in that

the age

was

of the

age

it was

Its chief

nearly spent.

lines,and

made

was

knowledge

itself

developingwith

and
theoretical,

later.

It

first asserted

Europe

life was
practical
the

loved

Greeks

things,however, going on

other

were

East, and

the

all this

fact that

for its results.

not

There

the

note

being a,
tracos\

the

greit

of the great scientific

other

scientific

lost their faith in disinterested

study. Gorgias said that there was nothing,that even if the -e

were
anything,we could not know it,and that even if we cou d
Pr"
know
it,we could not impart our
knowledge to others.
ard
the measure
of all things,"
was
tagoras taught that "Man
this meant

that what

to

appears
summed

up

by

or

"argument

or

inquirymust

we

do

to

say

not

use
'

is

you

what

body.'

to
was

word

The

called

in later

search

It is absurd

in

its

is

me

you.

of indolence."

know.

the

true

be

to

appears

This

either
to

popular

whole

ran

as

whit

and

me

is

attitude of mind

days

the

It would

know

we

for what

ignava

raiio

All research

follows.

for what

seek

sense.

to

true

we

be

or

know,
more

whit
ar

accurate

Conclusion

I 4"

practicalaccount,

and

that

why they

was

regarded

were

dislike

by the risingdemocracy. The instinct

sound.
was
The
to
perfectly
Sophistsseemed
could
sell the secret
of superiority
such as
to
for

pay

it,and

thus

Rhetoric
looked

was

be persons
could

the old.

art

before

"

wh

afford

aristocrac

new

That

too

is wh
I
to

suspiciousbut unintelligent
in the
that Plato
to
note
democracy, and it is interesting
Gorgias classes it along with navigationand the art of mailing
of the life-preserving
as
arts.
siege-engines,
one
That, accorcing

get

him,

to

accused

of

of their enemit

large a place in their teaching.

which enabled
the superiorman

so

the

as

upon

off when

hold

to

came

instruments

the

irresistiblethan

dangerous and

more

be

to

wi

the final outcome

was

practicallife its highestobject.

off"

which

of the education
It ended

in

an

made
of

art

the

"getting

by deceptionand flattery.

VI
?.
r

It

incessant
the

he

tradition.
won,

shadowy
cation

view

of

education

that

Plato

in his earlier

war

Academy,

Greek
and

againstthis

was

and
forms

he
and, when
writings,
reallyreturningto the older

was

By Aristotle's time

Sophistsare

the

him.

to

is intended

alreadysomewhat

His
fit

the battle had

formula

that

wagtd't

established
and

bettt r I

been

fought "
and

remote

the

highest edu

rightand noble use o"

leisure is based upon
certain sayingsof Plato, and
the same
had
been expressed by Demokritos
when
he said that
\^ thought
A lifewithout a holidayis like a long journey without an inn."
A more
modern
thing would be to say
way of puttingthe same
to

us

for the

"

that life must

There
enforced

observance
"

its Sabbaths.

have

never

more

was

than

of the

day

time

the

present.

of rest

theoretic life,"
though

no

when

this lesson

required to

In

days,

former

provided in

doubt

in

too

some

narrow

measure

and

the

be

strict
for the

mechanical

-l

Conclusion.
a

But

way.

"

century believed

the nineteenth
and

Gospel of Work,

the

world

The

now

in
exclusively

too

"

much

is too

with

us

late and

lay waste

we
spending,

Gettingand

141

our

soon,

powers."

and has been nobly

Gospel of Work is a noble one
preached,but the neglectof the stillhigherGospel of Leisure
Aristotle has indicated so
has produced the results which
always work, and, if our education has
.clearly.We cannot
to take
our
are
sure
to use
we
not fitted us
spare time rightly,
The

to

the lifeof

if onlythey knew

be transformed
when

work.

of

sunk

theyare not at
the community are

their lives are

of low

or

by

ment

up

and

and

CAMBRIDGE:

would

do with themselves
that whole

all see

classes

degradation
justbecause

periodsof
And

abnormal

overwork

can

we

growth of

see

and

PRINTED

cure

BY

the

intervals

and

too

that the end

cravingfor

has threatened

excitement,which
cause

to

who

men

century, the century of work, has been marked

society
altogether.It

learn the

can

in needless

vicious relaxation.

morbid

what

We

succession of

of the nineteenth

all know

We

amusement.

mere

is from

at

the Greeks

times

that

we

amuse

to
can

break
best

of these ills.

j. "

c.

F.

CLAY,

AT

THE

UNIVERSITY

HRESS.

Dy

for

Series

Cambridge

Schools

an""

Colleges

Graining

CAMBRIDGE

PRESS

UNIVERSITY

October, 1904
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high
To

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ar

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H.

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Mr

Principal

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Education

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Training

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At

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