Journal of Applied Geophysics 47 2001.

261269
www.elsevier.comrlocaterjappgeo

Delineation of sulphide ore-zones by borehole radar tomography

at Hellyer Mine, Australia
Binzhong Zhou a,) , Peter K. Fullagar b,1
a

CMTEr CSIRO Exploration and Mining, P.O. Box 883, Kenmore, QLD 4069, Australia
Fullagar Geophysics Pty. Ltd., Leel 1, 1 Swann Road, Taringa, QLD 4068, Australia

Accepted 8 May 2001

Abstract
Velocity and absorption tomograms are the two most common forms of presentation of radar tomographic data. However,
mining personnel, geophysicists included, are often unfamiliar with radar velocity and absorption. In this paper, general
formulae are introduced, relating velocity and attenuation coefficient to conductivity and dielectric constant. The formulae
are valid for lossy media as well as high-resistivity materials. The transformation of velocity and absorption to conductivity
and dielectric constant is illustrated via application of the formulae to radar tomograms from the Hellyer zincleadsilver
mine, Tasmania, Australia. The resulting conductivity and dielectric constant tomograms constructed at Hellyer demonstrated the potential of radar tomography to delineate sulphide ore zones. q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Electrical conductivity; Cross-hole; Dielectric constant; Mining; Radar; Tomography; Imaging

1. Introduction
Borehole radar can map lithology, structure, and
voids around and between boreholes by measuring
the traveltimes and amplitudes of the electromagnetic EM. waves propagating from a transmitter to
one or more receivers. Broadly speaking, borehole
radar can be operated in two configurations: singlehole reflection or cross-hole transmission. Wellestablished applications of single-hole reflection
borehole radar include cavity detection Owen and
)

Corresponding author. Fax: q61-7-3327-4455.

E-mail addresses: b.zhou@dem.csiro.au B. Zhou.,
p.fullagar@mailbox.uq.edu.au P.K. Fullagar..
1
Fax: q61-7-3377-6701.

Suhler, 1980., fracture mapping within potential nuclear waste repositories Olsson et al., 1992; Stevens
et al., 1994., hydrological investigations Lane et al.,
1994., and stratigraphic mapping within salt mines
Mundry et al., 1983; Eisenburger et al., 1993.. The
principal applications of cross-hole radar to date
have been tunnel detection Lytle et al., 1979., hydrological property mapping Hubbard et al., 1997;
Paprocki and Alumbaugh, 1999., monitoring moisture migration Eppstein and Dougherty, 1998; Peterson et al., 1998; Alumbaugh and Paprocki, 2000.,
mapping hydraulically permeable fractures Wright
and Lane, 1998., and delineating porous zones
Peterson et al., 1999..
Application of borehole radar in non-evaporite
mines is still relatively uncommon, notwithstanding

0926-9851r01r$ - see front matter q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 6 - 9 8 5 1 0 1 . 0 0 0 7 0 - 2

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B. Zhou, P.K. Fullagarr Journal of Applied Geophysics 47 (2001) 261269

the strong commercial incentive to accurately define

ore boundaries and structures. Conventional GPR
reflection has found application in underground coal
mines Coon et al., 1981; Yelf et al., 1990. and is
employed routinely to define auriferous zones in the
Witwatersrand Campbell, 1994. and at the Sixteen
to One Mine in California Raadsma, 1994.. Encouraging experimental applications of borehole
reflection radar have been reported from coal mines
Murray et al., 1998., Witwatersrand gold mines
Wedepohl et al., 1998., and base metal sulphide
mines Livelybrooks et al., 1996; Liu et al., 1998..
This paper concerns a trial of cross-hole radar tomography in a base metal mine in Australia.
In base metal sulphide mines, the extreme conductivity of the ore zones renders ore contacts as
almost perfect radar reflectors. Therefore, if the host
rock is highly resistive, radar reflection presents
potential means for accurate orebody delineation.
GPR is not always effective in these notionally
favourable environments because small concentrations of disseminated sulphide minerals can exert
disproportionate influence, transforming a resistive
host into a strong attenuator of radar waves Fullagar
and Livelybrooks, 1994.. Likewise, heterogeneity in
the host can scatter radar signals Fullagar et al.,
2000.. Nonetheless, the potential economic benefits
justify further investigation of both the technical and
commercial issues surrounding borehole radar applications in metalliferous mines. Accordingly, borehole radar trials were included as a component in a
research project which investigated applications of
geophysical techniques at seven Australian mines in
the mid-1990s. In particular, cross-hole radar data
were acquired at the Hellyer Mine, Tasmania in 1995
using a RAMAC system.
Velocity and attenuation tomograms are the normal outputs from inversion of cross-hole radar data.
However, in the mining context, rock types are often
more interpretable in terms of their conductivity and
dielectric constant. Formulae for transformation of
velocity and attenuation into conductivity and dielectric constant are given below, and are applied to the
radar velocity and attenuation tomograms generated
at Hellyer data. Encouraging results were obtained in
mapping the distribution of electrical properties between boreholes, illustrating the potential of radar
tomography to delineate ore zones.

2. Multi-parameter reconstruction of radar tomographic data

The propagation and attenuation of EM waves are
governed by conductivity, s , dielectric constant, ,
and magnetic permeability, m. In a homogeneous
isotropic medium, the EM attenuation is governed by
the absorption coefficient a , where:

v m
a s~
2
2

s2
1q

2v 2

1r2

y1

1r2

The radar phase speed n is given by:

v
ns ,
b

1.

2.

where v s 2p f is the angular frequency and where

wave number b takes the form:

v m
b s~
2
2

s2
1q

2v 2

1r2

q1

1r2

3.

The greatest variation in all the physical properties of rocks and minerals is exhibited by the resistivity or conductivity. The resistivity of metallic minerals may be as small as 10y5 V m, for pyrrhotite,
while the resistivity of rocks may be as large as 10 13
V m, for dry salt Telford et al., 1990.. In conductive rocks, EM attenuation is high, phase speed is
reduced, and wavelengths are shorter. Natural variations in the relative dielectric constant are fairly
small, varying between 2 and 80 for most minerals
and rocks, depending on the amount of water present.
Radar velocity, n , can be obtained from inversion
of the first arrival times of a cross-hole radar tomographic survey, while the attenuation coefficient, a ,
can be constructed from inversion of the amplitudes.
Given values of a and n , it follows from Eqs.
1. 3. that the conductivity s or resistivity r . can
be expressed as:
1
2a
ss s
.
4.
r
mn
The corresponding expression for dielectric constant, , is:

m n2

v/

5.

B. Zhou, P.K. Fullagarr Journal of Applied Geophysics 47 (2001) 261269

Thus, from measurements of traveltimes and amplitudes of radar waves, we can construct tomograms
for four parameters, viz. phase velocity, attenuation
coefficient, conductivity, and dielectric constant. Resistivity and dielectric constant are usually much
more interpretable for geologists and mining engineers than velocity and absorption. To the best of our
knowledge, the above general conversion formulae
have not been published elsewhere, although approximate expressions for high Q media are frequently
quoted, e.g. Davis and Annan 1989..

263

3.2. The reduction of the amplitude data

Prior to tomographic reconstruction, the amplitude data must be corrected for: 1. geometrical
spreading, 2. radiation pattern of the transmitter, 3.
the angular sensitivity of the receiver, and 4. the
strength of the source. The reduction procedure
adopted for the Hellyer data is quite conventional,
and assumes far-field propagation and dipole antennae. Under this assumption, the electric field amplitude, A m , can be expressed by:
A m s A 0 eyHa l .d l sin u t . sin ur . rr

3. Data reduction procedures

3.1. Traeltime picking
Both traveltimes and amplitudes are strongly dependent on the conductivities and dielectric constants
of the media that the waves pass through. The traveltimes and amplitudes of the direct arrivals on each
cross-hole radar trace were manually picked, trace by
trace, on a computer. The arrival time of the maximum trough radar amplitude was picked instead of
the actual onset time of the radar pulse in this study
because the data were quite noisy and the onset was
not clearly defined.
Borehole radar systems commonly do not record
absolute traveltimes. Assuming negligible zero-time
drift, the absolute traveltime can be recovered from a
traveltime versus propagation distance plot for direct
arrivals Mason, 1981; Olsson et al., 1992.. For a
homogeneous medium, the traveltimes should cluster
tightly around a straight line, and the time intercept
after extrapolation back to zero-distance constitutes
the correction to be subtracted from the picked traveltimes. This procedure can also be adopted for
inhomogeneous media provided the timedistance
plot defines a linear trend. If the traveltime versus
distance graph does not define a straight line, albeit
with a number of outliers, either the data are of poor
quality or the medium is highly heterogeneous.
The assumption implicit in picking the maximum
amplitude time as the arrival time instead of the
onset time is that the frequency content is invariant
from trace to trace, to ensure constant time difference between the onset and the amplitude maximum.

6.

where sin u t . defines the radiation pattern for the

dipole transmitter; sin ur . is the receiver sensitivity
function; r is the ray length; A 0 is the source
strength; and a l . is the absorption coefficient at
distance l along the raypath. The polar angles, u t
and ur , of the AraysB with respect to the transmitter
and receiver antenna axes are defined in Fig. 1. The
factor 1rr accounts for the geometrical spreading of
the far-field wave in a 3D homogeneous medium.
The above equation can be linearized by taking
20log 10 of both sides and viewing the integral as
pseudo-traveltime t in dB. in analogue to the seismic traveltime Jackson and Tweeton, 1994; Zhou et
al., 1998.

t s 20log 10 e a l . d l s a a r

s 20log 10 A 0 y a y 20log 10
s a0 y y

r
sin u t sin ur

/
7.

where a a is the apparent absorption coefficient in

dBrm.; a 0 s 20log 10 A 0 is the source strength;
a s 20log 10 A m is the measured amplitude in dB; y
is the reduced amplitude after the correction of the
geometry spreading and radiation pattern effects..
Using the above formula, the effects of geometrical
spreading and antenna radiation patterns can be removed, given source and receiver locations and borehole trajectories. However, it should be noted that
antenna radiation patterns vary in conductive media,
where secondary lobes may develop or where in
extreme cases signal can be completely nulled. The
likelihood of imperfect radiation pattern correction is

264

B. Zhou, P.K. Fullagarr Journal of Applied Geophysics 47 (2001) 261269

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of ray polar angles at the transmitter

and receiver.

greatest for AraysB, which make an acute angle with

the transmitter or receiver axis Pears, 1997..
Accounting for the effect of source strength, A 0
is rarely straightforward. The term, a 0 s 20log 10 A 0 ,
can be estimated in homogeneous media by linear
fitting the pseudo-traveltime against the sourcereceiver distance after correction for geometrical
spreading and radiation pattern. The offset in
pseudo-traveltime at zero-distance is the desired estimate of a 0 . Subtracting the a 0 estimate from the
data will compensate for the effect of source strength,
and for other systematic effects such as gain setting.
In practice, accurate correction of source strength is
very difficult, both because surveys are not normally
undertaken in homogeneous media and because the
performance of a transmitter in a borehole is influenced by the electrical properties of the borehole
fluid and surrounding rocks Fullagar et al., 1996..
Although, in fact, the effective source strength,
a 0 , will vary with transmitter site, likewise, receiver
sensitivity is degraded within conductive stratigraphy. Ideally, the transmitter performance should be
monitored, e.g. by recording input current and
impedance to guide A 0 correction in the data. However, the RAMAC radar system does not record such
transmitter parameters. It is conventional practice to
assume a constant source strength during reduction
of amplitude data. Subtracting a constant a 0 Astatic
shiftB from the t-values will leave some source
strength effects in the reduced data. However, this
may yet prove to be the most practical approach; if
the A 0 value derived in resistive host rocks is applied everywhere, the effect in conductive zones,

where the actual source strength drops, will be to

increase the apparent absorption. This is in fact
appropriate, since the degradation of the transmitter
performance is due to the increased conductivity, and
hence, higher absorption, close to one or both antennae. To AfullyB correct for source strength variations
would entail explicit modelling of the transmitter.
It is possible to pursue source corrections further
if reciprocal data is available, i.e. if data were collected with the positions of transmitter and receiver
reversed. Following McGaughey 1990., Fullagar et
al. 1996. introduced individual source strength corrections at each transmitter site, their magnitudes
chosen to enforce reciprocity. Reciprocity is implicitly assumed in tomographic algorithms. To force
reciprocity is to acknowledge that the issue is not
simply variation in source strength, but also in receiver sensitivity. Once a reciprocity correction has
been applied, a fixed source strength is assumed for
data reduction and image construction. Unfortunately, this approach was not open to us at Hellyer
because, as is usually the case, no reciprocal data
were collected.

4. Imaging results at Hellyer

The Hellyer zincleadsilver massive sulphide
deposit is located in the Cambrian Mount Reid Volcanic belt in western Tasmania McArthur and Dronseika, 1990.. The stratigraphy consists of a flat-lying
sequence of footwall andesites FPS. overlain by
hangingwall volcaniclastics HVS. and basaltic pillow lavas PLS.. The main mineralised unit is denoted BMS, capped in places by barite-rich Ba. and
glassy silicapyrite GSP. zones Fig. 2..
Crosshole tomographic radar data were collected
at Hellyer Mine in 1995 using a RAMAC 20 MHz
borehole radar system. Single-hole reflection and
cross-hole transmission radar data were recorded in
three holes HL798, 800 and 801. in drill section
10340N Fig. 2.. The transmitter spacing was 4 m
while the receiver interval was 2 m. The wavelength
is about 5 m. The principal objective of the trial at
Hellyer was to evaluate whether borehole radar could
assist in detecting and mapping fault offsets of the
hangingwall HVSrBMS. ore contact.

B. Zhou, P.K. Fullagarr Journal of Applied Geophysics 47 (2001) 261269

265

Fig. 2. Hellyer drill section 10340N, showing the holes used for
radar surveys blue.. Tomographic panel locations are indicated in
orange. Geological interpretation is superimposed in green.

Two tomographic panels were recorded, between

holes HL800HL801 and HL798HL801 Fig. 2..
Only the HL800HL801 panel will be discussed

Fig. 4. The nine shot gathers for HL800HL801 cross-hole radar

panel. The picked traveltimes are superimposed in red. The variation in radar amplitude is evident, especially for shot 7.

here as similar result was achieved for the other

panel. Fig. 3 shows the raypath configuration for this
panel; path lengths vary between 9 and 25 m. The
shot gathers for the nine transmitter sites in HL800
are shown in Fig. 4, with picked traveltimes for the
maximum trough event superimposed in red. For the

Fig. 3. Raypath geometry for the tomographic radar survey between holes HL800 and HL801 at Hellyer. Numbers at the
transmitter locations in HL800 identify the shot gathers in Fig. 4.

Fig. 5. Traveltime distribution for HL800HL801.

266

B. Zhou, P.K. Fullagarr Journal of Applied Geophysics 47 (2001) 261269

7th shot gather, the transmitter was located within

relatively conductive HVS; consequently, the amplitude is attenuated strongly, and the traveltime increased substantially.
The picked traveltimes were plotted against transmitterreceiver distance as shown in Fig. 5. The line
of best fit has equation t s 11.4 d q 23.8 ns. The
average radar velocity in this panel is av s 88.0
mrms. The intercept time should be subtracted from
picked data to compensate for the source timing
error.
The pseudo-traveltimes derived via reduction of
the amplitude data can also be plotted against transmitterreceiver separation see Fig. 6. after the effects of geometrical spreading, and source and receiver radiation patterns have been removed, as per
Eq. 6.. The line of best fit is given by t s a av d y a 0
neper, where the average apparent attenuation is
a av s 0.338 neperrms 2.933 dBrm. The intercept
is the source strength estimate: a 0 s y15.07 neper
s y131 dB. The a0 estimate was subtracted from
the pseudo-travel -times prior to tomographic reconstruction.
Velocity and absorption tomograms were generated using the picked traveltimes and amplitudes
with a SIRT straight ray tomographic reconstruction
procedure Jackson and Tweeton, 1994.. A cell size
of 2 = 2 m2 was used during the inversion. The
reconstructed velocities Fig. 7. span a relatively
large range, from 78.5 in HVS. to 94.7 mrms in

Fig. 6. Reduced amplitude pseudo-time, t . distribution for

HL800HL801.

PLS.. The corresponding attenuation coefficients

Fig. 8. lie between 4.57 black. and 1.95 dBrm
white.. The overall appearance of these two tomograms is very similar, engendering confidence in the
data acquisition and reduction procedures.
Borehole resistivity logs red. and geological contacts green. are superimposed on the tomograms. It
is clear that the overall velocity trends correlate
directly with the resistivity logs, while attenuation
and logged resistivity are inversely correlated. There
are significant resistivity and hence velocity and
absorption. variations within the PLS.
The velocity and attenuation tomograms can be
transformed into dielectric constant and radar resistivity images by using the expressions given by Eqs.
4. and 5.. The results are presented in Figs. 9 and
10, respectively. A dominant recorded frequency of
15 MHz and free-space permeability were assumed
for the conversion.
The magnetic susceptibility of most minerals is
negligible. The exceptions are magnetic minerals
such as magnetite, pyrrhotite, and titano-magnetite.
In metalliferous mines, the effect of magnetic permeability on radar propagation is potentially significant.
At Hellyer, there is minor magnetite in the ore, but
the host rocks are virtually non-magnetic. Therefore,
free-space permeability has been assumed here.
The appearance of the dielectric constant image
Fig. 9. is reversed from the other images, i.e. higher
values in the HVS than the PLS. The derived relative
dielectric constants range from 9.3 to 12.7, which is
consistent with laboratory measurements made on
Hellyer drill core of 10.2 for PLS and 12.913.4 for
HVS samples.
Although the resistivity logs were noisy, their
broad trends are well correlated with the variations
in derived resistivity Fig. 10.. The derived resistivities are in the range of 100280 V m, consistent
with the resistivity range 88438 V m measured on
HVS core samples. However, in the high-resistivity
log interval at the elevations 610620 m along the
borehole HL801, near the lower left corner of the
image, the tomogram shows relatively low resistivity. This is probably a consequence of the low
density of tomographic rays in that region. Similar
phenomenon was observed in our radio-frequency
tomographic imaging with similar configuration
Zhou et al., 1998..

B. Zhou, P.K. Fullagarr Journal of Applied Geophysics 47 (2001) 261269

Fig. 7. Velocity tomogram. The geologic interpretation green.

and borehole resistivity logs red. are overlaid on the image. The
values of resistivity log increase to the right for HL801 and to the
left for HL800.

267

Fig. 9. Permittivity tomogram constructed from the velocity Fig.

7. and attenuation Fig. 8. tomograms via Eqs. 4. and 5.. The
geologic interpretation green. and borehole resistivity logs red.
are overlaid on the image.

Examination of the velocity, absorption, dielectric

constant and radar resistivity tomograms Figs. 710.
suggests that the HVS body intersected by borehole

HL801 pinches out between the holes, while the

HVS intersected by borehole 800 is gently west-dipping, in keeping with the geologic interpretation

Fig. 8. Radar attenuation tomogram. The geologic interpretation

green. and borehole resistivity logs red. are overlaid on the
image. The values of resistivity log increase to the right for
HL801 and to the left for HL800.

Fig. 10. Resistivity tomogram constructed from the velocity Fig.

7. and attenuation Fig. 8. tomograms via Eqs. 4. and 5.. The
geologic interpretation green. and borehole resistivity logs red.
are overlaid on the image.

268

B. Zhou, P.K. Fullagarr Journal of Applied Geophysics 47 (2001) 261269

green.. It is possible that there is a previously

unrecognized steep fault between these two boreholes.

during acquisition of the borehole radar data. Thanks

also goes to two anonymous referees for their thorough reviews and insightful comments.

5. Conclusions

References

In this paper, we have presented general formulae

relating resistivity and dielectric constant to radar
velocity and attenuation. These expressions constitute a convenient means for transformation of velocity and attenuation tomograms into dielectric constant and resistivity tomograms in high-loss as well
as low-loss media. Such transformation is advantageous in the context of mining since resistivity and
dielectric constant are more readily interpretable by
geophysicists and geologists.
Resistivity tomograms constructed from cross-hole
radar data recorded at the Hellyer Mine, Tasmania
exhibit variations along their edges which are qualitatively consistent with borehole resistivity logs.
The trial at Hellyer indicated that, in principle,
borehole radar could delineate offsets in the sedimentrore HVSrBMS. hangingwall contact provided: a. that the borehole radar were operated from
within lava PLS. at a range of less than 35 m and
b. that the lavarsediment PLSrHVS. contact paralleled the hangingwall ore contact. Further test work
is required at a well-controlled site to confirm the
practical merit of the radar tomography for fault
detection and, hence, ore boundary delineation at
Hellyer.

Acknowledgements
This work was part of AMIRArCMTE Project
P436rMM1, A Application of geophysics to mine
planning and operationsB, sponsored by Aberfoyle
Resources, Acacia Resources, CRA Exploration,
Mount Isa Mines, Normandy Mining, Outokumpu
Mining, and Pasminco Mining. We are grateful to
Greg Marshall, Chris Davies, David Shipp, Bevan
McWilliams and other Aberfoyle staff for their help
during our visit to Hellyer. Likewise, we wish to
acknowledge the professionalism of Christer
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