Eth 23703 02

Diss. ETH No.
13779
Staling
of
Bread
and
Bread Model Systems
Role of Starch
and
Amylases
A dissertation submitted to the
SWISS FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

ZURICH
for the
degree
of
Doctor of Technical Sciences
presented by
Susanna
Hug-lten
Dipl. Lm.-lng.
born 30
July,
citizen of
accepted
on
1970
Untergeri (ZG), Switzerland
the recommendation of
Prof. Dr. F.
Dr. B.
Escher, examiner
Conde-Petit,
Prof. Dr. K.
Zurich 2000
ETH
co-examiner
Poutanen, co-examiner
13/2/01
Acknowledgement
Prof
Dr
Felix Escher gave
of bread
fascinating phenomenon
and constructive discussions I
specially
guidance
never-ending
a
am
very
be
study
the
For his continuous
guidance, support
perfect
balance between scientific freedom
I thank her for the uncountable hours she invested

enthusiasm and her
co-examiner
creativity
in
my work, her
In many fruitful discussions I learned
of the field
view
of this thesis and for
I wish to thank Novo Nordisk
(VTT Finland)
Spendler
A/S, Copenhagen,
accepting
Denmark for
A
support
and Jack Bech Nielsen who gave
the world of enzyme business and
for
to
critically reading my manuscript
financial and technical
investigation possible by
extended to Tina
and
interesting
grateful
very thankful to Prof Dr Kaisa Poutanen
am
to
Batrice Conde-Petit for her excellent supervision and
thank Dr
lot from her broad
opportunity
staling
support She constantly provided

and
the
me
supported
me
this
making
special
me an
thank
insight
constantly during my
is
into
work with
many scientific discussions
My
sincere
Science for
always
thanks
providing
remember the
motivated
me
extended to all my
good
time I had
good
who introduced
suitable methods for
semester and
Crespo,
Matthias
Franoise
explicitly
diploma
carefully
into the
me
studying
into
support
bread
manuscript,
who
and with
field of microscopy and
under the
X-ray diffractometry
works Rita
I will
help
Christoph Zweifel,
read the
great
and
light microscope
and DSC
analysis
Blattmann, Chantal Bussmann, Pamela
Huber, Rena Rekeweg, Sarah Robbiani, Thomas Wren and
Zuber contributed to this work
mentioned for
interesting
me
their
the lab E24 1 with
humor and
Jeannette Nussh introduced
During
in
at the Institute of Food
colleagues
working environment,
a nice
with his
Stephan Handschin,
developed
are
making my
time
am
thankful to all friends who
enjoyable
and for
making
are
life
not
more
Trudi and Peter
My parents,
and have given
me
Iten, have accompanied
unconditional
parents, Evelyn, Ralph, Silvia,
support
in
everything
me
throughout my
I have done
life
I thank my
Alex and Dominik for their love and their belief
in
me
My
husband
encouragement,
marvellous
Florian
the
Hug
many
great experiences
Thank you for
being
Zurich, July 7 2000
was
constantly
inspiring
in
there
discussions,
the Swiss mountains
the very person you
for
his
me
His
love,
his
and
our
enthusiasm
were an
invaluable
Susanna
Hug-lten
are
support
Table of Contents
abbreviations
SUMMARY
VII
Zusammenfassung
ix
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Staling
of bread
2.2
Role of starch in bread
2.3
2.2.1 Transformations of starch
during baking
2.2.2Transformations of starch
during staling
13
Current
antistaling
understanding
2.3.1 General features of
of the
amylases
2.3.2 Antistaling mechanism of
in
effect of
amylases
baking technology
amylases
17
17
18
EXPERIMENTAL
23
3.1
Material
23
3.2
Preparation
of bread
3.3
Preparation
of
3.3.1 Starch
gels
gels
3.3.2Wheat flour
25
and starch
dispersions
26
26
27
gels
3.3.3 Low concentration starch
dispersions
29
11
3.4
Table of Contents
Mechanical measurements
3.4.1 Instrumental texture
3.4.2 Uniaxial
30
profile analysis
compression
test of
of bread
30
32
gels
3.5
Light microscopy
33
3.6
Physicochemical methods
34
3.6.1 Determination of water content
34
3.6.2 Determination of iodine
X-ray powder
3.6.3 Wide-angle
3.6.4 Differential
staining
of starch
34
dispersions
diffraction
35
Scanning Calorimetry
3.6.5 Determination of starch and starch
35
36
degradation products
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
39
4.1
Mechanical
39
properties
4.1.1 Influence of
of bread and bread models
amylases
on
the texture of bread
amylases
gels
on
the mechanical
4.1.2 Influence of
and flour
40
properties
of starch
45
4.1.3 Conclusions
4.2
52
Microstructure of
dough,
4.2.1
of method for
Development
bread and bread models
aged
amylases
on
54
light microscopy
4.2.2 Localization of starch in the microstructure of

4.2.3 Influence of
dough
and bread
starch
.55
62
amylases
on
the microstructure of flour
gels
and
71
gels
4.2.5 Influence of
the microstructure of fresh and
bread
4.2.4 Influence of
amylases
on
iodine
staining
of starch
4.2.6 Conclusions
4.3
54
81
89
Physicochemical properties
of starch in bread and in bread models91
4.3.1 Influence of
amylases
on
the
crystallinity
4.3.2 Influence of
amylases
on
the
melting
retrograded
starch
of starch
91
transitions of
99
Ill
4.3.3 Influence of
amylases
on
the starch content and the starch

106
4.3.4 Conclusions
111
A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH TO STALING
5.1
Comparison
organization
of bread and bread models at different levels of
Relationship
between starch structure and
5.2
113
5.2.11nfluence of
staling
5.2.3 Influence of
117
Soy--amylase
119
5.2.4 Contribution of different starch fractions to

Model for the
of
staling
amylases
5.4
Outlook
REFERENCES
115
115
Novamyl
5.2.2 Influence of BAN
5.3
113
of bread and the
staling
antistaling
120
effect
122
128
131
IV
Abbreviations
[mm2]
area
AL
amylose
AP
amylopectin
AS
available starch
BANU
-amylase
CLSM
confocal laser
day
db
dry
DP
degree
DSC
differential
ED
modulus of
eH
true strain
ESEM
environmental
force
height [mm]
Ah
compression
AH
enthalpy [J/g sample db]
HT
high-temperature
ITS
intermediate thermal
wavelength [nm]
KNU
kilo Novo
LM
light microscopy
MANU
maltogenic amylase
MW
molecular
Mi,2
melting
transition native
M3,4
melting
transition
amylose-lipid complexes
NMR
nuclear
magnetic
resonance
true stress
rH
relative
humidity [%]
Ri
melting
transition
retrograded amylopectin
R2
melting
transition
retrograded amylose
RS
resistant starch
Novo unit
scanning microscopy
base
of
polymerization
scanning calorimetry
deformability [N/mm2]
Hencky
strain
scanning
[-]
electron
microscopy
[N]
distance
oc-amylase
[mm]
stability
unit
Novo unit
weight
crystalline amylopectin
[N/mm2]
VI
temperature [C]
Tg
glass
Tm
melting temperature [C]
volume
weight
wb
wet base
26
scattering angle [degrees]
WAXS
wide-angle X-ray
transition
diffraction
VII
Summary
Starch
the
is
component
main
known to contribute
significantly
antistaling agents
has been
tion deals with the
antistaling
(Novamyl),
wheat starch
The
key
elements
as
Bread
investigated
and flour
dispersions (40 %)
and
staling
were
followed
wide-angle X-ray diffraction,
and
gels
were
and bread
was
dough
by
Addition of
and to reduced
firming
and flour
gels
firmness
Unexpectedly,
amylase,
ther
on
to the
increase
prepared by
without
during baking
as
Novamyl
nor
as
This
granules
they
maintained the
granules
part
of the
Only
in
baked bread and
systems
and did not
and
by enzy
systems investigated
rate of bread
firming
gel
of bread crust
typical birefringence
amylose
gels Soy--
fraction accumulated
also observed
weak
in
birefringence
models which became
Novamyl strong birefringence
more
birfringent
structures of
rich regions within the starch
systems
granules
with
were
In control
and
in
gelati
and formed
amylopectin
the center of
flour and starch
of starch
and
granules
during aging
already
Novamyl
not
of native starch
intense
occurred
nei
gels
gelatinized
polymers amylose
was
revealed
were
change during staling By combining bright-field
microscopy the
amylose
with
gels during
light microscopy,
calonmetry (DSC)
of bread crumb
phase separation
gels Polanzed-light microscopy

freshly
bread and
but without increasing the initial
granules
continuous starch network The two starch
starch
concentrated
closed moulds
in
affect texture of bread and flour
showed that starch
and
in
on
conventional
hand, reduced only the firmness of starch gels but did
On the other hand, starch
phase separated
yeast
from soy
it did not influence the firmness of starch
initial firmness
Light microscopy
nized
extent
same
the other
-amylase
BAN reduced the
during aging
rate
serves as a
maltogenic oc-amylase
as
staling
led to enhanced initial firmness of all
Novamyl
turn,
in
mechanical measurements,
differential scanning
amylases
is
present investiga
prepared by heating
matic determination of starch content and starch
of
for
responsible
structural, physical and chemical changes of starch
baking
1950 The
amylases which,
oc-amylase (BAN)
of
importance
degrading enzymes, namely
was
baking procedure Starch
early
as
reorganization during aging
The
staling
mechanism of
classical bacterial
to bread
recognized
base for the identification of
The influence of starch
of bread and its
after
baking
polanzed-light
were
samples
identified
and
in
as
sys-
VIII
Summary
terns with BAN
or
after several
birfringent only
gence
developed
It
granules
not
Soy--amylase
and that both
changes
polymers
which
is
the
does not
was
the
three
an
increase
necessarily
of
was
less intense birefrin
rich outer
zones
bread
during
fraction but also of
induced
during aging
fraction
confirmed with
crystallinity
and of
of the
staling
does
amylose polymers
higher
In the
case
initial crys
of
Novamyl,
polanzed-light microscopy
enthalpy changes
an increase in
which almost blocked
firmness
of
Fur
amylopectin
during aging Novamyl

of
rtrogradation
hand, the antistaling effect of Novamyl
one
tially degrade amylopectin
and
this hinder its
by
hand, the slight degradation of amylose

of this
polymer Thereby
birefringence
starch
and
sticky
hindered
explanation
staling
responsible
bread and flour
in
texture
found
amylopectin
in
all
behavior of
of
Soy--amylase
which
and
A model for bread
serves as
staling
is
in
on
the
ability
promotes
to par
the other
the
gelation
was
BAN induced substantial
as
gels
reduction of firmness
large
prevented
since
starch
crystalline
of starch
low MW dexnetwork
gels
No
The anti
be ascribed to the presence
can
accessible substrate before enzyme

is
mostly
inactivated before
accessible substrate
proposed
of
aging
the enzyme
on
the base of the
containing amylases
formation of starch networks contributes
recrystallization
on
prevent firming
starch
gels,
terization of bread and bread models
the effects of
endo attack
continuous
serves
based
recrystallization On
gels causing
BAN did not
In bread and flour
gelatinizes
is
for the enhanced initial firmness and
Firming upon aging
why
pregelatinized starch,
starch
is
the formation
was
inactivation
it
via an
prevents rearrangements
degradation
but also
of
center became
investigated systems
On the
tnns
granule
firming during aging
rate
correlate with
only amylase
of starch
crystalline amylose
crystalline amylose fraction
thermore,
amylopectin
amylopectin
firming
by
the
in
rich starch
Additionally,
rtrogradation
contribute to
caused
amylose
of aging
systems
in
the
Amylases reducing
tallinity
days
concluded that
is
involve
only
these
in
the
significantly
amylopectin
to
experimental
It
is
firming
charac
concluded that the

and overshadows
IX
Zusammenfassung
Starke stellt den
Backen
den
wesentlich
tragen
als
Amylasen
Der Einfluss
starkeabbauenden
von
Soja
einer
durch
Erhitzung
Brotteig
von
konzentrierten
in
(DSC)
Bereits 1950
erkannt
Die
namhch
Enzymen,
einer
und
Formen
Die
hergestellt
Mechanismus
maltogenen
und
einer
oc-
Brot wurde mit

wurden
Mehlgele
und
von
strukturellen, phy
der Starke wahrend des Backens
Brot und Gelen wurden mit mechanischen
und mit
vorliegenden
oc-Amylase (BAN)
produziert Starke-
Vernderungen
wur
Brotalterung
kroskopie, Weitwinkel-Rontgendiffraktionsmessungen,
metne
nach dem
Weizenstarkesuspensionen (40 %)
geschlossenen
sikalischen und chemischen

von
Brot bei
auf Brot und Brotmodelle wurde untersucht
ohne Hefe
und Alterns
Umwandlungen
alterungsverzogernden
klassischen bakteriellen
konventionellen Backverfahren
einem
von
Mittel
altbackenverzogernde
Amylase (Novamyl),
Amylase
Altbackenwerden
und den Schlusselfaktoren der
Amylasen
aus
zum
Brot dar Ihre
von
befassen sich mit dem
Untersuchungen
von
Hauptbestandteil
Differential-Raster-Kalon-
des
enzymatischer Bestimmung
Lichtmi-
Messungen,
Starkegehaltes
und der
Starkeabbauprodukte verfolgt
Die
Zugabe
von
reduzierten
einer
Systeme
Novamyl
wie
Novamyl,
hen
nur
die
Die Textur
Die
Erhhung
erhhte
jedoch
Brot und
krume und bildeten
Starke
und
in
Brot und
Amylopektin,
akkumulierte
chung
der
bei Brot und
in
in
nicht
im
glei
Zudem
ohne die
jedoch
Anfangsfestigkeit
zu
erho
nicht beeinflusst
typische Doppelbrechung
verkleisterten die Starkekorner der Brot
den Gelen induzierte

ein
Mehlgelen
dass die Starkekorner der Brotkruste wahrend
Hingegen
wobei sich
zu
Starkegelen Soja--Amylase
kontinuierliches Starkenetzwerk
Polarisierte
der Starke
Alterung
ein
und
aller untersuchten
Alterung
des Backens nicht verkleisterten und daher noch die

nativer Starke aufwiesen
Anfangsfestigkeit
Anfangsfestigkeit
von
wurde
Mehlgelen
Lichtmikroskopie zeigte,
die
Festigkeit
Festigkeit von Starkegelen,
von
der
wahrend der
Festigkeitszunahme
hatte BAN keinen Einfluss auf die

reduzierte
zur
Festigkeitszunahme
BAN reduzierte die
chen Masse
fhrte
Teil der
eine
Amylosefraktion
Gelen,
Nur bei Brot und Gelen mit
Verkleisterung
Phasentrennung
Lichtmikroskopie zeigte
frischen Broten und
Die
eine
im
von
der
Amylose
Starkekornzentrum
schwache
Doppelbre
welche intensiver wurde wahrend
Novamyl lag
eine
starke
Doppelbre-
Zusammenfassung
bereits
chung
zugeordnet werden
-Amylase
wurden
In den
Starkekorns
als auch
von
der
eine
kristalline
Festigkeit
dass
gezeigt,
nicht
eine
und beide
wahrend der
der
war
Polymere
Zonen des
Brot sowohl
Festigkeits
zur
Abbau
der
verhindert und
stantiellen
Amylose,
so
die
Festigkeitsreduktion
Effekt
Amylase,
eines
BAN
Starkegelen
von
in
welche die
Novamyl
von
zurck
der
Brot
Alterung
erfolgt
Folge
und
zu einer
wird
wurde keine
Soja--Amylase
vorverkleisterten Starke
inaktivierung vorliegt
der
werden,
eine
weitere molekulare
ein
von
klebrigen
der
Textur fhrte
in
Die
Erklrung gefunden
Starkegelen
Mehlgelen
Model fur die
sub
einen
grossen
Festigkeits
verhindert, da niedermolekulare Dextrine die

Fur die
Der
Alterung
Starkenetzwerken tragt wesentlich
deckt die Effekte der Rekristallisation
zur
von
von
wird durch die Anwesenheit der
ist das
von
Hemmung
festigkeitsreduzie
verursacht, die als zugngliches Substrat
In Brot und
rasche
Umordnung
einer
zu
teil-
dessen
eine
reduziert BAN verursachte
Mehlgelen,
einen
der
durch den Endo-Abbau
vor
der
Enzym-
Enzym praktisch vollstndig
Enzymabbau zugnglich
experimentellen Charakterisierung
Amylasen wird
wahrend
Rtrogradation
kann einerseits auf
gefuhrt
inaktiviert bevor die Starke verkleistert und fur den
Aufgrund
Schmelzenthalpie
Festigkeitszunahme
kontinuierlichen Starkenetzwerkes stren
Bildung
rende Effekt
was in
aber auch
zunahme wahrend der
Novamyl,
von
polarisierter Lichtmikroskopie besttigt
Festigkeitszunahme
Starkeabbau
verursach
blockierte
Amylopektin
von
Im Falle
der Knstallinitat und der
die einzige
festigkeitsreduzierende
Aggregation
von
von
einigen
eine weni
Alterung reduzierten,
korreliert mit der
Rekristallisation hindert Andererseits
mit
nach
erst
Alterung
Amylosefraktion
mit
Erhhung
unbedingt
Amylopektin weitgehend
in
oderSoja-
mit BAN
amylopektinreichen
dass wahrend der
gefolgert,
Amylosefraktion
Alterung Novamyl
weisen
Systemen
entwickelte sich zudem
den usseren,
Anfangsknstallinitat
Amylopektin
Der
in
Amylose retrogradiert
welche die
erhhte
Es wurde
und
beitragen
Amylasen
wurde
Systemen
In diesen
Daraus wird
Amylopektin
polarisierter Lichtmikroskopie
amylosereichen Starkekornzen
den
Kontrollproben
Doppelbrechung
ger intensive
eine
Hellfeld und
von
amylosereichen Starkekornzentren
die
Tagen doppelbrechend
zunahme
und vernderte sich nicht wahrend der
vor
doppelbrechenden Strukturen
konnten die
ten
Systemen
frischen
Durch die Kombination
Lagerung
tren
in
Brot
von
Brot und Brotmodellen
vorgeschlagen
Festigkeitszunahme
Amylopektin
wird
Die
Bildung
bei und ber
1
Introduction
Bread
of the most
is one
important
known for several thousand years

around 4000 B C
civilization
of
human nutrition The
high acceptance
properties,
particular
in
cereals for bread

for
special type
In
and
principle,
baking
physical
large
carbohydrates, proteins,
dietary fiber for

with the
In
making
steps
are
flavor of bread
mastered
parallel
of the world it
provides
substantial
E, minerals and
nutritional value of bread
significant
food
with the Western
fundament of human
several B vitamins, vitamin
daily
breadmaking
paired
due to its attractive sensory
item
while other cereals
is
are
used to
present
a
the primary
lesser extent and
breads
consists of the three processes mixing, fermentation
involve
transformations
constituents
foods and has been
texture and flavor Wheat and rye
production,
bread
All
in
as
Egypts
indispensable
an
areas
staple
almost
preparation developed
many cultures
in
the old
Already
Therefore, bread has been
existence
source
Bread
cereal based
by
complex
chemical and biochemical reactions and
which cereal flour
nutritionally accessible,
are
formed Textural
converted into
is
and
by
which the
quality usually
combines
product
typical
a
whose
texture and
crisp crust with
soft crumb of fresh bread
Immediately
bread, all
after
baking,
whole array of
at different rates and intensities
changes
starts to take
Except for microbiological
place
in
deterioration
1. Introduction
these
changes
referred to
are
of the
primarily by firming
of
changes
affects
aroma
that stale
products
at
The
Freshness is
large.
bread is unsalable and
produced
aging process
generally rejected.
are
the freshness
aspect
crumb, loss of crispness of the crust, and loss
compounds.
bakery products
staling. Staling impairs
as
As
presents
is not restricted to
important
to most
bread, but
consumers so
result, around 3 % of the annually
sizable economic loss
or
(Zobel
and
Kulp1996).
The
phenomenon
research
the
controlling
in
the
changes
has been
staling
it
Today,
groups.
transformations
of
is
starch
well
established
fraction
Due
proposed
in the texture. Gluten
the
on
or
of selected
expand knowledge
transformation
mechanism of
on
on
and
undesired
of bread in
and
aging.
As
should be elucidated
have
been
methods
of the starch fraction.
antistaling enzymes.
as a
among
of view of
antistaling
deal with the role of starch in

as
are
point
approaches
changes
and
factors
important
pentosans
Most of the
by many
migration
water
most
many
the contribution of starch
amylases
two
aging
prevent staling.
amylases
during baking
that
proteins
perspectives,
counteracting against
present investigations
application
clues
economic
to retard and limit
concentrate
The
to
the
are
the further constituents which influence the

texture.
since decades
investigated
staling
The main
goal
major texturogen
second
and the
was
and
on
to
its
focus, the antistaling
which, in turn, would give further
the structure and function of starch in the different
stages
of bread
making.
The
experiments
On
bread.
the
complement
the
were
other
carried out
hand,
interpretation
on one
model
hand with standard
systems
of the behavior of bread
gels
in closed containers
formed
system
This
was
type
bread
so
reduced
introduced
were
material. For this purpose, small concentrated

that neither
even more
of concentrated starch
crust
was
by preparing
gels
was
as a
nor
gels
wheat flour
in
order
to
complex composite
of wheat flour
similar
used
type
pores
were
prepared
developed.
The
of pure wheat starch.
successfully
in earlier studies
on
staling (Krsi 1983, Conde-Petit 1992).
As it
was
gel systems
staling,
postulated
that information
is needed for
on
developing
characterization of bread and
all dimensional levels of bread and the
comprehensive
model
gel samples spanned
on
baking
and
the range from
macro-
to nanoscale
mechanical,
as
illustrated and out-lined
microscopic
interdisciplinary approach
whose structural
amylose
and
in
Fig
and
physicochemical
is
general requirement
organization
from the starch
amylopectin comprises
six
1 1
methods
when
granule
orders of
Accordingly,
were
magnitude
applied
in
The
with starch
dealing
to the two
different
biopolymers
scale
Fig.
1.1:
on
of
Phase
and
amylopectin
protein
networks
of starch
granules
Composite
Networks
10u
Meter
LEVEL
in bread and bread model
characteristics
measurements:
properties
Compression
of starch
separation
Starch and
Disintegration
Light microscopy:
Mechanical
10"J
Millimeter
MACROSCOPIC
investigated levels of structures of starch
amylose
the different
Degradation
Overview
domains
Microstructure
10"
Micrometer
SUPRAMOLECULAR
starch determination:
Crystalline
Enzymatic
amylose
amylopectin
and
of
Phase transitions
WAXS:
DSC:
10a
Nanometer
MOLECULAR
systems
2
Literature Review
Staling
2.1
of bread
The textural deterioration of bread upon

which has
intrigued
apparently
made the first scientific
between fresh and
researchers for
aged
bread
molecular state, which forms
pioneering
studies of Katz
of
aimed
starch
Interestingly,
a
prohibition
affecting
the
of
are
of
of
and
the
initiated
on
by
is
one
of the
phenomena
century. Boussingault (1852)

He
recognized
that differences
water loss but
develops
on
basis
particular
of bread. The
aging
the chemical and
molecular
by
crystalline
of
bread
discussions in the Dutch
nature
staling.
parliament
on
work for bakers. Over the years, various factors
have been
reviews
by
staling.
(1913a,b, 1930)
was
than
not caused
cooling
on
unhealthy night
staling
study
understanding
his research
bread
number
at
more
storage
investigated extensively,
published
(Bechtel
D'Appolonia 1977a, Knightly 1977, Kulp
1955,
and Ponte
which is reflected
Maga
1975,
Kim
by
and
1981, Hebeda and Zobel
1996).
The term bread
other than
changes
staling
refers to all
changes
microbiological spoilage (Bechtel
which
et al.
occur
1953).
in both the crust and the crumb and leads to
acceptance.
The crust, which is
becomes soft and
leathery
on
relatively dry, crisp
staling
due to
in bread after
Bread
staling
decreasing
baking
includes
consumer
and brittle in the fresh state
migration
of water from crumb to
2. Literature Review
and Larsson
(Eliasson
crust
crumbliness is observed
as
of the
typical
aroma
of fresh
Reineccius
(Achermann 1976,
Since starch presents the

view starch
having
as
major
quantity, protein
role in
of
of its contribution to the
discussion.
Investigations
Senti
cross-linking
and
rate
content
(Axford
and
(Kim
causes
et al.
of the starch
but to
Mita
gluten
higher protein
loaf volume
1968). Overall,
component
it
can
found to correlate
was
staleness and
monitor
like
dynamic
mechanical
Weipert 1997)
Russell
and
et al.
applied
been used
1999).
A
a
proteins
1963, Axford
followed
widely applied
by
At the molecular
different methods.
to follow starch
1991).
(Zobel
a
and
lower
higher protein
softer crumb
act
diluent
as
mechanism is caused
by
the
Kulp 1996).
valid
degree
et al.
et al.
(Knorr
instrumental
of
staling.
method to
1968). Rheological
1990, Vodovotz
et al.
methods
et al.
1996,
1976, Wassermann 1979,
1990, He and Hoseney 1990, Giovanelli
frequently.
et al.
with sensory evaluation of bread
significantly
tests
et al.
(Martin
to follow the rate and
analysis (Persaud
compression
(Cluskey
1983, Hibberd and Parker 1985, Redlingeret al. 1985, Baker
Faridi and Faubion
was
and
(Zobel
therefore, its determination is
staling (Szczesniak
gluten undergoes
investigators proposed
be concluded that the
increase of order in the starch fraction
Firmness
of bread. The
in bread is under
which, in turn, results in
firming
and is
Kulp 1996).
content of bread often results in
and that the basic
Numerous methods have been
and
(Zobel
not been confirmed
et al.
bread,
rtrogradation
of bread
aging
on
to
changes including
firming
Other
1990).
D'Appolonia 1977b, Callejo
higher
of
of
aging
much lesser extent than starch
1960,
and
have shown that
cross-links, however, has
Kulp 1996). Interestingly,
loss
stale flavor
important component
development
gluten gels
between starch and
The formation of such
staling
on
Dimler
of
bread, it is reasonable
series of
of bread crumb
firming
significance
1959,
of wheat
staling. On cooling
is the second most
changes during storage,
accompanied by
This transformation is called
cause
1968).
1992).
major component
crystallization.
to be the
thought
In
and
are
et al.
(Axford
development
in the starch fraction lead to
rearrangements
gelation
bread and the
significant
in the crust
crispness
increase in firmness and
an
in the crumb
typical change
of the crumb and loss of
Firming
In contrast,
1993).
et al.
et al.
1988,
1997)
have
level, the ordering of the starch fraction
Differential
rtrogradation
scanning calorimetry (DSC)
in bread
(Fearn
and Russell
is
1982,
2.2 Role of starch in bread
Hoseney 1986, Czuchajowska
Zeleznak and
et al.
1995, Schiraldi
Crystallinity
1996, Leon
et al.
of starch in bread
was
(WAXS) (Katz 1930, Dragsdorf

al.
(Wilson
spectroscopy
spectroscopy (Kulik
water is
further
and
has
al.
1991, Chen
et al.
which
is
during
storage temperature
of
for
one
are
factors
exist
crumb
2.2
and Ponte
investigations
on
on
starch in bread.
and Ponte
in
1981).
and
mobility
1983, Kim-Shin
formulation
retard
to
firming. Mixing conditions,
in the field
component
and
of
prevention
Zobel and
(1981),
et
i.e.
As
etc.
Pentosans,
staling.
are
influencing staling
of
the
primary
fermentation time and

of bread. In the
the
staling prevention, namely
Antistaling enzymes mainly
act
the
on
bread, which makes it necessary
general.
of
staling
For
comprehensive
to
overviews
the reader is referred to
Maga
Kulp (1996).
present
the function of starch in bread is abundant. In
starch itself
were
During processing
different levels of
and
state of
Role of starch in bread
The literature
is
NMR
by many factors,
Monoglycerides
process variables
the bulk
as
softness.
will be discussed.
affecting staling
(1975), Kulp
et al.
is affected
parameters,
describe also the role of starch in bread in

on
dynamic
changes
staling (Leung
and
1995)
also used. The
study
staling
methods
possibility
amylases,
starch fraction
al.
et
staling process (Kulp
bread
bread
surfactants used to inhibit crumb
application
et
and sugar influence for instance the moisture level of bread
important
following, only
are
to
production
different
oligosaccharides
applied
protein,
temperature,
consequence,
1980, Varriano-Marston
1997).
Besides starch and
moisture,
Champenois
factor in the
micro-redistribution of water
diffraction
by wide-angle X-ray
1983, Zeleznak and Hoseney 1987a). Infrared
1991,
been
1989, Champenois
1997, Defloor and Delcour 1999).
determined
Haverkamp 1997)
important
NMR
Recently,
al.
et
et al.
and Varriano-Marston
et al.
1980, Pisesookbunterng
and Pomeranz
initiated in order to understand the role of
bread, starch undergoes
granule organization
in the form of native starch
retrogrades during storage
overview
of
on
the
native
fact, much basic
and structure. In the
severe
changes
dough stage,
at
starch
granules. Starch gelatinizes during baking
of bread. The
organization
present chapter
of starch
and
its
role
contains
in
dough.
short
The
transformations of starch
in
chapter
2.2.1 and 2.2.2.
Native
starch
is
in
organized
consist
of
glucose
105
between
amylose ranges
basic
as
contains
amylopectin additionally
exhibit
1987).
Three
A
amylopectin:
1984).
(outer),
chains
B
The
respectively.
1988). Mainly
amylopectin
are
responsible
starch
on
and
use
amorphous
an
overview
Angstrm
of different
proportion
amylose
molecular
and Bowler
branched
and Daniel
where B- and
DP of approx. 15 and
in
granules
Based
15 to 45%
45,
(Zobel
et al.
by
on
the
1997).
nm
in the
on
X-ray diffraction,
the
an
A-type pattern.
The
amylose
structures
are
and
amylopectin.
packed
organization
in different
of the starch
range and also review the starch
are
dependent
conditions. While the structure of
of
of
microscopic and spectroscopic techniques.
The characteristics of cereal starch
growing
degree
multiple
crystallinity (Gallant
consists of both
granules
(1997) give
the
has
of
double helices of the side chains of
characterized
are
from the micrometer to the
structure based
packed
C-chain,
molecules is the
granule (French 1984).
fraction of starch
shells. Gallant et al.
to
chain) (Whistler
linked
weight
molecule is described to extend from 120 to 400
Crystalline, partially crystalline
on
main
for the observed
of native cereal starches
amorphous
(the
the
of native starch varies from
ordered structures, i.e.
radial direction of
granule
and C
amylopectin
crystallinity
single amylopectin
crystals
in
connected. The A- and B-chains have
are
The molecular
points (Galliard
distinguished
are
(inner)
The backbone of the
A-chains
The
of
both of
whereas the branched
(Zobel 1988). Amylopectin
around 108 with approx. 4 to 5% branch
details
(1^4)
corresponds
weight
types
amylopectin,
block.
glucan amylose,
106 which
and
more
partially crystalline
and
building
oc(1^6) linkages.
of approx. 3000
polymerization (DP)
and
in
explained
are
biopolymers amylose
units form the linear
oc-D-glycopyranosyl
staling
granules
structure. Starch is built of the two
which
and
during baking
genotypic
on
and
amylose
and the amount of
lipid
variation and
amylopectin,
are
under
the
genetic
control, the size and number of starch granules, composition and gelatinization
behavior of starch
development
of the
wheat starch is
ones
(A-type)
granules
are
influenced
grain (Tester
composed
are
(B-type)
of
by
et al.
spherical
during
the
1995, Tester 1997). Like barley and rye,
bimodal distribution of starch
lenticular and have

are
the environmental conditions
with
diameter of 25
a
diameter
granules.
The
large
40 urn, and the small
ranging
from
5-10
urn
(Seidemann 1966).
B-Starch constitutes 24 -28 % of the total starch volume but
about 90 % of the starch
proportion
of small
flour. A- and
(Soulaka
29
B-granules
than in
%)
free
more
acids
starch
with the
granules
1970).
granules
The
Eliasson
have
and Eliasson
described
as a
protein
with
of the
hydrolytic
surface coat of
Transformations of starch
starch
partially
(Keetels
et al.
et al.
and Larsson
in
the
polarized light
granules
has been
act
as
inert
studies showed that
a mere
surface
filler
(Hibberd
and
(Larsson
are
considered to be
protein (Eliasson
free"
water
are
was
and Larsson
associated
forming
protein phase.
during baking
same
which
as
but still maintain their

et al.
1984).
granular
The swollen
essential structural elements of
time, the gluten transforms from
means
that the
during baking
wb, which is close
occurs
gel
gel
looses its cohesiveness
crumb
does
not
at intermediate water
to the moisture content of
baking. Oven temperatures during baking range

temperature
spherical
1993).
Transformation of starch
i.e. around 46 % w/w
as
1985).
dough. Recently, dough
1980, Pomeranz
At the
have similar
degrading enzymes (Lindahl
the continuous
solubilized starch act
1996a).
grain
A-granules
and Morrison
granule
starch
granules gelatinize
coagel by polymerization,
(Eliasson
starch
wheat
properties
controversially. Dough
behavior of wheat
than
%)
same
function than that of
complex
The
A-granules (approx.
(Bloksma 1990). Other
matrix
of
and
when observed under
is discussed
interpenetrated by
identity (Varriano-Marston
to
(Soulaka
bicontinuous network of starch and
During baking,
bread
of the
1993).
hand, B-granules contain
material where the native starch
rheological
network which is
and
is found in
the other
B-granules
cross
dough
a more
1993). Starch granules
granules
composition
1992, Martfnez-Anaya and Jimenez 1997)
for the
2.2.1
Maltese
and the presence of
important
baking performance
in the native state and appears
specific properties
1997)
%). On
measured with DSC
present
composite
as a
amylose
27
A- and
Its role in
fillers in the continuous

starch
as
typical
(Seidemann 1966).
described
is
for the
lysophospholipids (approx.
%). Generally,
dough,
More
1985).
and Larsson
(Eliasson
of wheat starch vary in
and
gelatinization properties
In
important
B-granules (approx.
fatty
0.8
(approx.
is
granules
and Morrison
in number
granules
exceed
content,
dough prior
to
from 180 to 250 C whereas the

100 C
due
to
constant water
10
and condensation. These conditions
evaporation
starch in the crumb at the level of

molecular
of starch
morphology
The term
arrangements.
gelatinization
connection with starch and refers to irreversible
heating
upon
melting
of
(Atwell
et al.
improved
of starch in water
due to
glass-to-rubber
origin
and
(ii)
melting
The transition
of
Fig.
(melting
melting process. One

can
or
Both
complexes,
which
melting
complexes
are
of
occurs
as
melting
transition
the botanical
on
to follow
gelatinization
1979, Biliaderis
excess
M-,.
et al.
amylopectin crystallites
endogenous lipids
the
water,
Reduced water content
temperatures
at limited and
M2) (Biliaderis 1998). Therefore,
crystallites,
of
around 60 C
temperatures
transition which extends to
of
is
two-stage
such
(M3
as
and
cereal
amylose-lipid
(Biliaderis 1998). Contrary
dissociation
et al.
of
to
amylose-lipid
1980). During baking
of
on
cooling (Eberstein
are
melted, which allows swelling and solubilization of
of starch
of the starch
dependent
transition
between 100 and 150 C
and Larsson
1993).
amylose leaching
have shown that
into the center of the
layers
glass
(i)
temperature Tm (Roos 1995,
applied
is detected at
melting
amylopectin
dispersions
the
attributed to the order-disorder transition of
bread, starch crystallites
Upon heating
as
heating,
two additional endothermic first-order transitions
is reversible
(Eliasson
and
of cereal starch at intermediate water
be detected in starches which contain
starches.
starch
curve
melting
transition
intermediate water contents,
starch
are
known
leads
granules
2.1. When wheat starch is heated in
second
1988).
and Bamunuarachchi
(Wootton
also referred to
appearance of
around 99 C
in
and starch solubilization
hydration
at the
crystals
temperatures
amylopectin crystallites
(Eliasson 1980),
causes
in
presented
of
in the
as
(double-helical) order,
nature of starch
amorphous phase,
1980, Eliasson 1980). A typical DSC
the
upon
of starch. DSC measurements have been
melting
of
physical changes taking place
and Bock
transitions
phase
transition for the
1998).
content is
well
as
has become established
disruption
level, the partially crystalline
starch in presence of water
M4)
and
gelatinization (Ranhotra
temperature Tg,
Biliaderis
granules
changes
1988, Biliaderis 1998). Furthermore, the digestibility of starch is
characteristic
two
irreversible
loss of molecular
involving
crystallites, granular swelling
At the molecular
to
cause
granules,
amylose
whereas the
granules (Langton
occurs.
Microscopical
is leached out of the
amylopectin
and Hermansson
studies of
granules
and
remains in the outer
1989, Conde-Petit
et al.
11
1998). Leaching
amylopectin
1987).
polymers
occurs
amylose
due to mutual
Phase
moderate
of
separation
is
result of
and
amylose
amylopectin,
to the solvent water
effective
(Hsu
and Prausnitz
concentration
of
both
microdomains is raised which may lead to the
(Biliaderis 1998).
essential
structuring
In
retains the
1974).
When
occurs
Ring
even
element
(Eliasson
and Larsson
Conde-Petit et al.
and
their
of
two
respective
composite gel
network which is
an
1993).
of the
granular
starch structure
complete disintegration
1998). Starch
granular identity. Light microscopy
at
phase separation
in
development
bread, leached amylose builds
place involving swelling, collapse
(Seidemann 1966,
are
which
polymers
During gelatinization, morphological changes

take
and
thermodynamic immiscibility (Kalichevsky
of
and
amylose
concentrations, is promoted by the asymmetry in the affinity of the
the
network
of
phase separation
of bread
of the
granule
crumb, however,
revealed that the starch
granules
swollen, deformed and aligned along the pore surfaces (Burhans and Clapp
1942, Sandstedt
granules
is
et al.
thought
1954, Varriano-Marston
et al.
1980).
The orientation of the
to arise from the extension of the lamellae due to the
gas cells in the initial
stage
of
baking.
growing
_|
40
Temperature (C)
2.1:
L_
140
90
Typical DSC curve of cereal starch at intermediate water content

(50 w/w wb). M-, and M2 indicate melting of amylopectin crystallites. M3
and
M4
1998).
refer to dissociation of
amylose-lipid complexes (Biliaderis
13
2.2.2
Transformations of starch
in the starch
Rearrangements
bread, play
introduced
staling
important
an
is not
only
staling process.
of starch from
solubility
process which
defined
(1988)
of starch
bread crumb.
staling
may
develop into
conditions,
includes
more
gelation
and
synonymous, and
formation
regarded
of
rtrogradation
three-dimensional
crystalline
the roles
pure
have the
order
(Zobel
and
faster than that of
follows:
as
In its initial
definition, rtrogradation
to form
and
and
crystallinity
Juncture
order.
are
not
result in the immediate
interchain
points
be
can
associations, i.e.
of such double helices
can
lead to the
Kulp 1996).
and
were
the
gels, although
amylopectin. Gelation
is
In order to
amylopectin.
studies
amylopectin,
solutions
amylopectin
tendency
this
necessarily
result from
amylose
and
played by amylose
amylose
on
crystalline
Aggregation
involves both
Rtrogradation
Based
does not
rtrogradation
formation of double helices.

formation of
performed.
gelation
of
dependent
the
on
separate
rtrogradation
Both starch
much
amylose proceeds
on
length
amylose (DP
660)
Bulpin
<
1989).
of DP
tend to
Gelation
measurements of the
(DP
>
2500)
faster with
showed
shorter
explained by
of
polymer concentration,
1100 whereas short and middle molecular
storage
slow
solutions
modulus
development
in G' whereas
et
al.
the formation of cross-links between
mobility
Gelation of
amylose
and
thereby
is followed
slow down the
by
interchain associations with
a
a
followed
(G'). Amylose
(Clark
chains
was
slow
with
This
very
high
was
behavior
kinetics of
crystallization
DP of approx. 30
in the
long
DP
attained
long amylose chains,
gelation
and
by rheological
plateau G'
1989).
weight
yield partially crystalline precipitates (Gidley

amylose
amylose
retard chain
involving
>
of
polymers
DP, temperature and time (Biliaderis 1998). Gelation of amylose requires

minimum chain
simple juncture point which then
crystallization. Thus, rtrogradation
molecular order which
as
Nowadays,
extensively ordered regions. Ultimately, under favorable
crystalline order appears."
during
when the starch molecules of
occurs
starch chains may form
or more
was
but is related to
gelatinized starch begin to reassociate into ordered structures.

phases, two
of
aging
rtrogradation
change
used in connection with bread
basic starch transformation. Atwell et al.
Starch rtrogradation is
The term
a
and
cooling
occur on
Lindet and described
by
which reduces the
rtrogradation
fraction, which
role in the
in 1902
already
during staling
was
which
chains.
B-type
form
(Ring 1987). Thus, aged
14
amylose gels
junction
consist of double
zones, and
networks, which
al.
gel
can
be melted at
only
of
recrystallization
structure
development
amylopectin
and
temperatures
thermostable
are
around 150 C
of
in
starch
networks is related to
gel
(Eberstein
et
long-term development
of
are
primarily
systems (Miles
ordering
et al.
(DP 10-20) (Ring
amylopectin gels
et al.
determines the
amylopectin
crystallinity
chains
(Kalichevsky
a
crystallites (Biliaderis 1998). Amylose gels
1980, Ring 1987).

The
of
helices, small aggregates of double helices, i.e.
determined
1990). Unlike amylose,
melting temperature
1987).
around 60 C in
and
gelling
the
length
ordered
The
1985b).
crystallization
The
by
al.
et
of the short
time and the
rigidity
of the side chains
amylopectin
structures exhibit
water. In contrast to native wheat
excess
starch, where crystalline amylopectin is ordered in the A-type form, recrystallized

structures show
found between
B-type pattern (Miles
amylose
and
et al.
amylopectin regarding
is
rtrogradation. Amylopectin crystallization
solutes at the molecular level
reducing
chain
Sugars,
solutes.
small-molecular-weight
mobility
and
1985b). Thus,
instance,
by
act
the
are
after
presence of
antiplasticizing
as
action of water
plasticizing
of
crystallization
crystalline pattern
influenced
for
to the
(relative
the
differences
no
amylopectin (Slade
and
alone)
Levine
1991).
Due to its
bread. Swollen starch
granules
During baking, amylose forms

as
well
as
added
in the central
mainly
affects starch
event is obtained at
of
since
amylopectin
temperatures
(1947)
of bread is due to
can
The
continuous
with
leads to
single
reorganization
be followed
C,
is
hardly
by DSC.
matrix.
amylose
endogenous
amylopectin
around 60
amylose
Recently,
were
wheat
lipids
helix with the
of
amylopectin
leached
during
An endothermic
which is often termed the
the first researches who
rtrogradation
retrogrades during cooling.
on
complexes
staling
(Eliasson 1985).
and that the linear
based
inclusion
granule rigidity
Schoch and French
their work.
embedded in
cavity (V-type amylose).
baking. Rtrogradation
staling
are
lipids (Zobel 1988). Complexation
ligand
endotherm
is essential for the structure of fresh
rapid rtrogradation, amylose
of the branched molecule
fraction has
no
The current
understanding
staling
models of Schoch
model
(1965)
suggested
was
influence
on
presented by
and Lineback
staling
of
amylopectin
since it
staling
that
already
still builds
Zobel and
(1984) including
on
Kulp (1996)
the current
15
molecular
describes
view
of
changes
starch
and
starch
Additionally,
indicated. In the
Fig. 2.2,
starch
and
indicating
bread
as
continuous
as
crystalline fraction
indicated
amylose
Fig.
2.2:
as a
on
refreshment of
granules
in
dough
are
aged
whereas
characteristic
the
granules.
amylose
is in the
component
In
dough stage
bread
model
to fresh
by heating
is
smaller than those in fresh
dough. Gluten
is shown
dough, amylopectin
is shown
their unswollen native state in
phase surrounding
The
(Fig. 2.2).
of starch at the molecular level from the
and stale bread crumb.
aged
rtrogradation
amorphous
state. Polar
of wheat starch which
can
lipids
are
interact with
gelatinization.
Model for bread crumb
(Zobel
and
Kulp 1996).
staling showing molecular starch structures
16
In fresh
bread, crystallites
shown in the
can
into the
intragranular space.
part
of the
therefore, amylopectin in Fig. 2.2 is

is located
Leached
amylose which
wheat
endogenous
is indicated
amylose
which is
retrograded
as
granules
forms inclusion
but
double helices.
complexes
with
measurements of fresh
lipids during baking. Thus, X-ray
V-type pattern (Zobel 1988).
in double helical structures
During aging, amylopectin reorganizes resulting

and
granules
for the initial loaf firmness. That
important
remains in the
in the
mainly
is shown in both the inter- and
intergranular space. Amylose
promotes gelation
bread show
melted and
amorphous stage. Amylopectin
protrude
This form
are
From the model
crystalline regions.
of
reorganization
(Fig. 2.2)
it
can
to the swollen
amylopectin imparts rigidity
At the
granules.
same
time, cross-links develop between amylose and the remaining granules in the
matrix of the bread. The formation of
to
network structure is
increasing rigidity. Cross-linking promotes
can
be
(Senti
and Dimler
According
amylopectin
fraction since
are
pointed
characteristics
different
of
of
phases
dependent
the
amylose
gelatinized
are
100
as
Redistribution takes
and starch.
redistributed
water
place
However, it
properties
the
on
of
composite food
order
volume
be
of water
during aging (Willhoft 1971).
the
The
rigidity
of bread.
only
plasticization
during baking
Although
redistributed
estimated that
starch.
like
1993). Additionally,
the extent of network
firming
of
fraction,
and Larsson
between crumb and crust
was
temperatures
and the interactions between the
(Eliasson
absorption
may
the
hand, remains unchanged
molecular
granules
well
dependent
Increased
the
matrix,
the initial softness and decrease the
during staling,
is melted at
primarily
C).
on
starch
important
(Biliaderis 1998).
occurs
the other
on
out that the mechanical
the final firmness is also

water
crystalline regions
of bread affects
stability (>
only
not
(deformability)
(Fig. 2.2), reheating
Retrograded amylose,
because of its thermal
It should be
of this network which
continuity
than the extent of
firming
contributing
1960).
to the model
around 60 C.
bread
for bread
important
more
the
factor
one
no
can
well
as
increase
loss of water
during aging
as
with
of
between
bread.
gluten
about 3 % of the total water is
2.3 Current
of the
understanding
effect of
antistaling
Current
2.3
understanding
amylases
2.3.1
General features of
Amylases
influence
Mulvihill
are
the
on
sugars in
dough
product
at all
and
of sugars with
Little is known
staling
levels of
proteins.
the
production
of Maillard
have
an
and
aging (Fox
level of fermentable
products
due to the reaction
the influence of
regarding
and water retention in crumb.
are
amylases
Finally, amylases
in cereals.
endogenously present
4 d
over a
or
breadmaking by producing
-amylase
is found in
via disulfide bonds

used to
optimize
are
amylases
can
on
gas
retard the
the
specificity,
(Kruger
wheat
the
origin
of the
plants,
animals
and malt
amylase
1987).
endogenous enzyme
from
and
are
oc-amylase
increases
This
1987).
wet, sticky bread crumb. Unlike oc-amylase,
and Lineback
fungal, bacterial,
the
intact cereals have low
and Lineback
period (Kruger
sound, intact grains and is attached
produced
from
5 d
Sound,
the level of
oc-amylase. However, upon germination
several hundred fold
quality,
higher
they
of bread.
Amylases
affects
and
as
therefore, improves the loaf volume. Additionally, flavor and
by
dough
industry
production
results in
amylases
effect of
baking technology
of bread
stages
crust color is intensified
retention in
in
antistaling
used for various purposes in the bread
Addition of
1982).
of the
amylases
17
amylases
levels and to
for
influence
microorganisms.
often used.
sources are
important
glutenin proteins
Technical enzymes, which
and
and the
to the
In
are
bread
baking,
like
Properties
thermostability are dependent
on
such
as
technological processes
breadmaking.
Amylases
-amylase
are
and
classified
glucoamylase,
and release maltose
Thus, -amylases
and
the
can
amylopectin
-limit
dextrins.
act
the
on
products
of
nonreducing
cannot attack the
fully degrade
end of
molecule to the
oc-(1-6)
On the other hand,
oc-amylase
action
on
oc-(1-6) linkages
the linear
randomly hydrolyzing oc-(1-4) linkages

final
endoenzymes. Typical exoenzymes,
like
starch molecule
by hydrolyzing oc-(1-4) linkages (Hoseney 1986). Unlike
glucoamylase, -amylase
strips
as exo- or
branch
to
are
amylopectin.
-maltose,
points resulting
endoenzymes
of starch
starch
amylose
of
like
but
only
in maltose
oc-amylases
act
(Hoseney 1986). Therefore,
the
low MW dextrins of
varying
size.
18
The
of
extent
starch
and
temperature
degradation
hydrolyze native, undamaged

starch
dough,
The
Hebeda
is
hydrolysis
al.
et
(1991)
starch at
dependent
low
65
70 C.
main
60
C)
of
part
C)
results in residual
sticky
example
are
The
On
from Bacillus
(barely
by
suggested
responsible
Hoseney 1991,
firming
can
for
1999).
have maximum
inactivated after
fungal
et al.
of
the
thermal
other
The
higher stability
for
gummy
degradation. ITS
and
sources
and Norman
hand,
stability (Toptimum
responsible
1991)
stability
inactivated before
originate
and from
for
selected
1984).
is known since decades.

and bacterial
of starch
effect.
oc-Amylases
sources
by amylases
mainly
leads to
bread
Martin and
as
changes
in
staling (Schultz
et al.
or
the
different mechanisms
particular
Hoseney 1994, Leon
serve
mechanism
antistaling
Consequently,
that dextrins of
from
Thus, it is conceivable that
extend bread freshness have been
retarding
Akers and
be
of low MW dextrins.
antistaling
high
amylases
malt), fungal,
production
and
thermal
due to excessive starch
amylases
oc-amylases
Defloor and Delcour

that
mechanism of
cause an
which
are
which
starch structure is involved in the
Several authors
amylase
product
baking. Degradation
changed
formed dextrins
of action
baking
higher
(Hammer 1995).
megaterium (Hebeda
wheat
starch structure and
and
after
effect of
or
additives in bread
either the
much
stearothermophilus (Outtrup
Antistaling
cereals
to ITS enzymes
activity
antifirming
lower
gelatinizes (Hammer 1995).

have
of
attack.
temperature optimum
have
isolated from both bacterial and
strain of Bacillus
2.3.2
have
enzymes
starch
texture of the final
enzymes
are
are
oc-amylases
to
(intermediate thermostability) enzymes
fungal oc-amylases
compared
as
ITS
starch, but
able
amylases.
intermediate
low,
than ITS enzymes and in consequence
conventional bacterial
70 -80
termed ITS
The
1991).
Conventional
50
(""optimum
the
al.
et
were
of the
retarding staling
of
gelatinization temperature
baking. Such enzymes

(Hebeda
for
is
amylolytic
to
thermostability
between
distinguished
pH,
on
During heating
rate.
susceptible
the
thermostability enzymes. Optimal amylases

activities above the
degradation
more
on
dependent
Only oc-amylase
substrate.
and becomes
gelatinizes
of
degree
of the
accessibility
is
by amylases
proposed.
size
produced by
et al.
1952, Martin
1997, Min
Hoseney (1991 ) presented
of bread crumb results from cross-links between the
et al.
model
gluten
1998,
stating
matrix and
2.3 Current
starch
of the
understanding
found
that
added
starch-protein
oc-amylase
branched-chain dextrins of low molecular

are
believed to hinder the
developed
wheat bread
concluded
in
firming
bread
is
dextrins
when
measured
maltotetraose
bread
involves
dough
DSC.
with
Min
produced by
is
amylopectin
(1999),
a
al.
et
different
method such
does not
the
necessarily
firmness
oc-amylases
opposition
firming
of
The authors
starch-starch
antistaling
a
effect of
decrease
amylopectin rtrogradation
as
the
primarily
due to dextrins which
molecules. Similar conclusions
who showed that
reduction of
addition of
that
(1998) suggested
oc-amylases
an
maltotriose
responsible
are
for
and
retarding
of
(Zobel
and
Senti
to note that
measured with DSC.
as
Kulp 1996). X-ray
higher
starch
1980). Only
firming
Brthen
based
causal
only
on
one
relationship
(1997) reported
rate of bread but had
firming
and
and
only
that
small effects
on
However, this stands in

is
mainly responsible
for
diffraction showed that bread with
crystallinity
softer than untreated bread
crystallinity
Sahlstrom
bread.
amylopectin
were
important
are
exist between the structure of starch at the molecular level
addition had
although they
and
DSC. It is
to the view that
of bread
oc-amylase
as
reduced the
rtrogradation
Zobel
in
regular
to
rtrogradation.
specific
of
into the role of
oc-amylase.
Some conclusions of the studies mentioned above
and
(1997)
by glucoamylase. Therefore,
oc-amylase
caused
products
et al.
similarly
changes
to
which could not be detected when
removed
were
Defloor and Delcour
maltodextrins to bread
as
insight
more
breads behaved
adding oc-amylases,
interfere with the reassociation of
by
gain
test and reduced
produced by oc-amylase
drawn
amylopectin. Morgan
also concluded that the
(1997)
authors concluded that the action of
were
some
amylopectin
These branched-chain
rate and the addition of
by compression
by DSC
detected
degraded
related to the starch fraction. The authors found
mainly
rate
of
firming essentially
Leon et al.
interactions.
oc-amylase
These starch
regarding firming
that
weight.
rtrogradation
interactions.
starch-gluten
of
positive impact
cross-links. Lin and Lineback
partially
starch bread in order to
gluten-free
19
amylases
the bread texture with the formation of maltodextrins of DP 3-9
on
which interfere with the formation of
(1990)
effect of
remnants. The authors correlated the
granule
oc-amylases
antistaling
than
(Zobel
unsupplemented
and Senti
bread
1959, Dragsdorf
in bread without enzyme addition
an
increase
could be correlated. On the basis of these
findings,
(1959) postulated
that
oc-amylases
attack the
long
starch
20
molecules of the
amorphous regions
Cleavage
long
of the
starch
freedom for
crystalline regions
the entire structure is less
crystal
chains, which
weaken the three-dimensional
regions,
chains
which link the
near
to
structure within those
action of
endoamylases.
The
and
network
laterally by
Kulp 1996). On
protrude
into the
amylopectin
interaction with
permitting greater
another. As
result,
time, greater freedom of

and
enlarge
the
perfect
model accounts for the
some
exoamylases
chains to the branch
model of Zobel and
remove
since
between
crystalline
could
points.
adjacent crystalline regions (Zobel
staling
amylases
different
branches to form double helices and
or no
intergranular space
cross-linking
consequence,
of
one
to
presented
antistaling properties
it is conceivable that
(Fig. 2.2),
same
segments
The
regions.
the basis of the
of
independently
enable such
Thus, amylopectin has fewer, shorter
through
of the network
strength
be attributed to the removal of the outer
to build
pass
i.e. softer. At the
rigid,
crystalline regions
move
can
crystalline regions (Fig. 2.3).
they
amylopectin
branches which
the most accessible. As
are
and
amylose
Kulp (1996)
is
amylopectin
hindered
(Bowles 1996).
Recent work concluded that dextrins
correlated with the
(Gerrard
et
al.
Duedahl-Olesen
al.
et
modification of the starch. Krsi and Neukom

effect of added dextrins is
gels
amounts of dextrins
in
gluco-oligomeres
is
responsible
postulated
that
the formation
starch.
to act
for
the
gels.
(>26 %)
he
positive way,
as
Based
Although
plasticizer
antistaling
that
seems
that
in contrast to added
to influence starch
starch structure,
of starch
properties
not
enough
and that rather the modified starch fraction
effect
of
amylases.
and
rtrogradation
Kweon
et
al.
(1994)
amylopectin, thereby promoting

which retard
understood.
are
responsible
of starch would be affected
the exact nature of
for the
of
rtrogradation
maltodextrins, in the right place and
rtrogradation. However,
which
high
the addition of
only
by
structure, it may well be that the maltodextrins in situ formed by amylase
present,
plasticizing
effect in
antifirming
oc-amylases produce
amylopectin-lipid complexes,
it
found that the
for their
be
can
reflect
1999). They merely
influenced the mechanical
proposed
loaf
staling process directly
the results that
on
amylase degrades amylose

of
amylase-treated
(1984b)
mainly responsible
concentration wheat starch
high
an
rate but do not inhibit the
staling
1997,
in
present
at the
right
changes
antistaling effect,
its
are
time
in the
is not
fully
2.3 Current
understanding
of the
antistaling
effect of
77/
'
//
'
''
<''
/y
F/g.
2.3:
i
W
--'
Network structure of starch in the

indicated with
xKv
<
//'.''<:
regions
by bars (Zobel and Senti 1959).
are
21
amylases
arrows
% /'"
gel phase of bread crumb. Crystalline

points of amylase action
and possible
22
3
EXPERIMENTAL
3.1
Material
Commercial low-extraction wheat flour, type 400,

Stadtmhle Zrich
13.4 to 14.7
(Zurich, Switzerland).
g/100 g wb, protein
content from 0.35 to 0.38
Pressed
yeast
was
g/100 g
purchased
Native wheat starch and
(Wdenswil, Switzerland).
was
potato
received from
g/100 g db,
The
as
measured
enzymes
by
listed
from
starch
local grocery store.
was
amylose
Klinglerfrom
size exclusion
in
Tab. 3.1
(Bagsvaerd, Denmark). They
and ash
db.
supplied by
without
Blattmann Cerestar AG
amylose-butanol complexes
TFH Berlin. This
extracted
weight
is around
chromatography.
were
had been
was
amylose
from aqueous solution of smooth pea starch and the molecular

300'000
Swissmill,
Moisture content of flour varied from
content from 11.8 to 12.1
Isolated
received from Prof. R.
was
received
purified by
from
Novo
Nordisk A/S
Novo Nordisk down to very
limited side activities.
Unless otherwise
(Buchs, Switzerland)
or
specified,
or
all chemicals
Merck Ltd.
were
purchased
(Darmstadt, Germany)
and
from Fluka Ltd.
were
of
analytical
puriss quality.
23
ADN
07154)
KNU2Vg
(Kilo
a-Amylase Unit)
is defined
Novo
Unit)
is
a measure
per min.
259 Merck
Amylum
solubile
Erg. B.6)
per h.
the amount of enzyme which, under standard conditions
(101
as
for
dextrinizes 5.26 g starch db
(-Amylase
M)
Novo
80 C
(37 C, pH 5.6,
7.0
Ca-concen-
concentra
5.0-7.0
5.0
4.8-6.0
pH optimum
(substrate
55-60C
60
45-75C
stability
under standard conditions
1585BANU3Vg
256
MANU1Vg
Thermal
Properties
maltotetraose to maltose. Thereafter, maltose is further
-amylase activity and is determined relatively with a known standard by hydrolyzing

degraded to gluconate-6-phosphate by means of maltose Phosphorylase (MP),
-phosphoglucomutase (-PGM) and -glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD). During the reaction sequence nicotinamide-ade
nine dinucleotide (NAD+) is reduced to NADH+H+. The speed of NADH+H+ production is proportional to -amylase activity.
3) BANU
bean
from Bacillus
-amylase extracted from soy

purified (Nagase, Japan)
and
oc-amylase
amyloliquefaciens
bacterial
1500
Specific activity
(Maltogenic Amylase Novo Unit) is defined as the amount of enzyme which,

mg/ml, 37 C, pH 5.0, incubation time 30 min) hydrolyzes 1 uJVI of maltotriose
tration 0.0003
2) 1 KNU
tion 10
1) 1 MANU
Soy--amylase
(batch F47)
(batch
BAN
maltogenic oc-amylase from Bacillus

stearothermophilus produced by
genetically modified Bacillus subtilis
antistaling agents.
Novamyl
(batch AB2 1330)
as
Description
Properties of amylases used
Enzyme
Tab. 3.1:
3.2
25
of bread
Preparation
Preparation of
3.2
White pan bread

the enzymes
flour.
The
were
was
bread
prepared
from low-extraction wheat flour. 42 g
stirred into different
optimal
of
amount
deionized
between 64 -67 g water/100 g flour
(Pitec AG, Oberriet, Switzerland)

20 g salt
600 g each
moulds.
Proofing
was
temperature
are
some
(3
of
100
dough preparation
No.
for 4 to 5
listed
in
dosages
PR
7 d.
Steam
After
were
was
The breads
cooled to
were
to
sealing.
concentration
at
The
three
the bread
was
to 7 d at
the
times
again
in
the
higher
sealed in
initial
method
dosages
as
of the
end
an
aging
baking phase
plastic bags
and
for further 4 d at 20 C.
Tab. 3.2:
Dosage of amylases.
Enzyme
Dosage
Novamyl
750
BAN
Addition
MANU/kg
KNU/kg
flour
flour
as
powder,
1.172
ml/kg
500
mg/kg
flour
flour of 1 %
(w/v)
solution of BAN
Soy--amylase
5283
BANU/kg
flour
as
powder,
3333
of
control.
reheated at 170 C for 20 min after
added
of
baked at 200 C
used. Bread without enzyme served
was
high
(Pitec AG, Oberriet,
rapeseed displacement
formerly 72-10) prior
bread
cooling,
4 min at
GmbH, Affalterbach, Germany).
Wiwa
the
mixer
100, Eiken, Switzerland)
chamber
proofing
by
speed. Dough pieces
by
h, sealed in plastic bags and stored for 0
Tab. 3.2.
was
kneaded in
was
at low
baking phase.
measured
was
and varied
followed
mixing
(Wiesheu
oven
115/1)
was
speed,
greased (Trennaktiv
added in the initial
experiments
ml).
dough
for 3 min at low
carried out in
Method 55-50
recommended
period
was
Bread volume
(AACC, 2000,
In
in
placed
ventilated
100 ml steam
enzymes
for
at 30 C and 80 % rH for 90 min. The loaves
for 40 min in
20 C.
water
The
(wb).
added after 2 min
was
were
Switzerland)
room
of the water and added to 1000 g
by recording farinograms (ICC-Standards,
determined
speed.
portions
and
yeast
mg/kg
flour
aged
26
3.
3.3
Preparation of gels
3.3.1
Starch
heating
starch
method
adapted
suspensions
pregelatinized
starch
In
and
starch
starch/100 g
gel)
were
first
the
step,
stirring (90 rpm)
followed
with and without enzymes in closed moulds

and Krsi and Neukom
(1983)
the main
stirring
(1984a)
in
starch
pregelatinized
450 g of
Brabender
by cooling
stirred for 5 min
cylindrical
suspension (4 g dry
rate of 3 C/min. In
prepared by heating
was
from 30 to 95 C with
Viscograph
were
dispersion
native starch
to 30 C at
added to the
second
greased (Trennaktiv
Germany)
30 mm,
(diameter:
step,
PR
100,
sealed and heated in
for 60 min at 96 C. The
immersion in cold water
(10 C)
ventilated
gels
were
for 10 min.
Biocides, Manchester, UK),
0.14g/100g paraffin).
trimethylene-4-isothiazolin-3-one
calculated
so
that the
served
control.
some
Gel
The
ratio is
enzyme
equal
experiments
aging
was
procedure
was
the moulds
were
removed
(Zeneca
to
paraffin (approx.
2-methyl 4,5-
concentrations
in bread and starch
gels
altered
as
were
gels
without enzyme
follows:
extended up to 182 d.
pregelatinized
dispersion
the standard
were
Promexal X50
starch content of 70 % w/w wb for flour. Starch
assuming
as
starch/enzyme
The
previously
prevent
5% aqueous solution of
(MTI).
into
oil to
paraffin
added
was
filled
moulds
opening
Thereafter, the gels
preservative,
a
The
cooled without
microbiological spoilage,
Promexal is
was
(WTB Binder, Tuttlingen,
oven
from the moulds and stored for up to 12 d at 20 C in

moisture loss. In order to avoid
and
dispersion
which had
mm),
Switzerland).
Eiken,
20
native starch
DZM, Janke & Kunkel,
RW20
height:
starch/100 g
rate of 1.5 C/min
starch
pregelatinized
(500 rpm, anchor-shaped stirrer,
brass moulds
hermetically
In
shown in
as
of the starch in
portion
Labortechnik, Stauten, Germany). The starch dispersion
been
using
in order to avoid the sedimentation of native
dispersion
and the enzyme
powder
IKA
prepared by
during gelatinization.
suspension)
by
from Krsi
gels (40 g dry
3.1. This method consists in
Fig.
dispersions
and starch
gels
concentration starch
High
Experimental
wheat starch
(0.4g/100g).
dispersion
Xanthan
powder
was
was
replaced by
carefully
xanthan
dispersed
in
3.3
Preparation
of gels and starch
deionized water and heated in

for 30 min and stirred with
the xanthan
steps
are
dispersion
which
The heat treatment

30 min followed
3.3.2
Wheat flour
Flour
moulds
in
gels
as
chapter
sealed.
were
at 96 C
cooling,
subsequent
and
deionized
water
used instead of deionized water.
were
as
Ca/I,
50 mg
approx.
prolonged by holding
prepared by heating
gels. Dough
3.2 and filled into the

and
cooling
Promexal to
experiments
stirrer at 300 rpm. After
the
temperature
at 60 C for
described in the standard
procedure.
gels
(chapter 3.3.1). Likewise,
some
held at 40 C
was
procedure (Fig. 3.1).
(180 mg Ca/I)
by heating
dispersion
mixed with starch and enzyme. The
was
was
used for starch
Heating
containing
anchor-shaped
contained
enriched with calcium
an
water bath. The
identical to the standard
Tap water,
27
dispersions
the
the flour
dough
without
greased
were
prevent
bread
yeast
brass
carried
gels
was
out
were
prepared
on
as
were
stored
at 20 C
in
same
described
hermetically
described for starch
as
gels
paraffin
microbiological spoilage.
conditions
elucidate the influence of enzyme inactivation
in the
yeast
moulds, which
moisture loss and
time/temperature
without
aging
were
varied
of flour
gels.
in
oil
In
order to
28
3.
Experimental
Heating / Pregelatinization
Brabender-Viscograph
20 C to 95 C, 1.5 C/min, 90 rpm
starch
Addition of native
wheat starch
Addition of
-
Novamyl
g/100 g
wb
Cooling
Brabender-Viscograph
C to 30 C, 3 C/min, 90 rpm
amylases:
Mixing
(40 g/100 g wb)
total starch
-BAN
-
95
dispersion:
and enzyme for 5 min
Soy--amylase
I
Filling
greased moulds
(cylindrical brass moulds)
the
I
Heating
(60
min / 96
/ Gelatinization
C,
ventilated
oven)
I
Cooling in water
(10 min/10 C)
I
in
Fig.
3.1: Standard
Storage
paraffin with Promexal
(20C/0to12days)
procedure for the production of starch gels.
3.3
Preparation
3.3.3
of gels and starch
Low concentration starch
The influence of enzymes

studied
in
low
dispersions
prepared
starch
ratios
acetate buffer of
pH
The tubes
heated for 5 min in
with
magnetic
being placed
in
The
After
for 30
required
were
according
(pyrex
were
and
amylopectin
to Tab. 3.3 in order to
The
then air-cooled for
Novamyl,
were
was
g/100 g, respectively.
dispersions
were
in 2 g 0.01 M
with teflon lined
screw
caps).
stirring
few minutes before
70 C for BAN and 60 C for

added to the substrate.
was
heated for another 5 min at 150 C in
order to inactivate the enzymes and then air cooled to
dispersions
amylopectin
amylopectin (28 mg)
amount of enzyme
min, the tubes
and
oil bath at 150 C under constant
an
water bath at 65 C for
Soy--amylase.
incubating
or
5.5 in 10 ml culture tubes
stirrer. The tubes

a
amylose
in Tab. 3.2.
as
prepared by suspending amylose (12 mg)
were
of
dispersions. Amylose
calculated
were
starch/enzyme
constant
staining
at concentrations of 0.6 and 1.4
The enzyme concentrations

obtain
dispersions
iodine
on
concentration
were
29
dispersions
room
temperature.
The
stored for 0 to 48 d at 20 C.
Tab. 3.3: Calculation
of enzyme
dosage used for low concentration starch
dispersions.
Dosage/kg
flour1)
Dosage/kg
starch
(70%
Novamyl
BAN
Soy-amylase
of
flour)
Dosage/g
amylopectin
(70%
of
starch)
Dosage/g
amylose
(30%
of
starch)
750 MANU
1071 MANU
1.5 MANU
3.5 MANU
(500 mg)
(714 mg)
(1.00 mg)
(5.25 mg)
3 KNU
4.3 KNU
0.0061 KNU
0.0143 KNU
(11.7mg)
(16.8 mg)
(0.024 mg)
(0.056 mg)
5283 BANU
7547 BANU
10.7 BANU
25.2 BANU
(3333 mg)
(4762 mg)
(6.75 mg)
(15.90 mg)
1) values from Tab. 3.2
30
3.
ZA
Mechanical measurements
3.4.1
Instrumental texture
Bread crumb
machine
loaves
was
profile analysis
subjected
to
of bread
compression
(Zwick 1445, Ulm, Germany) equipped
were
cut in 4 slices of 30
and
two
repeating cycles
texture
mm
profile analysis (TPA)
test with
with
universal
an
each. The crust of the slices

carried out
room
temperature,
which simulates the
slice. The bread slices
were
compressed
15
curve
crosshead
speed
of 50 mm/min.
of bread crumb which
converted
recovery
was
into deformation
(2)
were
evaluated
Firmness
[N]
Elastic recovery
of 1st
[%]=
biting
40
typical
of
bread
plunger
force-time
can
and
(1)
removed
mm
twice. The time axis
The crumb firmness
described
Fmax
with
3.2 illustrates
compressed
values.
as
Fig.
(50 %)
was
each slice with
by compressing
mm
testing
1000 N load cell. The
at
and
Experimental
also be
the elastic
by Szczesniak (1963).
cycle
(1 )
(2)
-100
a
F:
force
a:
compression
distance
b:
compression
distance of reversible deformation
Besides these two

from the
slope
parameters,
of the linear
compression cycle
carried out
[N]
[mm]
the modulus of
region
according
to
equation (3)
deformability ED
of the force-deformation
between 5 and 10 %
in
compression.
chapter
[mm]
3.4.2.
was
curve
calculated
of the first
The calculation of
ED
was
31
3.4 Mechanical measurements
Time
>-<
1st Cycle
Fig.
3.2:
Evaluation of
[s]
2nd Cycle
typical force-time
TPA. The time axis
can
curve
of bread crumb obtained
also be converted into deformation values.
by
32
3.
Uniaxial
3.4.2
Uniaxial
were
the universal
compressed
50 mm/min.
previously
The
been
plates (Bagley
the
slope
12
testing
greased
1985).
of the linear
to
92
paraffin
were
carried out at 20 C
plates
at
and
mm)
crosshead
the
lower
deformability ED
of the force-deformation
curve
was
The
gels
speed
plate
to reduce the friction between
The modulus of
region
compression according
between two
plate (diameter:
with
gels
(Zwick 1445, Ulm, Germany).
machine
(60 %)
mm
upper
et al.
gels
test of starch and flour
compression
using again
test of
compression
Experimental
gel
of
had
and
calculated from
between 5 and 10 %
equation (3).
AFh
F
(3)
ArM
modulus of
ED:
^'
'
deformability [N/mm2]
~
10 % compression
"5
% compression
h0:
initial
A0:
initial cross-sectional
Ah:
compression
For the calculation of the

transformed to true stress
1987).
of the
height
The true stress
actual cross-sectional
(a)
that the
gels
of the
A(t)
are
gel [mm2]
[mm]
true
the force-deformation
Hencky's
or
calculated
by dividing
of the deformed
CT
Assuming
area
breaking stress,
was
area
gel [mm]
distance
versus
L'^J
strain
curves were
relationship (Peleg
the actual force
F(t) by
the
gel:
F{t)
incompressible, A(t)
A(t)=A0
is
given by
hn
'0
h0-Ah
(5)
3.5
33
Light microscopy
The true strain
(eH)
was
calculated
H=\n
by
(h \
^
Ih J
true stress
F(t):
actual
A(t):
actual cross-sectional
A0:
initial cross-sectional
h0:
initial
Ah:
compression
eH:
true strain
breaking
maximum
compression
height
stress
stress and
f ^h
IK-
[N/mm2]
a:
The
=ln
of the
force
[N]
area
area
of the
of the
gel [mm2]
gel [mm2]
gel [mm]
distance
[mm]
[-]
(aBreak)
and
strain
breaking
(eHBreak)
defined
were
as
the
strain, respectively, that the gels could sustain before
failure.
3.5
Light microscopy
Small
pieces
of
dough,
bread
were
cut from the center of
were
immediately
were
soaked for 15 min under
crumb, bread
dough,
crumb and
frozen with carbon dioxide

vacuum
without
prior
fixation.
samples
thickness.
microscope slides,
improve
coating
for
The
samples
were
microscope
slides
polarized-light microscopy.
The bread crumb
sucrose
then
was
mounted
a
used for
cut
in
in
the
were
C)
for sections of
frozen
state
glycerol/gelatin
No
which
either
to -150
Reichert-Jung
displayed
solution of
samples
The thin sections
samples
compound (Miles,
isopentan (-160
cryosections during staining.

was
mm)
solution, and then frozen
were
Cryostat
which had been covered with
the adhesiveness of the

of the
(-78 C).
frozen with
at -20 C.
7x7x7
gels, respectively. Dough samples
Thereafter, the samples
cryostat (Leica, Vienna, Austria)
10|im
were
gels (approx.
in Tissue-Tek O.C.T.
Kankakee, USA) diluted 1:4 with 20 % (w/v)

with carbon dioxide. Gel
crust and
to
to
glycerol/gelatin
were
determined
directly
observed
34
under
polarized light
in order to
to
localize the
amylopectin,
Light Green
well
as
14
mM, Kl
were
by
droplet
1:10
of
to
described above. All
specimens
were
examined in
in the
3.6.1
Determination of water content
were
then
total water content
were
ground
was
was
was
determined
3.6.2
staining
photometric
and dried for
Kontron
(,max)
for
to
2 min.
solution
as
and
polarization
mode.
at 130 C for 90 min in
The water content of bread
predried
second time at 130 C for 90 min. The
drying steps.
gravimetrically using
an
The water content
infrared
at 120 C for 10 min. All
dryer (LP 16,
analyses
were
duplicate.
staining
of low concentration
determination of
with
before
Axioplan photomicroscope
by drying
calculated from the two
determined
added to 1.5 ml starch
performed
The
s.
stained, the thin
cooled for 2.5 h at ambient conditions. The
Determination of iodine
Iodine
bread crumb at 103 C for at least 12 h. Before
Mettler-Toledo, Greifensee, Switzerland)

carried out at least in
l2
methods
by predrying
samples
of native starch
bright-field
min,
covered
glass
glycerol/water
an
(WTB Binder, Tuttlingen, Germany).
oven
determined
samples
with
solution
to 20
were
cover
starch had to be
the
Physicochemical
the
only
for 30
solution
(stock
samples
and
covered
3.6
weighing,
The
Lugol's
(Zeiss Ltd., Oberkochen, Germany)
was
stained with aqueous
was
iodine vapor of
were
The water content of flour
(1:1 v/v)
When
microscope.
Thereafter, the sections
ventilated
first stained
fractions, amylose and
solution
staining step.
solution
glycerol/water
exposed
were
or
AG, Buchs, Switzerland)
(v/v) Lugol's
rinsed in water after each
examination under the

sections
contrast. Protein
Fluka Chemie
diluted
birefringence
Experimental
mM, Fluka Chemie AG, Buchs, Switzerland) for 10
44
slides
improve
(1 g/l,
starch with iodine in
of starch
degree
and the two starch
proteins
to
as
solution
the
assess
3.
light
dispersion.
scanning speed
of starch
starch
absorbance.
A
wavelength
dispersions
dispersions
Lugol's
scan
of 100 nm/min in
was
solutions
analyzed by
(10|il)
from 500 to 750
was
nm was
photometer (Uvikon 940,
Instruments, Milan, Italy). The wavelength of the maximum absorbance
was
evaluated.
3.6
Physicochemical
3.6.3
equilibrated
over
least 12 h before
13
using CuKoc
radiation
3.6.4
slit of 1
Differential
gels
after various
DSC
Kristalloflex
selected.
were
Samples
Elmer
(Perkin
pans
carried out
empty pan
heating
was
analysis
was
of 5-30
on
used
was
melting enthalpy (AH)
Thermal
as
slit of 2
mm
recorded with
degrees
Analyst
was
software program. The exact
with
crumb, flour
bread loaf
or
gel
directly weighed
USA).
CT,
DSC
(DSC 2910,
calibrated before
analysis
samples were
TA
with
heated from
nitrogen flushing (20 cm3/min).
until 200 C. The
matter content
individual pan after the DSC
scan
by puncturing
16 h. The
were
expressed
in
2000
and of
amylose-lipid
the TA Instruments
determined for each
was
the pan and
J/g sample
In
melting temperature
thermograms using
dry
bread
were
recrystallized amylopectin
evaluated from the
enthalpy changes
on
Norwalk,
reference. The
performed
of
carried out
Ltd.,
rate of 10 C/min with
experiments, heating
were
temperature
divergence
of approx. 30 to 40 mg
an
complexes
The
D500, Karlsruhe, Germany)
taken from the center of
were
indium, and
and
diameter
holder.
sample
X-ray intensity
was
Ltd., Newcastle, UK). The system
(Tm)
on
for at
degree/min.
Instruments
some
thickness and
scattering angle range (26)
times.
were
mm
C)
was
Scanning Calorimetry
pressure
4 to 160 C at
% rH at 20
(91.2
with 35 mA and 40 kV. A
degree
gels. Samples
aging
measurements
The freeze-dried material
mounted
Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
and starch
into
of 0.05
Differential
was
(Siemens
(1.54 )
scintillation counter in
scanning speed
powder.
(WAXS), samples
carried out in the transmission mode at ambient
were
receiving
it to thin disks of 1-2
pressed sample
diffractometer
powder
to
saturated barium chloride solution
compressing
The
mm.
measurements
and
diffraction measurements
wide-angle X-ray powder
frozen, freeze-dried and ground
were
on
diffraction
Wide-angle X-ray powder
For the
of
35
methods
drying
db.
at 105 C for
36
3.
3.6.5
Determination of starch and starch
Total starch content of freeze dried flour
gels (0.4 g)
starch
gels
were
incubated with 0.5 ml thermostable
and cooled to
with 5 ml buffer
(buffer:
amyloglucosidase
by
using
ml)
and
acetic acid.
the
60 C water bath. The
determined
and maltose
as
method 61B/1.1
12
h).
gels
and
was
L, Novo
4.6-4.8
to 4.6 with
of 1 ml
Diagnostic
samples
cooled to
were
determined
were
room
enzymatically
(Swiss
Absorbance
).
Official
measured in
was
and the amount of starch
was
used for the determination of starch
was
the
ethanol, samples
kit number 1 113 950
incubated
with
analyzed
were
for
Diagnostic AG,
Roche
and
amyloglucosidase
glucose content
Maltose and
of bread
glucose
were
glucose
were
determined from dried crumb
extracted
10 g crumb to 100 ml deionized water and

After
temperature.
of flour
glucose.
evaporating
(test
remove
described above.
Maltose and
adding
After
Germany)
Mannheim,
(103 C,
water),
samples
glucose
pH
After addition
dissolved in 1 ml nanopure
the basis of the released
glucose
to
Roche
Analysis (1994),
degradation products.
120
(10 mg amyloglucosidase (208469
The ethanol extract of flour
free
adjusted
was
hexokinase/glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase
on
step
sodium-hydroxide, pH adjusted
photometer (4010 Clinicon, Mannheim, Germany)
calculated
Freeze dried flour
oc-amylase (Termamyl
The mixture
and filtered. The amount of
Manual of Food
a
1000
to
AG, Mannheim, Germany)
temperature
Analysis (1994).
the
following
water bath for 15 min under constant
boiling
70 ml 0.5 M
solution
stirred for 30 min in
temperature.
room
acid, and diluted
acetic
determined
The residue of the ethanol extraction
Nordisk, Bagsvaerd, Denmark) in
stirring,
was
two times extracted with 50 ml 40 % ethanol in order to
degradation products.
was
gels
method of the Swiss Official Manual of Food
Experimental
filtering,
maltose and
glucose
the
by grounding
stirring
content
crumb,
for 20 min at
were
room
determined
as
described above.
Resistant and available starch
(5 g)
was
bread
The
determined
added to 10 ml deionized water and
suspension,
weighed
were
and
which
dispersed
samples
were
correspond
to
dry
with
0.2 ml
homogenized.
Bread crumb
Around 550 mg
substance of 100 mg,
in 10 ml KCI-HCI buffer
incubated
simultaneously.
pH
1.5
(50
mM
KCl,
was
exactly
30 mM
porcine pepsin (Merck
No.
HCl).
7190,
3.6
Physicochemical
2000
FIT-U/g)
for
protein degradation
9 ml Tris-maleate buffer
0.04 %
(w/v)
added and
degradation
6.9
pH
sodium azide
(0.1
(NaN3)
at 40 C for 60 min. For the
samples kept
Tris-maleate, 4 mM CaCI2) containing
added and the
was
remaining
the resistant starch fraction. The latter fraction
kept
at
room
was
in the residue
was
for
washed twice
corresponds
to
in 3 ml deionized
dispersed
temperature
shaking
under constant
stirring
for
Then, 3 ml sodium-acetate buffer of pH 4.75 (0.4 M sodium acetate,
CaCI2)
supernatant,
was
added and
supernatant
(Fluka 10115)
pH
was
analysis
4.75 and
and the residue
adjusted
were
of starch.
The
with 2 M HCl.
of available
pH adjusted
then
for 30 min at 60 C. Glucose
for determination
summing up
pH
which is used for the
8 ml sodium-acetate buffer
of the
to 6.9 with
supernatant containing
collected and the sediment
was
water and 3 ml 4 M KOH and
the
centrifugation
with 10 ml of water. The starch fraction
20 mM
pH adjusted
for 16 h at 37 C under continuous
of available starch. After
the available starch fraction
30 min.
following step,
pancreatic oc-amylase (Sigma A-3176, Buchs, Switzerland)
NaOH. Solution of
was
37
methods
amount
hydrolyzed
was
with
determined
of total
starch
the fractions of resistant and available starch.
the
was
mixed with
(2 M).
The starch
starch,
with HCl
Similarly,
amyloglucosidase
as
described above
was
calculated
by
38
4
Results
4.1
Mechanical
During baking
and
macroscopic level,
a
system
(Eliasson
by
in
of bread
storage
and Larsson
complex
an
1993)
(Axford
open pore
system,
Firmness
readings
et al
and flour
gels,
which
baking,
was
were
not
only
considered
bread crust had
that
freshly
of
around 46 to 47
was
content to around 44
types
studied
as
in
of
gluten (Kokini
reveal that
is
et al
an increase
accompanied by
1994)
wb
g/100 g
was
change
foam to
are
bread
from
sponge
influenced
strongly
et al
of porous structures
1996b)
Therefore,
crumb, but also
starch
in
found
was
slight
(Zeleznak
g/100 g
and
leathery
During
in
diagrams
in
bread crust
components
In bread
water
Hoseney 1987b)
found
as
to rubber transition of the two
consequence, the crust becomes soft and
decrease
The state
during storage
and wheat starch
wb
similar to the water content
Only
wb
g/100 g
On the other hand,
wb
g/100 g
of moisture from 10 to 30
glass
from
At the
occur
bread models without pores
baked bread crumb
g/100 g
is
water content of around 10
the water content of

which
and
dough
of bread
aging, the water content increased to around 30
dough
changes
1968, Wassermann 1979, Keetels
turn reflects different densities and
amylases
structural
induces the solidification of
with gas cells to
the influence of
After
properties of
baking
the bread volume
which
Discussion
and
As
crumb, the rather
39
40
4. Results and Discussion
high
moisture
promotes rearrangements
of the
mobility
g/100 g
wb for flour
moisture loss
4.1.1
changes
of
amylases
gels
negligible
was
quality
of bread. The
crumb since it is the bulk
wb for starch
and
The
gels.
therefore, rheological
be excluded.
in
aging,
on
following
phase
can
of crust,
crispness
g/100 g
between 46 and
was
the texture of bread
on
in texture of bread
crumb and the loss of

textural
bread models
and around 60
gels
during storage
Influence of
The
based
gel
due to variations in water content
changes
high
polymers.
The water content of the

47
in the starch fraction because of the
are
particular
the
essential factors in
discussion is limited to
which is most affected
of bread
firming
the
reducing
changes
by changes
in bread
in the starch
fraction.
The bread loafs

varied
depending
had
Novamyl
-amylase
and
(crumb
on
the
specific
of 3.6 0.1
Soy--amylase
and
crust)
of
type
had
weight
amylase
added. Control bread and bread with
cm3/g
volume of 3.3 0.1

and 3.2 0.1
cm3/g
did not
or
of approx. 500 g. The volume
and bread with BAN and
Soy-
cm3/g, respectively. Hence, Novamyl
only slightly
affect the volume whereas BAN
increased the volume.
The
changes
of bread
instrumental Texture Profile

on
crumb
at the
macroscopic
Analysis (TPA).
the firmness of bread crumb is shown in
showed
higher
initial firmness and
did not affect the initial firmness

rate
over
influence
dough
an
on
and
aging period
firmness and
sticky
lower
compared
of 7 d.
firming
Fig.
Novamyl
studied
firming
by
amylases
4.1. Bread baked with
Novamyl
rate than control bread. BAN
to the control but reduced the
Soy--amylase
had
was
firming
only
Bread baked with BAN gave
bread crumb and the porous structure
bread. In contrast,
were
The influence of different
The added
rate.
level
little
sticky
different from control
did not induce stickiness and the crumb
quality
was
similar to control bread.
The influence of
in
Fig.
amylases
on
the elastic recovery of bread crumb
4.2. The elastic recovery is
deformation, which is equivalent
a measure
to the
for the
reversibility
springiness.
are
shown
of bread crumb
The elastic recovery of
4.1 Mechanical
properties
control bread
41
reduced from 96.3 % to 75.9 %
was
On the other hand, the elastic recovery of fresh bread with

reduced
to control bread but did not
compared
to the
control, but in
elastic recovery still decreased
on
on
the
containing Novamyl
from 94.0 % to 83.8 %. BAN
bread showed reduced elastic recovery after
slightly
was
the elastic recovery
contrast to bread
aging
Novamyl
aging (elastic recovery
on
%). Soy--amylase improved
between 88.8 % and 91.1
aging compared
change
of 7 d.
storage period
over a
containing
and further decreased upon
baking
aging.
The modulus of
deformability ED
compression cycle
and is
shows
bread
trends
of
ED
as
aging
already
of the first
measure
containing
of
compression cycle
reduced the increase of

BAN reduced the
of bread
different
with the firmness
seen
rigidity
firming
calculated from the
was
amylases. ED
TPA). Novamyl
aging compared
on
rate and
enhanced the initial
Soy--amylase
had
same
(maximum
and
rigidity
an
enzyme-free
only
little effect
to
4.3
Fig.
showed the
deformation
high
at
of the first
at small strain.
rigidity
readings
slope
control.
bread
on
rigidity.
Keetels
ascribed the increase of
(1995)
increase in stiffness of swollen starch
amylopectin. However,
granules
bread crumb is
due to
much
aging
on
of starch
reordering
more
of
gels
to
amylose
an
and
which
complex system
aging (Cluskey
et
1959, Senti and Dimler 1960, Mita 1990) it is assumed that the properties
at
contains also
al.
ED
the
But since
protein.
macroscopic
level
are
protein changes only
mainly
determined
little
by changes
on
in the starch fraction.
The elastic recovery and the firmness reveal mechanical characteristics of

bread crumb at
large
deformation which
during chewing (Szczesniak

recovery and firmness
are
et al.
are
1963).
dependent
on
comparable
The
the
type
of
leads to low firmness values and
which is
a-amylase,
to
great
classical
extent. In terms of
elastic recovery.
amylase
amylase
high
added. An ideal
BAN,
reduced the firmness but also the elastic recovery
by
an
excessive
degradation
It is assumed that due to the low thermal

was
between elastic
elastic recovery.
of starch via endo
hand, Soy--amylase had only minor effects
the enzyme
perception
texture, low elastic recovery correlates with sticky
bread crumb which is caused

attack. On the other
consumer
relationships
antistaling enzyme
a
to
inactivated before most starch
on
firmness and
stability
gelatinized
of
Soy--
and could be
42
which
degraded. Novamyl,
(Outtrup
and Norman
is
1984),
actually
turned out to be
showed clear
antifirming effects,
retained. This
can
other
partly
amylase
(Dauter
with
degradation
on
et al.
unusual
and at the
as
an
same
ideal
maltogenic a-amylase
antistaling enzyme.
time the elastic recovery
the characteristics
1999)
of
properties
mechanism. The
Novamyl
in
present
terms
(Christophersen
et al.
1998)
showed that this enzyme is

of enzyme
structure
results corroborate these
and
findings.
It
was
stability. On
be ascribed to its intermediate thermal
hand, investigations
the structure
classified
the
and
an a-
starch
4.1 Mechanical
properties
43
35
Control
Soy--amylase
CA
CA
d>
C
Novamyl
E
BAN
Aging
Fig.
4.1:
Influence of
Novamyl,
n
12).
aging time
BAN and
time
10
[d]
the firmness of bread crumb
on
Soy-$-amylase. (Mean
containing
with standard deviation,
100
Novamyl
90-
Soy--amylase
80a>
>
Control
o
o
70<
BAN
CA
re
UJ
60-
50
0
Aging
Fig.
4.2:
Influence
of
6
time
10
[d]
aging time on the elastic recovery of bread crumb

containing Novamyl, BAN and Soy-$-amylase. (Mean with standard
deviation, n
12).
=
0.15-
Control
it
0.10-
Soy--amylase
0.05-
10
Aging
Influence of
crumb
aging time
on
[d]
the modulus of
containing Novamyl,
n
12).
standard deviation,
time
BAN and
deformability ED of bread
with
4.1 Mechanical
4.1.2
properties
Influence of
flour
on
the mechanical
of starch and flour
properties
compression
of starch and
properties
gels
as
of
measure
gel rigidity
characterized with
were
ED
measurements. The modulus
determined
were
Gbreak
amylases
gels
The mechanical
uniaxial
45
and the
breaking
at small and
stress
large strain,
respectively.
stress-strain
Typical
times
are
defined
the
as
and starch
strain
as
of flour
of
compared
apart
together
and
deformability
Fig.
of flour
on
the other
fractures
to
the
of the starch
Keetels
strain
breaking
behavior of flour
lower stress and lower
observed
(1995)
network
of the
granules
were
is
on
compression
hand, showed large fractures and tended
compression.
stiffening
the
breaking
occurred at
gels
gels. Small
to starch
before 60 %
4.5 and
gels
and starch
firming
Fig.
swollen
results in
4.6 the influence of
and starch
gels
with
gels containing
Novamyl
rate than control
breaking
lowest
the
Failure of flour
whereas
aging
which
breaking stress,
found in the
were
at various
gels
attributed the increase
holding
granules
the starch
whereas
decrease of the
granules
reduced
strain of
breaking
gels.
In
the
increased
stress,
stress to the formation of
breaking
the
gels.
the
During aging,
Differences
gels.
gels. Starch gels,
to break
4.4.
Fig.
maximum
decreased for all
gels
in
presented
of control flour and starch
curves
stress.
breaking
stress and also
starch
compression experiments
stress but
to starch
a
In flour
gels.
firming
as
higher
they
the
initial
breaking
stress abreak
Both flour
presented.
breaking
stress and
gels, Soy--amylase only slightly

gels
reduced
gels.
on
different enzymes is
In contrast, starch
Novamyl containing
opposition
showed
time
aging
Flour
were
with
Soy--amylase
aging rate,
gels
was
gels.
reduced
comparable
during
to
the
deformed. This stands in
which showed
rate similar to control starch
lower
showed the
with BAN did not break
only plastically
gels containing BAN,
which
reduced
breaking
46
0.25
0.0
0.2
0.4
Hencky
Fig.
4.4:
0.6
0.8
strain eH
[-]
1.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
Hencky
0.6
0.8
strain eH
1.0
[-]
Representative stress-strain curves of control flour gels and control

starch gels after an aging time of2h, 3d, 7 d and 10 d at 20 C.
4.1 Mechanical
properties
47
0.25
0.20-
Control
Soy--amylase
0.15-
Novamyl
CA
CA
0.10-
CA
O)
C
!2
0.05-
re
0.00
4
Aging
Fig.
4.5:
Influence of
aging time
time
the
on
and
containing Novamyl
deviation, n
6-12).
10
12
14
[d]
breaking stress
Soy-$-amylase.
<5break of flour
with
(Mean
gels
standard
0.25
ir
Control
BAN
Novamyl
0.05
re
Soy--amylase
0.00
Aging
Fig.
4.6:
Influence of
aging time
containing Novamyl,
deviation, n
6-12).
=
on
time
the
BAN and
10
12
14
[d]
breaking stress
g break
of starch
gels
with standard
48
The modulus
shown
are
enzymes
scales should be
reduced the
for flour and starch
ED
in
trends
bread crumb
on
enzymes
rigidity
were
well
as
as
the
observed after
whereas
aging period
an
Soy--amylase
rate of starch
without
gels
increasing
the effect
was more
bread. It is assumed that the

the
low
comparatively
of starch
protein
dry
matrix
rigidity by Novamyl
has to
antifirming
an
the initial
by Novamyl
in starch
pronounced
particular
and Zobel
be taken
into
rigidity
and
rigidity
whereas
In
general,
gels.
gels
and
The influence of
was
magnified
effect
rigidity
gels
only
was
of starch
reducing
the
in
gels
firming
rigidity.
effect of
was
found for all
systems,
gels
than in flour
gels
in starch
Novamyl
matter content of starch
system (Maxwell
ordinate
is different from flour
gels
of 7 d. BAN did not affect the
An enhanced initial firmness induced
although
amylases.
the most effective enzyme in
was
time for various
deformation of flour
large
of starch
properties
the
on
rate in flour
firming
with the consequence that
gels,
impact
the influence of
(Fig. 4.3) regarding
aging
enhanced the initial
had little
found at small and
the mechanical
function of
gels, Novamyl
and bread. The enhancement of the initial
pure starch
as
Fig. 4.8, respectively (different
Soy--amylase
rate.
BAN reduced the initial
comparable
In flour
noted).
firming
4.7 and
Fig.
gels
gels,
gels
is due to
which retards the
1978). Furthermore,
and
firming
the absence of the
account, which facilitates starch-starch
interactions, for example the build up of intergranular amylose networks.

In order to further
for 175 d.
aged
were
The
increase of
ED
Fig.
4.9 illustrates the modulus
means
containing Novamyl hardly

deformation
(data
not
of
no
shown).
Novamyl
protein
play
can
be
matrix is
increased
compression
clearly
ED
of
in starch
Novamyl,
starch
gels
long aged
starch
gels.
showed
over
rate did not decrease between
rigidity
of control
gels
is not attained
the
long aging period. Similarly,
reduced the firmness and the
measurements show that
gels,
it
pronounced
hand, the modulus ED of starch gels
observed in starch
present
minor role in the
firming
the other
(abreak), Novamyl
The
the
that the maximal
long aging period. On
large
effect of
antifirming
aging. Interestingly,
on
10 and 175 d which

after this
the
plotted logarithmically. Control gels
time is
aging
investigate
gels
seems
staling phenomenon.
after
that
an
firming
antifirming
at
rate
effect
long aging period. Since
protein-starch
interactions
4.1 Mechanical
properties
49
E
E
Control
Soy--amylase
UJ
>
!5
re
CA
3
4. BAN
Novamyl
c
O
Aging
Fig.
4.7:
Influence of aging time
containing Novamyl,
deviation, n
6-12).
on
8
time
10
12
[d]
the modulus of deformability
BAN and
14
ED of flour gels
with standard
1.0
E
E
i.
BAN
Al
Control
0.8-i
UJ
>
=
0.6
1 Novamyl
re
E
i_
0.4-I
CA
3
0.2-
Soy--amylase
c
O
0.0
1i1i111111111
Aging
Fig.
4.8:
Influence of
aging time
on
8
time
gels containing Novamyl,

standard deviation, n
6-12).
12
14
[d]
the modulus of
BAN
10
and
deformability ED of starch
Soy-$-amylase.
(Mean with
2.0-
1.5-
10"'
10"
10u
Aging
Influence of aging time
starch
on
10'
time
10'
10J
[d]
the modulus of deformability
gels containing Novamyl. (Mean
ED of long aged
with standard deviation,
4).
4.1 Mechanical
Soy--amylase
The effect of
model
flour
systems
not
was
Soy--amylase
that
hypothesize
substrate is accessible
case
of starch
sedimentation of native
order to test this
the
First,
reduced the
that
the
around 60 C
was
was
Soy--amylase
flour
gels (data
degrade
starch
not
was
to
tested. BAN
viscosity
that BAN
are
xanthan
prolonged
starch
heat treatment at
gelatinization
with
gels
procedure
an
ED
of
capable
to
inactivated. In
xanthan, standard flour
gelatinized
Therefore, it could only degrade
was
being
Soy-
before
to this
Soy--amylase
at 60 C before
could have
became
stress and the modulus
breaking
was
and
gelatinized
and could
serve
as
small amount of starch.
antistaling
effect in bread if it
stability.
BAN did not show the
influenced the
suspension,
and the
BAN
rigidity
was
which
breaking
was
and
firming
active to
serves as
gels
reduced. It is
rate of starch
i.e.
since deionized water
was
that BAN
was
4.6
heating
had
very
reduced. It is conceivable
pregelatinized
granules
not
used and therefore calcium
systems
gels (Fig.
greased moulds,
was
network into which the starch
hypothesized
effect in all
certain extent before
filled into the
stress of the
same
consequence the fracture stress of this matrix and the
gels
In
This indicates
shown).
gels produced according
only degraded intergranular starch,
starch, which
not
starch
inactivated in starch
Fig. 4.8). Nevertheless,
since the starch
replaced by
ED (data
promote
holding period
Soy--amylase,
hardly
Soy--amylase.
carried out.
was
It is assumed that
Soy--amylase
thermal
higher
were
before
and bread before most of the starch
Similarly
low
the
during
It is concluded that
and
inactivated
shown).
if the
xanthan, the added Soy--amylase only slightly
able to reduce the
accessible substrate.
had
substrate for
as
dispersion
inactivated. In flour
contrast, the enzyme
gels
serve
introduced in order to
was
only
can
which is added in order to avoid
enzymatic degradation. Second,
accessible for
gels
before the enzyme is inactivated. In
stress and the modulus
was
rate of
in starch
effects
good antistaling
experiments
starch
with
gels
breaking
amylase
-amylase
two
pregelatinized
In starch
dispersion.
shows
starch, may
firming
Fig. 4.8). One
4.6 and
procedure (Fig.
pregelatinized starch,
hypothesis
of bread and bread
antifirming properties
(gelatinized starch)
the
gels
properties
The enzyme did not reduce the
congruent.
to the standard
produced according
the
the mechanical
on
and bread but had remarkable
gels
51
properties
embedded. As
breaking
fully
as
are
and leached
stress of the
active in starch
gels
activator and stabilizer
52
was
To
missing.
maximum stabilization the calcium concentration should
ensure
be approx. 100-180
calcium concentrations
tested.
stress which
was
observed
was
It
shown).
in
high
medium
On the other hand,

in
seems
and 180
(50
Unexpectedly,
breaking
et al.
mg/l (Madsen
observed
breaking
that calcium does have
of starch and
inhomogeneous
on
ED.
modulus
(180 mg/l) (data
ED
not
remains unclear. It is conceivable that
water distribution
seen
are
of the
responsible
for the
starch
pregelatinized
starch sedimentation
possible
in standard starch
mechanical
remarkable
firming
on
antistaling
gels.
also
in
et al.
systems during
firmness of
firming
Interestingly,
gels
Novamyl
rate whereas
the
were
led to
prevented firming
different.
effect
slight
on
increase
BAN
had
amylases
Soy--amylase
the
on
aging.
Soy--amylase
influence of the
of
the
but
initial
was
firmness
most
due
to
Novamyl
in starch
pronounced
other authors
1997).
(Qi
only
the
on
showed
nor
the
gels.
addition
The
was
antifirming
Si 1996, Gerrard et al. 1997, Leon et al.
Little attention has been
the first hours after
starch is accelerated
by
to the initial firmness of
that the
the action of the enzyme. A similar
emulsifiers, which
are
paid
sample preparation.
Novamyl containing systems suggests
amylose fraction,
comparable
bread, porous starch gels and low concentration starch gels
reported by
1997, Morgan
the
effects whereas BAN did not influence the firmness
systems
Novamyl
as
and
had
gels.
enhancement
effect of
and of bread.
gels
of starch
properties
detectable in all
well
as
texture.
rate of starch
The
of flour
amylases
freshly prepared systems
reduced the firmness

small effects
be said that
can
properties
in firmness of the
when
effect
no
influence, but the mechanism of BAN
xanthan solution in order to avoid
conclusion, it
mechanical
the
was
Conclusions
4.1.3
was
gels
induced
(50 mgl/l)
concentration
an
gels
did not show any different effects than
in starch
activity
stress but
phenomenon. However, replacement
dispersion by
In
BAN
concentration
calcium
high
concentration wheat starch
demixing
on
to the control and enhanced modulus
comparable
with
gels
mg/l)
calcium
reduction in the
The influence of two different
1973).
are
gelation process
phenomenon
able to form helical inclusion
added to starch
The enhanced initial
systems (Conde-Petit
of
is found
complexes
with the
and Escher
1995).
4.1 Mechanical
properties
53
In summary, the main conclusions from the characterization of the mechanical
properties
of bread and
Influence of
amylases
Thus, the porous
gels present
on
the
is
protein
present
probably
of bread and flour
gels
is
comparable.
and flour
firming
on
aging,
caused
by
various
suitable bread model.
matrix
(which
in starch
Degradation
firming
are:
structure is not determinant for the
Differences between starch

i.e.
gels during aging
gels)
of starch
caused
by
is
gels
and flour
lacking
and
dry
in starch
are
gels), pregelatinized
factors,
starch
(which
matter content.
by Novamyl
accelerated
gels
induces
gelation
higher
initial firmness which is most
of starch.
54
4.2
Microstructure of
4.2.1
Development
Light
microscopy
microstructure of
and
al.
of method for
presents
dough
Clapp 1942,
dough,
light microscopy
valuable
and bread
experiments,
(Barthel
method with
and
as
et al.
Raymond 1990,
few
dough
and
gels
crumb
was
soaked in diluted O.C.T.
was
consisted of
the
freezing
samples
compound
during cryosectioning.
A rather short
artefacts
by
described
times
hydration
Moss
soaking
(1975)
are
in
(18-24h). However,
of
shrinkage
protein
and starch due to
1994)
as
the
1915, Burhans
of
time
et al.
1999).
on
preliminary
was
developed
from
specimens
prior
fixation. Bread
for 15 min before
freezing.
The
distortion of the pores
selected, since the
was
probably promoted by long
most
of the short
spite
and
possible
without
prevent
hydration time,
completely. On
of bread crumb could not be inhibited
swelling
Flint
preparation
to stabilize the porous structure and to
as
of
study
1996, Hug-lten
preparatory steps
in order to minimize the risk of artefacts. The
aim
the
Sandstedt et al. 1954, Bechtel et al. 1978, Varriano-Marston et
literature
on
for
and Van Teutem
(Verschaffelt
1980, Pomeranz and Meyer 1984, Autio
Based
method
dehydration
the other
avoided
was
the
hand,
by using
the
cryosectioning technique.
Carbon dioxide
(-78 C)
within the porous
samples
stress
were
was
Iodine
to differentiate between
in
selected
amylose
potential
aqueous solutions,
samples
solutions
changes
which had
were
source
i.e.
only
found to
caused
be
to
as
and
of
temperature gradient
dough
and bread from
uniform structure without pores,

to -150
negligible
since
C).
The risk of ice
O.C.T.
acts
as
granules. Staining
Samples
and
exposed
by hydration during
is
with aqueous solution
which had been stained with
Lugol's solution,
were
compared
to iodine vapor. The aqueous
increase the
for starch because it allows
amylopectin. However, staining intensity
Light Green
slightly
an
piece
staining agent
of artefacts.
been
the
isopentan (-160
known to vary between the starch
presents
cryogen to limit the
prevented
considered
was
as
which have
by rapid freezing
formation
cryoprotectant.
used
which
cracking. Gel samples,
stabilized
crystal
was
swelling
stabilization and
of starch.
staining
to
staining
Overall,
the
did not induce
4.2 Microstructure of
in the starch fraction. The starch
major changes
Neither the localization of starch in the

two starch
4.2.2
polymers
protein
matrix
4.10
presents
light micrograph
Light Green.
of
cryosection
Green. The starch
show the characteristic
recognizable.
regions
granules
Protein and starch
et al.
more
1978)
on
surface coat of
not
evenly
granules
microscopy,
recent structural
1993).
model of
the microstructure of
it remains to be
dough. However,
(mixing, proofing
and
microstructure of
dough. According
segregation
occurs
reshaping)
during
partial phase separation

resistance in uniaxial
granules
thought
dough
are
reason
by
bicontinuous
granules
phase.
The
have
gluten
The results of the
consistent with the latter
how the
dough
et al.
is surrounded
as
granules.
protein quality
to be the
and
in bread
(Sandstedt
The starch
investigated
of the
dough,
protein
granule
processing steps
of wheat influence the
to Kieffer and Stein
reshaping
is also
(1997), starch-protein
after
for the
period.
rest
large
The
increase of
extension, called strain hardening. This stands in opposition
to the view that starch
determines the
is
the
and the
dough
Light
of native wheat starch
continuous
fills the space between the water-fused starch

on
slightly
accumulated.
are
stain
distributed in the
model described
and Larsson
dough
colored with
as
several authors
water and tend to fuse into
free"
present investigation
shape
concluded that each starch
starch-protein system (Eliasson
gel
are
wheat
granules
the distribution of starch and
regarding
is controversial. Based
protein.
and bread
proofed
bimodal size distribution of wheat starch
typical
The literature data
1954, Bechtel
of
fraction appears green
found where several starch
are
dough
The native starch
protein
The
the distribution of the
nor
dough
violet with iodine while the
granules.
shape.
affected.
were
stained with iodine and
dough
maintained their
granules
Localization of starch in the microstructure of
Microstructure of
Fig.
55
dough,
simply
acts
rheological properties
as
of
filler in bread
dough,
dough (Bloksma 1990).
while
gluten
56
Microstructure of bread
Fig.
4.11a-b show
different
magnifications. Again,
the two fractions. At low

swollen and
elongated,
aligned parallel
areas
at
sections of pore walls of fresh bread crumb at two
cross
starch and
but still retain their
fused with
homogeneously
The
neighboring granules.
stain
fraction of starch
granules, only
to
bread, but
separation
and
interface. In
amylose
Fig. 4.11b,
resolution level
as a
amylose
of starch is
in the starch
explained by
and
granule
be observed
concentric
granules
granule
the starch
as
dark lines
as one
visible for
are
not
granules.
growth rings
granules
and
surrounding
Clapp 1942,
inhomogeneous
by
one
starch, mainly amylose. The
center is also documented for rye
the
thermodynamic immiscibility
Ring 1987).
(Autio
The
was
et al.
elongated
reported
in
1996).
of
amylose
previous
Sandstedt et al. 1954, Varriano-Marston et al.
of
baking.
The fact that
in bread crumb proves that in
spite
growth rings
of the
partial amylose-amylopectin phase separation
Phase
form of starch
to arise from the extension of the pore walls due to the
early stage
starch and
and consists of
the authors
and
recognizable
are
starch
by
(Burhans
and the
respectively,
within the starch
can
and leached
and their orientation in bread crumb
in the
amylose
studied, the pore walls of bread crumb
The starch fraction itself is
amylopectin (Kalichevsky
cells
oriented and
bicontinuous structure, which is built up
not further commented
thought
are
reveals that
large
green
recognizable
whereas the brown/violet
granules
It is
as
are
are
phase separation. Outside
rich in
phase separated" granules
accumulation of
granules
granule.
microscopical
protein, respectively.
granules
of the
zone
of the internal structure of starch
may be described
swollen
Most
rich structures. In contrast, the small
does not show this
swollen starch
At the
inner
granules appear
distinguishable
brown/violet,
amylose
zones
staining
phase separated
the
amylopectin
protein
particular aspect
highly
in
areas
few and small
the starch
is
the starch
Iodine
and
are
to accumulations of
phase corresponds
along
blue
distributed and
blue, elongated
correspond
granular identity.
the bread crumb. Details of the starch fraction
which
amylopectin,
the starch
protein phase
higher magnification (Fig. 4.11b). Clearly,
partly
stained in order to localize
are
magnification (Fig. 4.11a)
to the pore surface. The
throughout
protein
studies
1980).
growing gas
of starch
are
morphological changes
the native
organization
of
starch
which is
granules,
orientation of
57
dough,
mainly
determined
amylopectin (Gallant
et al.
by
the
packing density
is
largely preserved.
1997),
It is concluded that the transformation of starch

continuous
starch
network.
macroscopic properties
Sandstedt et al.
starch is
(1954),
replaced by
are
a
an
it
Therefore,
determined
typical
by
is
the
not
suitable
to
starch
systems
with
inert filler such
as
glass
1997).
and
are
The
resulting
determined
by
the other
sponge structure
(e.g. xanthan, pregelatinized starch)

al.
mechanical
the
swelling
of the thickness of the pore walls
surprising
to
leads to
find
that
the
starch. As shown
by
bread crumb structure cannot be obtained when
consistency. On
a
during baking
gelatinized
beads. The
authors led to the conclusion that starch does not
gluten
and the radial
to
simply
act
experiment by
as a
filler that dilutes
hand, it is possible
by combining
these
to
generate
starch with other
polymers
replace gluten (Keetels 1995, Morgan
properties
are
state of starch
(Keetels 1995).
et
similar to those of bread crumb
granules
and
by
the distribution
58
Fig.
4.10: Light
micrograph of proofed control dough stained with Light Green and
iodine,
(scale bar
Fig.
25
pm)
micrographs of control bread crumb at two different

magnifications. Samples were stained with Light Green and iodine,
a) scale bar 50 pm
b) scale bar =10 pm
4.11: Light
Besides the soft
59
dough,
crumb, the crisp
crust is the second
of fresh bread. Characterization of the microstructure of bread
complemented by
the
observations
bright-field
and
steam. Starch
was
stained with iodine vapor and

observed
(Fig. 4.12b-d). Contrary
to bread
in the bread crust. Starch is

characteristic
In
with
starch
present investigations,
the crust which is detected

zone
of crust still shows

whether
Regardless
interesting
surrounding
observation
the pores
around the lower
The
investigations
gelatinized.
the crust
This is
is
probably
not
stained
which exhibit the
granules
was
cross
only
the
are
are
not swollen.
similar to
injected during baking,
over
as
generally applied
of starch in the outmost
in the form of Maltese

without
or
upper
part
strong
of bread. A further
of the
while this
birfringent,
of
crosses.
the
steam,
zones
layer
The inner
birefringence (Fig. 4.12d).
with
all
the whole bread crust
baking phase,
towards the inner
on
starch
was
granules
not the
case
crust revealed that most of the starch fraction is not

to be the consequence of
the initial
baking phase,
When steam is
rapid
water
evaporation
which reduces the
added, starch of the
availability
in
of
outmost crust
due to condensation and release of latent heat of steam at the

The
observations
present
which showed with different
McDonough
granules
et al.
and
in
are
agreement
microscopy techniques
in the crust
1980, Pomeranz
are
et al.
not
or
with other
such
as
SEM,
only partially
1984, Freeman and
Rooney 1999).
for the
around the pores

water
were
omitted
of the pores.
possible explanation
granules
baked
the crust
gelatinized (Varriano-Marston
the loss of
that
ESEM and LM that the starch
Shelton 1991,
steam
Maltese
disappears
thought
surface.
investigations
no
gelatinization
was
gelatinization.
layer gelatinized
dough
led to
by
in
was
strongly birfringent
are
strong birefringence
near
during
zones
water for starch
cold
part
When
typical
bread
of the crust
birefringence
crust
of steam in the initial
(Fig. 4.12b,c). Injection

in the
polarized-light
of native wheat starch and which
(Fig. 4.12b-d).
showed the
granules
protein staining
in the form of
addition, starch granules of bread
native wheat starch
micrographs
crumb, the starch granules appear almost intact
present
spherical shape
4.12 shows
Fig.
therefore
was
mode of bread crust baked with and without
polarized-light
Samples
(Fig. 4.12a).
bread crust.
on
characteristic
important
inhomogeneous gelatinization
is also related to the
evaporates very rapidly
at the
availability
warmer
of the starch
of water.
Most
side of the pore, which is
60
always
the side
near
the crust. Then water
migrates through
condenses at the colder side of the pores, which is

releases its latent heat and starch
and condensation
and
Larsson
zones.
are
very
rapid
steam
in
the
caused
positions
by gravity
in the pores
outer
part
gelatinization during cooling

partly
as
compared
is
found between crust
bread,
of the pores, where
and would result in

on
samples
loaf it is concluded that the
condensation rather than
of
of the bread. This would
depending
which
is caused
in crust
condenses
by
and
it is available for starch
mean
top,
(Eliasson
is caused
that the
phenomenon
birefringence occurring
taken from the
There, it
observed
the location of the crust. Since
phenomenon
gravity.
only
and
evaporation
to the crumb
inhomogeneous gelatinization
zones
phase
the crumb.
the processes of
1993), inhomogeneous birefringence
accumulates in the lower
were
in the crust
It is also conceivable that the
superheated
is
gelatinizes. Since
near
the gas
no
at different
differences
the bottom and the side of
by rapid evaporation
and
Fig.
dough,
61
micrographs of control bread crust

bright-field mode (scale bar 25 pm)
25 pm)
baked without steam, polarized-light mode (scale bar
baked without steam, polarized-light mode (scale bar =100 pm)
(arrow indicates inhomogeneous gelatinization around pores of the
crust)
100 pm)
baked with steam, polarized-light mode (scale bar
indicates
outer
of
(arrow
gelatinized
layer
crust)
4.12: Light
a)
b)
c)
d)
baked without steam,
62
4.2.3
Influence of
amylases
the microstructure of fresh and
on
aged
bread
The microstructures of fresh and 7 d
BAN
or
Soy -amylase
microstructure
characterized with
of fresh
crumb
bright-field
different from control
Fig.
also
illumination.
blue-violet and
Color
Soy--amylase
of starch
impression
to control
is altered
(Banks
of
development process
in
on
the
bread
type
reasons
Aging
of bread had
granules
in bread with
lost their
of
and Greenwood
photo micrographs,
was
still
samples.
an
inactivated
active
disintegration
influence
Novamyl
structure
on
when
Novamyl
is not
during aging
of starch.
swollen
more
on
and
are
Soy--amylase
is
are
1975). On
which
was
conceivable for the

a
reduced
degree
consequence,
the other
not
impression
in
iodine
hand, the film
standardized, could
of the
micrographs.
the microstructure of starch. The starch
BAN,
during baking
with
In
amylase.
Soy--amylase
or
In bread with
typical granule
completely
found in
amylases
shows
of starch leads to
result in color shifts. Both facts influence the color
in the fresh
are
bread, whereas starch of Novamyl and BAN
Enzymatic degradation
polymerization depending
staining
different
were
to the control. Differences in the colors of starch
comparable
color differences.
with
Bread crumb with
crumb stains violet to brown. Two
containing
Little differences
protein
bread, apart from color differences of iodine stained starch.
granules compared
observed.
containing Novamyl,
4.13 to 4.16. Starch and
produced
On the other hand, bread with BAN and

starch
bread crumb
Light Green, respectively.
stained with iodine and

the
shown in
are
aged
on
aging.
were
the other
smaller in the
aged
hand, the starch granules
It is conceivable that BAN
due to its
high
degraded
thermal
starch
than
was
not
stability. Therefore,
which
led
to
it
further
4 2 Microstructure of
Fig.
dough,
micrographs of fresh and aged control bread crumb

(scale bar 25 pm)
a) fresh (0 d)
b) aged (7 d)
4.13: Light
Fig.
micrographs of fresh and aged bread crumb with Novamyl

(scale bar 25 pm)
a) fresh (0 d)
b) aged (7 d)
4.14: Light
63
64
Fig.
micrographs of fresh and aged bread crumb with

(scale bar 25 pm)
a) fresh (0 d)
b) aged (7 d)
4.15: Light
BAN.
Fig.
micrographs of fresh and aged bread crumb with Soy-$-amylase.

(scale bar 25 pm)
a) fresh (0 d)
b) aged (7 d)
4.16: Light
The
dough,
with
investigations
regular
control bread and bread with

not stained. As
were
birefringence (Fig. 4.17a)
bright-field
4.17 and
polarized-light microscopy. Fig.
samples
65
Fig.
of
no
the
assessed with
as
bread
shown). During aging,
bread, which
means an
hand, developed
bread
Fig.
not
in
magnification
was
and
iodine vapor. This
technique
and the
of the starch
an
intensity
inside the
stained
was
adopted
was
rich
revealed that
granule
large
starch
to
visible
as a
on
the other
between control and
Novamyl
for
bright longish
prevent
BAN,
zone
zone can
example
zone
the
the
in the
and
of starch
the
out of
washing
amylose
of
in
bread
granules.
Fig.
to
amylose
The
amylose
rich
phase
corresponding
phase separated
is observed at the outer

crumb
be detected in the
seen
the
within the
high
protein
solutions.
amylopectin
granules. On
birefringence
only
be
an
at
cryosection
reveals accumulations of
High magnification
birfringent
can
Bread with
by exposing
granules
A less intense
zones.
center. This
was
behaved like control
granules by aqueous staining
at the outer
birfringent.
amylopectin
aging
Soy--amylase
The
polarized-light micrograph (Fig. 4.19b)

is
on
polarized-light mode, respectively.
bright-field micrograph (Fig. 4.19a) clearly
(violet/brown colored)
change
(7 d)
omitted, and starch
(blue colored)
contrast, Novamyl
of stored control bread crumb
same area
bright-field
swelling
they may
polarized-light microscopy (micrographs
birefringence.
with
as
of
shown).
4.19a-b show the
granules
out of focus. In
pattern
cross
disregarded
containing Soy--amylase
increase of
birefringence
(micrographs
staining
planes
birefringence
bright irregular
as
Maltese
The microstructure of fresh bread with BAN and
similar to control bread

not
is visible
should be
spots
in
laying
marked increase of
typical
is
(Seidemann 1966).
in the fresh bread crumb which did not
birefringence
(Fig. 4.18).
of the
recurrence
dust
molecules
birefringence
native starch is observed. The circular
induced
The
starch
order
magnification,
birfringent
magnification.
of
control bread crumb shows
be the result of
at low
granule swelling upon gelatinization
loss
and
since starch
Interestingly, aged
longish structures,
by
fresh crumb of control bread exhibits little
expected,
At low
present
Novamyl, respectively,
accompanied by
(Fig. 4.17b).
4.18
complemented
were
with
amylose
4.20d-f. The
Novamyl
rich starch
birefringence
is
66
Fig.
4.17: Polarized-light
micrographs
Samples were not stained,
(scale bar 50 pm)
a) fresh (0 d)
of fresh and
aged control bread crumb.
b) aged (7 d)
m/*m
IM
f:/-#^4#S*
Fig.
micrographs of fresh and aged bread crumb with

Novamyl. Samples were not stained,
(scale bar 50 pm)
a) fresh (0 d)
b) aged (7 d)
Fig.
4.19:
dough,
67
Corresponding light micrographs of aged control bread

Samples are stained with iodine vapor,
(scale bar= 10 pm)
a) bright-field mode
b) polarized-light mode
crumb
(7 d).
68
The
influence of
reheating
investigated by heating
aged
After 7 d of
the
aging,
outer
starch
rich starch
amylose
of
zones
the
the microstructure of starch
granules
granule
polarized-light
of control bread crumb show
center and
After
granules (Fig. 4.20a).
birefringence
in the
birefringence
remained in the center of starch
aging period
of 4
Polarized-light
Fig.
of the
starch
are
of
granule
zones
of
birfringent
birfringent
granules.
birefringence
outer
Novamyl
after
an
center remained
with
Novamyl
mainly
the
of 7 d
and the
not
birefringence
disappeared
aging period
was
4.20.
whereas
the
in
in the
reheating (Fig. 4.20b),
detectable in the
bread crumb
Fig.
the
some
following
granules regained birefringence.
crumb
reheating step
in
birefringence
granules. During
bread crumb
zones are
Due to the
zones
of the starch
bread
Novamyl containing
centers
and very weak
d, the
micrographs
4.20d-f. In
granule
amylopectin
rich outer
less intense
was
of bread crumb with
presented
are
was
bread
aging. Thereafter,
High magnification micrographs
observed with
Novamyl
on
bread at 60 C after 7 d
for further 4 d at 20 C.
and without
of bread
shown
are
amylose
rich starch
(Fig. 4.20d). Only
amylopectin
rich
birfringent (Fig. 4.20e,f).
and the
few
regions
subsequent aging,
changed,
in
amylose
the
rich
Fig.
dough,
69
micrographs of bread crumb without and with Novamyl.

Samples were not stained, (scale bar 10 pm)
Bread before reheating (7 d aged):
a) Control
d) Novamyl
Bread directly after reheating:
b) Control
e) Novamyl
Control
Bread 4 d after reheating:
c)
f) Novamyl
70
The combination of
light microscopy
in the
allowed localization and identification of the

zones
detected with
as
structures but not
in
zone
the
of
C,
60
starch
>
Czuchajowska
and Pomeranz
1989),
during baking,
regions
aging
become
of control bread
of bread
cooling
(Fig. 4.17),
(Fig. 4.18).
al.
1985a,b, Clark
partial crystallization
reorganization
of
et al.
of
amylose
is
or
Based
1989)
birfringent
by
on
of
reorganized amylose.
et al.
(Eberstein
necessary to melt ordered

followed
either due to
birfringent
It is concluded that the
has not been
birfringent amylose structures,
Birfringent
structures.
anisotropic
around 150 C
are
mode
to
consists
granules
probably
most
of starch
separation
crystallinity.
to
Temperatures
Phase
birfringent
polarized-light
polarized-light microscopy correspond
necessarily
center
and
bright-field
amylose.
the formation of ordered
by
reported
1980,
to date. The
amylose
rich
spontaneous reorganization during
the action of
studies
on
Novamyl during baking
pure
and
amylose systems (Miles
et
it is conceivable that lateral chain association favors

The
amylose during aging.

artefact introduced
an
by
that
possibility
iodine
complexation
excluded, since the samples of Fig. 4.17, 4.18 and 4.20
the
can
be
not stained.
were
However, the ordering of the amylose fraction may have been promoted by
complexation
The
with
wheat starch
endogenous
slight birefringence
in the outer
amylopectin. During
the
bread crumb due to
could
never
when
Novamyl
completely
of
which
be attributed to
recurrence
added. This
of
was
birefringence disappeared
i.e.
melting
only
retrograded
of
which
retrograded
subsequent aging birefringence reappeared
in control
amylopectin rtrogradation. Birefringence
amylopectin
suggests
birefringence
rich outer
that
in the outer
with the results of Jacobson et al.
near
granules,
zones
reorganization
of starch
of
granules
amylopectin
was
blocked.
The observed
granule
can
anisotropic structures,
be detected in the
was
aging,
at 60 C this
amylopectin. During reheating

destruction
of starch
zones
observed in control bread crumb after 7 d
reflects the
lipids.
zones
(1997). They
remnants of low-concentrated starch
the outer
edges
concluded that the

crumb involves
of intact swollen
development
changes
in both
of starch
is consistent
described that upon
storage
pastes regained slight birefringence
granules.
of ordered
granules
Based
zones
on
microscopy,
in starch
granules
fractions, amylose and amylopectin.
it
can
be
of bread
4.2.4
dough,
Influence of
71
amylases
on
the microstructure of flour
gels
and starch
gels
Flour
gels
Stained flour
gels
were
polarized-light
mode.
the
mode. The
bright-field
assessed
by light microscopy
4.21 illustrates flour
Fig.
granular identity.
and
neighboring granules,
the
interface. Starch
protein
those in
flour
aged
is distributed
control flour
Flour
gels
the
gels
with added
granule
4.21
is
Novamyl (Fig.
as
Novamyl
swollen and
is also visible
are
as
are
in
well
more
4.21
as
granules
gels
are
show
within
along
larger
which stains
the
than
blue,
of fresh bread whereas in
accumulated in the center of
c-d)
in
fused with
dark blue lines
in fresh control flour
in the
partly
elongated,
phase separated
a-b). Furthermore, amylose,
amylose
center in fresh
are
granules
amylopectin
granules
homogeneously
more
aged
the
gels (Fig.
with and without
granules
The starch
and
amylose
granules. Intergranular amylose
starch
and
bright-field
matrix is colored green whereas starch appears
protein
blue to violet. Like in bread crumb the starch

but still retain their
gels
in the
enrichment of
an
aged gels.
As
granules.
amylose
in
in bread crumb
seen
shifts the color of iodine stained starch from blue towards
(Fig. 4.14), Novamyl

violet.
The
tendencies
with
as
is
more
mainly
occurs
enriched, and does
of control flour
gels
intense
not
compared
birefringence
to
control
in the center of starch
change
increased
on
aging. On
aging
on
showed the
gels (Fig. 4.22)
observed in bread. The
already
Novamyl
birefringence
is
of flour
polarized-light micrographs
the other
of fresh flour
model
granules,
same
systems.
where the
gels
The
amylose
hand, the birefringence
and is distributed
over
the whole starch
granule.
In
conclusion, it
be said that the microstructure of flour
can
to that of bread crumb.
Novamyl
induces the
same
color shift form blue to violet and increased initial

measurements
(see chapter
4.1
also showed that
bread and flour
gels.
It is assumed that BAN and
microstructure
in
similar
microstructure of flour
gels
way
as
seen
with BAN and
in
effects
gels
is
as seen
comparable
in
bread, i.e.
birefringence. Compression
Novamyl
had similar effects in
Soy--amylase
bread
Soy--amylase
crumb.
was
not
also affect the
Therefore,
the
investigated.
72
Fig.
micrographs of fresh and aged flour gels without and with

Novamyl. Stained with iodine and light green,
(scale bar 25 pm)
a) Control fresh (0 d)
b) Control aged (7 d)
c) Novamyl fresh (0 d)
d) Novamyl aged (7 d)
4.21: Light
Fig.
dough,
73
micrographs of fresh and aged flour gels without and

(scale bar 50 pm)
with
74
Starch
gels
In contrast to bread and flour

solution.
starch
The
accumulations
space
clearly
are
microstructure of starch
Fig.
4.24.
granule
on
the
distinguished
with
partially
to starch
In
gels
In
starch
gels
with
some
with
Novamyl
are
amylose
intergranular
are
granules
more
violet
found in the
when observed in the
an
in starch
the
within the
the starch
amylose
the blue coloration

of
aged gels
cryosection
was
for
observed in starch
gels
since the
not rotated
no
are
visible
indicating amylose
blue
areas are
is
were
of the
not
are
In other areas,
(Fig. 4.24c).
In
can
of starch
accumulation is
visible
(Fig. 4.24e),
possible (Fig. 4.24f).
Soy--amylase,
detected.
caused either
viscosity
evidence
gels were
centers
is not stained and the starch
gels (Fig. 4.24b).
staining
two
differently
stainable
It is conceivable that the
by demixing
gels. Mainly
of starch
in starch
gels
pregelatinized suspension
which could facilitate starch sedimentation.
macroscopic
granule
are
starch
elongated
BAN, inter- and intragranular amylose enrichment
with BAN and
same
observed that the
BAN show
accumulations
intense blue iodine
gels
Soy--amylase
BAN, iodine staining is inhomogeneous
uniform distribution of the enzyme in the
no
changes
no
with BAN and
gels
Novamyl,
some areas
regions
inhomogeneous staining
was
and in the
Soy--amylase gels (Fig. 4.24d). During aging
in fresh
Soy--amylase,
lost. In
Only
blue
gels,
the center of starch
gels containing
with
aged gels
region.
whereas in others
regions
aged
intragranular amylose
contrast to starch
gels
granules
almost
center remained uncolored like in fresh
blue inter- and
be
control
Novamyl,
with and without
gels
Fresh starch
(Fig. 4.24a).
depending
with
gels. On aging,
of fresh and
granules. Similarly
stained
In
gels.
granules
mode.
Micrographs
shown in
gels
and therefore starch
missing
flour
on
stained with iodine
Furthermore, the starch granules stain generally
of control
granules
in
only
were
Novamyl
visible in the center of
In starch
remained uncolored.
bright-field
than
together
(Fig. 4.23a-b).
than the
matrix is
protein
closer
spatially
gels
4.23 illustrates the influence of
Fig.
gels.
starch
gels,
or
by
with
was
a non
BAN, it
very low,
However, baked starch gels showed
sedimentation.
with BAN. This cannot be
during baking. One
hard
core
explained by
reason
for the
was
sometimes
starch
demixing
inhomogeneous
staining
would
and the hard
lead to
consequence,
of starch
dough,
core
could be
inhomogeneous
staining
is altered
rtrogradation
75
can
starch
only
also be
in
non-uniform enzyme distribution. This
degradation throughout
some areas
expected.
the
gel.
As
and differences in the extent
76
Fig.
4 Results and Discussion
micrographs of fresh and aged starch gels without and with

Novamyl Stained with iodine solution (10 %) for 16 s
(scale bar 25 pm)
4.23: Light
4 2 Microstructure of
Fig.
dough,
77
micrographs of fresh and aged starch gels with BAN and

Soy-$-amylase Stained with iodine solution (10 %) for 16 s Aged gels
(7 d) represent two different regions of the same gel
(scale bar 25 pm)
a) BAN fresh (0 d)
b) and c) BAN aged (7 d)
fresh
d) Soy-$-amylase
(0 d)
e) and f) Soy-$-amylase aged (7 d)
4.24: Light
78
Like
in
bread
and
flour
complemented by observing
were
taken in the
always
found. The
(Fig. 4.25)
fresh
show the
control
the
same
starch
control
gels
but
gels
but less
in the
birefringence
are
is
observed in the
In summary, it
but could not be
eliminate
described in
Only
starch
reducing
control with
matrix in starch
be said that
iodine
gels
staining
of
high
starch
gels.
BAN
BAN
and
show
compared
gels.
the
Birefringence
and in the
show
gels.
to
amylopectin
The
very weak
increase of
containing gels.
Differences
of starch
amylases
clarification
in starch
occurs
can
change
of this
or even
point,
and low concentration starch
gels
further
systems
are
4.2.5.
firming
showed similarities with bread and flour
birefringence. Soy--amylase was
rate of starch
gels
birefringence compared
observed in bread with
gels
increases
gels.
BAN which
compression
tests.
with BAN showed
to fresh control starch
is not
and bread with BAN
effective
but could not be differentiated from
polarized-light microscopy. Starch gels
between starch
gels
bread, flour gels and starch gels
since
For
amylose.
with
The
gels.
Novamyl. On aging,
starch
phase separation
detected in all
of
in
Novamyl
starch
intense
Soy--amylase
birefringence
the microstructure and
the
with
granules
control
to
gels containing Novamyl
enhanced initial
level with
of
protein
staining
chapter
gels regarding
in
on
gels
was
fresh
with
gels
gels
more
control
with
while
birefringence
Starch
4.26.
to
the
starch
aged
than in starch
comparable
clearly
iodine
investigations
can
and
gels
with and without
Novamyl containing
rich centers of starch
intensity
due to the absence of
the
Fig.
birefringence
birefringence,
is similar to control and BAN
aging
on
in
Fresh starch
which
birefringence,
in
comparably
amylose
regions.
no
were
Pictures
polarized light.
observed in bread and flour
as
of fresh
pronounced
increases
birefringence
gels
in the fresh state, which is
birefringence already
rich outer
of starch
almost
hardly
presented
are
with
gels
microstructure
where the most intense
tendencies
exhibit
the
on
clearly birfringent. On aging,
are
systems
Soy--amylase
develops
unstained starch
regions
Polarized-light micrographs
control
investigations
polarized-light micrographs
containing Novamyl
in
gels,
surprising
were
since
gels.
This
large
also detected at the
slightly
was
not
differences
macroscopic
Fig.
dough, bread and bread models
79
micrographs of fresh and aged starch gels without and

(scale bar 25 pm)
with
80
Fig.
micrographs of fresh and aged starch gels with BAN and

Soy-$-amylase. Samples were not stained,
(scale bar 25 pm)
a) BAN fresh (0 d)
b) BAN aged (7 d)
c) Soy-$-amylase fresh (0 d)
d) Soy-$-amylase aged (7 d)
4.2.5
dough,
Influence of
In the
with
amylases
bright-field
and the
amylases
of starch
gels
mode
are
bright-field
granules
with
center of the starch
same area
polarized-light
and
illustrated
mode.
gels
gels
with
the effect of
study
of starch
gels
Additionally,
were
iodine
incubated
amylopectin dispersions
gels
in
Fig.
4.27.
show blue
concentrations observed
Phase
amylose
separated
(7.5 MANU/kg flour)
granules.
is visible
At low concentrations of
the blue coloration is weakened and
starch
enrichment in the
granules (Fig. 4.27a). Intergranular amylose
between the swollen starch
spots
of the
increasing Novamyl
visible. Control starch
are
of starch
in order to
performed
amylose
centers of starch
analyzed.
was
Micrographs
granule
Light microscopy
staining. Micrographs
staining
was
of starch
staining
shown that starch
was
concentration
iodine
on
recorded in the
in the
it
iodine
on
do not stain with iodine.
increasing Novamyl
with
amylases
previous chapter
Novamyl
81
more
violet
as
blue
Novamyl
regions
are
visible, but inter- and intragranular amylose is still detectable (Fig. 4.27b). Starch
gels
with
standard
with iodine
staining
be observed in starch
gels
than in bread and in flour
4.28 shows the
Novamyl
The
respectively.
as
well
the
as
in the control
gels
are
Based
of stored
same area
in
the
rich outer
amylopectin
gels (Fig. 4.28a-b). On
these observations
parts
The
by
it
of starch
can
starch
and
of the starch
gels
amylopectin,
in starch
with and without
polarized-light mode,
amylose
granules
are
rich center
birfringent
hand, Novamyl containing starch
granule
be concluded that
of starch
gels
differences in iodine
microscopy (data
weak
blue
gels
reveals
center
(Fig. 4.28c-d).
amylose
as
well
as
without enzyme. In contrast, in

an
increase in molecular order
by microscopy.
inhomogeneity
detected
i.e.
pronounced
reveal that the
the other
Novamyl containing systems only amylose

detected
more
bright-field
in the uncolored starch
amylopectin reorganize upon aging
as
(182 d)
corresponding micrographs
only birfringent
on
staining structures,
no
gels.
high magnification
at
violet
This effect is much
gels.
show
Novamyl (750 MANU/kg flour)
(Fig. 4.27c). Only
can
Fig.
of
dosage
not
birefringence,
staining intensity,
shown). Intensively
which
was
Soy--amylase,
with BAN and
mainly
stained
is confirmed
cryosections
detectable in the starch
which
was
by polarized
showed rather
granule
center.
82
Vice versa, starch
gels
strong birefringence
of the
granules.
structures. As
a
less intense
in which
in the starch
mainly amylose
granule
high intensity
consequence,
staining (Banks
of
centers
could not be stained exhibited

as
well
as
birefringence points
complexation
in the outer
to
highly
regions
ordered
with iodine is reduced and results in
and Greenwood
1975).
dough,
Fig. 4.27-.Light micrographs of aged starch gels (7d) containing different

Novamyl concentrations. Samples were stained with iodine solution
(10 %) for 16 s. (scale bar =10 pm)
a) Control
b) Novamyl (low dosage: 7.5 MANU/kg flour)
c) Novamyl (standard dosage: 750 MANU/kg flour)
84
Fig.
4.28:
Corresponding light micrographs of long aged starch gels (182d)

Novamyl. Samples were stained with iodine solution
(10 %) for 16 s. (scale bar 10 pm)
a) Control, bright-field mode
b) Control, polarized-light mode
c) Novamyl, bright-field mode
d) Novamyl, polarized-light mode
without and with
Iodine
staining
In
investigated.
interest since
iodine
particular,
shows the colors of iodine stained
enzyme.
The
prepared
control
incubated with
did
amylose
dispersions
with iodine. The control
temperature.
fresh
and
with
(,max)
are
control
shorter
the
Fig.
nm
with
visible in
that the
wavelength
lower values. After

BAN and
still blue whereas
colorless.
Additionally,
with
Novamyl.
at the maximum absorbance
609
and
598
Incubation
nm.
with
showed
Novamyl
during subsequent aging.
A shift towards lower
shift in color towards violet.
Soy--amylase.
aging period
Visually,
no
amylose dispersions
differences in
and
dispersions
The absorbance measurements showed
of 14
was
only slightly
shifted towards
d, color differences between control and

both visible and measurable. BAN and
stained violet and the maximum absorbance
lowered to 566 and 569 nm,
respectively.
dispersions
Fig.
at
maximum
incubated with
the
of 7 d it decreased to
During
Soy--amylase dispersions were
wavelengths
of
storage period
nm.
Soy--amylase dispersions
The
room
4.31. The maximum absorbance of
of the maximum absorbance
an
aged
shifted the maximum absorbance towards
color were detectable between fresh control

incubated with BAN and
and
amylose dispersions
and remained constant

indicates
wavelengths
Fig.
were
in
for 17 h at
aged dispersions
amylose
between
Novamyl
Fresh
wavelengths.
wavelengths
were
was
became
Novamyl
4.30 and
maximum absorbance at 590

563
with
shifted
The violet color of
kept
were
staining
slightly
was
pronounced
more
dispersions
after
directly
dispersions.
slightly
the control
amylose dispersions
the color
amylose dispersions
period,
amylose dispersions
amylose dispersions
although
was
recorded. The
in
with and without
Amylose dispersions
color differences
in the visible range of
were
presented
same
still blue
amylose aggregates
stained with iodine
4.29
Fig.
blue. In contrast,
deep
Novamyl
After this time
of
stained
to the fresh control
staining,
Absorption spectra
not stainable.
was
was
amylose-butanol complexes. Freshly
aged dispersions
sedimented
Novamyl
was
not contain
was
compared
After
dispersions.
degraded by Novamyl
stained violet instead of blue.
Novamyl
amylose dispersions
amylose dispersions
amylose dispersion (0.6 %)
stored for 7 d at 20 C showed the
towards violet
of starch
with
gels
and
amylopectin
staining
of starch
amylose
85
dough,
absorbance of iodine
Novamyl,
BAN and
4.31. Differences between control and
stained
Soy--amylase
was
amylopectin
are
shown in
incubated
86
with
amylases
maxima and also

with
dispersions
phenomenon,
occurred in
small. Almost
were
visually only
was
amylose dispersions,
incubated with
violet.
observed in
were
aggregation
no
and became violet
after
only
*C.IJ
(0 d)
mixing
after
standing
\ I'N
directly
after
"
staining
was
After 17
at
observed in
aged (7 d)
4.29: Photographs of fresh
without and with
Control
Novamyl
'
also
In contrast to
amylopectin dispersion
iMICIHJ
/
Novamyl,
temperature
aged (7 d)
bleaching
h, control dispersions
blue color similar to

room
with
colorless.
were
was
amylose dispersions
for several hours.
i WW
directly
JlClfl
Fig.
recognizable. Amylopectin
amylose dispersions
addition of iodine the

it had
found in the absorbance
less intense coloration. The
Novamyl dispersions
Novamyl. During
Interestingly,
fresh
showed
were
amylopectin dispersions with Novamyl.
violet whereas the
were
differences
minor differences
Soy--amylase
which
no
after
^ N'
/17 h after
staining
staining
(0 d) and aged (7 d) amylose dispersions (0.6 %)

Novamyl. Dispersions were stained with iodine.
dough,
Aging
Fig.
87
time
[d]
Aging
time
[d]
4.30: Influence of
aging on iodine staining of 0.6 % amylose dispersions

incubated with Novamyl, BAN and Soy-$-amylase. The wavelength of
the maximum absorbance
(kmax)
was
evaluated.
630
o
C
re
610
CA
2
re
ll
IJ
c
a>
590
570
550
a>
>
re
530
0
Aging
Fig.
4.31 .-Influence of
time
48
[d]
Aging
14
time
[d]
aging on iodine staining of 1.4 % amylopectin dispersions

Novamyl, BAN and Soy-$-amylase. The wavelength of
incubated with
the maximum absorbance
(kmax)
was
evaluated.
88
In summary, it
can
be said that the color of
induced
changed by enzyme activity. Novamyl

violet. This color
aging.
is
Soy--amylase
BAN and
It is concluded that
dispersions.
or
not stable and the
was
not stainable. In
even
stained with iodine
amylose
color shift from blue towards
dispersions
induced
and
degraded
became colorless
color shift
be
can
after
only
during
of the
aging
stains violet
aggregated amylose
contrast, the color of amylopectin dispersions
was
not
changed by amylases.
On the microstructure level of bread and bread model systems,
induce structures which
starch
with
gels
uncolored and
of starch
center
Novamyl
in
granules
was
polar light
not
showed
with
gels
empty although
would
1998).
to
of starch
endo attack within
rapidly
of starch with
decreases
is
(Outtrup
was
polysaccharide
observed
with 1 %
that
no
longer
mentioned that
ascribed this
complexed"
in
performed
and Norman
Novamyl
chains
was
means
that the
ability
cross
that the enzyme

to form inclusion
of
1984, Christophersen
was
(Dauter
1 %
amylose
stained with iodine.
originates
Starch would have to be
30 % of the starch
a-amylase
et al.
to
more
similar
whereas the
ability
to carry out
1999). Regarding
typical endo-amylase.
maltose
or
the
from
degraded
(Banks
extensive
to
reaction
is unable to take up iodine.
double helix model where
an
the
to
can
degradation
amylose
(total amylose content)
of
1975).
They
would be
be excluded that the
of the
amylose
DP smaller than 10 to lose the
and Greenwood
Liebl et
starch led to the formation of
with itself and thus unable to bind iodine. It
to stain with iodine
found to be
et al.
Furthermore, Banks and Greenwood
retrograded amylose
phenomenon
to stain
endo-manner and results
an
than to
with
by degrading amylopectin
glucanotransferase (GTase)
inability
center
iodine, Taniguchi (1991 ) reported that the blue iodine value
addition
(1975)
suggests
found to be consistent with the
that
(1992)
products
birefringence
way that it lost the
cyclodextrin glycosytransferase (CGTase)
staining
al.
exhibited
The three-dimensional structure of
structure of the active site

an
the
it remained uncolored. Holes observed with
by Novamyl
amounts of maltose
high
where
Primarily
detectable. The fact that the center
black. The observation rather
stay
with iodine.
can
with iodine.
Degradation
in
staining
granules
was
Novamyl
modified the starch fraction in such
complexes
starch
intergranular amylose
no
from
prevent amylose
amylases
This would
capability
that around
mean
would have had to be
fraction.
degraded
to
impede
of
with iodine.
complexation
starch, that
means
shown).
The
amylose
of iodine
exact
3.5 %
the
to
and
et al.
and
gels
Novamyl
were
shifted towards violet
starch
gels
the
consequence,
local
amylopectin may
be different in
and
crystallization
aggregation, gelation
concentration and chain
investigated
would decrease the
length (Ring
whether
swelling
et
reduced
of starch and
as a
staining.
and
their
Phase
of
starch
amylopectin
granules,
amylose
tends to be
amylose
and
during
aging
two
polymers
can
be
visualized
its
by Novamyl.
birefringence
As
birefringence already
their
promoted by
iodine
staining
in the center of the
Due
to
the
and
granules,
by
with
where
directly
degradation
long range
compared
an
endo
are
effect, bread and gels with Novamyl exhibit
Novamyl
rapid aggregation
contribute to the
to control. It is conceivable that
also reduces the
via
ordered structures
in the fresh state. It is assumed that the
enhanced initial firmness
visible in low
endoactivity, amylose fragments
and induce
result of this
was
starch
in fresh bread and bread models with
amylose aggregation
observed
which accumulates in the
by
aggregation. Aggregation
readily aggregate
urn).
is
the
already freshly prepared systems
amylose dispersions which suggest
15-25
induces
of
accumulated, suggests that Novamyl partially degrades
promotes
which
amylose
phase separate upon heating
amylose fraction,
The fact that
showed enhanced
produced
The
leads to the
tend to
of the
separation
Novamyl
mechanism
polarized-light microscopy
reorganization
polarized-light microscopy.
concentration
and
bright-field
thermodynamic immiscibility.
of
As
and
It remains to be
iodine
amylose
that
birefringence.
(approx.
with
Interestingly,
Conclusions
conclusion that
center
amylose
by polymer
of water in starch
improve
i.e.
The kinetics of
1989).
The combination of
starch
slightly
between
phase separation.
polymer,
known to be influenced
4.2.6
gels
prevent
granule
are
differences
understood.
not
could be due to differences in the extent of starch
investigated systems.
consequence
fully
(data
and
by Novamyl
portion
protein
the
availability
The
the extent of
1987, Clark
not
are
less intense and
was
rather small
and
concentration of each
al.
induced
are
40 % ethanol extraction
by
of bread and flour
granules
control.
containing systems
swelling
which
complexation, however,
although staining
compared
Novamyl degrades only
measured
as
structures
the centers of the starch

stained
89
dough,
firming
rate of bread and
an
enhanced
gels by producing
90
less
perfect amylose network,
which rearranges less
on
aging (Conde-Petit
1992).
In
the
summary,
microstructure of
and
conclusions
from
the
bread, flour gels and of starch gels
The two starch
baking
main
polymers amylose
part
of the
amylose
and
characterization
of
the
are:
amylopectin phase separate during
fraction accumulates in the center of starch
granules.
Amylose
rich
reorganization (takes
Most
via
an
endo-mechanism and
and firmness
It is conceivable that
rate of bread and
several
Based
on
bread
and
an
it
thereby
compared
enhanced
can
model
amylopectin fraction,
or
the
gels by producing
microscopy,
bread
birfringent
days)
probably Novamyl promotes
birefringence
become
regions
by
either
the action of
aggregation
is
of
responsible
to control
less
but also in the
does
amylose by degrading
it
for the enhanced initial
reduces the
perfect amylose
not
spontaneous
Novamyl.
amylose aggregation
a
to
systems.
systems
due
only
network.
rtrogradation
involve
amylose polymers.
firming
of starch in
changes
in
the
4.3
of starch in bread and in
4.3
91
of starch in bread and in bread models
bread models
The influence of
investigated
was
assessed
followed
was
prior
by X-ray
diffraction is
et al.
on
the
crystallinity
degradation
and Leiievre
wb. The
determined
largely
1982). Therefore,
The dried
1978).
of starch
the water content
freeze-dried
samples
were
amylases
were
(Cleven
by X-ray
1978, Bulon
et al.
conditioned
order of
water content
measured
as
was
freeze-dried
polymer
had
samples
of starch
crystallinity
by
samples
is known to maintain the
Freeze-drying
g/100 g
was
of starch
diffraction. For this purpose, the
(Ahmed
of approx. 2-3
and
of starch
was
methods.
amylases
to measurements.
wheat starch
(WAXS). Rtrogradation
diffraction
structure of bread and bread models with added
crystalline
determined
Crystallinity
methods.
physicochemical
scanning calorimetry (DSC),
by enzymatic
Influence of
The
different
by
differential
by
the starch fraction of bread and bread models
on
by wide-angle X-ray
determined
4.3.1
amylases
saturated
over
barium chloride solution for at least 12 h before measurements. This resulted in

water
of
contents
8-11
approx.
wb,
g/100 g
which
led
satisfactory
to
diffractograms.
Diffractograms
Soy--amylase
pronounced
first
are
presented
reflection
indication
Additionally,
of
for
reflections of the
the
characteristic
1993).
In
of V- and
which
gelatinized,
and
were
but not
caused
B-type
structures
13
degrees,
in
al.
et
which
bread.
as a
1993).
are
Beside
also
the
by endogenous amylose-lipid
yet recrystallized.
In
aged
control
bread,
5.6,15 (weak) and 17, and between 22 and 24 (broad
corresponds essentially
retrograded
Kksel
observed. This indicates that starch of
to
scattering angles (26) 5.6, 15, 17,
of
of fresh control bread
1988,
detected
were
are
case
BAN and
Novamyl,
This reflection often appears
(Zobel
7.5
at
V-type pattern,
addition, the reflection
organization
degree.
formation
V-type pattern,
This
4.32. In the
at 20
reflections
detected at
were
bread without and with
Fig.
further reflections
no
peak) degrees.
in
V-complex
fresh control bread is

reflections
aged
appeared
weak
two
characteristic
complexes,
of fresh and
at 20
degrees
22 and 24
can
which has the
degrees (Le
is still visible.
starch of control bread
(Dragsdorf and
B-type pattern,
Thus, the crystalline
be described
Varriano-Marston
Bail et al.
1980).
as a
The
mixture
origin
of
92
the
crystalline structure,
i.e.
crystalline amylose
and/or
amylopectin,
determined in combination with other methods since both

as
B-type
cases
detected
at 20
of bread crumb with
Novamyl
and
degrees. Novamyl
breads
containing
was
V- and
BAN
recrystallization
gels
amylases
on
degrees
on
containing
crumb exhibited
degrees already
in the fresh
whereas
BAN
In
supplementation
resulted
crystallinity, Soy--amylase containing
to that of control bread. Fresh crumb exhibited
and
essentially
in
B-type pattern
single
resulted due to starch
aging.
behaved
the
the main reflection
breads, the crystallinity only slightly increased in
B-type patterns.
comparable
reflection at 20
Flour
of these two
aging
superimposed
crumb
be
polymers recrystallize
amylase addition,
additional reflections at 17 and between 22 and 24

state. On
only
structures.
In all three
was
can
similarly
crystalline
to
bread
fraction of starch
crumb
regarding
(Fig. 4.33).
the
influence
of
4.3
93
10
15
20
25
30
Scattering angle 20 [degrees]
Fig. 4.32:X-ray diffractograms of fresh (0 d) and aged (7 d) bread crumb without

and with Novamyl, BAN and Soy-$-amylase.
94
10
15
20
25
30
Fig.
diffractograms of fresh (0 d) and aged (7 d) flour gels without and

Novamyl, BAN and Soy-$-amylase.
4.33: X-ray
with
4.3
of wheat starch
X-ray diffractograms
to bread crumb and flour
in fresh control
angles
of
mainly
to
period
of 7 d and 10
at
17
starch
aged
gels
with
intermediate
an
after 7 d of
narrower
aging.
peaks
Novamyl
From
the
gels
Novamyl.
as
A-or
crystalline
where
Intermediate
crystallinity
gels
refers to
but less
starch
recrystallization
and to differ from

in control
the other
gels
with
than in
gels
was
presented
The
narrow
in
Fig.
exhibited
On
were
a
one
gels
slightly
indicates
possible
not
to
be described
can
as
Soy--amylase
with
was
recognizable
pronounced
and
reflections than in
gels
more
and
of
more
gels
led
starch
to
gels
control and
expected
firmer after 10 d
are
the
amylase
second
were
for
aged
Novamyl
of the starch
gels
with
in
highest
a
long
starch
gels
B-type pattern superimposed

Novamyl
with
were
still
to the control which indicates
the two reflections at

in
addition. A
could have been
the most effective
but
pronounced compared
clearly distinguishable
broad
was
long aged
pattern
Soy--amylase
and
Novamyl gels
reduction,
4.35 and show
higher crystallinity. Additionally,

degrees
gels. Only,
two
found to be rather low in control
investigations,
X-ray pattern
The reflections of the
V-pattern.
more
firmness
of starch. For further
period (182 d).

are
aging
an
detected in fresh
was
structure
developed
Novamyl
hand, Soy--amylase
gels regarding
crystallinity
be attributed
During
is
the
degrees,
which
B-type pattern
scattering
since the reflection at 17
B-type
highest crystallinity
The
crystallinity
it
pattern
since firmness measurements showed that control
starch
can
pronounced,
more
with V-structures. Starch
than in the control
higher crystallinity
aging. On
which
observed
was
at 17
of wheat starch.
observed
crystallizes
compared
addition.
Interestingly,
starch
crystalline pattern
V-type pattern
became
degrees
B-pattern superimposed
with
to
is characteristic for both. The
showed
differences
d, the crystallinity hardly increased in these
whether starch
distinguish
some
with weak reflections at
containing gels
correspond
of starch.
recrystallization
and
A weak
endogenous amylose-lipid complexes
reflection
degree
showed
7.5, 13, 17 and 20 degrees. Apart from the peak
observed reflections
the
gels
gels (Fig. 4.34).
and in BAN
gels
95
scattering angles
Novamyl gels
22 and 24
whereas the control
gels
peak.
hand, the finding that amylases induce higher crystallinity compared
the control is consistent with the view of
Dragsdorf
On the other hand, contrary to the these authors
no
A-type structures,
to
(1980).
but
more
96
less
or
pronounced B-type patterns
which is in
agreement
and firmness it
with Zobel and Senti
found that
was
were
observed in
(1959).
do not
they
When
necessarily
with
systems
amylases
comparing crystallinity
correlate. In the
case
of
BAN, the highest starch crystallinity but the softest bread crumb and flour gels
were
observed. On the other
crystallinity
impact
no
of starch
on
and
crystallinity
control
and
crystallinity
crystallinity
was
enhanced initial firmness

Based
during aging.
crystallinity
of
systems
presented results,
not
to
necessarily
produce
on
in
it
as
and
systems
as
initial
light microscopy
with
can
well
Novamyl
systems
induced
by
crystallinity
crystallinity
with
on
aging.
rate
which both
Fresh
amylose-lipid
increased.
Novamyl
hardly changed
it is assumed that the enhanced initial
is caused
by crystallized amylose.
and that increased
X-ray
crystallinity
From the
measurements
are
alone is insufficient
rearrangements
order, i.e. starch granules and starch networks,
increase in firmness
firming
Novamyl.
internal
firmer crumb. It is conceivable that structural
lower level of
had
correlation between firmness
be concluded that firmness and
agreement
rate and the
Conversely, Soy--amylase
gels. High
both firmness and
aging,
on
firming
of bread crumb but reduced the
V-type pattern
not alter the
to control.
of starch
found in control
showed
systems
complexes
gels compared
texture and
and enhanced the
hand, BAN did
at
account for the
4.3
10
97
15
20
25
30
Fig. 4.34:X-ray diffractograms of fresh (0 d) and aged (7 d,

without and with Novamyl, BAN and Soy-$-amylase.
10
d) starch gels
98
10
15
20
25
30
Fig. 4.35:X-ray diffractograms of long aged starch gels (182 d) without and with
Novamyl.
4.3
4.3.2
Influence of
99
amylases
the
on
melting
transitions of
retrograded
starch
The
rtrogradation
staling. DSC
Novamyl,
of
measurements
BAN and
is
amylopectin
carried out in order to
were
Soy--amylase
on
the
amylose. Thermograms
of bread and
and
fresh and
crumb shows
only
one
rtrogradation
amylopectin
allowed to discriminate
gels
of bread
the effect of
study
rate of
phase
are
in
presented
between
C,
and
second endothermic
In the
starch
systems upon rtrogradation
peaks
dry
were
matter content of the
Fig.
of
4.37
presents
enthalpy (AH)
the influence of
of
melting
aging
in
control
the
breads.
storage period
oven
showed
of 7
enthalpy (AH)
hardly changed by
of
the basis of the
the
on
rtrogradation
but not
visible
was
reduced
the
(0.083 d)
temperature
yet retrograded.
(thermograms
to
bread.
not
increased
melting enthalpy
containing
melting enthalpy
did not at all
The
melting
the action of the enzymes
reduction of the dissociation of

of bread
R-,
The
staling.
transitions in the
Soy--amylase
control
complexes
was
no
d, bread with Novamyl presented
compared
aging
on
in all
in bread whereas BAN showed minor effects. After
rtrogradation
seen on
amylases
gelatinized
was
Novamyl clearly
six times lower than the control.
slight enthalpy
and of
shown). During aging,

most
calculated
was
occurs
sample.
the loaf from the
removing
the
since it
and is not limited to bread
range of 60 C which indicates that starch
Only
R-,
as
in bread crumb. The measurements of bread crumb 2 h
amylopectin
after
this transition is referred to
and the
integrated
melting
staling endotherm (Eliasson
is often termed
1985).
present study,
of
which reflects the
event becomes visible at around 60 C. This transition is attributed to the
of
and
4.36. Fresh bread
Fig.
transition at around 114-117
amylose-lipid complexes (M3). On aging,
dissociation of
cause
amylose-lipid complexes. Typical thermograms
control bread crumb
aged
to be the main
thought
BAN.
of
(data
that
of
a
was
influence the
amylose-lipid
not
shown).
was
only
100
fresh
(0 d)
re
1'
o
c
115.8C
1 mW
UJ
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Temperature [C]
Fig.
4.36:
Typical DSC thermograms of fresh (0 d) and aged (7 d) control bread

crumb. Water content of fresh crumb sample: 46 g/100 g wb. Water
content of aged crumb sample: 44 g/100 g wb.
c
o
0)
Q.
o
Control
'^
Soy--amylase
>
E 5"
re
"c
re
<i
BAN
Novamyl
Aging
Fig.
4.37:
time
10
[d]
Melting enthalpy of amylopectin (R^ for bread crumb
as
function of
aging time for different amylases. (Mean with standard deviation,

n
4). Control (a), Novamyl (m), BAN (+), Soy-$-amylase ()
=
4.3
The thermal behavior of flour

similar.
4.38
Fig.
rtrogradation
of
and
and
Novamyl
amylopectin
and starch
show the
in flour
reduced the
melting enthalpy
starch and flour

effect of BAN
was
similar to control
of
which
found in flour
gels.
that starch
The
gels
gels
have
seen
of
It
can
gels
than for flour
enthalpy
always
amylopectin
as
antifirming
in
consistent with the
were
increase in the
an
which does have
effect
the
bread,
of
no
gels
enthalpy
calculated
on
the basis of the
enthalpies
that
are
on
dry
starch basis
only slightly higher
gels.
correlate with
assessed
rtrogradation
pronounced amylopectin rtrogradation.
a more
an
antifirming
not
and
of
findings
hinders the
effect in bread and
significantly
by DSC, although
bread
melting enthalpy
firming. Novamyl
hand, BAN and Soy--amylase did

starch,
bread,
values of flour and starch
be concluded that
does not
Like in
baking.
was
as
The calculation of the
for starch
gels, respectively (different
increase
gels
matter content of the
for
the
in bread. In contrast to
enthalpies
gives enthalpy changes
on
completely gelatinized during
This is due to the fact that the
sample.
was
retrograded amylopectin during aging
and starch
comparison
addition
enzymes
did not influence starch
already
was
amylase
of the
two hours after
gels. Soy--amylase
gels,
with
influence
starch
noted). Again,
yet retrograded
gels
and starch
gels
not
was
of flour and starch
suggests
gels
4.39
Fig.
ordinate scale should be
heating
101
starch
Longton
BAN and
and
gels. On
have
These
of
the other
rtrogradation
Soy--amylase
LeGrys (1981)
amylopectin
rtrogradation
reduce the
gels, respectively.
of
of
strong
results
are
and Sahlstrom and
Brthen (1997). They reported that firmness and starch rtrogradation during
aging
of bread and starch
gels
fact that enzymes may have

of starch is not hindered
a
lower level of
did not
necessarily
strong antifirming
points
organization.
out
again
the
show
effects
causal
although
importance
relationship.
the
The
rtrogradation
of structural elements at
102
c
o
0)
Q.
o
Control
Soy--amylase
>
E 5"
re
"c
re
^i
BAN
Novamyl
c
0)
Aging
Fig.
4.38:
time
10
[d]
Melting enthalpy of amylopectin (RJ for flour gels as function of aging

time for different amylases. (Mean with standard deviation, n
4).
Control (a), Novamyl (m), BAN (+), Soy-$-amylase ()
=
-^BAN
Control
o
0)
Soy--amylase
Q.
o
>
E
re
II
re
<
CD
c
Aging
Fig.
4.39:
time
[d]
Melting enthalpy of amylopectin (R-,) for starch gels as function of aging

amylases. (Mean with standard deviation, n 4).
Control (a), Novamyl (m), BAN (+), Soy-$-amylase ()
time for different
4.3
The
transitions of selected
phase
samples
a
for
182d
heating
transition
in
and
(R-,)
occurred
4.40.
Fig.
amylose-lipid
around
150-170 C.
to the
starch
of
melting
R2
evaluated
was
reproducibility.
found to be
in
plotted
The
enthalpy (AH)
4.41
as
inversely dependent
on
the
the
on
containing gels, high enthalpy

small.
was
comparison,
Fig.
4.41.
the
As
independent
expected,
the
of
it
enthalpy
DSC
difficult to evaluate the
signal
was
parameter
In
The
gels
of the
same
At
of
are
of
and
is true for the
of the transition
reduced the
(R2)
for
of the
aged
gels, respectively.
sample weight
transition.
independent
on
the
was
sample age (data
R2
melting enthalpy
transition
gels.
flour
shown).
130
is
of
C)
because the
was
by high
the
only
Tab. 4.1 indicates the
gels
noticed that the

not
For
also shown in
accurately
melting temperature by
It
was
Novamyl
high temperatures (above
melting temperature
R2
the control which resulted in transitions 162 and 154 C for
was
R2
was
transition is
enthalpy
detected when the
enthalpy
good
transitions
R2 melting
control
which could be evaluated in the
Novamyl
flour and starch
155 C.
difficult to obtain
AH of the
only
shown).
of the HT transition
melting enthalpy
both cases,
was
Novamyl
very often disturbed due to tensions in the pans induced
pressure of the water. The

reliable
smaller in
was
not
R2. Control gels
high-temperature (HT)
were
retrograded amylopectin (data

was
since it
sample weight.
The
endothermic
temperatures approx.
melting enthalpy
sample weight.
third
therefore termed
was
reduced the
melting enthalpy
of the
(M3),
retrograded
et al.
sample weight.
Novamyl slightly
of
melting
gels aged
retrograded amylose (Eberstein
sample weight.
values
of starch
most
of these
function of the
g wb and measured
latter endothermic event
mainly qualitatively
dependent
Fig.
This
and occurred at lower
gels
the
at approx. 170 C. This transition
large R2 peak
containing
Besides
complexes
1980, Sievert and Wrsch 1993) and

a
H2O/100
Representative thermograms
presented
to 80 g
measured up to 200 C. The
rate of 10 C/min.
probably corresponds
showed
were
rehydrated
are
amylopectin
samples
freeze dried and
were
with
103
and starch
-
8 C
gels.
In
compared
to
Novamyl containing
melting temperature
104
Amylopectin (R.,)
Amylose-lipid complex (M3)
o
Amylose (R2)
re
0)
0)
Novamyl
O
a
c
UJ
1 mW
-i
30
1i
50
1i
70
1i
90
1i|
110
1|
130
150
1|i
170
190
Temperature [C]
Fig.
4.40:
Typical DSC thermograms of aged (182 d) and freeze dried starch gels
up to high temperatures. Samples were rehydrated to
recorded
80 g
H2O/100
g wb.
24
High-temperature melting
transition
(R2)
Sample weight [mg]

Fig. 4.41-.Influence of sample weight
AH of
on
AH of HT
melting transition (R2) and
on
amylose-lipid complex (M3) of freeze dried and rehydrated
(80 g H2O/100 g wb) starch gels.

R2: Control (a), Novamyl (n)
M3: Control (+), Novamyl (o).
4.3
Tab. 4.1:
105
Melting temperature (TmR2) of HT melting transition (R2) of starch gels

and flour gels without and with
Novamyl.
Melting temperature TmR2 [C]

Starch
Flour
gels
(-46 g H20/100 g wb)
gels
(-80 g H20/100 g wb)
Control
169
162
Novamyl
162
154
Based
these results it is assumed that
on
starch since it
can
therefore
protein-starch
no
temperature
flour
interactions
differently. Starch gels
which is
gels
high
transition
water contents
changes.
the
reflects
(R2)
(40
80
Differences in the
melting temperature
with lower
found for control

more
gels
where the
more
X-ray
than the
(Fig.
as
measurements. Control starch
Novamyl containing gels, although
4.34
and
Fig. 4.35).
No
R2
of the
in
less
Fig.
showed
the latter
of
amylopectin
supramolecular
amylose-lipid
perfect amylose
contrary
is
and
crystals
are
built.
4.41
are
inconsistent
clearly
for this
complexes
to
more
AH for
R2
crystalline
incongruence.
It
polymer fraction,
the
formation
of
structures.
In summary, it
increased
and
that
amylose requires
reinforces how difficult it is to estimate the contribution of each
amylose,
suggest
slightly higher
were
is found
explanation
the HT
detected with DSC. On the other
presented
gels
No
and volume
than the control. The
as
than
gels.
Probably,
transition
perfect amylose aggregates
higher melting temperature
degraded
of starch in combination with
spontaneous aggregation
hand, the enthalpy values of starch gels

with
evaluation.
by Novamyl give
melting temperatures
time, and therefore,
The result is
induced
melting
temperatures
g/100 g wb), high pressure (5-15 bar)
rapid amylose aggregation
aggregates
enthalpy
physical change
the
water content in starch
higher
and
present,
Additionally,
occur.
showed lower transition
the
explained by
is
protein
no
transition of
by melting
addition which indicates that
conclusive results could be obtained from
melting
where
gels
changed by Novamyl
was
starch behaves
be found in starch
is caused
R2
can
be said that the
during aging
and that
melting enthalpy
Novamyl
was
the
of
only amylase
which almost
106
blocked
rtrogradation
difficult and not
4.3.3
amylopectin. DSC
of
necessarily
in
agreement
Influence of
amylases
on
with
measurements of
fraction, the starch
determined in fresh
of bread
a
(0 d)
the starch content and the starch
classified
was
as
amylases, mainly
content and the starch
and
resistant starch
(RS)
of starch
individuals
method
starch
et al.
(Asp
and available starch
quantitative
1996).
In the
at 37 C for 16 h.
termed RS. The
as
the
determination is
Starch,
bread
which
crumb
was
not
were
(AS).
RS is
of starch and
sum
dependent
present investigation,
on
The starch content
gels.
It is difficult to compare RS contents
analyzed by incubating
was
a-amylase
its
as
Novamyl,
not absorbed in the small intestine of
degradation
(Euresta 1992).
different studies
of
bread and flour
aged (7 d)
nutritional classification of starch and is defined
products
were
diffraction.
X-ray
In order to understand the mode of action of

the starch
amylose
analyzed
the
on
healthy
in
analytical
resistant and available

with
slurry
degraded by
this
pancreatic
step,
was
of RS and AS results in the total starch content of the
sum
sample.
Starch,
maltose and
presented
are
in Tab. 4.2. The
without enzymes gave
the amount of RS
nor
with
the
changed
of RS
the RS fraction of
was
comparable
around 2.6 times
Novamyl containing
g/100 g
higher
to control bread.
portion
Interestingly,
than in control bread. On
bread did not
change
apparent
56.2
Novamyl during storage
db in bread with
db. A small
bread
Neither the total starch content
starch content decreased. The
g/100 g
freshly prepared
The total starch content of fresh bread
aging.
was
amylase supplementation
of AS and RS in
(1.7 g/100 g db).

on
Novamyl (69.0 g/100 g db)
proportion
sum
total starch content of 69.4
found to be resistant starch
was
content of bread with
glucose
aging,
whereas the total
reduction of starch content from 69.0 to

can
be
unsuitable starch determination method
or
may have contributed to further starch
degradation during aging
by
residual enzyme
explained by
activity.
an
The latter
and/or
during
extraction of starch.
The literature data
(Eerlingen
aging,
et al.
which
regarding RS
in bread is inconsistent.
1994, Sahlstrom and Brthen 1997) found
they
attributed to
rtrogradation
of
an
Several authors
increase of RS
on
amylopectin. Others (Berry 1986,
4.3
1988, Siljestrom
Hansen et al.
the
of
course
also the
aging
et al.
1988)
observed
present investigation.
enhanced the RS content of bread. This

of starch
degradation
starch fraction.
X-ray
No
and
significant
as
glucose
activity
stability.
source
Soy--amylase
no
changes
BAN, it is
no
thermostability.
for
was
not
an
points
to
and
Novamyl
expected
highest
maltose
gels
further starch
Soy--amylase
produced.
high
can
presented
were
standard deviations
of bread
during aging
were
because its
produced by
yeast
starch
by BAN, mainly oligomers

BAN inactivation it would
complemented by investigations
gels
are
be reached.
were
of starch
of 7 d.
Fresh bread
change during aging.
heated in closed
with DP
>
In order to achieve
first baked at 96 C for 1 h
and
starch
overlapped. Generally,
the
flour
gels.
temperature
(standard conditions)
were
on
complete enzyme
Differences in starch content
on
moulds, temperatures
in Tab. 4.3. The starch content remained constant
aging period
low thermal
glucose.
heated to 120 C for further 1.5 h.
analysis
in
step
due
in bread. A residual
during baking
on
gels
The
degradation
suitable bread models to examine the influence of
than 100 C
second
not
level
which
inactivation flour
a
formed
maltose contents derive from
To draw conclusions
of starch content
are
and
d, the level of
investigations.
glucose
weight products,
enzyme inactivation. Since flour
higher
that BAN is inactivated
expected
rather than maltose and
Flour
in the
produced sugars
of 7
aging period
level, which did
therefore be necessary to determine starch
Analysis
mainly
since the enzyme has
occurred in maltose and
It is assumed that the
are
occur
found in fresh bread due
was
with BAN. Due to the endo attack of starch
degradation
bread is
addition. It is assumed that the
yeast. During
fermentation of low molecular
with DP
rearrangements
This result needs to be confirmed with further
Although
Novamyl
evidence that due to the
Novamyl
and maltose
glucose
inactivation of
with BAN contained the
with
structural
was
crystalline amylose.
and maltose increased which
of
to note that
This
compression measurements, light microscopy
increase of
energy
incomplete
an
on
Soy--amylase
and
Novamyl
served
to
Based
during baking.
important
provides
measurements it is concluded that RS of
by aggregated
to
by Novamyl major
It is
in RS content in
changes
no
and concluded that total RS is formed
in the
case
107
in
over
not
flour
gels
is
the observed
significant
supplementation
and
of
since
Novamyl
108
slightly
decreased the
products
starch
content
and the maltose and
glucose
products,
maltose and
according
to the standard
in flour
with
gels
procedure. On
of flour
can
gels
showed that
inactivated with the

concluded that
effect, but it
by heating
Novamyl
second
Novamyl
has
hand,
Novamyl
mainly
caused
by
also conceivable that

due to the
the
would indicate
amylases
same
higher
is
times.
starch
inactivation
systems Novamyl
respectively. By
complex system
they
are
and
Maltose and
during aging
for
even
if it is
it
is
antistaling
an
during baking.
gels
and bread crumb
of
cleavage
>
baking,
Novamyl
display
and
the
of starch
2. The action
the added
starch
in
is
not
bread, however, the amylases
are
matrix which exerts
gels.
are
were
This
leads
of BAN and
and
exo-way,
completely
not
and maltose. The
surprising.
In
aqueous
at 65 C and 75
activity
not
gels
the results
by Novamyl
endo-
optimal activity
the
an
amylases
temperature
embedded in
in flour
pattern
producing glucose
BAN
which
gels. Nevertheless,
degradation
to
degrade
BAN
in flour
the
higher
were
in flour
degradation
glucose contents,
systems,
with DP
further increase of
like
Its
measurements
shown). Therefore,
not
time for starch
degradation
due
standard
inactivated and continue to
incomplete
found
during storage.
good antistaling properties
more
during baking
different
respectively. During
as
had
degradation products mainly
Soy--amylase
was
inactivated in flour
Compression
to 120 C.
sufficient starch
method in both
lead to the conclusion that

to
increase
two different methods used for starch determination. It is
longer baking
analyzed by
degradation
Novamyl produced
fully
It is assumed that differences in starch content of flour

are
starch
starch
degraded
heating step (data
degrade
no
not
was
does not have to be active
must be able to
with
degradation
heating steps.
at 96 C and therefore still
be achieved
starch
aging,
gels
the other
with two
The results lead to the conclusion that
inactivation
contents. On
increased in flour
glucose
Novamyl produced
gels during heating
but enhanced the
is reduced.
completely
protective
effect.
C,
In
inactivated
4.3
Tab. 4.2:
109
Starch, maltose and glucose content of bread crumb with Novamyl,

BAN and Soy-$-amylase. (Mean with standard deviation, n
1-8).
=
Starch
AS1)
RS2)
Maltose
Glucose
Total
[g/100 g db] [g/100 g db] [g/100 g db] [g/100 g db] [g/100 g db]
Control
Od
67.67 2.08
1.69 0.02
69.36
3.31
0.06
7d
67.20 2.63
1.76 0.01
68.96
3.50
0.08
64.48 3.20
4.48 0.12
68.96
3.12
0.14
7d
51.82 4.79
4.37 0.07
56.19
4.51
0.16
Novamyl 0
BAN
Soy-amylase
Od
nd3)
nd
4.36
0.10
7d
nd
nd
4.63
0.10
0 d
nd
nd
3.77
0.07
? rf
nd
nd
6.32
0.09
1)
available starch
2)
resistant starch
3)
not determined
110
Tab. 4.3: Influence
products
of
in
Novamyl on starch content and starch degradation

flour gels. (Mean with standard deviation, n
2-4).
=
Starch
[g/100gfd1)
flour
C,
96
1h
Control
Novamyl
C,
96
1h
Control
Novamyl
gels]
Starch
degraproducts
[g/100g fd flour
gels]
dation
Maltose
Glucose
[g/100gfd
gels]
flour
flour
[g/100gfd
gels]
(standard conditions)
Od
59.79 1.61
7.05 0.56
3.98 0.12
0.09 0.03
7d
62.75 0.90
3.85 0.95
3.19 1.55
0.09 0.00
Od
56.32 1.94
11.68 1.31
5.16 0.63
0.20 0.01
7d
54.41 1.16
13.00 1.27
6.70 0.07
0.25 0.03
120
C,
1.5h
Od
55.55 2.81
4.53 0.93
4.55 0.37
0.12 0.03
7d
55.251.45
4.18 0.41
4.08 0.50
0.13 0.03
Od
50.97 4.19
9.51 0.73
8.45 0.22
0.24 0.03
7d
48.61 2.36
9.17 0.68
8.14 0.38
0.19 0.00
freeze dried
4.3
4.3.4
Conclusions
Based
following
the
on
physicochemical
main conclusions
Increase of
firmness
crystallinity
compared
to control
The increased
crystallinity
mainly
Determination
of
with
was
The added
Novamyl
have
correlate with
an
increase in
as
of fresh
systems
higher
is most
initial
probably
of
increase of resistant starch
an
aggregated
and
amylose by DSC
crystallinity
caused
by
already
in fresh bread
crystalline amylose.
was
difficult
and
necessarily
in
rtrogradation
of
not
firmness, light microscopy and X-ray.

the
only amylase
which
almost
blocked
measured with DSC.
amylases
are
completely
not
has not to be active
enough
rate induce
firming
fraction.
which consists
Novamyl
necessarily
systems.
addition leads to
amylopectin
does not
which reduce the
agreement
be drawn:
can
Amylases
Novamyl
data of starch in bread and bread models the
during aging.
crystalline amylose
111
time for starch
inactivated
during aging
for
an
during heating
antistaling effect,
degradation during baking.
at 96 C.
but it must
112
5
A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH TO STALING
Comparison of
of organization
5.1
One
main
bread and bread models at different levels
difference between bread
macroscopic appearance of these

i e
sponge, which
pore
size
starch
pores
in
turn, exhibit
amylases
volumes and pore
compared
retard the
on
homogeneous
is an
open pore
dense and crisp crust The
the structural
sizes as
pointed out, however,

lower
Bread crumb
properties
of bread
that the
to flour
of starch
firming
found
dry
gels
in
without
strength
bread when
being
adding amylases
and bread
54
(approx
systems (Maxwell
flour and starch
fused
together,
Differences exist
a
bicontinuous
starch
only
gels
and
in
In all three
systems,
and Zobel
starch
amylose/amylopectin
protein-starch
gels
Flour and
without
measure
the
different
by
It should be
gels (40 g/100 g wb)
g/100 g wb)
which
can
1978)
granules
phase
the matrix In bread and flour
to
the
and the
gel
biased
As for the microstructure, many characteristics of bread crumb

in
the
throughout
texture
is
system,
porosity
Thus, flour and starch gels provide the possibility
crust
influence of
is
by
systems
distribution determine the mechanical
gels,
nor
coated
is
crumb, flour gels and starch gels
are
were
also found
elongated, partly
separation
was
the microstructure
matrix whereas the matrix of starch
which facilitates starch-starch interactions The
gels
found
presents
consists of
comparatively
low
dry
113
114
5. A
starch. The
gels
look
granules
has
an
influence
swollen and
more
that the extent of
slightly
At the molecular
three
and
systems
of starch
content calculated
approx. 40
content is related to the
folded and
more
amylose
are more
it is assumed
is visible in the
gels.
level, starch
was
more
staling
behavior of
gelatinization
gels. Additionally,
is different since
phase separation
intergranular space
the
on
hooked into each other than in bread and flour
to
comprehensive approach
starch content is then approx. 75
g/100 g
was
similar in all
wb. Differences exist when the starch
g/100 g
matter of each
dry
wet basis
on
In bread and flour
system.
db and in starch
100
gels
gels
the
g/100 g
db.
Furthermore, with exception of the damaged starch through the milling process,
the entire starch fraction is in the native state
In
gels.
starch
gels,
the
on
pregelatinized (4 g/100 g wb)

The
The
investigate staling
properties
macroscopic
and the
gels
can
screening
tool
for
temperatures higher
can
be
important
consequences
for
on
gels
are
produced,
potential
starch
testing
gels
are
dough handling
different at all
Consequently, amylases
bread.
Therefore, starch gels
enzymes. On the other hand,
gels
are
enzymes.
In
similar from the
proofing
investigated
on
levels
using
flour
flour
high
not suitable
system.
This
and its
not allow to
aging.
screening
information and may contribute to understand the
as
baking
complex systems
compared
concentration starch
gels
gels,
to flour
may show different effects in starch
are
smaller
production,
hand, the closed system does

and
of
antistaling enzymes.
be reached due to the closed
the other
consists
suitable bread models in
to bread
inactivation of enzymes in
staling. On
fraction
which is essential when
can
of bread and flour
(36 g/100 g wb).
Compared
antistaling
than 100 C
of bread.
heating
behavior of bread and flour
bread.
during staling
to
of bread and the mechanism of
aging
be
follow the influence of
Starch
and native starch
to the molecular level.
batches of
the
hand,
shows that flour
order to
other
prior
tools for
gels
gels
and
and in
antistaling
gels give complementary
changes
in the starch fraction
5.2
Relationship
Relationship
5.2
Based
on
if
even
an
the
not
was
on
in bread and model
the main influences of
surprising
the
same
changes
Soy--
BAN and
is
at the
at different
systems
systems
same.
in terms of
systems
Novamyl,
behavior of bread and model
aging
it is not
necessarily
the detailed examination of the
justifies
staling
systems,
that the enzyme induces the
mean
scales. An overview
on
systems
amylase performs similarly
molecular level. This
amylase
in different
amylase
an
texture, this does not
length
the dissimilarities of bread and model
that the effect of

But
115
staling
presented
in
Tab. 5.1.
5.2.1
Influence of
Novamyl
it
showed similar effects in
that the
seems
by Outtrup
degrading
and Norman
of low molecular
is formed in the
concluded that
Both DSC and
degradation product
X-ray
aging. However, DSC
Rtrogradation
structures.
by DSC
whereas
method.
X-ray diffraction,
and
aging
Based
on
therefore,
DSC and
crystallinity
of
of
on
no
X-ray
systems
of
the other
both
with
Novamyl
amylopectin
and that this is
Novamyl.
maltose
amylose by Novamyl
The authors
amylose.
a
non-reducing
end
in the starch fraction
not
easily
equally
during
sensitive to starch
be followed and
quantified
by
the latter
amylopectin yield
possible
B-type pattern
between the two
polymers.
measurements it is concluded that the enhanced initial
degradation
effect of
Primarily
is difficult to be followed
and
discrimination is
that the
reorganization
leads to the
hand, allows the detection of low levels of
amylose
of
are
can
amylose
and that
its
of wheat
changes
diffraction
amylopectin
rtrogradation
crystallinity. Unfortunately,
on
X-ray
in all
is maltose.
diffraction reveal
and
of DP 1-9.
and does not need
endo-activity
same
has been characterized
by Novamyl
distribution of
weight
the
et al. 1998 and Dauteret al. 1999.
weight oligosaccharides
has
basically
Novamyl
of starch
hydrolysis
molecular
Novamyl
the main
although
mechanism of
oc-configuration. Degradation
reduces the average
is
Novamyl
1984, Christophersen
The authors showed that the
production
bread, flour gels and starch gels. Therefore,
mechanism of
antistaling
The starch
systems.
Novamyl
one
is induced
by
is almost blocked
crystalline amylose
during aging.
side chains to the

factor which is
It is assumed
branching points
responsible
fraction
for the
hinders
antifirming
1.39
4.35
BAN
Soy--amylase
4)
amylopectin
amylose
2) not visible
3)
lower than control
than control
1.65
Soy--amylase
higher
4.38
BAN
ED(7d)/ED(0d)
AM+
1.36
Novamyl
nv
nv
nv
4.65
nv
Control
gels
AM+
1.95
Novamyl
nv
nv
4.83
nv
Control
Starch
1>
6.75
Soy--amylase
Flour gels
1.67
BAN
nv
AM+
2.04
Novamyl
Od
AM4)
AP+AM
4.894
4.035
0.997
AM"
AP+AM
3.995
2.111
AP+AM
AP+AM
2.064
0.847
AM"
AP+AM
2.208
2.645
1.437
0.249
2.835
7d
[J/g db]
AH of AP
AP+AM
AP+AM
AP+AM
AM"
AP3)
+
7d
Birefringence
gels during aging induced by amylases.
nv2)
7d
Firmness1) ["]
Relative
of bread, flour and starch
11.99
Changes
Control
Bread
Tab. 5.1:
B+
B+
B+
B+
B+
B+
Od
Crystalline
B+
B+
B+
B~
B+
B~
7d
structure
5.2
Relationship
The
that
hypothesis
supported by
the observation that the
birfringent already
starch
produces long range

Novamyl promotes
via
amylose
birfringent
the
aggregation
Thereby
of
that
amylose
amylose
|im).
in fresh
amylose
in fresh bread and
the reduced
network is
firming
of
amylopectin
firming.
built-up,
but also the
Due to the
which
rate is reduced in
aggregated amylose
probably rearranges
with
also achieved because the enhanced

formation between different
of
rapid aggregation
systems
less
on
the blocked
less
for
perfect
therefore, the
antifirming
an
systems,
of
an
responsible
and
aging,
inhibits
effect is
cross-link
i.e. starch
granules,
amylose aggregation
of the
is
amylose
Novamyl. Possibly,
components
aggregation
only
it
of the
enhanced initial firmness and to
increased resistant starch content. It is conceivable that not
rtrogradation
probably,
mobility
chains which facilitates association of the molecules. The

an
and
systems by degrading
the enzyme increases the
leads to
are
rich center of
Most
amylose
gels
granules
amylose aggregates
15-25
(approx.
is
by Novamyl
rich center of starch
means
ordered structures
endo mechanism.
an
is induced
amylose
in the fresh state. The fact that the
becomes
granules
of
crystallization
117
staling
matrix, amylose and amylopectin rich phases within the granules. This and other
investigations (Conde-Petit 1992)

starch
systems during aging
is
show that the
influenced
remarkably
behavior of wheat
rheological
by changes
in the
amylose
fraction.
5.2.2
Influence of BAN
BAN, which is
by
an
conventional bacterial
a-amylase, degrades
endo-mechanism. This leads to the reduction of the molecular
starch and the formation of dextrins. The
viscosity
effects
starch
loss. Influence of BAN
seen
in
starch
on
different
gels. Therefore,
gels
weight
results in
endo-degradation
bread and flour
randomly
was
of
rapid
different from the
mechanisms
appear to
be
involved.
The firmness of bread and flour
gels
with BAN is
aging although amylopectin rtrogradation

is
enhanced.
Based
enhanced initial
systems
regard
with
to the
on
DSC
crystallinity
Novamyl,
antifirming
and
is caused
these
drastically
is not altered and the initial
X-ray diffraction,
by
crystals
reduced
it
is
during
crystallinity
assumed
that the
crystalline amylose fraction. Unlike
did not enhance initial firmness.
effect of BAN in bread and flour
gels
the
With
several factors
118
5. A
appear to be involved. It is conceivable that the substantial starch

the endo-mechanism results in
not interconnected
are
as
the
produced
reduces the overall firmness of the
and
to
continuous
of the
intergranular
gels
correlate with the mechanical
BAN
only slightly
the firmness and the
properties
reduced the
gels,
it is reasonable to
presence
of
concentrations
the
vicinity
1997).
assume
inhibitor
or
induce
an
can
of the
supposed
i.e. starch
of the bulk.
stress and
breaking
some or
the
absence
matter
the other way inhibited
hydrolysis products, by
of
activator.
an
play
that BAN
Since the
role.
only
of starch
breaking
weakened the
and
gels
stress
proposed
that
linking
an
firming
antifirming
between starch and
due to the absence of
and
gels
Novamyl
in pure starch
(Hill
the
was
in
et al.
starch
slightly
portion
of
starch,
embedded in the matrix.
is caused
by cross-linking
and that low MW dextrins would interfere with it.

would have
activity
starch matrix
intergranular
but did not affect the main
the
High sugar
and thus inhibit the enzyme
content
no
the mechanism of BAN in starch
in
by
had
of starch in starch
The effect of BAN would corroborate the model of Martin and

who
The effects
osmotic effect which reduces the water
granules together,
granules
on
was
enzyme-starch complex
concentration could also
which holds the
the
by
Furthermore, the dry
reduced it is
that BAN
Inhibition could be caused
an
properties.
physicochemical properties
While it is difficult to draw conclusions
gels.
the
and bread demonstrate that the molecular level does not
gels.
in starch
during
as
starch network and of the starch
of BAN in flour
on
low MW dextrins act
BAN is not inactivated
Finally,
in turn, influence the overall mechanical
impact
and
therefore, further degrades starch during storage. This leads
weakening
Unexpectedly,
which
rearrangements during aging
granules which,
necessarily
degradation by
low MW dextrins interfere with network
system. Additionally,
and thus reduce firmness.
baking process
staling
independent (dispersed) crystalline regions
formation. This structure hinders molecular
plasticizers
to
to starch
systems.
Hoseney (1991 ),
between starch and
According
to this
model, BAN
effect because low MW dextrins hinder the
protein
protein
whereas
matrix.
showed that
no
effect is
expected
gluten
cross-
in starch
gels
However, the addition of Soy--amylase

an
This indicates that
antifirming
effect
can
amylases primarily
also be obtained
influence the starch
5.2
Relationship
fraction rather than the starch

action of BAN
in starch
interface. To obtain
protein
starch
gels,
119
staling
clearer view
on
the
would have to be
determined.
5.2.3
Soy--amylase
Influence of
Soy--amylase
is
of maltose from the
non-reducing
configuration,
hence the
has
influence
no
major
Soy--amylase
bread and flour

It showed
on
the molecular
an
nor
did it have
bread crumb.
It is assumed that
during baking
of bread and flour
amylase (55
60
As
C)
and
degradation
In starch
BAN, Soy--amylase
of starch. Starch
degradation by
the
the
only
gels.
no
on
of starch occurred
Due to the low thermal
stability
inactivated before starch

no
influence
accessible
on
systems.
of the elastic recovery of
slight degradation
had
of starch in
the firmness of these
preservation
mostly
amylase
therefore, had
physicochemical properties
influence
an
the enzyme is
consequence,
accessible substrate exists.
only potential regarding
the successive removal
and
Novamyl
weight
neither influenced the
gels
catalyzes
ends of starch. Maltose is released in the
In contrast to
name.
is fast if
Soy--amylase
and
typical exo-amylase
staling
substrate
of flour
gels
Soy--
of
gelatinizes.
for
starch
and bread.
on
the other
hand, the pregelatinized starch fraction, which is
specific component
of starch
gels,
main
gels,
of starch is
portion
the enzyme
inhibited
as
birefringence
pregelatinized
interfering
the
starch
reorganization
mobility
might
be
starch.
can
and
of the
act
as
portion
of
It is assumed that
gelatinizes
amylopectin
from
serves
nor
on
the
to the
crystalline amylose
amylopectin
of the
branching points,
which
polymer. Furthermore,
antiplasticizer
it has to be taken
at the molecular level thus
amylopectin which,
in turn, reduces
that maltose is formed in situ at the
with network formation. It is
and
of starch is not affected. The
probably
of
before the
extent but is then
large
The side chains of
crystallization
important
of starch
rtrogradation
possibly degraded
are
heating step.
starch to
portion
derives most
pregelatinized
the
chain
It
on
crystallinity
into account that maltose
firming.
second
is observed since the main
fraction of the
reducing
pregelatinized
No influence
enhanced initial
complicates
in
before the main
during baking
substrate.
gelatinized
the
degrades
Soy--amylase
is accessible for
hypothesized
that the
right place
intergranular
network, which is mainly formed by the pregelatinized starch, does
for
starch
not rearrange
120
5. A
and that
cross-links between the matrix and the starch
no
the
amylase although
granules,
Like in
the
with
Novamyl,
effect of
antifirming
was
supramolecular
on
enhanced.
during baking
Due
structures of
the mechanical
amylose
fraction
in starch
the
to
it
is
different
amylose
are
due to its
higher
formed which have
thermal
Novamyl systems.
temperature
behavior of the
rheological
affected
are
stabilities.
role
during staling.
numerous
is
early stages
dominant factor in the

this
by
amylose
becomes
aged systems. Amylases

systems
systems. Thus,
accelerates the
network
starch,
induced
and
degrade
the
starch
intragranular
aggregates
of
micro-domains, i.e.
Soy--amylase
due
on
the
aging
is
in
the presence of
shows that
amylose
of bread and of bread
models,
antifirming
properties
of
effect in bread and model
of starch. The combination of DSC and X-
responsible
for the
partial cleavage
of
crystallinity
rearrangements
of the
have shown that the

inclusion
aggregation
complexes
of fresh
amylose by amylase
with
of
amylose
networks with
aged systems. Preliminary experiments
amylose
an
fraction has received less
amylose
of starch and hinders
lipid-free starch,
by
of
The result is inter- and
strength
of
staling
an
crystallinity
it is concluded that
gelation
molecular
determinant for the mechanical
mainly amylose
during aging.
low structural
The
which have
enhance the initial
ray revealed that
the initial
publications, amylopectin plays
In contrast, the
staling.
and
with
to the initial firmness of
and
by Novamyl
gels
This, in turn, has different impacts
attention in connection with

a
additionally
role in
system.
As has been documented in
important
key
mechanism
that
assume
Contribution of different starch fractions to
5.2.4
Soy--
different influence
is able to
This leads to the conclusion that different
intragranular starch,
to the different
stability. Therefore,
contribute
granules
although
dissimilar
properties. Additionally, Novamyl
within the starch
inter- and
with
In contrast to
degradation
that
supposed
play
to
seems
gels.
starch fraction is also affected. It is reasonable to
amylose
gels
starch, i.e. starch in
did not enhance the initial firmness
Soy--amylase
and
the
Soy--amylase
Novamyl, Soy--amylase
Novamyl
of
portion
staling
is not inhibited.
systems
crystallinity
of the main
rtrogradation
to
granules develop
Both weaken the overall firmness of the starch
during storage.
the
with
amylose
potato
is not
endogenous lipids.
5.2
Relationship
The
on
hydrolysis products
staling
plasticizer
as
well.
formed
Dextrins
at the textural
the action of
by
amylases
have
influence
an
interfere with network formation and act
can
level.
121
staling
as
Thus, the antistaling effect of enzymes is
combination of the modified starch structure and the
hydrolysis products
formed
in situ.
Finally,
it should be
pointed
critical in connection with

different
structural
deformation.
possible
out that the
firming.
elements
By testing
In
different
give
properties
granules
interfaces. For further elucidation of the

more
a
investigations
are
required
comprehensive understanding
of different structural levels
by
are
structure of starch is
materials such
composite
mechanical
to reveal if the starch
supramolecular
mechanical
of the
deformed
relationships
or
as
bread the
responses
bulk material
if failure
occurs
it
upon
is not
along
the
between starch and texture
on
the network level of starch. It is evident that
on
antistaling enzyme requires
the assessment
combination of different methods.
122
5. A
Model for the
5.3
staling
to
of bread and the
staling
effect of
antistaling
amylases
Based
model
points
Fig.
and
baking
on
of attack for
antistaling enzymes
5.1 illustrates the
system
components.
changes
be described
The
properties
as
reflect the real dimensions.

dimension.
10
nm
Amylopectin
in
reality,
smaller in relation to the
Dough
granules
is
depicted
partly
are
and
nm
granules
The
whereas
starch contains
lipids
fraction
in the native
which
which results in
biopolymers.
introduce
The
i.e.
system.
are
of nanoscale
are
about
The estimated
length
Fig.
5.1a
nm
(French
to
granular
5.1.
spaces
forms the
is
part
of
amylose
of
and
zones
zones
in the
portion
of the
Wheat
amylose
1993).
of
starch
amylopectin
(Fig. 5.1b).
in
rich in either
granular
Light
starch
bakery products
one
of these two
phase separation
of starch
with different interfaces in the structure of
built between swollen starch

between
are
starch
framework of the
confirmed the maintenance of the
clearly distinguishable
intergranular amylose,
granules
the
amorphous regions.
with
structure of starch and the
are
starch
et al.
gelatinization
between
crystalline
of the
partly complexed
phase separation
bread crumb. Interfaces
in
1997).
(B granules)
granules (Morrison
immiscibility
Fig.
fills the
protein
amylose
are
leads
microscopical investigations
structure and the
of
starch-protein system (Fig. 5.1a). Starch
bicontinuous
Part of
dough
et al.
than drawn in
amylopectin
of
of different
is in the order of 200-400
native state in
Baking
and
presentation.
consisting
molecules
depicted
as
long (Gallant
and small
already
schematic
amylopectin
amylopectin
fused.
granules
during baking
and starch molecules does not
granules
granules. Large (A granules)
native starch
potential
the extension of the molecules is almost 1000 times
as a
dough.
in
macroscopic properties
side chain clusters
in diameter and about 6
1984). Thus,
and the
of each element and the interactions between the
Amylose
for the macromolecules of
comprehensive
structures
material
composite
the size ratio of starch
Fig. 5.1,
far,
developed,
resulting
amylase supplementation
can
so
have been defined.
and the
different constituents determine the
In
presented
of bread has been
staling
of bread without
aging
The
the results and conclusions
on
amylose
and
granules
and
amylopectin
leached,
within
the
5.3 Model for the
of bread and the
staling
of
nature
side chains
amylopectin
rich starch
amylose
is
amylopectin
granule
center.
It
is
is
to be
and Larsson
Anisotropic
essential
structures
Besides free
are
the
another
amylose,
contribute
The
reorganization
the
to
formed since
in each
of
of
in
Cross-linking
reorganizes
as
well and is
structures in the starch
Probably,
present
in
Networks
amorphous
through crystalline
and
level.
From
amylopectin
the
form
by hydrogen
have
an
impact
on
amylopectin
bread.
centers
networks induces
work
zones
but do not
interwoven
and
by
beside
presents
of bread crumb.
level
regions
during aging
the
mainly
rigidity
starch
of the
granules.
contributes
crystalline regions
The observation
can
on
contribute to the
crystallites
are
it
can
zones.
granule rigidity.
of
amylose
by
the formation of intra- and
concluded
that
both
macroscopic
amylose
It is conceivable that the formation of
entanglements
strength
between
chains
sequentially
pass
firmness increase at the
be
amylose
anisotropic
cross-linked
molecules
to
the formation of
partial crystallization
Single amylose
the mechanical
rich
is
gelatinized
amorphous regions. Possibly,
bonds and
certain extent.
for firmness. The formation of
built where
areas.
crystalline
structures leads to the conclusion that
granule
present
links
and
the
rigidity.
important
are
to
present,
macroscopic
influences
lateral chain association favors
during aging.
fraction
during baking
the
at
into
(Eliasson
and formation of interconnected
zone
between
birfringent amylose
occurs
results in double helices of the outer branches and
network formation which increases

ordered
still
are
into the
cannot be detected.
birefringence
starch
amylopectin
amylopectin
as
some
already gelled
is located inside the
polymer
Reorganization
crystallites.
continuous
firming perceived
since the
the
important structuring component
(Fig. 5.1c). Rtrogradation

granules
yet
matrix. Protein denatures
protein
Molecular
of fresh bread is
not
well
as
element of fresh bread crumb
amylose, amylose-lipid complexes
change during staling.

continuous
structuring
1993). Amylose
that
During baking, amylose leaching
intergranular regions (grey colored). Mainly

an
crumb, the
conceivable
intergranular space
intra- and
thought
In fresh bread
protein.
melted.
into the
protrude
123
effect of amylases
and between starch and
gelatinized granules
crystalline
antistaling
amylose
and
and
cross
amylopectin
of the interfaces between the
amylose
which, in turn, influence the mechanical properties of
124
Fig.
5. A
5.1:
to
staling
Schematic
based
on
presentation of a model for baking and staling of bread

changes in the starch fraction.
Amorphous amylose
HM
Retrograded amylose
&SW--
Amylose-lipid complex
HB
Amylose
rich
regions
Crystalline amylopectin
(native and recrystallized)
Gelatinized amylopectin
Free
polar lipid
as
5.3 Model for the
staling
of bread and the
Starch in
Dough
tarch in
resh Bread
Starch in
Stale Bread
antistaling
effect of amylases
125
126
5. A
To
protein
at the molecular
speculative. On
remain
bread consists of
Specific bindings
staling
level,
the basis of the

of
reorganization
Martin and
proposed by
as
present
work it is
amylopectin
as
Hoseney (1991),
that
proposed
well
polymers
enhance
granule rigidity.
The intra- and
enhances the overall firmness and
during aging
amylases
bread models results from the

to the
crystallinity
systems
aggregates reorganize
less
consequence the different
leads to
This
expect
starch
rtrogradation.
network formation
The
increase in firmness
an
of bread and
properties
several constituents. With
presented staling model,
to
play
firming
evidence
degradation
role.
key
Increased
during aging
that
rapidly
of
amylose
behavior has shown to be
on
the nature of chain
amylose
can
be
chain
imperfect
the
rate
length
of
induced
and
as a
important.
it is
organization,
involves different
prevented,
or even
is
degradation
which
likely
firming
prevents
crystalline regions
are
it is conceivable that the reduced chain
crystallites.
during cooling
intergranular
to be
but
critical
step.
does
not
It is assumed that the small branched molecules
but that the
In contrast to
of bread. On
networks.
together
thermal
intragranular
both
in firmness decrease.
hydrolyzes
firming
The
reorganization
that the reduction of
The extent of starch
effects
or
reduced
during aging.
network formation. Network formation
of small
seems
provides
While it is difficult to draw conclusions

reasonable to
one
results and the above
experimental
of fresh
of
weakening
systems containing amylases.
resulting
for
the mechanical
on
of starch network formation
prevention
and the
the interfacial adhesion.
responsible
of
of bread.
The influence of the
regard
intergranular
strengthens
combination of the different processes is
staling
amylose
as
are
between starch
formation of starch networks. The increase of molecular order of the
aging
to
date, interactions between starch and protein polymers in bread crumb
less understood than starch-starch interactions.

and
induce
aging,
sticky
length
of
the
amylose
crystalline amylose
maltose is
and the
formed
are
does not form intra- and
the formed dextrins act
endo-mechanism of
Similarly,
leads to the formation
plasticizers.
as
and gummy crumb. In contrast,
particular
starch
crystallize during
and not continuous.
without deterioration of the crumb structure. As
stability
extensively
impede
amylopectin, amylose crystallites
Additionally,
a
dispersed
BAN
Novamyl
All
reduces
result of the lower
Novamyl,
formed, it is supposed that Novamyl degrades starch
to
where
a
mainly
lesser extent
5.3 Model for the
than
BAN.
of bread and the
staling
Most
the
probably,
antistaling
chains
outer
127
effect of amylases
of
molecules
amylopectin
removed, which prevents formation of double helices. Amylose,

hand, is less degraded than by BAN, but it is degraded
more
mobile than the uncleaved
ranged
ordered
imparts rigidity
in the
amylose
no
anisotropic
The
systems.
to the
are
and
granules
structures
extent that it is
and build
network structure
which
is
did not show
birefringence.
matter of concentration. In
it is assumed that
exist in the fresh state and that the structure is settled very
amylose networks, resulting
initial firmness
assumption
in
changes
reduced firmness
low
of the
of the
regardless
and flour
since
blockage
approach
of
during staling
the starch
and
amylose aggregates
within
the
be
can
reorganization
completely
of
starch
rearrangements
of the
reorganization only
would
intergranular
responsible
for
within the starch
component
should attack
an
networks in the
not
the
be
promising
a-amylase
with
only amylose
which is
This would
lead to
intergranular space only.
affected.
granules
to the
to test whether
would be
For this purpose,
Novamyl
within
This leads to the
bread, it might be interesting
imperfect
the
transferable to bread
granules during gelatinization.
granules
reorganization
only.
increasing
missing.
firming.
mechanism close to
released from
of
starch
intergranular
for the reduction of
degradation
Starch
matrix is
protein
without
starch
starch
not
are
gels
it is still difficult to estimate the contribution of each
increase of firmness
a
gels
intragranular
during aging.
pregelatinized
of the molecular
results of starch
Although
rate
intergranular
granules. However,
gels
firming
reduced the firmness of starch
by degradation
that
aggregated,
This indicates that
well. This hinders the increase of molecular order of inter- and
Soy--amylase
long
thus, the initial firmness is enhanced. Leached
aggregates already
birfringent
built, which could be
were
an
the other
This results in the formation of
intragranular amylose,
intergranular space
to the
analogy
which
aggregates
in fresh
already
amylose.
to such
on
are
is
As
not
starch network formation
consequence,
altered
are
whereas
complicated.
As
result, the overall firmness is reduced by weakening the cohesion between the
granules although granule rigidity
increased.
128
5. A
staling
Outlook
5.4
In the
the
present investigation,
properties
based
mainly
are
on
the
and networks formed due to starch

would therefore be to
challenge
obtain
information
more
freeze-fracture
techniques present
the mechanical
like bread.
Confocal
laser
information
starch
granule
in the
center
as
X-ray
measurements
as
investigations
to the
investigations
be
protein
used
would
on
manipulation
interfaces and
materials
composite
in situ.
performed
ideally
to
obtain
more
networks.
crystallinity
of starch. It
the contribution of each micro-domain of the

starch
crystallinity. Especially
birfringent
are
investigated by
where the relative
microscopy
would have to be
could
of starch and
amylopectin
Difficulties
investigations.
role. The main
could be identified. Micro-mechanical
quantify
control bread crumb where

well
interactions could be
measurements revealed the overall

to
aggregates
structures in order to
investigate supramolecular
protein-starch
continuity
interesting
gelatinized
important
an
of the different constituents of
strength
angle X-ray
would be
degradation play
scanning microscopy
the
on
that the nature of the
hypothesis
further suitable methods for
the
in the mechanical
changes
the network structure and interfaces. The nature and
zones
Preferably,
of
explanation
combined with electron
techniques
weakness of interfacial
Wide
on
of starch-starch and
strength
on
to
zones were
rich outer
expected
detected in the
regions
probably present
granules
are
in the extraction of
Synchrotron
method
single
aged
amylose-rich
of interest.
suitable
of
for
starch
these
granules
from the crumb matrix.
Quantification of the phase transition of amylose aggregates in situ would be

of
high
interest. So
attempted
to
far,
measure
no
conclusive results
in
the
120
C,
(1993)
presence of
DSC method
lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC)
quantified by following
during
heated to
the
cooling phase.
temperatures
In consequence,
by DSC
where it
the
In
melting
second
around 170 C
LPC-amylose complex
quantifiable during reheating.
procedure
high
proposed by Sievert
and
so
step
that
systems
to
the
of the
the
non
could be heated
temperature
The combination
around
aggregated amylose
amylose-LPC complexes
system
with LPC would be
amylose aggregates
formation is
was
to
information could be obtained. The
cooled and reheated. Due to this
could be
formed
more
obtained
directly amylose aggregates by heating samples
temperatures (200 C). By adapting

Wrsch
were
are
melted.
possible during cooling
of the two
and
heating steps
to
129
5 4 Outlook
different
would
temperatures
allow
to
quantitatively
estimate
amylose
aggregates
High performance liquid chromatography

information
more
the
on
different
degradation products by
starch
degradation by amylases
It would
be
interesting
granules
and
degrade
that
they
act
the
on
suitable
test the
hypothesis
space would reduce

cannot
penetrate
starch
depending
is
inner
surface
firming,
to the starch it has
of the
it would be
detailed
storage
knowledge
is
required
to
is
the
complement
only
staling
focused
is a minor
proposed
that redistribution of water
Based
The
on
on
nutritional
would
properties
It
of
the small intestine
intergranular
that
in
on
the
wheat
changes
compared
of bread
properties
protein during processing
is
of
and
staling
described whereas
available and many
the
protein
resonance
on
the
speculations
and starch
studies it
amorphous phase
is
was
and exerts
1991)
Energy dispersive X-ray
probably present
another suitable method for
is
nutritionally important
Addition
be
influenced
characterized
At
present,
of
little
SA, Denmark,
amylases
the
by
Novamyl
structural
leads to the
by resisting amylolytic
starch fractions
Novo Nordisk
flavor of bread
can
that the addition of
was seen
(Euresta 1992)
analysis performed by
impacts
al
et
food
formation of resistant starch which
structure of
In order to
water micro-redistribution
characteristics of starch
in
are
occurs in
(Kim-Shin
effect
microanalysis (Davies 1991)

investigations
likely
huge enzyme
primarily
component
170 nuclear magnetic
for
antiplasticizing
present understanding
few data
important
an
is more
into the
to create
interesting
assumed that redistribution of water between
staling
if it
or
starch
of the enzymes would
amylose leaching
the transformations of
micro-distribution of water
It
of the enzyme
the microstructure
in
Diffusion of water between crumb and crust
exist
granules
extent of
penetrate
can
major contribution to the structural
on
factors, the
formed
granules
Although protein
of the
the
on
acting place
Immunolabelling
So far, the characterization of bread

of the starch fraction
part
to localize enzymes
degradation
into the
the
on
other
order to obtain
in
and
degradation
amylases Among
the
in
granule
that
starch
performed
know whether the enzymes
to
technique
present
of
extent
could be
is
known
Besides,
it
which
in
induce
regarding
some
was seen
attack
that
the
sensory
Novamyl
specific
starch
130
5. A
structures could
to further understand the
help
relationship
to
staling
between sensory and
starch structure.
In the
present investigation, only
the
tendency
in
particular
of
consequences
rtrogradation
the
on
presence
the
physiological aspect
efficacy
of
is
of
of
low extraction wheat flour
high. Specific properties

pentosans
amylases
and
and
on
was
of other
hemicellulose,
staling
nutrition, high extraction flour
or
of bread.
used because
types
of
might
flour,
have
Regarding
the
wholemeal is favored.
6
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Curriculum Vitae
Susanna
born
Hug-lten
July 30,
citizen of
1970
Untergeri ZG
Switzerland
1996-2000
Ph.D.
student and
Research Assistant of
Prof. Dr. F. Escher and Dr. B. Conde-Petit in

the
Institute
Technology,
Swiss
(ETH),
1996
Chemistry
of Food
Laboratory
Federal
of
and Food
Food
Institute
of
Science,
Technology
Zrich
Diploma
in
Degree
Science
Food
and
Technology (Dipl. Lm.-lng. ETH)

1990-1996
Studies in Food Science and

the Swiss Federal
(ETH),
Technology
Institute of
at
Technology
Zrich
9 Months
practical experience
at
Mineralquelle Eglisau AG, Eglisau

Landw. Institut des Kantons
Milchwirtschaftliches
Freiburg,
Bildungszentrum,
Grangeneuve/Posieux
Selectchemie AG, Zrich
Carma-Pfister AG, Dbendorf
1992-1995
Technical
Assistant
at
Selectchemie
AG,
Zrich
1989-1990
Kantonsschule
completed
examination
1985-1989
with
type
Kantonsschule
completed
Enge,
Swiss
Federal
Maturity
Enge,
with
Zrich
Zrich
Federal
Diploma
Commerce
1977-1985
Primary
and
Secondary School, Horgen
for

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Bread Model Systems

A dissertation submitted to the

SWISS FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Doctor of Technical Sciences

Untergeri (ZG), Switzerland

Felix Escher gave

and constructive discussions I

For his continuous

balance between scientific freedom

I thank her for the uncountable hours she invested

In many fruitful discussions I learned

of this thesis and for

I wish to thank Novo Nordisk

and Jack Bech Nielsen who gave

the world of enzyme business and

critically reading my manuscript

financial and technical

very thankful to Prof Dr Kaisa Poutanen

Batrice Conde-Petit for her excellent supervision and

lot from her broad

support She constantly provided

many scientific discussions

suitable methods for

field of microscopy and

Blattmann, Chantal Bussmann, Pamela

Huber, Rena Rekeweg, Sarah Robbiani, Thomas Wren and

Zuber contributed to this work

the lab E24 1 with

Jeannette Nussh introduced

at the Institute of Food

thankful to all friends who

Trudi and Peter

Iten, have accompanied

parents, Evelyn, Ralph, Silvia,

Alex and Dominik for their love and their belief

Thank you for

Zurich, July 7 2000

the Swiss mountains

the very person you

Role of starch in bread

2.2.1 Transformations of starch

2.3.1 General features of

2.3.2 Antistaling mechanism of

3.3.3 Low concentration starch

3.6.1 Determination of water content

3.6.2 Determination of iodine

3.6.5 Determination of starch and starch

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

of bread and bread models

the texture of bread

bread and bread models

4.2.2 Localization of starch in the microstructure of

the microstructure of flour

the microstructure of fresh and

of starch in bread and in bread models91

the starch content and the starch

A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH TO STALING

of bread and bread models at different levels of

between starch structure and

5.2.4 Contribution of different starch fractions to

5.2.2 Influence of BAN

of bread and the