MODAL VERBS

no s inflection in the 3rd person singular (modals have an invariable form for all persons, in the
singular and plural). E.g.: I/we/he can speak Japanese.

no long infinitives after modals; modals can only be followed by short infinitives (go, be, etc.) or
perfect infinitives (have + Past Participle: have gone, have been). E.g.: You can go now. You
should have apologized to him.

no auxiliary (do) in the negative/ interrogative. E.g.: You mustnt negotiate with them. May I ask
you a question?

no Past Tense forms (except for could [ability, probability] and might [probability]). To refer to past
events/ situations, non-modal equivalents are used see Equivalents of Modal Verbs

Possibility, Probability

may/ might/ could/ must + short Infinitive : She may/ might/ could be right about it.
probability of something happening or being She might come back tomorrow.
the case in the present/ future/ past:
They spend a lot: they must be wealthy.
- may: more formal than might/ could
- might: lower probability than may
must: very high probability/ logical
deduction based on clues
may/ might/ could well: fairly high probability
Compare with: may/ might/ could as well

may/ might/ could/ must + Perfect Infinitive:

speculation about past actions/ situations (same
differences in meaning as above).
will/ would + short/ Perfect Infinitive:
assumption (you think that something is/ will be/
has been the case because its supposed to, or
because there is no reason to think otherwise);
would is more formal/polite
should + short infinitive: assumption (you think
that something is/ will be the case because it is
supposed to be), or prediction/ probability of
something happening in the future.
should/ ought to
+ perfect infinitive:
speculation about past actions/ situations (you
think that something has probably happened
already)

She may/ might/ could well be innocent.

We may/ might/ could as well get started. (=
there is no reason why we shouldnt)
We may/ might/ could as well go to the
seaside. (= its all the same to me whether
we go to the seaside or to the mountains).
She may/ might/ could have been right.
He must have been over 60.
Ask your wife: she will know the answer.
You would agree that honesty is the best
policy.
You will have read his latest book.
She should be in London by now.
Our profits should increase next month.
They should have heard the news by now.

should (in conditional clauses): very low

probability/ possibility of something happening in
the future
cant + short Infinitive: impossibility (of
something happening in the present/ future)
cant + Perfect Infinitive: impossibility (of
something happening in the past)

Should you meet her, give her my phone

number.
This expensive bag cant be a fake!
Hes only 14, he cant have graduated from
university.

1. Fill in the blanks with modal verbs to express (im)possibility or (im)probability:

1. She be wrong.
2. He have changed his mind.
3. He have said such nonsense! He is very intelligent.
4. she have been the person you were looking for?
5. He looks pale. He be ill.
6. The conference have started by now.
Obligation and Necessity

must + short Infinitive: obligation which is

internalized or imposed by the speaker
Compare it with to have to (external obligation)

I must pass all my exams.

must not: prohibition.

He mustnt leave the office.

should/ ought to + short infinitive: obligation/

saying whats right or correct/ desirability/
responsibility.

You should / ought to respect your parents

should/ ought to
+ perfect infinitive: past
unfulfilled obligation
need/ neednt + short infinitive: necessity/
absence of necessity or obligation in the present;
the same meaning as the ordinary verb to need

They should have signed the agreement

neednt + perfect infinitive: unnecessary action

performed in the past.

You neednt have sent me that book I had

my own copy. Compare it with:

Compare with didnt need to: unnecessary

action that was NOT performed in the past)

You didnt need to send

I have to pass all my exams.

I wonder if I need bring my bathing suit.

You neednt repeat the question. (non-modal
equivalent: not have to. You dont have to
repeat the question.)

2. Fill in the blanks with modal verbs expressing obligation or necessity (or the lack of
it):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

You take more care of your children.

I remind you about your duties?
We all abide by the law.
You wake up early if you want to be on time for the meeting.
He have been more considerate.

6. She have applied for a scholarship. Her parents can pay for her tuition.
Other Uses

permission (can, may, could?, might?, would?), request (can, could, may, would),
and ability (can, could):
Can/ could I use your computer? (informal)
May I begin my presentation? (polite).
This is odd, if I might say so. (polite, somewhat diffident)
Can/ will you answer the phone, please?
Would you please give me your phone number?
Can you swim?
I could play football for hours on end. (I was able to play)
suggestion (shall, should ?, couldnt?), recommendation and advice (should,
ought to), emphatic advice (must), offer and invitation (will, would)
Shall we stop here? Couldnt we add one more paragraph here?
You should read that book. Its a masterpiece.
You must visit the Guggenheim when you are in New York.
I will answer the phone, if you wish.
Wont you stay for dinner? (informal)
Would you care for a drink? (polite)
Would you like to join us for dinner tonight? (very polite)
habit (will), habitual action in the past (would):
She will always be late! A mad dog will bite anyone!
When I was younger, I would go out with friends every weekend
interdiction (shall not in 2nd and 3rd persons; formal and obsolete).
You shall not divulge our secret
command/ order (shall in 2nd and 3rd persons- very formal; will)
Participants shall enter their names in the books provided by my assistant.
You will do as I tell you.
promise (shall in 2nd/ 3rd person; formal and obsolete; will in the 1st person)
You shall receive the document by the end of the month.
I will do it, as agreed!
obstinate refusal (wont, wouldnt), obstinate insistence (will):
He wont talk to make.
I advised him to see a doctor, but he wont listen to me.

She will drink coffee every day, although she is not allowed to.
supposition, acceptance (dare in the phrase I daresay)
I daresay theyll be waiting for us.
I didnt break the law! I daresay you didnt, but your behaviour was unethical!
in rhetorical questions (you want someone to stop doing something annoying):
Must you make all that noise?
3. Identify the modality (e.g. probability, ability, etc.) in the following sentences:
1. You could ride a hot air balloon, but I wouldnt advise you to do it.
2. Since they live on a dole, they must be rather hard up.
3. You might consider taking out a bank loan to start your business
4. I will wait for you even if I have to stay up all night.
5. He can literally bend over backwards.
6. I would drink milk every day as a child.
7. You may find our method a bit surprising.
8. The taxi should be here in a few minutes.
9. Can I add something?
10. You might have asked for permission before using my computer.
11. Boys will be boys!
12. He will smoke in here, although I asked him not to.
13. Its still early. They cant miss the plane.
14. She may (might, could) well have been hurt.
Equivalents of Modal Verbs

MODAL VERB
must

must not
can

EQUIVALENT
to have to
NOTE:
Slight difference in meaning
between must and to have to see Obligation and Necessity)

EXAMPLE
Present Tense: I have to swim 5
laps a day to keep in shape.

not to be allowed to
(used especially in the Past
Tense, or in Indirect Speech).
to be able to
NOTE: In The Past Tense, it is
used especially to express ability
shown in a particular past
situation, instead of the modal
COULD, which is preferred for
general ability in the past)

I am not allowed to swim.

He said he was not allowed to
swim.
Present Tense: I can ride. = I am
able to ride

Past Tense: He told us he had to

swim 5 laps a day to keep in shape.

Past Tense: They were surprised to

see that I was able to ride that
feisty horse.
Compare with: I COULD play
football for hours.

may

to be allowed to

neednt

not to have to

should/ ought to

to be supposed to
to be expected to

You are allowed to leave. I wasnt

allowed to leave.
You neednt go. = You dont have to
go.
I ought to/ should start. = I am
supposed to start.

should
to be to
would (habitual used to
action in the
past)

What should I do about it? = What

am I to do about it?
I would go to a concert every week.
= I used to go to a concert every
week.

4. Rewrite the sentences in exercise 3 replacing the modal verbs by their equivalents
(where available) or by ordinary verbs followed by suitable adverbs (e.g. probably,
habitually, usually, etc.), keeping the meaning unchanged.