Electronic Waste

Recycling Plant

Final Report
CHL471

Cycle - 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sno.

Topic

Page No.

1.

Executive Summary

2.

List of Tables

3.

List of Figures

4.

Introduction

5.

Sub Group 1 - Storage and Segregation

10

6.

Sub Group 1 - Pre-Processing Unit

17

7.

Sub Group 2- Plastic Recycling

69

8.

Sub Group 4 Glass and Capacitor Recycling

115

9.

Sub Group 3 Metal Recycling

171

10.

Referencing

209

Executive Summary
This report provides an overview of an electronic waste recycling plant to be set up in New Delhi.
The design project allotted to cycle 1 focuses on how to tackle the growing menace of e-waste,
with specific emphasis on Delhi and restricting the solution to Laptops, Desktops, Tablets and
Mobiles. The project provides a design for an electronic recycling plant to be set up in Delhi and
stating the economic feasibility of the same.
To achieve the following we (a group of 24 students) had divided the work among us, in groups
of 8, as follows (Initial Phase of Designing)1.
2.
3.
4.

Group 1: Recycling of Electronics.

Group 2: Recycling of Plastics.
Group 3: Estimation of e-waste generated inside of Delhi.
Group 4: Recycling of screen.

This was done primarily to do a literature review of the existing technologies currently used to
recycle various components present inside an electronic waste (restricting to the 4 equipments
given) as well as to gauge the estimated value of e-waste generated inside Delhi.
After this phase the work plan was changed to suit the designing needs as follows: 1.
2.
3.
4.

Group 1: Pre-Processing of E-waste

Group 2: Recycling of Plastics.
Group 3: Recycling of Metals
Group 4: Recycling of Screens/ Hazardous components.

Group 1: The pre-processing of the e-waste is handled by sub-group 1. A basic schematic is

developed for the storage/segregation unit and the involved labour cost is calculated. After
recovering the reusable items, the remaining items are segregated into mobiles/tablets, laptops,
desktops and CPUs and are sent to the dismantling unit. Here, the dismantling of the
aforementioned items is carried out along with recovery of reusable components. The economics
of the process is analysed. After this, the components to be recycled are sent to the pre-processing
unit. Here, to begin with, the process of coarse grinding is undertaken through the roll shredder
(designed by Rahul Mishra), and the products obtained are further made to undergo the fine
grinding process through the hammer mill (designed by Anshul Agrawal). The particles obtained
after this have a particle size range of around 1-2 mm (approx). These are made to pass through
the Cyclone separator (designed by Rushap Khazanchi) which separates the very fine dust particles
from the mixture, which is collected in the dust collector (designed by Rushap Khazanchi). The
remaining feed is made to pass through the magnetic separator (designed by Nikita Meena) to
separate ferrous metals from the mixture. The remaining feed is finally sent to the corona
electrostatic separator which achieves the final separation of metals and non-metals. The metal
fraction is sent to sub-group 3 and the non-metal fraction is sent to sub-group 2 for further
recycling.
Group 2: Recycling of plastics deals with all the waste plastic obtained in any form after extraction
of all the metals, non-metals and glass, and removal of paint coating and flame retardants from the
3

waste. Plastics constitute about 25-30% of electronic waste. Hence, its extraction and reuse is very
lucrative. After a thorough literature review and analysis of various plastic recycling methods,
mechanical methods, namely Air tabling and triboelectric separation were adopted for the
separation and extraction of useful plastics. The feed is assumed to consist of mainly 6 plastics,
namely i.e. PVC, PET, PS, ABS, PE and PP, commonly found in e-wastes. Firstly, Air tabling
separates the higher and lower density plastics. This is followed by triboelectric separation that
further separates the low and high density plastic mixtures into each of its components. The plastics
obtained can be re used in similar applications. A full mathematical model of these processes and
the equipments was studied designed. This is followed by an analysis on the economics and the
feasibility of the plant.
Group 3: Our subgroup focused on the recovery of metals from the e-wastes. The metal content
in an electronic appliance ranges from 20%-50% roughly. The recovery of metals from the ewastes not only reduces the amount of wastes landfilled but also saves energy wasted in production
of metals from ores and is an environmentally safe initiative. The feed given to the metal
processing plant designed by us was considered to be devoid of plastics, glass and batteries. Only
metal scraps from PCBs and body of an equipment was taken as the feed. The inspiration for the
process was taken from Umicore's Metal refinery unit in Hoboken, Belgium. The feed was
subjected to pyro metallurgy followed by hydrometallurgy. The initial step of pyro metallurgy was
delegated to Akriti and Mamita. Akriti focussed on the design of Copper Smelting process
including determination of flow rates of the pyrometallurgical routes. Mamita handled the
designing of Lead Blast Furnace. Ashutosh completed the designing of the Copper leaching step.
Sumay handled the designing of Lead refining unit and also used the equation for optimal velocity
of slurry for designing of pipes in the Metal Recovery unit. The pressure drop per unit length of
the piping was also calculated. The leaching for PMs (precious metals - Gold, Silver and
Palladium) was done by Ashutosh. The costs analysis (done by Mamita) detailed the operating,
installation and maintenance costs for the unit. A process flow sheet was made which detailed
whole of the metal recovery unit.

Group 4: Primarily dealt with the glass found in the recycling of screens of desktop, laptops,
tablets and mobiles and capacitors found in the batteries etc. The major components found in the
screens of the electrical components is the LCD, CRT along with TFT-LCD glass. They designed
equipments for the recycling of waste glass that is found in CRT, LCD and also the TFT-LCD
waste glass found in screens of the mobiles and the tablets. Also, we have designed the equipment
and process to recycle the waste capacitor units.
They also designed the recycling process by designing various equipment like equipments used in
diamond saw method to separate funnel and panel glass, followed by designing the wet scrubbing
method to crush them and remove the harmful fluorescent coating. We have also designed the
entire equipments and process used to remove lead from the glass to recover lead and glass
separately. Also, designing of leaching process too along with designing the entire process for
CCFL recycling, a sintering furnace to make ceramics out of TFT-LCD waste glass that has very
good thermal-mechanical properties and can earn very good revenues for the industry.

List of Tables:
Table 1 Data for composition of different components ............................................................................. 13
Table 2: Wage rates of labour(www.delhi.gov.in/Minimum%2BWages/) ................................................. 14
Table 3 Average amount of waste generated per day and its composition ............................................... 21
Table4: Design specifications of four shaft shredder .................................................................................. 23
Table 5:Hammer mill specification ............................................................................................................. 31
Table 6: Geometry of a Cyclone Separator (Derksen & Sundaresan, 2006) ............................................... 39
Table 7: Relation between different geometrical dimensions of a Cyclone Separator used. .................... 40
Table 8: Depicting sizing of Cyclone Separator done for the given parameters......................................... 41
Table 9: Design Parameters of Dust Separator ........................................................................................... 46
Table 10 : Design Values for Belt Conveyor System: .................................................................................. 53
Table 11: Comparison of three kinds of mechanical treatment methods of
PCB(http://www.machinery.com.cn.) ........................................................................................................ 55
Table 12: Final Results................................................................................................................................. 67
Table 13: Comparison of three kinds of PCB waste separation processes (Kealeboga Merafhe, 2011) .... 68
Table 14 Experiments were conducted and the following results obtained at pilot plant scale .................. 78
Table 15 Comparison between different Tribo chargers............................................................................. 79
Table 16 Values of various parameters of Air table design ........................................................................ 98
Type of flow: Mass flow is more consistent when compared to funnel flow. Chances for mass flow in
hoppers are more with larger cone angles from horizontal.
Table 17 Flow type and cone angle of Hopper
1
00
Table 18 Values of various parameters of Hopper design ........................................................................ 102
Table 19 Values of various design parameters of Tribo charging ............................................................. 110
Table 20: Experimental data of wet scrubbing process (Hsi, 2002).......................................................... 124
Table 21: Showing appropriate conditions for Sintering condition .......................................................... 147
Table 22 Design Parameters calculation and values ................................................................................. 153
Table 23: Data for tantalum in E-waste .................................................................................................... 158
Table 24: Analytical result of tantalum powder. (Ryosuke Matsuoka, 2004)........................................... 170
Table 25: Weight based share in various components (Abdul Khaliq, 2014) ........................................... 171
Table 26: Value based share in various components (Abdul Khaliq, 2014) ............................................. 172
Table 27: Feed Composition for the Copper Smelter (from estimation) .................................................. 173
Table 28: Composition of various streams from copper Smelter ............................................................. 176
Table 29: Dimensions of a Matte Settling Furnace ................................................................................... 180
Table 30: Diameter Calculation for pipes ................................................................................................. 181
Table 31: Composition of streams from Lead Blast Furnace .................................................................... 183
Table 32: Input compositions for the Lead Refining Proces
Table 33: Output Composition of the
product Volume of Lead bullion to be handled per hour = (33.76 tonnes/hr)/(10.52 tonnes/m3) ...... 186

List of Figures:
Figure 1: Proposed schematic of storage/segregation unit ........................................................................ 12
Figure 2: Process flow Diagram of Dismantling Unit .................................................................................. 15
Figure 3: Process Flow Diagram of Pre-Processing Unit ............................................................................. 17
Figure 4: Characteristic between rotation speed and torque generation (United States of America Patent
No. 249,926, 2009)...................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 5: Motor rotation and energy consumption of LSHT shredder (United States of America Patent
No. 249,926, 2009)...................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 6: Four shaft Shredder with cutters and screen (Ville, 2010) .......................................................... 20
Figure 7 Front and side of four shaft shredder (Ville, 2010)....................................................................... 23
Figure 8: Typical hammer mill (Rhodes, Introduction to particle tecnology, 2008) ................................... 25
Figure 9: Scheme of breaking process in mill ............................................................................................. 26
Figure 10 : Hammer mill with pneumatic discharge (ILO, 1994) ................................................................ 30
Figure 11: Reverse type Cyclone Separator (Rhodes, Introduction to Particle Technology, 2008) ............ 33
Figure 12: Forces acting on particles inside a Cyclone Separator (Rhodes, Introduction to Particle
Technology, 2008)....................................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 13: Grade efficiency curve for a Cyclone Separator (Rhodes, Introduction to Particle Technology,
2008) ........................................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 14: Reduction of efficiency of Cyclone Separator with very high flow rate. (Rhodes, Introduction
to Particle Technology, 2008) ..................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 15: Upward vortex inside the Cyclone (within do/2 diaeter) (FISHER-KLOSTERMAN, 2015) .......... 38
Correlation between different geometrical parameters is the same given in Figure 16 .............................. 40
Figure 17: Typical filter bag. (ENGINEERS, 2015) ........................................................................................ 42
Figure 18: Basic structure of Bag type Dust Separator (FISHER-KLOSTERMAN, 2015) ............................... 43
Figure 19: Collection of dust on the walls of filter bags (Systems), 2015).................................................. 44
Figure 20: : Pulse injection system automatically switched on for removing dust layer. (Systems), 2015)
.................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 21: Shock wave flexing and fracturing filter bags (Systems), 2015) ................................................ 44
Figure 22: Magnetic separator.................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 23: Flat trough .................................................................................................................................. 48
Figure 24: Belt Conveyor System with design values ................................................................................. 53
Figure 25: Structural representation of roll-type corona electrostatic separator (Jia Li, 2007) ................. 55
Figure 26: Geometric model of corona roll type separator (Jia Li, 2007) ................................................... 56
Figure 27: Structural representational of roll-type corona electrostatic separator: (1) the feed, (2) the
ground roll electrode, (3) the charging field, (4) corona electrode, (5) electrostatic electrode, (6) brush,
and (7) holding tanks. ................................................................................................................................. 63
Figure 28: Forces acting on the non-metal particle at the most probable point of detachment............... 65
Figure 30 Classification of polymers in e-waste ......................................................................................... 70
Figure 31 Mechanical recycling of plastic from e-waste ............................................................................ 75

*Figure 32 Various techniques used for Tribocharging particles a) Solid rotating drum roll b)Cyclone
tribocharger ................................................................................................................................................. 79
Figure 33 Synthetic scheme of the experimental facility Reference: (De Sena, 2008) .............................. 81
Figure 34 Recovery in case of air tabling technique ................................................................................... 83
Figure 35 Recovery in case of triboelectric separation process .................................................................. 84
Figure 36 Flow diagram of the Plastic recycling plant ............................................................................... 85
Figure 37 Air tabling unit. .......................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 38 various Parameters for design of air table .................................................................................. 88
Figure 39 Effect of End raise on separation ................................................................................................ 89
Figure 40 Effect of side tilt on separation ................................................................................................... 90
Figure 41 Effect of Deck speed on separation ............................................................................................ 90
Figure 42 Effect of frequency of deck on separation .................................................................................. 91
Figure 43 Effect of pore size and shape on separation................................................................................ 92
Figure 44 Effect of separation of openings on separation........................................................................... 92
Figure 45 Force balance on light particles .................................................................................................. 94
Figure 46 Force balance on heavy particles ................................................................................................ 95
Figure 47 Force balance on low density particles ....................................................................................... 96
Figure 48 Set-up and block diagram of triboelectric separation .............................................................. 103
Figure 49 Effect of very high electric field ................................................................................................ 106
Figure 50 Design parameters of Tribo cyclone ......................................................................................... 107
Figure 51: Block diagram of glass separation process ............................................................................ 115
Figure 52: Showing the cutting position of electron gun ........................................................................ 116
Figure 53: Depressurization before glass separation process ................................................................ 116
Figure 54: Structural diagram of a CRT .................................................................................................... 117
Figure 55: Basic sketch of the conveyor system explaining the speed and processing time ................ 119
Figure 56: Design of Conveyor belt which is to be used in the process ................................................. 119
Figure 57: Description of Size measuring unit and Cutting position identifier ...................................... 121
Figure 58: Description of position of diamond cutter ............................................................................. 122
Figure 59: Appearance of original panel glass under microscopy (Hsi, 2002) ........................................ 125
Figure 60: Appearance of wet scrubbed panel glass surface under microscopy (Hsi, 2002) ................. 125
Figure 61 Experimental setup for Chlorination Volatilization .................................................................. 127
Figure 62 Flowchart of the lead removal process..................................................................................... 128
Figure 63 PFD of the Chlorination Volatilization process ......................................................................... 129
Figure 64 Variation of Static pressure in centrifugal blowers with Air flow rate through pipes .............. 131
Figure 65 Block diagram for leaching using kennedy extractor. ............................................................... 135
Figure 66 Schematic of kennedy extractor ............................................................................................... 135
Figure 67 Process flow diagram ................................................................................................................ 136
Figure 68 Concentration of indium recovered with time using different solvents .................................. 137
Figure 69 Fraction of gold recovered with v/s contact time at different concentration of HCl ............... 137
Figure 70 Concentration of tin recovered with time using different solvents ......................................... 138
Figure 71 Direct contact thermal desorption process (Batelle, 1998)...................................................... 143
Figure 72 Rotary kiln ................................................................................................................................. 143
Figure 73 Sintering: a) Initial Stage and b) Final stages (Tang, 2014)..................................................... 145
Figure 74 Neck formation between sintering surface (Tang, 2014)....................................................... 146
7

Figure 75 Sintering basic flowchart........................................................................................................... 147

Figure 76 Process and Instrumentation Diagram ..................................................................................... 149
Figure 77 Design of the rotatable gas injector (Thomas Philips, 2000) .................................................... 150
Figure 78 A fiber cordage curtain at the exit end of furnace. (Thomas Philips, 2000) ............................. 151
Figure 79 Safe hood design (Thomas Philips, 2000) ................................................................................. 151
Figure 80 Sintering Furnace (Lin, 2007) ................................................................................................... 155
Figure 81 Process Flow Diagram ............................................................................................................... 156
Figure 82 : Tantalum Capacitor (Okabe1 & *1, 2003)............................................................................... 157
Figure 83 Cross-section of sintered electrode (Kunio Minetaa, 2005) ..................................................... 158
Figure 84: Composition of capacitor after oxidation at various temperatures. (Okabe1 & *1, 2003) ..... 160
Figure 85 : Observation of components of tantalum capacitor before and after oxidation at 1273K for
one hour. (Ryosuke Matsuoka, 2004) ....................................................................................................... 161
Figure 86: Conventional mettallothermic Reduction (Okabe1 & *1, 2003) ............................................. 163
Figure 87: Preform reduction process (Okabe1 & *1, 2003) .................................................................... 163
Figure 88: plate of Ta2O5 for reduction and their dimensions.. (Okabe1 & *1, 2003) ............................. 164
Figure 89: apparatus for the production of tantalum powder using preform reduction process (Okabe1 &
*1, 2003) ................................................................................................................................................... 165
Figure 90: Flowchart of the tantalum recovery process from capacitor scraps ....................................... 167
Figure 91: Material flowchart for production of tantalum powder by magnesiothermic reduction of
tantalum oxide using preform reduction process( PRP). (Okabe1 & *1, 2003) ....................................... 168
Figure 92 : Capacitor analysis at different steps. (Kunio Minetaa, 2005) ................................................. 169
Figure 93: Umicore's IsaSmelt Furnace ..................................................................................................... 174
Figure 94: Flowsheet of the Copper Smelting Process ............................................................................. 175
Figure 95: Dimensions of a IsaSmelt Furnace ........................................................................................... 179
Figure 96: Copper smelting Process ......................................................................................................... 182
Figure 97: A typical lead Blast Furnace ..................................................................................................... 185
Figure 98: Electrowinning section of the Lead Refining Plant (Funsho Ojebuoboh, 2003) ..................... 188
Figure 99: Schematic of the Lead Refinery Process ................................................................................. 189
Figure 100: Overall Lead Refining Process ................................................................................................ 191
Figure 101: Schematic of CSTR for Leaching process ............................................................................... 194
Figure 102: Schematic of Rotary Vacuum Filter........................................................................................ 196
Figure 103: The overall Process flow diagram for the first leaching step................................................. 198
Figure 104: Block diagram for the Leaching process ................................................................................ 202
Figure 105: Overall Process Flow Diagram ............................................................................................... 204

Introduction

The quantity of e-waste has been growing at an overwhelming rate in the past few years all around the
globe primarily due to increase in the demand of more advanced and complex electronic equipment by
the day and forced obsolescence strategy adopted by the companies to promote their sales. This increase
in e-waste has taken a huge toll on the environment and the existing resources hence there should be a
sound disposal of such wastes.
Currently in India the share of unorganized sector in electronic waste recycling sector is an over whelming
90% which uses obsolete technologies which lack efficiency and are detrimental to both environment and
their health. Hence it is imperative to increase share of organized sectors and improve consumer
awareness regarding availability of such modes of recycling and environmental effects of unsafe
disposition of such wastes.
The major source of revenue through recycling of such wastes is through precious metals inside the
electronics, refurbishing and sale of reusable components. The rationale behind setting up a recycling
plant is the decrease in the resources all around the world hence necessitating the recycling of resources
used to make up electronics which is by the way more easily acquirable than through their natural source.
On the basis of division of responsibility and tasks the following areas were identified as imperative for
the designing of the plant

1.
2.
3.
4.

Group 1: Pre-Processing of E-waste

Group 2: Recycling of Plastics.
Group 3: Recycling of Metals
Group 4: Recycling of Screens/ Hazardous components.

Designing of each of these processes would be discussed in detail in this report where in a detailed
economic analysis was done.

SUBGROUP 1
Summary:
After dismantling is done PCBs are sent on to another conveyor for removal of electrical
components (either for reusable parts or for removal of hazardous components) present on the
PCBs. Specialised labours are required at this stage who have an eye for high grade and low grade
PCBs, high being sent directly for pyro metallurgy and low grade sent for further processing.
From the dismantling unit hazardous components and some other components are sent to another
unit for recycling of
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Capacitor
Glass
LCDs
CRTs
Batteries etc.

Rest of the dismantled part is either sent to a pre-processing unit or sold if the can be used as a
replacement in some other electronic gadgetRotary shears are made in single, double or quad shaft
configurations so that increased shaft numbers produce a smaller mean particle size. The counter
rotating shafts are fitted with cutting knives that intermesh and create large shear forces on any
material trapped between them. These cutting knives or hooks are shown in the quad shaft
configuration in fig.3, the hooks must be designed such that they grab the incoming WEEE and
pull it between the neighboring shafts to achieve the shear cutting forces. After shredding of
electronic waste inside a shredder feed is entered to the hammer mill for further size reduction.
Input feed stream have maximum particle size of 30mm which after milling operation reduces to
1.2mm. After particles are shredded inside a hammer mill peak size dimension being of the order
of 2-5 mm are laden with particulate matter of size way lower than 0.1 mm are sent into a cyclone
separator for removal of dust particles/ particulate matter for health concerns. The gas which exits
the cyclone from the top laden with particulate matter is sent to a bag type dust collector for
settling of dust particles or particulate matter of size below 0.01 mm which may be harmful to
breath. This dust collector system is equipped with a pulse jet used to fracture the cake layer formed
around the filters. Magnetic separator exploits the magnetic nature of ferrous metals using
magnetic field to separate them out leaving behind feed composed of non-metals and nonferrous
metals. Material carried on the conveyor passes the magnetic pulley which holds the magnetic
particles until the leave the region of magnetic field. The mixture of conductive and nonconductive
material received after the coarse and fine grinding is fed on to the rotating drum which is
grounded. The electric field generated between the active electrodes and the ground electrode
causes the charging of the metallic and non-metallic particles. The insulating particles charged as
a result of this field get pinned to the rotating drum electrode by means of an electric image force.
10

Work Contribution:
Roll Shredder: Process Description; Selection of Four Shaft Shredder; Design Calculation;
Economic Analysis (Rahul Mishra)
Hammer Mill: Description of the equipment; Design parameter; performance model ; design
analysis; economic analysis. (Anshul Agrawal)
Storage: Process Flow Diagram; Labour Cost Analysis Involved (Mridul Joshi and Rahul Mishra)
Dismantling: Process flow diagram; Process Description. (Rushap Khazanchi & Anshul Agrawal)
Cyclone Separator: Process Description; Selection of High through put Cyclone Separator; Design
Calculation; Economic Analysis. (Rushap Khazanchi)
Dust Collector: Process Description; Selection of Pulse-jet Bag Filter Dust Collector; Design
Calculation; Economic Analysis. (Rushap Khazanchi)
Magnetic Separator: Process Description; Design Consideration; Design Analysis; Economic
Analysis (Nikita Meena)
Corona Separator: Process Description; Design Calculation; Economic Analysis (Mridul Joshi)

11

STORAGE AND SEGREGATION UNIT

SCHEMATICS

Figure 1: Proposed schematic of storage/segregation unit

The above flow diagram depicts the schematic of the proposed storage unit. After collecting the e-waste
from the procurement sites, it is transported to the primary storage unit. Here the preliminary
segregation takes place, such that, the reusable/upgradable models of desktops / laptops / mobiles /
tablets are identified and separated from the rest. This batch of potentially recyclable components are
sent off to the market to appropriate dealers. The remaining components are further segregated into
four classifications namely mobiles/tablets, desktops, CPUs and laptops. These are separately sent off to
the dismantling unit.
Some points to be noted:

12

During the collection of the waste from the procurement sites, care must be taken during the
loading of the waste as well as during transportation. Accordingly, the labour must be cautious
since the collected waste will also contain potentially reusable/upgradable items which should
not be damaged.
Even after the preliminary segregation is complete, the e-waste needs to be handled delicately
since even the recyclable items potentially contain reusable components which will be
recovered in the dismantling unit, and hence must not be damaged.
Skilled labour needs to be employed in order to identify the potential of an item for reuse/upgradation.

LABOUR COST ANALYSIS

The composition received by us is as follows:

Personal
Compute
rs

Tablets(ton/
yr)

Mobiles(ton/
yr)

Laptops(ton/
yr)

S.No.

14406

25

1347

1538

3313.38

3.75

673.5

307.6

2881.2

2.5

40.41

33.836

7491.12

5.25

417.57

685.948

Ferrous
Metals
Metals

3745.56

0.75

202.05

292.22

Glass

Total
Weight
Plastics

Table 1 Data for composition of different components

1 laptop 3.5kg
1 mobile/tablet 0.1/0.8kg
1 desktop (including keyboard and mouse) 11 kg
1 CPU 5 kg
Total Tablets 25*1000/365*0.8=85616.438=85.617=86 per day
Total Mobiles 1347*1000/365*0.1=36904.11=36904 per day
Total Laptops 1538*1000/365*3.5=1203.9=1204 per day
13

ton/yr

17316
4298.2
3
2957.9
46
8599.8
88
4240.5
8

ton/da
y
(24hr
Op.)
47.441
1
11.775
97
8.1039
62
23.561
34
11.618
03

ton/da
y
(8hr
Op.)
142.32
33
35.327
92
24.311
88
70.684
01
34.854
08

Total PCs 14406*1000/365*(11+5)=2466.78=2467 per day

One unskilled labourer can carry (on an average):

Tablets 20
Mobiles 50
Laptops 5
PCs 1

Average time for loading/unloading in one visit = 5 minutes

Therefore, total time required:

Tablets 86*5/20=21.5 minutes

250 Mobiles 36904*5/50=3690.4minutes
25 Laptops 1204*5/5=1204minutes
5 PCs 2467*5/1=12335minutes

Therefore, 287.515 labour hours are required for loading. Same amount required for unloading.
Therefore total labour hours = 575.03 hours
Assuming the loading/unloading occurs in 8 hour timespan of a day. If one labourer works for 8 hours,
number of labourers required = 72 (approx)
Labour Type
Unskilled
Semi-skilled
Unskilled

Wage(Rs/day)
348
385
423

Table 2: Wage rates of labour(www.delhi.gov.in/Minimum%2BWages/)

Therefore, total labour cost per year = 72*348*365 = Rs. 91,45,440

14

Figure 2: Process flow Diagram of Dismantling Unit

From storage unit desktops, laptops, CPUs, Mobiles and Tablets are then ferried to respective
conveyors for respective dismantling as shown, using forklifts. Dismantling of these components
are done manually by incorporating labours on shifts (24X7).
Following is the analysis of the amount of time and labour required for this process.
Avg. dissembling time for a desktop computer and laptop by an experienced worker = 8 min.
Avg. dissembling time for a CPU by an experienced worker = 10 min.
Avg. dissembling time for a mobile and tablets by an experienced worker = 5 min.
Avg. dissembling time for all the equipment = 4.6 min
Avg. wt. of the equipment= 4.87 kg
Avg. dissembling rate = 4.87/ 4.6 = 1.05 kg/min = 63.5 kg/ hr
A worker works for 8 hrs then total wt. dissembled by him = 508 kg
Total wt. = 50 ton / day
Total no. of workers = 50/0.508 = 98 workers/ day
Labour Cost ~ 423*98 = Rs 41,454/Day = Rs 1,51,30,710/yr
15

Capital Cost:
To carry weight we also required fork lifts
A 5 ton capacity fork lift have price around 6 lac rupees.

16

CHAPTER: 1 PRE PROCESSING UNIT (Sub Group: 1)

Figure 3: Process Flow Diagram of Pre-Processing Unit

1. Shredder
1.1 Introduction

17

Low speed, high torque shredders rely on shear cutting and tearing forces with little to no
impact force involved. Rotary shears are made in single, double or quad shaft configurations
so that increased shaft numbers produce a smaller mean particle size. The counter rotating
shafts are fitted with cutting knives that intermesh and create large shear forces on any material
trapped between them. These cutting knives or hooks are shown in the quad shaft configuration
in fig.3, the hooks must be designed such that they grab the incoming WEEE and pull it
between the neighboring shafts to achieve the shear cutting forces. The definition of LSHT
shredders generally assumes a speed of between 10 and 50 rpm. The low shaft speed can have
some hindering effects on capacity and they are often available in lower capacities than HSLT.
The capacity of the shredder depends on the rotor speed and the volume available between
cutting knives. Although industrially available shear shredders have capacities topping out
around 70 tons per hour, they have many positive features that make up for this. In comparison
to the specific energy range for HSLT devices of 6-22 kWh/ton, the LSHT machines tend to
have lower power consumption, in the range of 3 -11 kWh/ton, depending on material
composition and feed rate. The lower speed rotors do not need to overcome as much frictional
resistance as the HSLT, lending to higher energy efficiency per ton processed. The lower
specific energy required in rotary shear devices allows for more compact and space efficient
designs. The high torque results in a more even particle distribution, because shear forces are
the major breakage mechanism and are less sensitive to material properties. A unique feature
of rotary shears is their ability to quickly stop shredding the incoming feed and reverse the
rotors to discharge a non-shreddable object in the feed. Many of LSHT machines use hydraulic
transmission to drive the shafts.

Figure 4: Characteristic between rotation speed and torque generation (United States of America Patent No. 249,926, 2009)

Safety issues such as explosions and ejected materials are of less concern when dealing with
low rpm machines. Explosions require a flammable mixture of fuel and oxidizer as well as a
source of ignition, both of which is less likely to occur in a low speed system. With the absence
of impact forces, it is difficult for the machine to produce a spark necessary for combustion.
18

The low speed also means that when a flammable vapor is encountered it is not vigorously
mixed with surrounding air making it more difficult to reach the lower explosive limit. The
ejection of materials is also less common in these devices because there are no fast moving
parts that can project dangerous objects out of the hopper
1.2 Maintenance
A potential problem with the LSHT shredders is their ability to grab or bite the incoming
WEEE stream. Some materials may tend to bridge between the two rotating shafts avoiding
being pulled down into the cutting surface. However, this problem can be avoided by the
addition of a pushing ram or sufficient head of material above the rotors. These shredders can
also face difficulties in processing some of the more tough metals that can be found in WEEE
1.3 Effect on energy consumption

Energy Consumption

The rotor speed of LSHT shredders tends to have an effect on the power consumption and
capacity of the device. As the rotor speed is decreased, the specific energy required to process
a ton of waste is increased, which is the opposite trend that is encountered with HSLT
shredding where energy is wasted in idle rotor spinning. Figure 5 shows this trend where
specific energy is inversely proportional to the rotor speed. Another interesting aspect of LSHT
shredders is that the ratio of the shredders bulk volume to its capacity tends to decrease with
increased rotor speed, in other words higher rotor speeds can achieve a higher energy density
and therefore process more material in a smaller space. In general the low speed high torque
shredders can be designed to be more compact than HSLT of equivalent capacities. The figure
below demonstrates how the energy density of the LSHT shredders increases as the rotor speed
is increased

RPM
Figure 5: Motor rotation and energy consumption of LSHT shredder (United States of America Patent No. 249,926, 2009)

1.4 Process Description

The material to be shredded is drawn into the main cutters 1 and is both pre-shredded and reshredded in a single pass. Material that does not pass through the screen 2 at once is transferred
upwards by the secondary cutters teeth 3 for re-shredding. The final granule size is defined by
the screen diameter
19

Figure 6: Four shaft Shredder with cutters and screen (Ville, 2010)

Cutters: cutters can be supplied in various widths and hook configurations. The size of cutters is
decided by the throughput and material size requirements, machines size and the material to be
shredded. Cutters are manufactured from a high strength alloy steel that is hardened to 60 HRC.
Cutting Chamber Lengths: Standard cutting chamber lengths are noted as follows, however cutting
chambers can be customized. This can be advantageous when integrating the shredder to existing
plant or if greater throughput is required.
Structure: The heavy duty frame and structure of four shaft shredders are made of high thickness
sheets and tubular. This gives big resistance against the most demanding jobs.
Hoppers: Shredders can be supplied with a range of hoppers to suit different feed requirements
and materials. The size is customized according to requirements.
Control: Shredders must be supplied with a PLC control as standard. And the emergency control
function for stopping the plant in the case of accident.

1.5 Advantages
Slow running cutting system:

High resistance against non-shreddable items and long service life of the machine
Low dust generation and vibrations
Risk of fire nearly excluded
20

Low wear Cutting system:

Very high life-expectancy, up to 11,000 operating hours*

Low maintenance requirement
High availability

Simple and Compact Design:

Easy integration into a plant

Low maintenance costs
Little space requirements

No Hydraulics Required:

High resistance against failures

Highly reduced maintenance expenditures
Reduced energy consumption.

1.6 Calculation of waste

Composition
Total Weight
Plastics
Ferrous
Metals
Metals
Glass

Personal
(tons)
14406
3313.38
2881.2

Computers Tablets
(tons)
25
3.75
2.5

7491.12
3745.56

5.25
0.75

Mobiles
(tons)
1347
673.5
40.41

Laptops
(tons)
1538
307.6
33.836

ton/yr

417.57
202.05

685.948
292.22

Table 3 Average amount of waste generated per day and its composition

1.6.1 Calculations
N

1000

1000

21

17316
4298.23
2957.946

ton/day
(24hr Op.)
47.4411
11.77597
8.103962

ton/day
(8hr Op.)
142.3233
35.32792
24.31188

8599.888
4240.58

23.56134
11.61803

70.68401
34.85408

601000

0.75

N: Revolution per minute

Q: shred removal amount (cm3/min)

P: Power Requirement (kW)

H: Horse Power (kW)

vc: cutting speed (m/min)

ap: Depth of Cut (mm)

ae: width of cut (mm)

vf: feed rate (mm/minute)

: Efficiency

kc: Specific cutting resistance (N/m2)

Requirement: In one minute, 0.00664 m3 of waste should be processed

Avg. density of e-waste: 4957.36 kg/m3
Dimension of machine:
Inflow (feed rate): 1.5 ton/hour
Feed volume: 0.3025 m3/ hour
Volume of one laptop: 13*11*1.75 inch3= 0.3302*0.2794*0.04445 m3 =0.0031 m3
Around 100 laptops per hour is the feed rate in shredder, thus 2 laptops per minute (26*22)
Height of a desktop 43 cm
Dimension of motor: 13.125"*11.68"*6.325"
Stainless steel: vc = 43.88m/min
kc=3000N/mm2
Efficiency: 0.6
ae=ap=50mm
output feed rate with 95% efficiency=1.425 ton/hr

1.7 Results

22

Figure 7 Front and side of four shaft shredder (Ville, 2010)

HP
Voltage
Cutter thickness
Cutter diameter
Shaft diameter
Cutting chamber (WxL)

40kW
120/240 standard
2" (50 mm) standard
11" (279.4 mm)-standard
4" (152 mm)
26" x 22" (660 mm x 559 mm)

Machine length (C)

Machine width (D)
In feed height (E)

50" (1270 mm)

54" (1371.6 mm)
133" (3,370 mm)-standard stand, head and hopper

Machine weight
Hopper opening (FxG)

29,500 lbs. (13,400 kg)

48" x 26" (1219.2 mm x 660 mm)

Hopper height (H)

45" (1,150 mm) standard

Discharge height (I)

48" (1,220 mm) standard

Rotation speed

50(rpm)

Table1.4: Design specifications of four shaft shredder

1.8 Economics:
23

Capital Cost:
Cost of shredder: $45,000= Rs.27, 00,000
Cost of a motor to operate machine of 30 kW: Rs.80000
4 motors cost: 4*80000=Rs.3, 20,000
Total cost: Rs.30, 20, 000
Operating Cost:
Electricity: 1kwh = Rs.8
Total electricity cost = 30*24*365*4*8 = Rs.84, 09, 600

2. Hammer Mill
24

After shredding of electronic waste inside a shredder feed is entered to the hammer mill for
further size reduction. Input feed stream have maximum particle size of 30mm which after
milling operation reduces to 1.2mm.
2.1 Description of equipment:
Hammer mill is used to get course and fine particle size. It can have reduction ratio of
upto100:1. Hammer mill consists of a rotating shaft to which a rotor plates are attached. On
these rotor plates fixed or pivoted hammers are attached. This device rotates inside a cylinder.
The particles are fed into the cylinder either by gravity or by gas stream. The particles are
broken by sets of swing hammers pinned to a rotor disk. In the gravity-fed version the particles
leave the chamber when they are small enough to pass through a screen at the bottom. Several
rotor disk, 150-450mm (6 to 18 in) in diameter and each carrying four to eight swing hammers,
are often mounted on the same shaft. The hammers may be straight bars of metal with then due
to impact between hammer and particles leads to breakage of particles. These shattered
fragments are swept down into the final crushing zone for further reduction at the pinch points
between the hammers and screen bars. Oversize material remains in the machine until it is
reduced sufficiently to fit through the screen openings. Heavy-duty hammer crushers are
frequently used in the quarrying industry, for processing municipal solid waste, and scrap
automobiles (McCabe, Smith, & Harriott, 2005).

Figure 8: Typical hammer mill (Rhodes, Introduction to

particle tecnology, 2008)

25

2.2 Design parameter of hammer mill:

Design of typical hammer mill will depend on the following factors:
Feed rate control
Feed size
Setting of the optimum number of hammers
Weight of hammer
Rotor speed
Input material properties like density, strength, etc.
The efficiency of the grinding operation will depend on a number of variables including, but not
limited to, screen area/horsepower ration, screen (hole) size and open area, tip speed, hammer
pattern (number of hammers), hammer position (coarse or fine), uniform feed distribution, and air
assist. In addition, the nature and quality of the material(s) being processed will affect the
performance of the hammer mill.

2.2.1 Performance model:

Figure 9: Scheme of breaking process in mill

According To size distribution model given by whiten (1972) the particles are represented in a
discrete form of vectors (f) and (p) where
f = feed vector
P = product vector
C = Classification operator, computes the probability of breakage of each particle size.

26

B = breakage operator (Governs the redistribution of broken particles in the preliminary defined
size classes.)
The particles entering into crushers are selected for the breakage through the classification function
operator C.
But according to the distribution model by it was assumed that the particles entered crushers for a
single breakage process i.e. there is no feedback between the classification and the breakage
function. This was not favorable as a single breaking process would not yield the desired result.
Hence then according to it was found that breakage process can be divided into sequence of two
processes. (a) Breakage due to impact with hammers of the rotor (b) fragmentation due to particleparticle collisions.

The product size distribution P that we get from the process is then expressed as.
P = (I C)(I B. C)-1f
Where, I = identity matrix
Classification function ( Austin, 2004):
We have:

( ) = 1 exp[ (
) ]

Where,
Ci (di) = probability of breakage for a particle of size di (mm)
dmin= min. size of particles that undergo breakage for the given operating conditions.
k = controls the shape of the classification function.
So we can see that as the feed rate increases the no of particle-particle collision increases which
dissipated a lot of energy and this loss of energy leads to coarser product and greater value of dmin
For a hammer mill the dmin decreases with increase in impact energy. Hence dmin is written as:
= (/) (/)
Where, Qo = reference feed rate
Eo= reference impact energy per unit mass
n= material parameter
s= intensity of particle particle interaction
=specific particle size depending on the crusher design and granulate properties.
27

Breakage function:
The breakage distribution to bij represents the fraction of the debris created from breakage of
identical parent particles of size dj and passing through a screen with mesh size di. ( Austin, 2004)
Bij (di, dj) = (di/dj) m + (1- ) (di/dj)l
Where,
= mass fraction of fine product
m, l = material co-efficient

2.3 Design Analysis:

Shape of Grinding Chamber:
A tear-shaped grinding chamber can be used to prevent material from merely
circulating within the grinding chamber. Circular chamber lead to material travelling
around with the hammer and increasing product heating and reducing capacity.

Top feeder:
A feeder should be such that it can insure the entire screen area can be utilized and that
the work being accomplished will be evenly distributed across the full hammer pattern.
A rectangular full width feeder can be used for this purpose.

Hammers:
Hammer design plays a significant role in mill efficiency, because in most types of
mills, the hammers do most of the work. Hammers can be made using different sections
like, I section, T section, S section, cylindrical bars, rectangular bars etc. The shape of
the hammers decides the impacting capacity as well as the strength of the crusher.
Hammers are mounted of the rotor plates or rotor drum using lock pin mechanism.
(GUPTA, 2011)

, =

Where =

2
8

(Nasir, 2005)

, is the bending moment

I = moment of inertia
Ymax= distance from axis to tip
l = length of hammer
w = width of hammer

Screens:

28

The screen must be designed to maintain its integrity and provide the greatest amount of
open area. Selection of screen is done on the basis of required product size. A screen having
6mm dia. circular hole with square pitch of 7.5 mm is chosen.
% Open area = 2 78.5/2
Where,
D = diameter of hole
P = pitch of square packing
From using above formula we get 50.24% screen open area.
Two rules of thumb apply to hammer mill screens in relation to applied horsepower:
(Heimann, 2008)
Never have less than 14 in /HP (120 cm/kW) of screen area more is always better
Never have less than 4 in/HP (35 cm/kW) of open area

Motor power:
When we have maximum holdup in the mill then we will required maximum power. So
maximum power of motor can be calculated from maximum holdup capacity. For power
calculation following relationship is used (Endoh, 1992):

Pmax = 700 Hu.max

Where,
Pmax = motor electric power output matching the feed rate at maximum crushing
capacity [kW]
Hu.max = maximum hold-up in the mill
Hu.max = 39.5 103 0.5
Where,
= bulk density of feed [ton/m3]
= number of hammers
= distance from the top of the hammer to the center of the rotational axis of the mill[m]
l = width of hammer in the rotational direction [m]
Sr = opening area ratio of screen [%]

29

 Casing:
The crusher case can be made up of welded steel construction and built in three or more
sections. The lower half is made up of one piece and upper half is made up of two sections.
The feed intake section is in the upper half and is bolted to the lower half resulting in a
lasting dust type connection between the feed and crusher intake. The rest of the top section
is hinged for access to interior of the crusher for changing hammers, hammer pins and
screens. All the mating surfaces are built-up for an accurate, dust tight fit. Single latch door
is provided for easy maintenance and cleaning and a Gasket door is provided for dust tight
operation. The casing of the crusher does not experiences and larger forces but still they
should be able to bear abrasive forces acting on it. The impact bars are attached to the
casing through a mechanism which may help in changing the angle of impact on the bar,
by moving or tilting the bar. (GUPTA, 2011)

1.
2.

3.
4.

Evacuation option:
After size reduction of feed and passing through the screen material can be discharge by
pneumatically. In pneumatic discharge a fan is used to pull the feed material in grinding
chamber of the mill and after size reduction is pulls the finished product through the suction
pipe, into the fan itself, and then blows the material out of the discharge pipe to next stage
process of cyclone. (Heimann, 2008)
There are three key benefits:
A properly designed pneumatic discharge system can increase production 300-400% over
gravity discharge mills when grinding to a fine particle size.
Without air, dusty material will take the path of least resistance, typically out the feed
chute. In a pneumatic system, dust is controlled and contained because all material is pulled
in a common direction.
The fan also aids in material transport to storage or next stage processing
The ability of the fan to pull the material through the screen allows for processing of
materials with slightly higher moisture content than can be effectively processed via
gravity discharge

Figure 10 : Hammer mill with pneumatic discharge (ILO, 1994)

30

2.3.1 Final design data

Density of feed stream =
Feed Flow rate =
Feed size =
product size =
Reduction ratio =
Final design parameters
Motor power
Rotation speed
Hammer thickness
length
width
Material of hammer
density of hammer
weight of hammer
No. of hammers
Max. yield stress of hammer
Rotor shaft material
Rotor shaft density
Shaft dia.
Feed opening
Screen hole size
holes arrangement
Pitch of packing
% Screen Open area
Screen Area
Fan power
Fan Wheel, Number of
Blades
Fan efficiency
Duct dimensions

4957.36 Kg/m3
1425 Kg/hr
30mm
1.2 mm
25:1
Value
88 Hp
3000 RPM
10 mm
200.4 mm
50 mm
steel
7800 kg/m3
0.78 kg
24
350Mpa
iron
8000kg/m3
300 mm
500x254x254 mm
1.5 mm
Square packing
2 mm
44.15 %
0.78 m2
56 Hp
6
85%
0.2275x 0.52
m

Table 5:Hammer mill specification

31

2.4 Economic analysis:

Capital Cost = Rs. 30, 00, 000
Hammer mill have low maintenance cost. Its avg. maintenance is around 0.4$ per ton/year. So in
our case:
Feed = 1.4 ton/hr.
Total working hour in a year = 365x24 = 8760hrs/year
Total weight = 1.4x8760 = 12264 ton/year
Total maintenance cost = 0.4x38544 490 $
306500 Rs.
Apart from maintenance cost it has energy cost which are quite high. We have a rotor motor and a
motor fan both will add up to calculate energy cost. If we know the power of the motor then we
can calculate electricity cost required to run that motor as follow:
Electricity cost = HP x .746 x hours x Kw cost / motor efficiency
We have 24hrs running plant for a year, so total running hrs = 365x24 = 8760 hrs/year
Unit Electricity cost = 8Rs/Kw.hr
For rotor motor:
P = 88 Hp
Electricity cost = 88x0.746x8760x8/0.9 = 51, 11,790 Rs/yr
For fan:
P = 65Hp
Electricity cost = 56x0.746x8760x8= Rs.29, 27, 662 per year

32

3. CYCLONE SEPARATOR
After particles are shredded inside a hammer mill peak size dimension being of the order of 2-5
mm are laden with particulate matter of size way lower than 0.1 mm are sent into a cyclone
separator for removal of dust particles/ particulate matter for health concerns.
"Dust: Small, dry, solid particles projected into the air by natural forces, such
as wind, volcanic eruption, and by mechanical or man-made processes such as
crushing, grinding, milling, drilling, demolition, shovelling, conveying,
screening, bagging, and sweeping. Dust particles are usually in the size range
from about 1 to 100 m in diameter (WHO)
3.1 Description of the Equipment
Equipment used for removal of particulate matter is a reverse type cyclone separator in which gas
laden with solid particles is brought in tangentially into the cylinder section creating strong
vortex inside the separator (Re>105 (Derksen & Sundaresan, 2006)). This separator exploits
centrifugal forces to bring about the separation. The following diagram (Rhodes, Introduction to
Particle Technology, 2008). The presence of solid particles causes the cyclone to lose some swirl
intensity. Furthermore, the turbulence of the gas flow gets strongly damped. These two effects
have significant consequences for the way the particles of different sizes get dispersed in the gas
flow. It is anticipated that the collection efficiency gets affected in opposite senses: negatively by
the loss-of-swirl, positively by the reduced turbulence (Derksen & Sundaresan, 2006).

Figure 11: Reverse type Cyclone Separator (Rhodes, Introduction to Particle Technology, 2008)

33

The above figure is a typical cyclone separator to be used wherein particle laden gas is coming in
from hammer mill, gas from the top- full with particulate matter and solids (metals and non-metals)
released from the bottom is sent on to a magnetic separator for further processing.
3.2 Pressure Drop & Characteristic Velocity
Rotational movement inside the cyclone gives rise to a radial pressure gradient which when
combined with frictional losses inside gives us the total pressure drop which is observed to be
proportional to square of flow velocity. This is represented by Euler number Eu, relating cyclone
pressure drop to characteristic velocity v given by (Rhodes, Introduction to Particle Technology,
2008)
= /( 2 /2)
= 4/(2 )
Where is gas density, D is the cyclone diameter.
3.2.1 Forces
On entering the cyclone particles inside the gas stream are forced into circular motion. Net flow
being radially inwards towards the central gas outlet. The forces acting on a particle following a
circular path are namely
1. Drag
2. Buoyancy
3. Centrifugal force.
The balance between these forces determines the equilibrium orbit adopted by the particle. The
drag force is caused by the inward flow of gas past the particle and acts radially inwards.

34

Figure 12: Forces acting on particles inside a Cyclone Separator (Rhodes, Introduction to Particle Technology, 2008)

On assuming stokes regime/ stokes law is applicable, drag force is given by

= 3
The centrifugal and buoyant forces act on the particles moving with a tangential velocity
component U at radius r. The following depict these forces =

3 2

3 2

This three forces act on the particles as shown in Figure 2. The particles move in or out till it attains
an equilibrium and keeps travelling inside an equilibrium orbit.
= +
If the radius of that orbit is smaller than the smallest diameter of the cone, the particle would escape
from the top of the cyclone.
On solving the above equation and using the equation for confined or free vortex we can get an
equation relating equilibrium orbit with size of the particle. But there is no need to delve into the

35

nitty-gritty of these equations, all we need to ensure is that the size cut diameter of cyclone
separator is larger than about 0.01 mm (say approximately 0.03 mm just to be safe).
3.2.2 Cut/Critical Diameter (Definition)
Cut diameter is defined as that particle size for which there is an equal probability to exit the
cyclone both from the top and bottom i.e. particles having size way above xcrit exit completely
from the bottom of the cyclone and those smaller than xcrit from the bottom.

Figure 13: Grade efficiency curve for a Cyclone Separator (Rhodes, Introduction to Particle Technology, 2008)

Since the size of particles which are harmful to humans on breathing are sub 10 micro meter in
size (Agency, 2015).
3.2.3 Stokes Number
This is the number which is used for scaling up of a cyclone. It characterizes the separation
performance of a family of geometrically similar cyclones. The physical significance of the Stokes
number is that it is a ratio of the centrifugal force (less buoyancy) to the drag force, both acting on
a particle of size x50
50

2
50

=
18

The greater the value of Stokes number is above unity, the greater is the tendency for particles to
impact with the airway walls and so be captured. For large industrial cyclones the Stokes number,
like the Euler number defined previously, is independent of Reynolds number. For suspensions of
36

concentration less than about 5 g/m3, the Stokes and Euler numbers are usually constant for a given
cyclone geometry (i.e. a set of geometric proportions relative to cyclone diameter D).

3.3 Design of Cyclone Separator

Point worth bearing in mind before designing
Cyclone works relatively more efficiently at high gas flow rates.
Equipment requires large flow rates/velocity to create a swirling movement inside the
column but still very high flow rate leads to reduction in efficiency as shown.

Figure 14: Reduction of efficiency of Cyclone Separator with very high flow rate. (Rhodes, Introduction to Particle Technology,
2008)

Cyclone, as such, does not have moving parts but may require a blower upstream to impart
KE to the gas laden with particles.
If the centrifugal force on the particle is higher than drag force acting inwards then
eventually the particles would spiral out strike the wall and settle down or move inwards
and get carried upwards out of the cyclone. At a radius r, where these two forces are equal,
particle will rotate in equilibrium and move downward till they hit the slant walls and are
collected. Gas on the other hand has a very high upward flow rate at the centre, typically
in the core-diameter of

. Any particle in the zone will be carried upward as shown

37

Figure 15: Upward vortex inside the Cyclone (within do/2 diaeter) (FISHER-KLOSTERMAN, 2015)

Cyclone separator though being an effective separator requires a high flow rate and
pressure drop.

3.3.1 Standard Cyclone Dimensions

Typically all dimensions of a cyclone separator are given with respect to Do (diameter of the
cyclone). Following are a certain correlations between different geometrical parameters of a
cyclone separator.

Body Diameter
D/D
Height of Inlet
H/D
Width of Inlet
W/D
Diameter of Gas
Exit
De/D
Length of vortex
Finder
S/D
Length of Body
Lb/D
Length of Cone
Lc/D

Cyclone Type
High
Efficiency
(1)
(2)
1
1

Conventional
(3)
1

(4)
1

High
Throughput
(5)
(6)
1
1

0.5

0.44

0.5

0.5

0.75

0.8

0.2

0.21

0.25

0.25

0.375

0.35

0.5

0.4

0.5

0.5

0.75

0.75

0.5

0.5

0.625

0.6

0.875

0.85

1.5

1.4

1.75

1.5

0.17

2.5

2.5

2.5

38

Diameter of Dust 0.375

Outlet
Dd/D

0.4

0.25

0.4

0.375

0.4

Table 6: Geometry of a Cyclone Separator (Derksen & Sundaresan, 2006)

We would be using conventional dimensions for designing our cyclone separator.

3.4 Cyclone Theory
There is a very simple model of cyclone separator used to determine both collection efficiency and
design. The theory suggests that gas or gas molecules spin through N revolutions in the outer
vortex the value of which is given as follows
=

( + )

Where
N = Number of turns.
H = Height of inlet duct as shown in the above diagram
Lb= Length of cyclone body.
Lc= Length (vertical) of cyclone cone.
Now, in order to collect solid particles have to strike the wall of the equipment any time in its
journey to the bottom of it after which, if it doesnt strike the wall, it would be taken up with air.
The residence time of a gas particle in the outer vortex is
=

= /

Where Vi is the gas inlet velocity. Now, the maximum distance that a particle inside gas might
have to travel is W. Therefore the terminal velocity attained by a particle by the virtue of
centrifugal and drag forces should be as follows in order to separate the particle in time =

Vt being the particle drift velocity, radially outwards. Assuming stokes law and circular particle
we get Vt as
=

2 2
( )

Clubbing the above three equations (eliminating Vt and t) we get

39

1
2
9
= [
]
( )

It is worth noting that in this expression, dp is the size of the smallest particle that will be collected
if it starts at the inside edge of the inlet duct. Thus, in theory, all particles of size dp or larger should
be collected with 100% efficiency.
It was in 1951 that Lapple developed an empirical equation to calculate a 50% cut diameter and
the following equation was what he came up with
1

2
9
=[
]
2 ( )

One can note the similarity between the above 2 equations, there is an additional factor of 2 in dpc
in the denominator.
3.4.1 Calculations for Given Parameters
From Estimation of amount of e-waste generated in Delhi we found out the followingTotal weight of e-waste generated: 17316 ton/yr
Total waste to be recycled with 24 hours of running time: ~409 g/sec (~ 1.35 ton/hr)
Composition (All units in tons)
Approximate density of particles undergoing physical process (Metals and non-metals) = 4.95
g/cc
Cut diameter desired = 0.01 mm
Volumetric Flow Rate with 5g/m3 loading = 20.34 m3/s
High through put or Stairmand High Rate cyclone is used.
The following correlations were used:All dimensions with respect to Diameter (D) of cyclone.
D

Do

Dd

Lb

Lc

0.8

0.35

0.85

0.75

0.4

1.7

2.0

Table 7: Relation between different geometrical dimensions of a Cyclone Separator used.

Correlation between different geometrical parameters is the same given in Figure 16

40

Using the equations on the previous page and optimizing/ iterating the value of diameter (D) of
cyclone we get the following results (for cut diameter of approximately 0.03mm).
Final Geometrical Sizes
D
Do (Upper Exit Dia)
S
Lb
Lc
H
W
Dd (Down Exit Dia.)
N (Number of Turns)
Residence time
Total Length of Cyclone:
Cut Diameter

Value
0.65m
0.4875m
0.5525m
1.105m
1.3m
0.52m
0.2275m
0.26m
3.375m
0.19 sec
2.405m
0.03013 mm

Table 8: Depicting sizing of Cyclone Separator done for the given parameters

Conditions satisfied

Re > 105
Mass loading: 5g/m3
Pressure drop, using Euler Number = 46 is 1721 pa (Not much deviation from optimum
1177 Pa (Rhodes, Introduction to Particle Technology, 2008))
o Calculation for p = Eu*(2)/2 (Where Eu is the cumulative value for frictional
losses arising within the cyclone namely due to gas expansion, wall friction,
swirling motion of gas and gas flow through outlet. (Zhao, 2004))

3.5 Economic Consideration

Cyclones are very inexpensive equipments, having very low capital cost and operational cost by
the virtue of no movable part inside, the only significant operating expense is the cost of electricity
to overcome the pressure drop through the device.
Equipment cost of a cyclone separator as calculated by Vatavuk (1990) is as follows
EC = 57,800[WH] 0.903
Valid when 0.020 < WH, m2<0.4
This is according to the 1990. On calculating we get EC to be 16821.44 $ which when adjusted
according to US inflation since 1990 gives 30,388.00 $ i.e. 19.44 lakhs (without tax). This cost
includes a carbon steel cyclone, support stand, a fan and motor, and a hopper for collecting
captured dust. On including about 8% of freight and taxes the cost amounts to 10.44 lakhs.
Power to operate fan = flow rate (m3/s)* P/ = 1.724*20.34/.85 = 41.18 kW.
41

Assuming 7 Rs/kWh we get the operating cost = ~ 25 lakh.

Assuming useful life of the cyclone to be 10yrs and salvage cost to be 3 lakh, the annual
depreciation comes out to be= ~1.8 lakh.
END: From cyclone separator ~ 1.35 ton/hr of solids goes on to magnetic separator and gas from
the top goes into the dust collector (~ 20 m3/s).

4. Dust Collector
The gas which exits the cyclone from the top laden with particulate matter is sent to a bag type
dust collector for settling of dust particles or particulate matter of size below 0.01 mm which may
be harmful to breath.
This dust collector system is equipped with a pulse jet used to fracture the cake layer formed
around the filters.
4.1 Equipment & Working
The equipment include of bag filters in which the filter medium is in the form of a woven or felted
textile fabric which may be arranged as a tube or supported on a suitable framework. It consists of
a vertically supported bags supported by a wire cage (as shown).

Figure 17: Typical filter bag. (ENGINEERS, 2015)

42

Figure 18: Basic structure of Bag type Dust Separator (FISHER-KLOSTERMAN, 2015)

Dust laden gas enters the separator from the system through the inlet and is filtered out using the
filter bags, depositing dust or layer of dust which further increases the resistance of the filters
on the outside.

43

Figure 19: Collection of dust on the walls of filter bags (Systems), 2015)

Figure 20: : Pulse injection system automatically switched on for removing dust layer. (Systems), 2015)

For cleaning dust is removed by sending a blast of air through the venturies installed at the top of
the bags. The blast of air though momentary (0.1-0.2 seconds) sends a shock wave through the
column which flexes the bags leading to fracture of the layer of cake and subsequent deposition of
dust into the hopper located at the bottom. This increase in pressure about 85 to 100 psi
momentarily stops the normal flow of air through the filter.

Figure 21: Shock wave flexing and fracturing filter bags (Systems), 2015)

44

A typical filter is capable of separating particles of size down to 1um (Richardson, 1955) by use
of glass fibre paper or pads. In course of operation filtration efficiency is initially low until a loose
floc builds up on the fabric surface and it is this which provides the effective filter for the removal
of particles.
The cloth requires cleaning from time to time to avoid excessive build-up of solids giving rise to
high pressure differential, it is by gauging this pressure difference can we install a pressure control
system which switches on the pulse injection system as shown in figure 8. The velocity at which
the gases pass through the filter must be kept low, typically 0.005 to 0.03 m/s (Richardson, 1955),
in order to avoid compaction of the floc and consequently high pressure drops, or to avoid local
breakdown of the filter bed which would allow large particles to pass the filter.
The following are some of the materials used for manufacturing of filter bags:

Polyester
Polypropylene
Acrylic
Ryton
PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethane)
Glass Fibre.

The material used for bags would be woven (in woven fabrics dust particles collect on the outer
surface of the bags) polypropylene fabric (since this works best in sub 90C temperature range).
4.2 Design of Pulse Injector Bag Type Dust Separator
Air to Cloth Ratio: is defined as air volume to be handled by the separator per minute divided by
the available filtration area. It define the design capacity of a bag house.
=

A rule of thumb: Air to cloth ratio needs to be 7:1 (Stefan, 2015) for the kind of application it has
in our industry.
Can flow Velocity is determined by dividing the volume of dust-laden air entering the bag house
divide by net flow area as shown: -

45

Rule of Thumb: (Stefan, 2015)

Although Can Velocity varies with application, but a canvelocity at 300 fpm or below is generally acceptable. (Stefan,
2015)
In our case air flow rate ~ 20 m3/s
To have a can velocity of <= 300 fpm = 1.524 m/s
We need net area to be ~ 13.12 m2
Minimum Design Duct Velocity= 3000-4000 fpm for light
dust (Stefan, 2015) = 15.24-20.32 m/s

Figure 4.6:

Duct Area= 1.31 m2 - 0.984 m2

Design Parameters: CAN Velocity

1.4

A/C ratio
Flow Rate
Net Area
Duct vel
Duct Area
OD (Bag)
Length
Linear Dim
Number of Bags
A/C Ratio calculated=
Area of Cloth
Pressure of Compressed Air

7
20 m3/s
14.286 m2
3000-4000 fpm
0.98 m2
0.3 m
3m
5.33 m
200
6.96 m
565.2 ft2
88 psi

Thickness of Outlet Air

50 mg/m3

Can Velocity< 1.54 m/s (300

fpm)
Required
Given
Calculated
Required
Calculated
Iterated to Standard Size
Iterated to Standard Size
Iterated to Standard Size
Iterated to Standard Size
Final ratio
Calculated
Optimum (85-110) (Rhodes,
Introduction to Particle
Technology, 2008)

Table 9: Design Parameters of Dust Separator

4.3 Economic Consideration

Average cost per filter and cage = 3000
Initial Cost Including filters, cages, compressed air stand and fan = Rs 24,00,000
Operating Cost:
Primarily includes replacement cost of the filters which on an average is done every 2 years

Cost incurred to replace = 200*3000 = Rs 6,00,000

46

Cost of labor for replacement = (200/4)*cost of labor per hour ~ 5000 Rs

Per year operating cost = Rs 3,02,500

Annual Depreciation of dust collector = (18,00,000 salvage value )/10 ~ 1,80,000 Rs (Assuming salvage
value of ~ 0).

5. Magnetic separator
Magnetic separator exploits the magnetic nature of ferrous metals using magnetic field to separate
them out leaving behind feed composed of non-metals and nonferrous metals. Material carried on
the conveyor passes the magnetic pulley which holds the magnetic particles until the leave the
region of magnetic field while the non-magnetic material is discharge over the pulley as shown in
the following figure.

Figure 22: Magnetic separator

The separated left over fraction of metals and non-metals is further sent to corona separator for
separation of the pulverized PCB board into metal and non-metal fraction.
Alloys having very low iron contents can be separated using strong neodymium magnets and by
maintaining small distance between magnet and the particle. During mechanical separation in
plants for e-waste management, several magnetic separators are usually installed after the crushing
systems.
The design calculations and considerations are done for magnetic separator system using 1 roll
idlers, in terms of size, length, capacity and speed of conveyor belt, roller diameter, power and
tension in belt, idler spacing, type of drive unit, diameter, location and arrangement of pulley,
control mode, product to be handled as well as its maximum loading capacity in order ensure fast,
continuous and efficient separation of ferrous metals from non ferrous metal.

47

Conveyor belt is used for material handling. It includes loading, moving and unloading of materials
from one stage of manufacturing process to another. A belt conveyor consists of two end pulleys
(driver and driven) at fixed positions, rollers are used to support pulleys.
We are using one roll idlers for adequate support of materials transported. Pulleys are used for
providing the drive to the belt using electric motor. It also helps in maintaining the proper tension
to the belt. The drive imparts power to pulleys to move the belt and its loads. A friction is generated
between the roller surface and the moving belt set in motion by a drive pulley. The other pulley
acts as a driven pulley which the material rotates and returns in a continuous process.
5.1 Design calculations for conveyor belt:The diameter of pulleys is determined by the type and dimension of conveyor belting. The diameter
of the pulley must be designed such that it does not place undue stress on the belt. Belt length
depends on both the pulley diameters and centre distances between pulleys. Conveyor system is a
mechanical system which is used to transport materials in manufacturing industries.
Capacity of a conveyor belt is the product of speed and belt cross sectional area
Generally, belt capacity (kg/sec) is given as:
B.C. = 3.6 A V
Where:
A= belt sectional area (m2 );
= material density (kg/m3); and
V= belt speed (m/s)
For conveyor belts, the forming of the belt into a trough provides the benefit of increase in the
belts carrying capacity

Figure 23: Flat trough

Vrcan, ., & Lovrin, N. (2010). Genetic algorithm based optimisation of conveyor belt material
cross section area. Tehniki vjesnik, 17(2), 137-143.
A = b2tan/4
Where:
= angle of repose =200
b = 0.9 B - 0.05

for B <2m
48

B= Belt width
C = (CT V Cf)/1000
C=Capacity in ton/hr of a belt conveyor consisting of 2 equal idler;
CT=Capacity of troughed belts for one roll
The mass of material Mm (live load) per meter (kg/m) loaded on a belt conveyor is given as
Mm= C/(3.6V)
Where:
C= Conveyor capacity (16.51 ton/hr); and
V= belt speed (0.5 m/s).
Roller diameter:The rollers are used for free rotation of the belt conveyor in all direction. The correct choice of
roller diameter depends on the belt width. The relationship between the maximum belt speed, roller
diameter and the relative revolution per minute is given as:
Where:
V100060

n=
D
Where:

n= no of revolution per minute;

D= roller diameter (mm)
The belt width is designed as 400 mm, the belt speed is 0.5 m/s, the roller diameter is therefore
designed as 89 mm.
For elevated conveyor system:Height of conveyor H (m)= conveyor length sin
Where:
= inclination angle
Belt Power and Tensions:The longer the length of the belt, the more the power required for the conveyor.
The power PP (kW) at drive pulley drum is
FuV

Pp = 1000

Where:
FU: Total tangential force at the periphery of the drive pulley
V: Belt speed (0.5 m/s)
Power required for the conveyor to produce lift is calculated as:
49

P=

H3.75
1000

Where:
P= power required for conveyor (kW);
C= conveyor capacity
H= height of conveyor
The belt of the conveyor experiences tensile load due to the rotation of the electric drive, weight
of the conveyed materials and due to the idlers. Belt tension at steady state is given as:
TSS = 1.37 f L g [2 M i + (2 M b + M m )cos ] + HgMm
Tss=Belt tension at steady state (N);
f= Coefficient of friction (0.02)
L=Conveyor length (7.5 m);
g=Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/sec2);
Mi=Load due to the idlers (216 kg);
Mb=Load due to belt (450 kg);
Mm=Load due to conveyed materials (9.17kg/m);
H= height of conveyor
The tension in the belt while starting will be higher than the steady state. The belt tension while
starting is
Ts = Tss KS
Where:
Ts= Belt tension while starting (N);
Tss=Belt tension at the steady state (2.70KN); and
Ks=Start up factor (1.08)
Te = total empty friction + load friction + return side tension + load slope tension
Total empty friction =Fe (L + tf) W 9.81
Load friction =

Fe(L+tf)C9.81
3.6V

Return side tension = Fe L 0.4 W 9.81

Load slope tension =

H9.8
3.6V

The belt power (kW) is given as

Pb = Te V
Where:
Te= effective tension (7.28KN)
V= Belt speed (0.5m/sec)
50

Pulley Diameter:The diameter of the driver and driven pulley is determined by the type and dimension of conveyor
belting. The pulley diameter is obtained from standard value from the catalogue.
The selection of pulley depends on the wrap angle (1800), belt speed (0.5 m/sec), belt width (400
mm)
Pulley wraps length at terminals= 2d
Diameter of pulley (500 mm)
The effective pull FU (N) is given as:
FU = T g (Mm + Mb/2) + R g(Mb/2 + Mi)
Where:
T : Coefficient of friction with support rollers (0.033)
R : Coefficient of friction with skid plate (0.33)
g : Acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s2)
Mm: Total load of conveyed materials (9.17kg)
MB : Mass of belt (450 kg)
Mi: Mass of roll idlers (216 kg)
The acceleration of the conveyor belt is given as:
A =TS TSS
[L(2Mi +2Mb+Mm)]
Where:
Ts= Belt tension while starting (2.91 KN);
Tss=Belt tension at the steady state (2.70 KN);
L=Conveyor length (7.5 m);
Mi=Idlers load (216 kg/m);
Mb=Load due to belt (450 kg/m);
Mm=Load of conveyed materials (9.17kg/m);
Belt breaking strength:Bbs = (C r Pp)/( CvV)
Cr=Friction factor (15);
Cv=Breaking strength loss factor (0.75);
Pp=Power at drive pulley (0.75 kW); and
V= Belt speed (0.5 m/sec)
Motor:
The minimum motor power required for sizing of the motor is given as:
Pmin= Pp

51

Where:
Pmin=Minimum motor power (kW);
Pp=Power at drive pulley (0.75 kW); and
Assume : Efficiency of the reduction gear (0.9)

5.2 Results:The followings are designed values obtained for magnetic separator:
S.No.

Parameter

Units

Values

Belt width

mm

400

Length of Conveyor

7.5

Basic belt length

15

Belt speed

m/s

0.5

Surcharge angle

degree

25

Conveyor Capacity

Ton/hr

16.51

Equipment friction factor

0.0225

Terminal friction factor

60

Belt tension while starting

kN

2.91

10

Belt tension at steady state

kN

2.70

11

Load due to idlers

kg/m

216

12

Load due to belt

kg/m

450

13

Load due to materials conveyed

kg/m

9.17

14

Power at drive pulley

kW

0.75

15

Acceleration of conveyor belt

m/s2

2.15E-05

16

Minimum motor power

kW

0.84

17

Total tangential force

kN

1.50

18

Diameter of pulley

mm

500

19

Material density

kg/m3
4957.36
52

20

Friction factor

15

21

Breaking strength loss factor

0.75

22

Wrap angle

degree

180

23

Belt thickness

mm

24

Breaking strength

30.03

Table 10 : Design Values for Belt Conveyor System:

Figure 24: Belt Conveyor System with design values

5.3 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS:The costs incurred in a conveyor system may be divided into two categories
I.
II.

Capital costs
Operating costs

Belt price = 28.5 $ / Meter

Total length of belt = belt basic length + Pulley wraps length at terminals = 18.14m
Life time = 1.2 year
Belt cost = (1928.5)/1.2 = 451.25 $/year
Minimum power required for sizing the motor = 0.84 KW
The next standard motor greater than Pmin will be sufficient.
A standard motor of 1.0 kW is chosen
Motor price = 450 $/ unit
Life time = 3.5 years
Annual cost of motor = 128.57 $/ year
Each unit of power for industrial use will cost Rs.7.69
Conveyor belt roller price = 99.98 $/ piece
53

Life time = more than 2.5 years

2 rollers are used so total annual cost of rollers = (2 99.98)/2.5 $/ year = 80 $/ year
Cost of magnetic head pulley = 10,000 US $
Life time = 8years
Annual cost of magnetic pulley = 1250 $/ year
Power required = 2.2 KW
Cost of drive pulley = 1500 $
Life time = 3.5 years
Annual cost of drive pulley = 430 $/ year

Operating cost of motor =Power of the motor cost of a unit 24 365/

= 17.69243650.016/0.9 = 1197.58 $/year
Operating cost of magnetic pulley = 2.27.69243650.016/0.9 = 2634.69 $/year
Total annual cost of a magnetic separator = 63563 $/ year

CORONA ELECTROSTATIC SEPARATOR

6.1 INTRODUCTION

54

Figure 25: Structural representation of roll-type corona electrostatic separator (Jia Li, 2007)

The above figure throws light upon the structural arrangement and working of the corona
separation electrode, also known as a roll-type electrostatic separator (RTS). The mixture of
conductive and nonconductive material received after the coarse and fine grinding is fed on to the
rotating drum which is grounded. The electric field generated between the active electrodes and
the ground electrode causes the charging of the metallic and non-metallic particles. The insulating
particles charged as a result of this field get pinned to the rotating drum electrode by means of an
electric image force. The conducting particles on the other hand lose their charge to the ground
drum electrode and through a combination of centrifugal and electrostatic attractive forces, get
collected in the conductive products section as shown in the figure. The nonconductive particles
remain attached to the drum and are finally separated through the brush and get collected. The
figure also depicts a section of middling products which is a mixture of the conducting and nonconducting components.
The superiority of the RTS over other methods of separation can be effectively depicted through
the following table:
Process
Environmental
Power(kW)
Productivity(t/h)
Implications
Air
current Releasing dust
4
0.1-0.5
separation
Fluid bed separation Causing waste water 1.1
0.5-0.8
including
heavy
toxic metals
Corona electrostatic None
0.2
0.5-1.0
separation
Table 11: Comparison of three kinds of mechanical treatment methods of PCB(http://www.machinery.com.cn.)

6.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Jia Li, 2007)

The concept of corona separator as a means of separation in PCB wastes is a relatively new one.
For all the applications that I have come across in all researches employing the RTS, the basic
55

dimensions such as the radius of the rotating roll electrode, the angular orientations of the corona
and static electrodes, radius of static and corona electrodes etc. remain constant or nearly constant.
The experimental justification for the same is given by Jia Li, Hongzhou Lu, Shushu Liu and
Zhenming Xu in their detailed experimental research on optimization of the operating parameters
of corona electrostatic separator and reached to the same conclusions. The discussions of all
dimensions and their optimization is discussed below. After having defined the basic dimensions,
the critical rotating speed of the rotating ground electrode will be determined.
THE BASIC DIMENSIONS (Jia Li, 2007)
The

geometric

model

of

the

RTS

is

as

shown

below:

Figure 26: Geometric model of corona roll type separator (Jia Li, 2007)

The standard values of the dimensions are as follows:

U=20-30 kV
L=L1=L2=0.21 m
R1=0.114 m
R2=0.019 m
1=20
2=60

6.3 EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS (Jia Li, 2007)

Composite Electrodes: The graph below depicts the advantage of composite electrodes over a
single electrode:
56

Graph 1: Electric field strength distribution curves on the rotating roll of different electrodes
(Parameters of operation: U=20 kV, L=L1=L2=0.21 m, R2=0.019 m, 1=30, 2=60)
Since the electric field strength of the composite electrode (combination of static and corona
electrode) is much larger as compared to a single electrode, therefore, a combination of electrodes
is the preferable choice.
Shape of static electrode: A comparison of circular and elliptical cross-section shapes of static
electrode as shown below:

Graph 2 Electric-field strength distributions on the rotating roll of ellipse electrode and circle
electrode. The parameters of operation were: U=20kV, L = L1 = L2 = 0.21 m, R2 = 0.019 m,
1=30, 2=60.
The distribution of electric field strength remains almost the same in both cases so either shape is
acceptable.
Applied voltages: The applied voltages used in experiment were 20, 25, 30, 35kV separately:

57

Graph 3: Electric-field strength distributions on the rotating roll under different applied voltages.
The parameters of operation were: L = L1 = L2 = 0.21 m, R2 = 0.019 m, 1=30, 2=60.
The graph shows an increase in the electric field strength with an increase in the applied voltage.
But an excessive applied voltage leads to a spark discharge which hampers the separation process.
Therefore the applied voltage is maintained in the range of 20-30kV.
Centre distances:

Graph 4 Electric-field strength distributions on the rotating roll under different centre distances.
The parameters of operation were: U=20kV, R2 = 0.019 m, 1=30, 2=60.
The centre distances of the electrode centre and the centre of the roll ground electrode effects the
electric field strength as shown above. Increasing the distance by 0.1m significantly reduces the
electric field strength distribution and therefore 0.21m is taken as the optimum value. Too small a
distance would result in a spark discharge and therefore is avoided.
Size of static electrodes:

58

Graph 5 Electric-field strength distributions on the rotating roll under different static electrodes
radius. The parameters of operation were: U=20kV, L = L1 = L2 = 0.21 m, 1=30, 2=60.
The electric field strength increases with the radius of the static electrodes shown in the graph
above. But too large a radius of the static electrode interferes in the working of the corona electrode
and hence the optimum value of 0.019m is chosen.
Positions of electrodes:

Graph 6: Electric-field strength distributions on the rotating roll when 1 was changed and
2=60. Parameters of operation: U=20 kV, L=L1=L2=0.21 m, R2=0.019 m.
When the angle of static electrode is altered, the maximum value of electric field strength is
reduced with decrease in the angle.
On the other hand, changing the angle of the corona electrode does not have much effect on the
distribution of the electric field strength as shown in graph 7.

59

Graph 8 shows that for different combinations of the two angles, the distribution of electric field
only rotates.

Graph 7: Electric-field strength distributions on the rotating roll when 2 was changed and
1=30. Parameters of operation: U=20 kV, L=L1=L2=0.21 m, R2=0.019 m.

Graph 8: Electric-field strength distributions on the rotating roll when both 1 and 2 are
changed. Parameters of operation: U=20 kV, L=L1=L2=0.21 m, R2=0.019 m.
6.4 WEIGHT CONTENT OF PARTICLES IN HOLDING TANKS (J. Li et al.(2008))
The weight content of particles in holding tanks is influenced by two main factors:

Applied Voltages
Position of Electrodes

These factors are studied experimentally as follows (The materials used in this experimental study
were scraped PCB wastes and the size of mixture particles was in the range 0.6-0.8mm which is
consistent with our concerned size range):

60

Applied Voltages: For U=15kV, significant variations are observed in the contents of the five
holding tanks as shown in graph 9. For U=17.5kV, the content of holding tank II depicts a sharp
decrease. For U=20kV-30kV, the content of the holding tank II maintain a weight percent of
around 20. We also observe from graph 9 that for U>15kV, the content of the holding tank V
increased whereas that of metal particles decreased in similar proportions. This implies that the
metal fraction keeps on getting purified as the voltage is increased. So, considering all conditions,
the optimum value of U should be between 20-25kV since larger value may lead to spark
discharge.

Graph 9: Weight content of particles in holding tanks under different applied voltages, I is metals,
V is non-metals, II, III and IV depict middling. The operating parameters of experiment: L = L1 =
L2 = 0.21 m, R1 = 0.114, R2 = 0.019 m, 1=30, 2=60.

Position of electrodes:

61

Graph 10: Distribution of particles when 1 was changed and 2 was constant. The operating
parameters of experiment were: U=25kV, L = L1 = L2 = 0.21 m, R1 = 0.114, R2 = 0.019 m.
As shown in the graph 10, upon decreasing the angle of static electrode, the middling contents
were reduced.
Similarly, from graph 11, it is clear that increasing the angle of corona electrode leads to a decrease
in the middling contents.

Graph 11: Distribution of particles when 2 was changed and 1 was constant. The operating
parameters of experiment were: U=25kV, L = L1 = L2 = 0.21 m, R1 = 0.114, R2 = 0.019 m.
Therefore, after thorough analysis, the basic dimensions defined above stand justified as the
optimized parameters for the corona electrode.
6.5 CRITICAL ROTATIONAL SPEED
The particle charge, separation efficiency and purity are affected by rotational speed. Therefore, it
becomes important to analyse the critical conditions for rotational speed of the grounded roll
electrode.
62

Figure 27: Structural representational of roll-type corona electrostatic separator: (1) the feed, (2) the ground roll electrode, (3)
the charging field, (4) corona electrode, (5) electrostatic electrode, (6) brush, and (7) holding tanks.

Assumptions:
The feed is introduced onto the roll in the form of monolayer.
Distance between two adjacent particles is very big and each particle can be taken as a
point.
No particle-particle interaction.
The materials in the feed are charged in the charging field as depicted in figure 3. The corona
charge equation:

( )2

(1)

(L. Dascalescu, 1992)

=time delay constant

Qs=particles saturated corona charge value
Initial electric charge of particle:
(0) =
(2)
(L. Dascalescu, 1992)
Where kQ = coefficient which depends on field non-uniformity and corona-discharge current
(kQ<=1).
Qm = maximum induction charge value of non-metal particle in uniform electric field
For spherical non-metal particles:
=

0.552
+2

(3)

(Y. Wu, 2003)

o = vacuum dielectric constant

r = particles dielectric constant
=

12 2
+2

(4)

(A. Iuga, 2001)

63

When the particle gets 95% of maximum charge value, the delay time is five times the charge
delay time constant:
20
= 5 =
(5)
(A. Iuga, 2001)
Where, q = space charging density; k = ion mobility
k = 2x10-4 m2/(Vs)
Time of non-metal particle in the charging field:
60
= 2
(6)
Where, e = charging field width on the surface of roll electrode
And R = radius of roll electrode
For tgs>ts:
Particles charge value reaches the saturated value and the rotational speed can be determined as:
n<n*,
3
= 2
(7)

Where n* is the critical rotational speed

=
(8)
J = electric current density on the surface of the roll electrode

(9)

I = corona current; L = length of corona wire

The charging critical rotational speed can be computed from the above set of equations (6) to (9).
However, here the particle shape considered is spherical. In reality, the particles are flat and nonspherical therefore it is more appropriate to use the surface equivalent diameter ds:
Therefore,

= = 2 + 2

(10)

Where, r = big surface radius of flat particle; h = thickness of flat particle

This ds is substituted appropriately in equation (4) and we get:
=

3 ( 2 +2)
+2

(11)

The forces acting on the particle at the most probable detaching point A is as shown in figure 4:

64

Figure 28: Forces acting on the non-metal particle at the most probable point of detachment

At point A, the particle detaches from the roll electrode when:

+ =
(12)
Fw = Centrifugal force
G = Gravitational force
Fi = Image force
It is assumed that particle receives saturated quantity of corona charge with little charge loss. The
loss coefficient kl can be taken to be around 0.85 (J. Li et al.(2007)), therefore :
2

= 4 2

(13)

If, =

91 2 2

And, =

(14)

( +2)2
( 2 +2)2

(15)

42

Then, Fi = BC

Similarly, = ( )2
30

(16)

Therefore, from equation (12) to (16), the detaching critical rotational speed comes out to be:

30
= ( )1/2
(17)
Two possible conditions arise:
Case 1: n = n <= n*, that is, the particle gets saturated quantity of corona charge:

30
= = ( )1/2
(18)

65

Case 2: n = n > n*, that is, particle does not get saturated quantity of corona charge but only
receives n*/nQs. Then using equations (12) to (18), we get:

= (30)2

( )2

(19)

And finally,
( )2

30

= ( ( )2 )1/2

(20)

Since, the non-metal particles are flat, their thickness-radius correlation can be taken as h=(1/3)r.
(Jia Li, 2007)
From the equations (18) and (20), the following relation resulted between the critical rotational
speed and the particle radius:

Graph 12: Relation between critical rotational speed and particle size (Jia Li, 2007)
The particle size received was between 0.6mm-1.2mm. Therefore, from the graph, we can
conclude that the critical rotational speed for U=25kV would lie approximately between 70-90rpm.
Therefore, the rotational speed must be <=70rpm to avoid any detachment of non-metal particles.
From graph 9, taking the applied voltage to be 25kV, we obtain the weight percent of products as
follows:
30 weight% metal fraction
45 weight% non-metal fraction
25 weight% middling fraction
The composition received by us is as follows:
Considering the ton/day(24 hour operation) case, for the corona separation, the material received
excludes the glass and ferrous metals, therefore:
Amount received per day = 11.77597+(23.56134-8.103962) = 27.23 tons/day=1.135 tons/hour.
Therefore, after one cycle of corona separation, we get:
30 wt% = 8.169 tons of metal/day
45 wt% = 12.25 tons of non-metal/day
25 wt% = 6.81 tons of middling fraction/day

66

Since, the amount of middling fraction collected is quite substantial, we send it for another round
of corona separation to get:
30 wt% = 2.04 tons of metal
45 wt% = 3.06 tons of non-metal
25 wt% = 1.70 tons of middling fraction
The middling fraction obtained after the second round is not substantial enough to be considered.
Therefore, finally, after a day of operation, we obtain:
8.169+2.04 = 10.209 tons of metal
12.25+3.06 = 15.31 tons of non-metal
6.6 RESULTS
Final Results
Applied Voltage (U)
Centre Distances (L= L1=L2)
Roll electrode radius (R1)
Static electrode radius (R2)
Static electrode angle (1)
Corona electrode angle(2)
Radius of Corona wire (standard)
Rotational Speed of the Roll electrode (n)
Weight of metal fraction obtained per day
(24 hour operation)
Weight of non-metal fraction obtained per
day (24 hour operation)

Value
25kV
0.21m
0.114m
0.019m
20o
60o
0.3mm
<=70rpm
10.209 tons
15.31 tons

Table 12: Final Results

6.7 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

The table given below can be used in defining the economics of the corona separator:
Traditional
Bed

Metal
Output
(ton/hour)
Power(kW)
Metal recovery rate
Equipment Cost ($)
Environmental
effects

0.3
0.2
<80%
30 k
Waste water

Fluid Corona
Automatic Line
Electrostatic
Separation Process
from
developed
Countries
0.3
0.3
0.4
>90%
150 k
None

67

0.13
>90%
100 k
None

Maintenance
($/ton input)
Operational
($/ton input)

cost 4.95

2.95

2.95

Cost 14.2245

14.9085

13.6365

Table 13: Comparison of three kinds of PCB waste separation processes (Kealeboga Merafhe, 2011)

Capital Cost: 150000*60=Rs 90,00,000

Maintenance Cost: 2.95*60*27.23*365=Rs 17,59,194.15 per year
Operational Cost: 14.9085*60*27.23*365=Rs 88,90,490.2 per year

6. Economic Analysis of Pre Processing:

Capital Cost (Initial Fixed Cost)

Fork Lift: Rs 6,00,000

Roll Shredder: Rs 27,00,000
Hammer Mill: Rs 30,00,000
Cyclone Separator: Rs 21,00,000
Dust Collector: Rs 24,00,000
Magnetic Separator: Rs 1,40,390
Corona Separator: Rs 90,00,000

Total Capital Cost: Rs 1,99,40,390

Operational Cost (per year)

Dismantling: Rs 1,57,30,710
Hammer Mill: Rs 94,09,647
Corona Separator: Rs 1,06,49,690
Dust Collector: Rs 3,02,500
Roll Shredder: Rs 84,09,600
Magnetic Separator: Rs 30,13,780

Total Operating Cost: Rs: 4,75,15,927 per year

68

7. Recycling of Plastic
Sub-Group 2

ABSTRACT
Plastics form an important part of the electronic waste. And most of the times, after extraction of
all the precious materials from the waste, the remaining plastic is directly dumped off into land,
which results in several kinds of problems. This practice degrades the quality of soil and sometimes
also affects the ground-water. So, a proper processing of the plastic waste is necessary, instead of
just throwing it away into land. In this project, we studied the different methods to recycle and
reuse the various types of plastics present in the e-waste to the best extent possible. We then come
out with two best techniques for this purpose, namely the air-tabling method the triboelectric
separation method, reporting the edge these processes have over the other processes. We then
present a detailed modelling of this part of the e-waste recycling plant, presenting the various
parameter selection constraints and finally come up with calculating the other parameters from
those. In the end, we present the efficiency of these processes in different cases.

INTRODUCTION
Management of electronic waste is becoming a real challenge these days because of presence of
hazardous and environmentally foul components presents in these wastes. Delhi is among the top
producers of this e-waste producing nearly 9800 tonnes of waste annually. Delhi is the leading
processor of this electronic waste in the country. Plastics comprise of 27% of the e-waste. It is also
found that nearly 70% of the waste collected at recycling units was dumped by the developed
countries. This is done by developed countries because of cheaper labor costs in developing
countries like India and China, as well as the not-so-strict environmental laws here.
The individual composition of plastics and other materials in the main three electronic gadgets
(TVs, PCs and mobiles) are shown by the following pie charts:
CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE POLYMERS
The plastic contained in electronic scraps can be classified into three types:
1. C-H-O polymers: Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polyesters, etc.
2. Halogenated polymers: PVC, PolyBromo compounds, etc.
69

3. Nitrogen containing polymers: Nylon, Polyethanes, etc.

Plastic composition
3
13

84

C-H-O polymers

Halogenated polymers

Nitrogen containing polymers

Figure 29 Classification of polymers in e-waste

PLASTIC RECYCLING
Plastics in electrical and electronic devices are highly visible, for example in telephones,
televisions, and computers.
The two major types of plastic resins that are used in electronic devices are thermosets and
thermoplastics. Generally, thermosets are shredded when recycled, because they cannot be remelted and moulded into new products. Thermoplastics are used widely within computers and
other electronic equipments. These thermoplastics can be re-melted and moulded into new
products. As a result, thermoplastics show better re-cyclibility than thermosetting. Plastics have
the highest potential salvage value from electronic products after metals. The plastics used in
electronic products are mainly engineering thermoplastics, which have high intrinsic value.
Plastic recycling is essential since the consumption of plastic has grown steadily over the past
years. Since, it is non-bio degradable, it is desired that we re-use plastics in the most efficient and
environment friendly manner. The techniques used in recycling plastics are broadly categorised
as70

1. Thermal Recycling, which is the direct incineration of plastic wastes for energy recovery;
2. Mechanical Recycling, by which plastic wastes are recycled into new resources without
affecting the basic structure of the material; and
3. Chemical Recycling, which is the method that breaks down polymers into other chemicals.

Various factors are analysed before selecting the recycling technique to be used, such as
stakeholder population, plastic waste collection method, air, water and land resources, new
technology acceptance, technical capability and environment friendliness of the technique
employed.
Since our plant would be mainly dealing with the recycling of e-waste, we will focus our attention
to the various plastics present in these electronic items.

1. CHEMICAL RECYCLING
1.1 De polymerization and conversion
Another process involves the conversion of assorted polymers into petroleum by thermal depolymerization process. This process accepts almost any polymer or mix of polymers, including
thermoset materials. Like natural petroleum, the chemicals produced can be made into fuels as
well as polymers.
-

Theory and process:

Thermal depolymerization is similar to the geological processes that produce the fossil fuels used
today. Until recently, the human designed processes were not efficient enough to serve as a
practical source of fuel because more energy was required than was produced. In the method
adopted by CWT (changing world technologies) company, they add water, the water improves the
heating process and contributes hydrogen to the reactions.
In this process, the feedstock material is first ground into small pieces, and mixed with water if it
is dry. It is then introduced into a 1st stage reactor which is basically a pressure vessel reaction
chamber where it is heated at constant volume to around 250 C. It is similar to working of a
pressure cooker, steam will be evolved and it automatically raises the pressure to 600 psi (4 MPa)
(near the point of saturated water). These temperature and pressure conditions are maintained for
71

approximately 20 minutes to completely heat the material, after which the pressure is suddenly
released to boil off most of the water . This will leave us with a mixture of crude hydrocarbons
and solid minerals. The minerals are removed, and the hydrocarbons are diverted to a second-stage
reactor where they are heated to around 550 C, further breaking down the longer hydrocarbon
chains. The smaller hydrocarbons can then be sorted by fractional distillation.
-

Efficiency:

The CWT Company claims that 15 % of feedstock energy is used to provide energy for the plant.
The remaining energy is available in the converted product. Working with turkey offal as the
feedstock, the process yielded efficiencies of approximately 85%; that means, the energy contained
in the end products of the process is 85% of the energy contained in the inputs to the process. If
one considers the energy content of the feedstock to be free (i.e., waste material from some other
process), then 85 units of energy are made available for every 15 units of energy consumed in
process heat and electricity. This means the "Energy Returned on Energy Invested" (EROEI) is
(6.67), which is comparable to other energy harvesting processes. Even higher efficiencies may be
possible with drier and with more carbon-rich materials in the feedstock.
-

Advantages:

The process makes the organic poisons inactive, because it breaks chemical bonds and
destroys the molecular shape needed for the poison's activity.

It can remove heavy metals from the samples by converting them from their ionized or
organometallic forms to their stable oxides which can then be easily separated from the
other products.

This process produces liquid fuel unlike other recovery methods which often produce
gaseous products. The liquid fuel separates from the water physically without need for
drying.

This process can recycle the energy content of organic materials without needing to remove
the water first.it doesnt require pre-drier like other methods like burning and pyrolysis do.

Limitations:
The process only breaks long molecular chains into shorter ones, so it cannot convert small
molecules like carbon dioxide and methane.

72

However, methane present in the feedstock can be recovered and burned to heat the water
which is an important part of the process. In addition, it can be burned in a power plant and
used to generate electricity. The electricity can be sold to the power grid. This also
increases the overall efficiency of the process.

2. THERMAL RECYCLING:
It involves complete or partial oxidation of the plastic material, producing heat, power or gaseous
fuels, oils and chars apart from by-products that must be disposed of, such as ash
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool for measuring the environmental sustainability and
environmental performance-improvement opportunities of various products and processes. It
involves focusing our attention into various options including thermal recycling.
1)

Due to urbanisation people tend to live in cities or greater residential areas. This

means high waste generation per kilometre hich in turn makes the cost for waste collection
less expensive than in sparsely populated areas.
2)

Thermal recycling plants do not care about the quality of waste. The plants are

designed in such a way that they can treat bulky heterogeneous waste.
3)

Another advantage for the owner of an incinerator is that it is very cost effective.

Even if some costs are higher due to expensive cleaning equipment, revenue from sold
energy is supported by a reception fee for the waste fuel. This makes very competitive as
base load in district heating systems.
4)

Thermal recycling is one method of waste management which has added benefit of

energy recovery. Plastic Solid Waste has been considered a good candidate for feedstock
for energy production due its high heating values.
5)

It produces valuable petrochemicals as feedstock, it also produces energy in the

form of heat and steam. Energy generation by incineration of plastics waste is in principle
a viable use for recovered waste polymers since hydrocarbon polymers replace fossil fuels
and thus reduce the CO2 burden on the environment. The calorific value of polyethylene
is similar to that of fuel oil and the thermal energy produced by incineration of polyethylene
is of the same order as that used in its manufacture.

73

6)

Incineration is the preferred energy recovery option of local authorities because

there is financial gain by selling waste plastics as fuel.

7)

This recovered plastic waste can be used for energy utilization. Energy utilization

may involve the use of the plastic waste as fuel in industrial processes or the production of
solid fuels for energy production facilities such as power plants. The use of plastic waste
as fuels (energy utilization) is by far one of the most important options available for plastic
waste in Europe

There are many disadvantages of thermal recycling such as:1)

Plastic Solid Waste is a more troublesome fuel compared to other fuels due to its

heterogeneity. The variable fuel quality gives rise to problems during the combustion
process which requires an advanced and expensive air pollution control and management
of residues .Even if the overall degree of efficiency can be high due to flue gas
condensation, the electricity-to-heat ratio is in general lower than for e.g. wood
combustion, which in turn in general is lower than for oil and natural gas combustion.
2)

Second, in most developed countries, public distrust of incineration limits the

potential of waste-to-energy technologies as it produce greenhouse gases and some highly

toxic pollutants. It has been suggested that the chlorine content in PVC and other plastics
is related to the formation of dioxins and furans.
3)

Plastics waste collected from domestic waste stream can be utilized by energy

recovery from waste incineration plants. Cost of this system of recovery is considered
highest among all the alternatives. Another important factor to carry out this process is to
minimize the harmful emissions.

Incineration of plastics has net emissions of greenhouse gases. These emissions are also in general
higher for incineration than for landfill disposal. The results suggest that efforts should be made
to increase recycling of plastics, direct incineration of plastics in places where it can be combusted
with high efficiency and high electricity-to-heat ratios where it is replacing fossil fuels, and
reconsider the present policies of avoiding landfill disposal of plastics.

74

3. MECHANICAL RECYCLING
Mechanical recycling is the most commonly used technique for plastic recycling. This accepts
materials from a variety of sources and converts these waste plastics to high-value engineering
plastics so that they can be reused in similar applications.
The overall process of recycling is described in the flowchart below.

Figure 30 Mechanical recycling of plastic from e-waste

75

The major concern in plastics recycling is the need to identify and separate the plastics found in
end of life electronics. The need to identify additives and contaminants is a problematic issue.
The market value of mixed (unsorted) plastics is very low. To recycle plastics from discarded
electronics, the first step is the sorting process. Contaminated plastics such as laminated and/or
painted plastics must be removed. In different electronic devices, different major types of plastic
resins are used. So, based on electronic product type if separation of plastics is done, it can provide
a better recycling rate.

The following plastic types have been identified to be dominant in e-wastes

Consumer electronics including television sets: HIPS and ABS;
Information technology devices: ABS, HIPS, ABS/PC and PPO/PS
Issues: Compared to the limited number of different metals used in electronics, a large variety of
resins are used. Also, plastics can be coated, mixed with additives, and made flame-retardant. This
versatility acts as a barrier to plastics recycling. Recyclers need a constant supply of the same type
of plastic, but the actual situation is very difficult.
Different physical and mechanical properties of different plastics are another barrier in plastics
recycling. For better plastics recycling, better sorting and separation techniques are required.

Identification and sorting of plastics

Identification techniques should provide both fast and accurate identification of the primary
plastic contained in a particular item, followed by some type of manual or automated sorting.
I.

Automated plastic bottle sorting techniques exist but, for a variety of reasons, these
techniques are not applicable to most of the plastics found in end of life electronic devices.

II.

Density sorting methods: These are not very helpful, because most of the plastics are very
close in density. If used, however it can be used by using a different high density liquid
such as oil, tetrabromoethane (TBE) instead of using water. Hydrocyclones, which use
centrifugal force can be used to increase the effectiveness of density separations and to
improve material wettability.
76

III.

Cyclone media separation: Separation tests of waste plastics conducted with a cylindrical
type DMS cyclone demonstrate that DMS cyclones are suitable for conducting separations
of plastics by density. Suspensions of an adequate particle size range using a variety of
low-cost ground mineral compounds can be used to create effective density separation
media instead of chemical solutions for the separation of plastics. DMS cyclone separation
represents a low cost, high throughput method to produce plastic separates, either as a
finished product or as a concentrate for subsequent processing by other separation
processes.

IV.

Air tabling: In an air table, lighter and heavier particles are separated due to formation of
fluidized bed. Vibration of the deck and the lifting fluidizing action of the air are combined
to stratify the product into layers, with heavier layers on the bottom and lighter layers on
the top. Stratification occurs by forcing air upward through the particle mixture so that the
particles rise or fall by their weight relative to the air flow. Once the product is properly
stratified, the vibrating action of deck pushes heavier fractions towards high side and
lighter layers towards low side. By the time the product reaches the discharge end of the
deck, the separation completes. Hence, lighter and heavier plastics are well separated. This
method is economically feasible and there is also no need for wet reagents and dryer.

V.

Froth Floatation
Plastics flotation utilizes the difference in surface properties of different plastics.
There are four main methods available in the literature, namely:
a. Flotation in a liquid medium with a specific value of surface tension.
b. Selective wetting of the plastics surface by chemical conditioning.
c. Selective wetting by physical conditioning.
d. Selective hydrophobic modification to the plastics surface by chemical
conditioning.
Selective hydrophobic modification by chemical conditioning is a process in which a
surface conditioning agent is selectively solubilized in the plastics and is capable of
penetrating into the surfaces for a relatively small distance or depth. This produces
relatively hydrophobic plastics which can be floated in an aerated aqueous medium. The
plastics which are unaffected by the reagent are recovered from the bottom of the aqueous
medium.
77

Using tannic acid as a wetting agent anda-terpineol as a frother, the experiments were
conducted and the wetting order for different plastics obtained was: nylon
6.6>PET>PVC/U>PS>PVC/S

Table 14

Experiments were conducted and the following results obtained at pilot plant scale

Ability proven

Recovery

Grade (mass)

(mass)
Lab scale experiments transferred to technically 98%

99%

scaled of a synthetic mixture of physically conditioned

ABS and PC with particle size 4-6.3mm
Floatation of a synthetic mixture of physically 98%

98%

conditioned ABS and PC with large particle

dimensions 2X25X50mm
Application of floatation technique to sort real waste 92%

99%

plastic mixtures from automobile scrap

Product qualities with grades higher than 99% and recoveries between 80 and 97 mass% can be
achieved by using chemical conditioning and dry-physical conditioning. The results also indicate
the transferability of the flotation separation process from synthetic mixtures to real waste plastic
mixtures and from laboratory scale to pilot scale.
Disadvantages
-

It is difficult to separate the heavier group plastics (ABS, PS, PC, PP, HDPE) from the
middle density group (PS and ABS, PET, PVC).

The separation of PVC from PET would be technically impossible on the basis of
density.
78

X-ray spectra, infrared (IR) spectra, and solvent solubility have to be used for PVC
from PET

VI.

Triboelectric separation

Tribo charging uses the principle of electron transfer. When particles are mixed and contacted with
one another using various methods, materials get oppositely charged. They are then fed into an
electric field where they are separated according to their charge polarities. Negatively charged
particles are pulled toward the positive electrode and positively charged particles are pulled toward
the negative electrode, while the neutral particles fall down vertically. Tribo charging is extremely
efficient in separating plastic mixtures.
Charging of particles can be done using various techniques such as using a solid drum roll, cyclone
separator, etc.

*Figure 31 Various techniques used for Tribocharging particles a) Solid rotating drum roll
b)Cyclone tribocharger
(Wu, (2013))
*Table 15 Comparison between different Tribo chargers
S.no. Charger type

Particle size

Advantages

2-5mm

*Mechanical
*Low rubbing
simplicity
and frequency
low
power
requirement
*Continuous
operation

Solis
phase
tube

Successful
examples
single HDPE & PP
rotating PP&PS

79

Disadvantages

Rotary blades

PD, PP, PE PET

4mm

Vibrating
devices

ABS, HIPS

0.25-5mm

Fluidized-bed

PMMA, PS & PE; 2-5mm

PVC PET
2-4mm

*Intensive
collision

*Particles
adhere to the
wall due to
high rotation
speed.
*Mechanical
*Low rubbing
simplicity
and frequency
low
power
requirement

*High collision *High Power

frequency
requirement
*Continuous
operation
5
Cyclone
PE & PVC;
*High frictional *High Power
150m
PET&PE
speed
requirement
1-3.5mm
It has been experimentally found that the 2 phase gas solid Tribo charger is most effective in
mixing and charging particles. Also, it can very efficiently charge mixtures consisting of more
than two components.
Tribo electrostatic separation is a promising technology for recycling of e-waste. However, there
are several challenges faced.
However,

there

are

few

disadvantages

of

tribo

electric

separation:

- Reproducibility of tribo-electrostatic separation is problematic due to change in the surface

charge properties. This happens because of formation of oxidative layer which decrease the
separation efficiency.
- The mechanism of the particle trajectory and collision needs to be understood well before
designing the electrostatic separator for efficient collection of the plastics. However, this is slightly
beyond our current academic scope.

VII.

Multi Dune Hydraulic Separator

Multidune is a hydraulic channel that separates solid particles i.e. plastics, based on the specific
weight and the velocity field within the apparatus.
Construction
The channel is constructed from a sequence of closed parallel cylindrical tubes welded together in
80

plane which are then sliced down the lateral mid-plane. The lower complex is laterally shifted
relative to the upper complex. Both the inlet and the outlet are equipped with 8 ducts located
along the transverse axis. The device also has 8 collecting ducts at the bottom. To ensure a
constant hydraulic head, the apparatus is filled via a variable height tank connected with
the 8 inlet ducts. The level of water in the tank is controlled through an overflow exit.

Figure 32 Synthetic scheme of the experimental facility

Reference: (De Sena, 2008)
Experiments were conducted to study the separation of PC (Poly Carbonate) and PVC (Poly Vinyl
Chloride). The PC particles tend to be completely expelled from the chamber while the PVC
particles settle in the chambers. At low flowrates, small amounts of material settles in the separator.
PVC samples are more affected by the operating conditions. This suggests that a multi-material
sample composed of these two kinds of polymers could lead to a good separation grade.
Some of the advantages of this technology are
-

At the laboratory scale, it is promising since it can effectively separate plastic particles
having density higher than water. Also, the setup costs are low.

The accurate reconstruction of the fluid dynamics of water flowing through the apparatus
allows the behavior of plastic particles to be rationally correlated to the velocity field
features.
81

TECHNOLOGY SUGGESTED FOR OUR PLANT

After a detailed study of the various techniques used for plastic recycling, we have come to the
conclusion that we would use not one but two techniques for efficient sorting and recycling of the
plastics. Since e-wastes contain various types of plastics, we will separate them using the following
methodology:
Once the crushed plastic mixture (after separating ferrous, non-ferrous and inert materials) is
obtained at the desired particle size (by size reduction techniques), the mixture will be processed
in two steps namely:
1. AIR TABLING
Air tabling technique is a preferable technique to be used because of the following reasons:
i.

Since there are a large number of particles present in the original plastic mixture, separating
the lighter components at an early stage will make the triboelectric separation (the step
after air tabling) more efficient. Hence, overall efficiency of the plant will increase.

ii.

From our literature review, we found that several experiments conducted proved that this
method is extremely efficient in the removal of lighter particles. This is supported by the
experimental data given below.

iii.

The air tabling process is economically feasible because of the use of low cost parts in the
setting up of this process.

82

Figure 33 Recovery in case of air tabling technique

2. TRIBOELECTRIC SEPARATION
We suggest that triboelectric separation technique should be used for our e-waste recycling plant,
because

of

the

various

reasons

explained

below

in

detail.

1. In this process, a large electric field can be created without causing electric breakdown.
2. The total power consumption in the separation technique is very low, because the current is
limited to few milliamperes. Although desired voltage is of several volts, but the meagre value of
current

makes

it

an

economically

affordable

and

feasible

process.

3. The process is mechanically simple and low the cost of setup and running is low. The
equipments required for triboelectric separation are easily available and commonly used in
industries.
4. It can process relatively wide range of particle size than other separation systems.
5. It has been experimentally proven that it can achieve high separation efficiency. Experimental
data suggest as high as 98.7% recovery of the plastics which gets collected in the bins provided.

83

Figure 34 Recovery in case of triboelectric separation process

6. This method is found to be efficient for separating a mixture of two components. However,
mixtures containing more than two components can also be separated using a two-step tribo
electrostatic separation.

PLASTIC RECYCLING UNIT

The plastic recycling unit of the plant will receive a mixture of six different plastics commonly
found in e-wastes i.e. PVC, PET, PS, ABS, PE and PP, coming from the Corona Separation unit.
The mixture contains only plastics since various other components such as ferrous, non ferrous,
light particles and paints have been removed. The flow diagram of this unit has been shown below.

84

Figure 35 Flow diagram of the Plastic recycling plant

AIR TABLE
It is a dry gravity separation method. It comprises of a hopper, a vibrating feeder, a porous deck
and an electric fan present below to create the airflow in upward direction.
In this method, the feed was fed onto the porous deck creating a bed of materials over its surface.
The longitudinal vibration of the deck and the upward airflow spread and expanded the entire bed
85

of materials. This caused high-density particles to settle on the deck and contact its surface, while
the low-density ones to float on top of the bed. The high-density particles were then vibrated uphill
along the end slope towards the higher side. At the end of each forward stroke of vibration, the
motion of the porous deck was sharply reversed, but the high-density particles continued to move
forward during most of the backward stroke due to their built-up momentum. The vibration
proceeded until they left the deck at its higher end, entering the right-hand compartment of the
collecting bin. On the other hand, the low-density particles, which remained fluidized, drifted
downhill in the direction of the decks inclination due to gravitational pull and left the deck at its
lower end. The low-density particles were then collected at the left-hand compartment of the
collecting bin

Figure 36 Air tabling unit.

Components of the air table
Deck:
The most important part of the air table. The deck consists of a welded metal frame, an undercover
which develops the air pattern, and a screen or cloth over cover on which the product separation
86

takes place. Two cutting fingers are fixed on the discharge end of the deck to channel different
fractions of the finished product according to their value.

Feeder:
Feeder is also very important to operation of air table.
For optimum separation the feed rate should be as low as possible. However it should not be below
the minimum feed rate at which the deck can be kept completely covered. Maximum feed rate is
the maximum rate at which product can be fed onto the deck and still obtain the necessary
separation.
Fan:
Fans are used and fitted below the deck, so as to blow air through the openings present on the deck
surface. The key function of the fan is to supply enough air so as to lift the low density particles
but not the high density particles. Based on the required air flow, and the area for it, we may require
one or multiple fans.
Bins:
Bins are the terminal part of the table design. The final separated particles get collected in the bins
according to the charges they bear. Designing and placing of bins is also important because it is
important to collect all the particles and ensure that they get collected into the correct bin.

Construction of Air Table

The set-up of this technique comprises of a hopper, a vibrating feeder, a porous deck and an electric
fan present below to create the airflow in upward direction.

Operation

87

In air tabling method, the feed is fed onto the porous deck creating a bed of materials over its
surface. The longitudinal vibration of the deck and the upward airflow spread and expanded the
entire bed of materials. This causes high-density particles to settle on the deck and contact its
surface, while the low-density ones to float on top of the bed.
The high-density particles then vibrate uphill along the end slope towards the higher side. At the
end of each forward stroke of vibration, the motion of the porous deck is sharply reversed, but the
high-density particles continue to move forward during most of the backward stroke due to their
built-up momentum. The vibration proceeds until they left the deck at its higher end, entering the
right-hand compartment of the collecting bin.
On the other hand, the low-density particles, which remain fluidized, drift downhill in the direction
of the decks inclination due to gravitational pull and left the deck at its lower end. The low-density
particles are then collected at the left-hand compartment of the collecting bin.

Parameters for design of Air Table

Figure 37 various Parameters for design of air table

88

End raise
End Raise is the slope from the feed end to discharge end of the deck. The slope determines the
flow rate from the feed end to the discharge end of the deck. Greater End Raise means a greater
rate of flow and less exposure time for the product. Less End Raise means a slower rate of flow
and more exposure time for the product. Quality of separation is directly related to exposure time
for the product. In general, the longer the time of exposure of product mass to a separating action,
the better the separation becomes.

Figure 38 Effect of End raise on separation

Side tilt
Side tilt is difference in heights between high side of deck and low side of deck. Generally best
separations are obtained when side tilt is set at maximum steepness.
If we increase the side tilt, the product will shift towards low side of the deck. Decreasing the side
tilt makes the product shift towards high side of the deck. However, if the side Tilt is too steep, the
product cannot be made to flow toward the high side of the deck even by increasing the Deck
Speed. If the Side Tilt is too little, all the product moves toward the heavy side of the deck despite
a low Deck Speed.

89

Figure 39 Effect of side tilt on separation

Deck Speed
If deck speed is too much, all the product shifts towards high side of the deck however high the
side tilt being used may be. It results in too much agitation, re-mixes the product resulting in poor
separation. If the Deck Speed is too slow, the product will not be properly fluidized and no
separation occurs.

Figure 40 Effect of Deck speed on separation

Air flow
The lower the value of superficial velocity, the greater becomes the mass of HD fraction collected
in left hand compartment and the lower becomes the mass of LD fraction collected in right-hand
compartment. However, it should not be too low since that would cause sluggishness at the upper
end, destroying the separation process. If it is too high, it will cause boiling or bubbling action,
lifting all the flakes from the deck and destroying the separation process.

90

Frequency and amplitude of vibration

By increasing the vibrating frequency of the deck, the flakes in contact with the surface of the deck
are directed towards the higher end and by decreasing the vibrating frequency of the deck, flakes
closer to surface of the deck direct towards the lower end. However, if the vibrating frequency is
too high, it also affects the low density particles.

Figure 41 Effect of frequency of deck on separation

Shape and size of openings

The best choice for the shape of the openings on the deck is making them circular, so as to
accommodate flaky particles with ease, and not allowing them to pass through. Now the holes
should be smaller than the size of the smallest particle present, such that nothing passes through
the deck. In order to ensure this, the holes size is taken to be less than 10 times the smallest particle
size, because there are several collision among particles which further reduce their size, and this
type of selection ensures that the particle stays on the deck even after getting reduced in size.
But the holes size should not be too small, which block the proper airflow through them.

91

Figure 42 Effect of pore size and shape on separation

Separation of the openings

The spacing between these holes is also an important parameter. If the spacing is too large, then
this would result in particles staying between two consecutive holes, and hence reduces the
efficiency of the process. Also, if the distance is very little, it results in a low strength of the
material and upon continuously rubbing by the particles, the material may get deformed.

Figure 43 Effect of separation of openings on separation

Superficial air velocity

This is the velocity with which air passes through the openings, so as to lift the light density
particles. The perfect value of this is recommended to be slightly more than the minimum
fluidization velocity. Because for values lower than this, the velocity is unable to raise the low
density particles and hence, no separation takes place. For values much greater than this, it would
92

result in low density particles getting stuck to the over-cover, and the effect of gravity on them is
not seen.

Dimensions of Deck
The breadth and the length of the deck should be chosen so as to allow the particles to settle on the
bed and exit through the ends in appropriate time. If the length and breadth is too low, it gives the
particles too less time to settle according to the vibrations of the deck. It may lead to a situation
where a low density particle collides with other particles, and having no sufficient space to settle,
may exit through the higher end of the deck, leading to an inefficient process.
Too high value of length and breadth should also be avoided since the effect of inertia is lost over
a large distance. It may lead to the accumulation of particles on the deck surface which in turn
destroys the separation process.

Design of air table

The first objective is to calculate the superficial air velocity. In order to calculate this, we need to
determine the height of the bed of plastic particles on the surface of the deck. We also know that
in order to separate the particles, the low density particles should be lifted above the surface
whereas the high density particles should not.
For this reason, we calculate the minimum fluidization velocity for the low density particles, using
an assumed height of the bed based on the reasons stated above. And after we are finished with
this minimum fluidization velocity, we fix the superficial air velocity slightly greater than this
value, but lower than that for the high density particles.
For this case, using the properties of low density particles, the minimum fluidization velocity
comes out to be around 1.4 m/s. So, we fix the value of superficial air velocity to be slightly greater
than this, say 1.5 m/s.
After this, we apply force balance separately on low density and high density particles to
determine the other parameters.

93

For low density particle:

Figure 44 Force balance on light particles

Force balance in x-direction along deck gives

m*a = m*dvx/dt = m*g*sin 0.5**Vx2*CD *Ap
= density of air = 1.225 kg/m3
Particle diameter = 6 mm, which is used for calculating the projected area.
Substituting the values and integrating the above equation gives us equation of Vx as a function of
time.

+1

Where N= constant=0.5**CD *Ap

P2 = mg sin/N
Substituting m = l *volume = 1.017 *10-4 kg
And calculating N = 8.135*10-6; P = 0.289

94

We get, Vx=0.285 m/sec

Calculating VX for high density particles

Figure 45 Force balance on heavy particles

= 2

Where drag force FD = 0.5*Cd*Ap*Vx2

= (2 )/

Based on the reasons stated above, we assume the value of amplitude and frequency as
Amplitude= 6 mm
Frequency of deck= 10.12 sec-1
Solving the above differential equation:
Taking Q = 2/ , R= 0.5*Cd*A p /m

and Z2=Q/R

dVx'/dt = Q-Rvx2
We obtain Vx =

[ 1]
[ +1]

for high density particles.

95

Assuming the values of constants in the above equation.

h= 1350 kg/m3
Vx = 2 * 10-3m/s
Net velocity in forward direction,
Vx = 2 Vx
Vx = 0.122 0.002
Vx = 0.12 m/s

For vertical velocity, Vy of low density particles

Figure 46 Force balance on low density particles

96

Where drag force, FD = 0.5*Cd*Ap*Vy2

Solving this differential equation in y direction, we get
Vy = 1.2*10-2 m/sec (for low density particles)

Similarly, vertical velocity of high density particles,

Where drag force, FD = 0.5*Cd*Ap*Vy2

Solving this differential equation, we get
= .

Now having specified the velocities of the respective particles on the surface of the deck, we need
to specify the deck dimensions. One important parameter in determining this is considering the
fact that the particles get enough time to settle with respect to the deck vibrations.
Consider the case when particles dont settle properly on the deck. Then, it may be possible that
resulting from the collision from fellow particles, the low density particles move towards the
higher end and exit through that side. This makes the process inefficient. Thus, we choose a
relaxation time for the particles to settle properly on the deck.
Now, by relaxation time, we mean to say the time taken by a particle present at the middle of the
deck to its respective end. Hence, the high density particle has to move at least 2a times
the time to its higher end and the low density particle has to move times to its lower end to settle
with the deck vibration.

Assuming Amplitude= 6 mm and frequency of deck= 10.12 sec-1

97

And taking the relaxation time to be less than 10 sec,

b > 20a 10 + 10
Assuming particles drop from deck after 10 sec
b > 1.79 m, taking b=1.8 m
Length to breadth ratio is around 3:1
Therefore, assuming length = 4 m

Applying mass balance:

Height of bed = 4.5*10-2m
F (feed) = ml + mh

ml = outlet flow of low density particles = 4 (2 + 2 )(1 )

mh = outlet flow of high density particles = 4 [ + (2 )2 ](1 )

F (feed) = ml + mh = 0.43 kg/sec

Table 16 Values of various parameters of Air table design

Length of table (m)

Breadth of table (m)

1.8

Height of particle bed (m)

0.0045

Feed rate (kg/sec)

0.43

Superficial air velocity (m/s)

1.5

98

Vx (m/s)

0.285

Vx (m/s)

0.12

Vy (m/s)

1.2*10-2

Vy (m/s)

1.89*10-2

Amplitude of vibration (mm)

Frequency of vibration (cycles/sec)

10.12

Designing of Hopper in Air table:

The design consists of predicting hopper dimensions required to produce mass flow, that is, the
maximum angle of the hopper and the minimum outlet dimension (B) for mass flow. These
variables can be calculated for a conical hopper using the Johanson equation. The granular material
is dry plastic pellets, coarse material (d50 max= 10 mm).

99

Type of flow: Mass flow is more consistent when compared to funnel flow. Chances for mass
flow in hoppers are more with larger cone angles from horizontal.
Table 17 Flow type and cone angle of Hopper
Cone Angle from horizontal

Cumulative % of hoppers with mass flow

45

60

25

70

50

75

70
*data from Ter Borg at Bayer

Discharge rate:
Even a very slight rounding of the outlet improves the efflux and consequently the discharge rate.
So, it is better to use conical bottom instead of using rectangular bottoms. In the case of a conical
bottom, the greater the inclination of the bottom the faster the rate of efflux becomes. The rate of
discharge begins to increase when the angle of inclination of the bottom becomes larger than the
angle of repose of the bulk material. The rate of discharge of the bulk material will increase as the
ratio of outlet to grain diameter becomes larger.
The discharge rate increases as the angle of repose of the bulk material falls. The discharge rate
also increases as the angle of friction between the bulk material and wail of the container decreases.
The inclination should not be too steep or too flat because of the high pressure acting on the outlet.
As a consequence, an optimum range is proposed with 60-70 degrees, which provides a high efflux
rate with a reasonably low pressure on the outlet

Problems with the hopper:

Insufficient flow:
If outlet size is too small, insufficient flow occurs. If material not sufficiently permeable to permit
dilation in conical section, it results in plop-plop Flow
100

Inadequate emptying:
Inadequate emptying usually occurs in funnel flow silos where the cone angle is insufficient to
allow self-draining of the bulk solid.

Mechanical Arching:
Mechanical arching is similar to a traffic jam at the outlet of bin - too many large particle
competing for the small outlet. 6 x dp,large is the minimum outlet size to prevent mechanical
arching. Generally 8-12 x dp,large is preferred.

CALCULATIONS:
Outlet size:
Maximum particle size of plastic mixture Dp in the feed = 6 mm
Minimum outlet size (Bmin) = 6* Dp = 36 mm
Preferable outlet size = 8* Dp to 12* Dp = 48 mm to 72 mm

Discharge rate:
For coarse particles, Johanson equation is used for calculating discharge rate in hoppers with
circular outlets.
W = b (/4) B2 (gB/4 tan c)0.5
Where:
W is the discharge rate (kg/sec)
b is the bulk density (kg/m3)
g is the gravitational constant
B is the outlet size (m)
dp is the particle size (m)
c is the angle of hopper from vertical.

Feed rate needed for the deck is 0.43 kg/sec. so, taking the discharge rate from feeder as 0.43
kg/sec.
101

b = bulk density of plastic mixture ~ 720 kg/m3

Substituting the values, we get: 2.363*10-7 = B5/tan c
Proposed optimum range of c is 30 to 40 degrees, which provides a high efflux rate with a
reasonably low pressure on the outlet.
Keeping c = 3040 , we get B ~ 48.65 mm

Conical hopper dimensions and flow variables are tabulated below:

Table 18 Values of various parameters of Hopper design

720 kg/m3

Discharge rate

0.43 kg/sec

angle of hopper from vertical

3040

Outlet size

48.65 mm

bulk density of plastic

mixture

TRIBOELECTRIC SEPARATION
102

Tribo charging uses the principle of electron transfer. When particles are mixed and contacted with
one another using various methods, materials get oppositely charged. They are then fed into an
electric field where they are separated according to their charge polarities. Negatively charged
particles are pulled toward the positive electrode and positively charged particles are pulled toward
the negative electrode, while the neutral particles fall down vertically.

Figure 47 Set-up and block diagram of triboelectric separation

103

Components of Tribo-electric Separator

The triboelectric separator consists of six components: a feeder, a blower, a cyclone (named as
tribo cyclone), two vertical-plate electrodes, a DC power supply and five collecting bins.
Feeder
Feeder is one of the most important parts of the whole set-up. It has to ensure that the feed entering
is at a certain rate, because if it is too high, all the particles get carried away by the blower and
hinder each other inside the cyclone. For optimum separation the feed rate should be as low as
possible.
Blower
The blower flow rate should be controlled as requirement so as not to allow the particles getting
out too quickly. It is very important in assigning the inlet velocity to the particles which in turn
decides the exit flow rate of the particles. And all this decides the rubbing time. Hence, ultimately
the blower decides the rubbing time and the quantity of charge on each particle.
Cyclone
The cyclone is the body of the separator. It is inside the cyclone that the particles get charged and
hence, initiated the separation. Choosing a proper material for the body is very important because
it decides the quantity of charge for each particle. A cyclone is cylindrical in the upper part, and
conical in the bottom side.
Electrodes
In order to separate the particles properly, the proper choice of electrodes and the electric field
assigned to them is very essential. Also, one important factor is the separation between the
electrode plates, which is also studied here.
Bins
Bins are the final part of the process design. The final separated charged particles get collected in
the bins according to the charges they bear. Designing and placing of bins is also important because
it is important to collect all the particles and ensure that they get collected into the correct bin.

104

Operation
The feed is tangentially blown into the tribo cyclone. Air is used to transport the mixture into tribocyclone and to rub it against the inner lining. After a certain period of frictional charging time, the
particles pass through an electric field, in the area between the electrodes. The particles are drawn
to either positive or negative electrode according to the polarity of the charge and are separated by
falling in different collecting bins.
Parameters for design of Tribo-Electric Separator
Inlet air velocity
If we increase the inlet air velocity, the magnitude of the acquired triboelectric charge and the mass
of material adhered to tribo-cyclones inner walls are increased. If we decrease the inlet air
velocity, the magnitude of the acquired triboelectric charge and the mass of the material adhered
to the tribo-cyclones inner wall are decreased. But too much increment in air velocity results in
too fast process and the particles arent in the cyclone for a sufficient time. This results back in
lesser value of triboelectric charge.

Rubbing time
Rubbing time is the time for which a particle stays inside the cyclone and gets rubbed by its sides.
If rubbing time is increased, the magnitude of the acquired triboelectric charge and the mass of
material adhered to tribo-cyclones inner wall are increased. And on a contrary note, these values
decrease as the rubbing time decreases. But too high value of rubbing time slows down the process
and hence, is economically unfit.

Ambient temperature and Relative humidity

Increasing the ambient temperature increases the acquired triboelectric charge and if we reduce
the temperature the acquired triboelectric charge decreases.
Increasing the ambient temperature decreases the acquired triboelectric charge and if we reduce
the temperature the acquired triboelectric charge increases.

Material of cyclone inner wall (Rubbing surface)

The inner wall of tribo-cyclone is made of a plastic material that in the triboelectric series is
classified between the plastic materials in the mixture to be separated. The magnitude and polarity
105

of the acquired triboelectric charge change according to the relative position of the plastic in the
TES.

Electric field strength to electrodes

Electric field is also an important parameter as it decides the final separation of the charged
particles. If Electric field strength is high, more flakes will be deflected towards electrode. Instead,
if strength is low, less flakes will be deflected towards the electrode. But a very high electric field
is again not good. It results in high deflection of the particles and then collision with the electrode
plate. And we do not get desired results.

Figure 48 Effect of very high electric field

106

Design of Tribo-electric Separator

We are using a traditional cyclone in our Tribo electric separation process.

Figure 49 Design parameters of Tribo cyclone

Taking Vin = 1.5 m/s; Dc = 0.53 m

Calculating the dimensions of the Tribo cyclone
For calculating the dimensions, there are certain models proposed in various research papers and
we are assuming one of those for further calculations.
Bc

Dc/4

0.13 m

Jc

Dc/2

0.27 m

De

Dc/1.6

0.33 m

107

Lc

Dc

0.53 m

Zc

2*Dc

1.06 m

For the cylindrical part:

Since, there is no deviation of particle in the tangential direction, the tangential velocity remains
the same at every instant, that is
Vt1 = Vin
Now, for the axial velocity, we use the concept of volumetric flow rate,
Vz1

[Dc2 - De2] = Vt1 [Dc2 /8]

V1 = 1 2 + 1 2
Substituting the values, we get Vt1 = 3.826 Vz1

L1 = 0 1 = 0 (1 /1 )
L1 =5.2 Dc = 2.756 m;
No. of turns calculation in a cyclone separator:
N1 = L1/(*Dc) = 1.26

For the conical part

In the cone, the flow pattern comprises of tangential velocity (Vt2), axial velocity (Vz2), radial
velocity (Vr2).
Vz2 = Qz/Az
Vt2 = C/ r = (R*Vin)/r = (R*Vin)/(ro + ztg)
R = radius of the barrel = Dc/2

108

ro = inner vortex and outer vortex interface radius = De/2

tg = 1/8 ; =cyclone cone angle
V2 = 2 2 + 2 2 + 2

L2 = 0 2 = 2(2 /2 )
L2 = 2.565 Dc m;
22

N2 = (

+)

= 1.01

Total L= L1+L2 = 7.7 Dc

N = N1+N2 = 2.27
Outlet velocity from cyclone, Vz2 = (16 Dc* Vin)/(15*Dc *)
Vz2 = 0.5095 m/sec
Total residence time inside the cyclone:
t = 3.14* D*N/Vin
t = 2.52 sec

For placing of the bins

Is = 10-5 [1 e-(L/u) ] (u*d)2 ;
=

= time required to dissipate by leakage

D50 = 3.73 *10-11m;

= 8.85*10-12 c2/Nm2 and = 2.4
Substituting the values, we get Is = 2.65*10-19A

109

Electric field strength (E) to the electrodes is a function of the surface potential (Vs) acquired by
the particle, its size (D), and density (s)

Emax = 400 KV m-1

d/2 =

1( 2 )
2

h = 0.5095 t +
ux =

()

1( 2 )
2

uy = 0.5095+ gt
Assuming distance between the plates d = 0.1 m
Substituting the values, we get h = 8.28 m; ux = 0.62 m/sec; uy = 13.719 m/sec
After the particles cross the electrode and are in free space
x = ux t
h = uy t + 1 (g*t2)2
We get h = 22.09 x + 12.74 x2,
Quadratic equation gives two values of x in terms of h.
Table 19 Values of various design parameters of Tribo charging

Vin

Inlet velocity

1.5 m/s

Dc

Diameter of cyclone

0.53 m

Bc

Dc/4

0.13 m

Jc

Dc/2

0.27 m

De

Dc/1.6

0.33 m

Lc

Dc

0.53 m
110

Zc

2*Dc

1.06 m

Number of turns inside the

2.27

cyclone
tr

Residence time

2.52
sec

Distance between electrodes

0.1m

Electric field between plates

400kV

PLANT AND PROCESS ECONOMICS

Power requirement
i.

For Vibrator

For the vibrator, we have Amplitude = 6mm and Vibration frequency = 10.12 cycles/sec
Load = 4*1.8*0.045*1350 kg/m3
Now, for a vibrator, we have the following relations
Centrifugal Force (pounds) = Amplitude (inches) * Load (pounds) / 0.0945
Power (Watts)=

Amplitude(inches)Frequency(cyclesperminute)Centrifugalforce
676

Therefore, for our case,

Centrifugal Force = 2410.9 pounds
And hence, Power = 511.54 Watts
Operating cost = 24 365 = 35,848.7 Rs./year

ii.

Fan specifications:

Total area of deck = l*b = 1.8*4 = 7.2m2

Number of fans used = 4

111

Area covered by one fan (approx.) = 1.8m2

Superficial velocity of air = 1.5m/sec
So, air flow rate = 1.8*1.5 = 2.7m3/sec
Using relation:
RPM(initial)/RPM(final) = flow rate(initial)/flow rate(final)
2800/RPM(final) = 3/2.7
Hence, desired value of RPM = 2520 rpm
Cost of such mechanical fan is around Rs.3000
Power consumed by fan = 110 Watts and voltage = 230 V
Operating cost = 24 365 = 30,835.2 Rs./year

iii.

For electrodes

Now we have E = 400 kV/m = 400,000 V/m

Separation between plates = 1 m
Hence, Voltage = 400,000 Volts
Therefore, Power = V2/R
For air between 1m*1m*1m plate, R = 3.3*1016 ohm
Therefore, Power = 4.9 * 10-6 Watts
Operating cost = 24 365 = Rs./year

iv.

Cyclone:

The equipment cost of cyclone is calculated using the following correlation

Equipment Cost = 57,800[BcLc] 0.903
Valid when 0.020 < BcLc, m2<0.4

112

Area of feed inlet= BcLc = 0.0689 m2

5162.3$ according to 1990 data (hence requires inflation)

Calculations amounts to:- 9326.07$ in 2015 = 583331.22 rupees

~6.3 lakhs (inflation adjusted + 8% taxes)

S.no.

Equipment

Power (in Watts)

Cost of operation/year Equipment cost

(Rs. 8/unit)

Vibrator

511.54

35,848.7

4397.41

Fans

440

30,835.2

4 X 3000= 12000

Electrode

Cyclone

6.3 lacs

113

Member

Task

Abhishek Sinha

Plastic composition in e-waste and techniques

for sorting of plastic mixtures
Complete analysis of technologies used in
plastic recycling.
Modeling of triboelectric cyclone and air table,
economic analysis

Ankit Kumar

Different types of plastic recycling methodThermal method.

Design calculations of triboelectric cyclone,
economic analysis

B. Keerthi Raj

Plastic mixture sorting and size reduction

techniques.
Design considerations and parameters of air
table and triboelectric cyclone,
Design of hopper, economic analysis

Garima Basumatary

Plastic recycling methods and techniques for

sorting of plastic mixtures.
Complete analysis of technologies used in
plastic recycling.
Modeling of triboelectric cyclone separation
and air table unit
Economic analysis.
Report compilation.

Ravinder Saharan

Removal of ferrous and non-ferrous from

plastic wastes.
Design calculations of air table
Economic analysis.

114

Glass and Capacitors

Subgroup-4
8.1 Handling of CRT screen
(Harsh kamal)
A CRT TV or monitor is first subjected to physical dismantling which separates the plastic and the
CRT part. In order to obtain CRT screen in a recyclable form, dismantling process should be
formulated keeping in mind the structural design and hazardous content of CRT. Glass constitute
about 85 % of CRT and it makes up about 65 % of entire CRT monitor by weight.
The CRT is then treated according to the process block diagram as shown below.

Figure 50: Block diagram of glass separation process

115

The process starts with the separation of electron gun with an angle grinder. The screen consisting of the
glasses and the electron gun are then treated separately.

Figure 51: Showing the cutting position of electron gun

The next step is the process of depressurization which is either carried by breaking the top of the
neck glass or by making a hole in the in the glass funnel (Menad, 1999). By this process, vacuum
is released which makes the cutting process easy.

Figure 52: Depressurization before glass separation process

Out of all the steps stated above, the most important step is the separation of the panel glass
from the funnel glass. Separation of glasses is done because different glasses have different
chemical properties, compositions and hazardous characteristics. So, in order to treat and recycle

116

each, they should be separated beforehand. In order to do that, we need to have a basic idea of
glass components of CRT and content of lead in each of them.
Different glass components of CRT are as follows: 1. Panel glass this is the screen which is the front part of the CRT. This part forms about twothird of the entire CRT mass (66 wt. %). Pb content is about 0-3 %
2. Funnel (Cone) glassthis part is attached to the back of the screen. It makes up about onethird of the weight of the CRT and contains 20% lead (as lead oxide).
3. Frit glass this is the small glass segment connecting the panel and the cone. Pb content is
close to 60%.
4. Neck glass this is the glass enveloping the electron gun and contains high levels of lead with
almost 30% content.
(I.C. Nnoroma, 2011)

Figure 53: Structural diagram of a CRT

As mentioned earlier, the most important process in the treatment of waste CRT is the separation
of funnel and panel glass. Various technologies like Thermal acid bath method, Electric wire
heating method, Diamond saw method and Laser cutting method are available for the glass
separation process. Electric wire heating method and Thermal acid bath method are primarily
used in the developing countries but these methods are not as efficient and accurate as the
Diamond saw method and laser cutting method. Thermal acid bath method leads to wastewater
generation and electric wire heating method is quite energy intensive. Also, dismantling rate of
these two methods are relatively lower than Diamond saw method and laser cutting method. But
laser cutting method is a high energy intensive process which makes its operation cost higher as
compared to diamond saw method. Also, Diamond saw method can dismantle at the rate of 70
CRTs per hour which makes it highly efficient. So, out of all the methods listed above Diamond
saw method is the best process considering the Indian context. (Ching-Hwa Leea, 2004)

117

8.1.1 Diamond saw method:

In this method two or more diamond saw are used to cut through the frit interface. Either the
CRT or the diamond blades should be rotating under this method. The blades and the frit
interface should be correctly aligned in order to get an accurate cut. This method uses dry or
the wet conditions. Under wet condition, water is used to reduce friction heat and under dry
condition air is used. The operating cost of this method is low and it is readily used in the large
scale operations. (Bernarde, 2015)
The system is an automatic, reliable and cost effective solution with a capacity of up to 70 CRTs
per hour using a two-arm cutting station. With a four-arm cutting station, it is possible to increase
the capacity with nearly 50%. Various stages involved in the technology of diamond saw method
are:

8.1.2 Conveyor belt

The diamond saw method involves loading, processing and unloading of CRT units from one
process to another. The specifications of conveyer belt should be designed according to the
processing capacity of the cutting station.
Capacity of process
Number of CRT units that can be handled per hour with two cutting arms = 70
Since the amount of CRT units to be processed is very large for the Delhi NCR region, cutting
station with four cutting arms is preferred over with two cutting arms.
= (

60
60) = 51.5
70

Belt speed and length

The speed of the belt is set according to the number of CRT units that can be handled and also
the processing rate of the cutting station. The speed needs to be kept at a minimum level to make
the consumption of energy at an optimum level. The system is designed in such a way that at a
time only two CRT units are in the system at a time. The waiting time of a CRT unit on the belt
should be equal to the processing time. As soon as a CRT enters into the processing station, the
second CRT unit is loaded onto the conveyor belt. Since the processing time is approximately 52
sec, the newly loaded CRT unit should spend at least 52 sec on the conveyor belt. Keeping the
belt speed at 0.5 m/s, the belt length should be:
= = 0.5 52 = 26

118

So, total size of the belt used is 26*2 = 52m.

Figure 54: Basic sketch of the conveyor system explaining the speed and processing time

Belt width
The width of the belt should be fixed according to the biggest CRT which has to be processed.
The size range of the CRT is 14 to 28 inch. So, keeping in mind this size range, the width of the
belt should be not more than 30 inches (approximately 0.75m). So, now we have the length and
width of the belt.
B

Figure 55: Design of Conveyor belt which is to be used in the process

Driving pulley
Head/Drive Pulley is located at the discharge terminus of the conveyor. It provides the driving
force for the conveyor. In order to increase pulley life and traction, it often has a larger diameter
than other pulleys. (Seigling prolink, 2007)
119

Head or tail pulley

The tail pulley is located at the tail end of the conveyor and it turns freely. This pulley can be
moved to keep the belt tight. (Seigling prolink, 2007)

Skid plate
A skid plate is a continuous plate support made of steel or plastic and is used to support the belt.
The belt wear is limited to the areas where the late supports the belt. The belt is supported over
the entire width which helps to spread the wear and tear evenly which means heavy load can be
easily applied. (Seigling prolink, 2007)
Support rollers
Support rollers are used to manage the unavoidable belt sag between the rollers as well as the
continuous action of the drive unit. (Seigling prolink, 2007)

Calculations
= 26
= 54()
= 30
From force balance on the conveyor belt
= ( +

) +
+
2
2

Where,
T = Coefficient of friction with skid plate
g = gravitational acceleration
m = mass of material conveyed
mB = mass of belt
R = coefficient of friction with support rollers
mR = mass of all rollers except drive drum.
Taking the following values:
T = 0.33 (Taking standard coefficient of friction for the skid plate
m = 30 kg (assuming an average value of weight of glass + other parts in a CRT)

120

 = 0.33 9.81 (30 +

101.25
101.25
) + 0.033 9.81 (
+ 400) = 406.88
2
2
=

= 0.203
1000

Here PA is the calculated power at drive pulley.

=0.8 (the assumed efficiency of the drive pulley)
So, the derived power from the motor is:
=

0.203
=
= 0.253

0.8

100 = $1000
= . 60000
(Transilon, 2007)

8.1.3 Size measuring and cutting position identifier unit

This system has been defined to handle CRTs of screen size ranging from 14 to 28 inches. So, the
conveyor belt conveys the CRT unit into size measuring system to get the accurate size
specifications of the CRT in order to identify the correct cutting position. Identification of cutting
position which should be just below the frit line is done through an automatic vision system
consisting of laser pointer.

Figure 56: Description of Size measuring unit and Cutting position identifier

8.1.3 Cutting station

121

The cutting station consists of two robotic cutting arms with disc shaped cutter attached to them.
The cutters consists of diamond blades at their edges which is responsible for the clean cut. The
cutting arms are aligned according to the input received by the cutting position identifier. The
arms need to be at the proper angle to get the accurate cut just below the frit line.

Figure 57: Description of position of diamond cutter

. = 2
1 = $10000 = . 600000
, = . 1200000
= $40 = . 2400
= 2 2400 = . 4800
Assuming the blades will wear out in one month due to high number of CRTs being processed
= . 4800
= . 1200000 + . 4800 = . 1204800

8.1.4 Ventilation system

The process of glass cutting produces a lot of glass dust which needs to be ventilated out so
that our final product remains clean. The complete ventilation system consists of following two
equipment:

Ventilation fans: Keeping in mind the number of CRTs being processed each hour, a total
of 4 centrifugal fans need to be installed for proper functioning of the system.
1 = 330
122

 = 4 330 = 1.32
1 = 1.32
4 = 4 40 = $160 = . 9600

Glass dust collector: The glass dust collector has been installed to handle the glass dust powder
which is produced during the cutting process. The glass dust collector has already been designed
earlier.

Overall operating conditions

Operational temperature range: 100C to 350C
Electrical connection: 400V 50Hz
Electrical consumption approx.: 15kW
Supply pressure: 6 bar4
Operational hours in 1 year = 8000 hr
Electrical unit consumed = 15*8000 = 120000
Cost of 1 unit = Rs.8
Operation cost for electricity = 120000*8 = Rs.960000

= +
+
= . 60000 + . 1204800 + . 9600 = . 1274400

= +
= . 57600 + . 960000 = . 1017600

8.1.5 Jaw Crusher

The next step after the glass separation involves crushing of glasses to a size of 30mm so that
the glasses can be fed into the hammer mill for the wet scrubbing process.

8.1.6 Coating removal from glass

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After the separation of panel and funnel glass, it becomes easier to remove various coating layers
from the glasses before sending it to the lead removal process. The coating consists of various
hazardous components which is very essential to get rid of to make the glass reusable.
Several coating layers that are applied to the funnel and the panel glass are:
The first layer identified on the inner surface of the panel glass consists of a mixture of
carbon slurry and other surfactants. This coating produces black stripes on the interior
of panel glass.
The second coating layer consists of three fluorescent colors (red, blue and green) and
are filled into clear areas formed by the carbon stripes.
After that, a wax-like layer is coated to seal the first two coatings. The final coating is
that of aluminium film for brightness.
The inner surface of the funnel glass is coated with the non-reflective black graphite
which is a good conductor of electricity.
(Hsi, 2002)

8.2 Wet Scrubbing method

Lab scale
Before applying the wet scrubbing method for the removal of coating, glass is crushed to a size
smaller than 10 mm. Glass is mixed with water and blended in hammer mill for the scrubbing
purpose. The weight ratio of the glass to water is kept in the range of 1 to 3. Alumina balls were
also added to the hammer mill to increase the removal efficiency. After carrying out various tests
it was concluded that to achieve maximum removal efficiency, the scrubbing time should not be
less than 2 hours. (Hsi, 2002)

Test no.
Type of glass
glass/water wt.
ratio
weight of glass
scrubbing time
coating removal
efficiency

1
panel
1

2
panel
1.5

3
panel
2.27

4
panel
3.0

5
funnel
0.73

6
Funnel
2.27

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
82.68% 84.48% 97.61% 89.35% 82.83% 88.39%

Table 20: Experimental data of wet scrubbing process (Hsi, 2002)

From the above lab data, it can be concluded that the best glass to weight ratio for the wet
scrubbing method is 2.27 both for the funnel and the panel glass.

124

Figure 58: Appearance of original panel glass under microscopy (Hsi, 2002)

The above figure which shows the appearance of panel glass before being wet scrubbed, the
black substance is composed of graphite, and fluorescent powder is filled inside the round hole.

Figure 59: Appearance of wet scrubbed panel glass surface under microscopy (Hsi, 2002)

This figure shows the panel glass after being wet scrubbed, there is no black substance to be
found which shows the effectivity of this process. By general observation it can be seen that, the
coating has been removed to such an extent that this clean glass is acceptable for the recycling
purposes.
(Hsi, 2002)

8.2.1 Scale-up Calculations

= 2

125

. = 70
15
2 = 2 70 15 = 2100

. = 2.27

2100
= 925 = 925
2.27

= (2100 + 925) = 3025

1.4 = . 3000000
= 5100000
= . 30650

8.3 REMOVAL OF LEAD FROM FUNNEL GLASS OF CRT (Shantanu Singh)

Leaching of lead from the CRT glass results in contamination of the ground water and soil. Many
chlorine-containing waste materials could be used as chlorination agents for the process:
CaCl2 as a by-product of the Solvay process
waste PVC
PbCl2 has a greater volatility than metallic lead and can thus be recovered at low temperatures
and atmospheric pressures. This method is also advantageous because it utilizes one waste
material for the treatment of another.
In the process, a chlorination agent is added to the metal-containing waste material and volatile
metal chlorides are separated from the residual non-volatile matter. Melting of the funnel glass
with CaCl2 led to the volatilization of 80 % of Pb (at 1,000oC).
Funnel glass from waste desktops with PbO content of 23.1 wt% was used. The glass was ground
and sieved to a particle size below 100 m in order to obtain a homogeneous material.

8.3.1 Lead volatilization experiment

The experiment was performed in a quartz glass tube heated using an electric furnace. The
reactor was equipped with two traps for the recovery of products, one filled with HNO 3 (1 mol l1) and one with NaOH solution (1 mol l-1).
126

Figure 60 Experimental setup for Chlorination Volatilization

Shredded glass powder was mixed with the chlorination agent (NaCl, CaCl2, or PVC) with a Cl/Pb
mass ratio of 14.2 using a mortar. Then, the sample was added to an alumina boat and placed at
the centre of the tube reactor. The sample was then heated to 1000oC under an air flow of 150
ml min-1 and maintained for 1-2 hours.
After the experiment, the reactor was washed with 1 mol l-1 HNO3 in order to collect the products
(PbCl2 and elemental lead).
(G. Grause, 2013)

127

Figure 61 Flowchart of the lead removal process

8.3.2 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENT:

CaCl2 was the most efficient chlorination agent tested. 80 % of lead could be volatilized at a Cl/Pb
ratio of 14.2 at 1,000oC. In this process, the formation of PbCl2 was thermodynamically preferred,
When NaCl is used, PbCl2 gets formed close to the phase boundary and releases into the gas
phase. In this process, about 53 % of lead was recovered. PVC is less preferred because high
bubble formation takes place leading to reduced mass transfer and thus reduced reaction extent.
The residual glass recovered from lead volatilization with CaCl2 as a chlorination agent still
contained about 3 wt% lead. For sufficient reaction, good transport of Pb and Cl by diffusion is
required but the diffusion proved to be rather slow under the conditions used. It can be expected
that more Pb can be recovered at higher temperatures at which reduced viscosity of the glass
melt will not impede mass transport. But the use of quartz glass as the reactor material limits the
maximum temperature to 1,000oC.

8.3.3 PROCESS DESIGN

From the estimation data for the year 2015, we are expected to obtain 5069413.46 kg glass for
processing. Assuming 40 operational weeks for the plant, we have a feed of 18105.12 kg per day.

128

Figure 62 PFD of the Chlorination Volatilization process

8.3.4 Material balance calculations for batch operation:

For a reaction time of 2 hours, we can have 10 batch operations per day.
Weight of glass to be processed

1810.5 kg

PbO content of unprocessed glass

23.1%

Weight of Pb in unprocessed glass

311.4 kg

Weight of Chlorine required to maintain a Cl : Pb ratio of 14.2

758.4 kg

Amount of CaCl2 required for chlorination

1185.7 kg

Amount of PbCl2 produced

334.5 kg

Amount of 1M HNO3 required

1406.5 liters

Amount of Pb(NO3)2 obtained

398.3 kg

Assuming 80% lead recovery (249.1 kg),

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8.3.5 Centrifugal Blower:

In the experimental procedure, PbCl2 produced from 0.9gm of crushed glass feed required an air
flow rate of 150 ml/min. Using linear scale-up, 1810.5 kg of feed will require an air flow rate of
16105 m3/hr.
Centrifugal Fans and Blowers are used for delivering air at substantial pressure.
Selection of Centrifugal Blowers:
1. Air flow rate required by the process in m3/hr or CFM (cubic feet/ min)
2. Static pressure as offered by the ducting in inches of water (needs to be calculated
based on ducting design)
3. Temperature at which Air enters into the blower.
4. Application for which centrifugal fans & blower is required
Air flow rate required = 16105 m3/hr

Estimation of the Static pressure drop:

Static pressure in 60mm pipes = 300 Pa/m for an air flow of 500 m3/hr.
To handle an air flow of 16105 m3/hr, we can use 32 60mm pipes.
For a length of 10m of pipe, the static pressure will be

130

= 3000 Pa/m
= 12 inch of water

Figure 63 Variation of Static pressure in centrifugal blowers with Air flow rate through pipes

(Masayuki Takahashi, 2002)

8.3.6 Blower specifications:

(Centrifugal Air Blowers are complied with IS-4894 code. Model no. : r-1-0340)
Using the above estimations, rpm and power rating of blower used is noted from a companys
product catalogue:
Maximum volume flow rate
Static pressure Drop
Fan Speed
Motor Rating

=
=
=
=

10000 cfm OR 16992 m3/hr

12 in of wc
1440 rpm
30 HP

(Eminent Systems)

131

8.3.7 ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

The process involves the use of a batch reactor with a reaction time of around 2 hours.
Required capacity is around 3 tons including the charge of crushed glass and calcium chloride.
Temperature of reaction = 1000 oC

Furnace Specifications:

Furnace Manufacturer
Capacity (Tons)
Type
Shell Diameter
Shell Height
Electrode Diameter (Inches)
Roof/Electrode Arms
Transformer
Primary Voltage
Secondary Voltage
Total Weight (Pounds)

: VAI CLECIM
: 10 Tons
: DC
: 12 Feet
: 7.5 Feet
:27.560 Inches (700.024 mm)
: Water Cooled
: 90 MVA
: 35 KV
: 730 V
: 8533.7 kg

(TDI Group VAI CLECIM)

8.3.8 BENEFITS OVER OTHER TECHNOLOGIES:

Other method of Pb removal from CRT glass include
1. Mechano-chemical activation followed by leaching
2. Hydrothermal leaching
3. Thermal volatilization of carbon-reduced lead
4. Reduction with SiC
The percentage recovery of Pb of these processes is comparable to that of the Chlorinationvaporization process except the reduction process where the recovery is only 40%.
The benefits of the studied process over leaching and reduction processes are as follows
Volatile PbCl2 could be recovered without producing waste water as in the case of
leaching processes.

132

The resulting residue which contains calcium silicate might be used as a construction
material.
CaCl2 or waste PVC are cheap materials compared to SiC or TiN required in the reduction
process.

(G. Grause, 2013)

8.3.9 COST ANALYSIS

8.3.9.1 OPERATING COST:

CaCl2:
Available as waste from Solvay process.
HNO3 (1N)
Price = Rs.274/litre
Amount of HNO3 used = 1500 liters (for trap and washing)
Volume of HNO3 recovered for recycle = 750 litres
Cost of HNO3 per batch operation = Rs.205500
Blower operating Cost:
Taking an average cost of Rs.6/unit of electricity and an operation time of 10 minutes per batch
operation:
Power rating = 30 HP
Electricity consumed = 3.73 kWh
Cost of operation = Rs.22.38
Furnace operating Cost:
Taking an average cost of Rs.6/unit of electricity.
Electricity consumed = 700 kWh (average consumption in steel industries with similar operating
temperatures)
Cost of operation = Rs.4200
Lead Nitrate:
Price = Rs.528/kg
133

Amount produced = 398.3 kg

Total revenue = Rs.210302
Crushed Glass:
Price = Rs. 24/kg
Amount produced = 1561.4 kg
Total revenue = Rs. 37473.6
8.3.9.2 FIXED COST:
Centrifugal Blower = Rs.3 lacs
Electric Furnace = Rs.60 lacs
Storage Vessels and piping = Rs.1 lac
Total Cost of instalment = Rs.64 lacs
8.3.9.3 PROFIT:
Total operating cost = Rs. 69362664
Total revenue from plant = Rs. 69477168
Annual revenue from plant = Rs.114504 (Profit)

8.4 LEACHING OF CRUSHED GLASS FROM LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)

Harish Patidar
Capacity of continuous leaching is much larger than batch leaching, so leaching of crushed glass
is done by continuous leaching method.
Equipment usedKennedy extractor.
Working processsolid is leached out in series of tubes. Each portion of immersed solid
material in a section is collected by an impeller blade and carried through the liquid in that
section. Solid moves from bottom to top with help of impeller blades. Liquid moves from top to
bottom because of gravity.

134

Keneddy extractor

Figure 64 Block diagram for leaching using kennedy extractor.

Figure 65 Schematic of kennedy extractor

135

Figure 66 Process flow diagram

Solid feed- After dismantling of LCD (liquid crystal display). Glass is crushed with the help of roll
crusher. Feed for the roll crusher has very large particle cycle so we cannot use it directly for
crushing. It is break manually into small pieces with the help of hammer.
For the leaching we need particle size of crushed glass lesser than 5 mm. On decreasing size of
particles surface area increases that results into increased leaching rate.
1.) Contact time- contact time depends on metal for which we are doing the leaching process.
This can be found from literature. The contact time can be varied from 30 to 90 minutes by
adjusting the variable speed drive. Contact time selected is one hour.
Leaching time for indium is 4 hour. If leaching time is greater than 90 minutes than product
from First leaching product will be used as feed for second cycle.
Leaching time for gold is 80 minutes.
Number of cycle- number of cycle for indium is four.
Number of cycle for gold is one.
2.) Feed rate- The capacity of the extractor ranges from 0.01 to 0.02 cubic meter per hour of
solid material. Feed rate is selected as 0.015 cubic meter per hour.
3.) Solvent flow rate -The solvent feed rate can be varied from 0.002 to .041 meter cube per
hour by adjusting the solvent feed pump. Solvent flow rate is selected 0.02 meter cube per
hour according to solid feed rate.
Solvent used for leaching of metalsSolvent used for each metal is different depending on leaching rate.
Solvent used for indium extraction- 1M hydrochloric acid (HCl).

136

Figure 67 Concentration of indium recovered with time using different solvents

Solvent used for gold extraction 2M hydrochloric acid (HCl).

Figure 68 Fraction of gold recovered with v/s contact time at different concentration of HCl

From the figure we can see that on increasing concentration of HCl leaching rate is highest for
2 M HCl after the time of 80 minute so concentration of HCl is used 2 M as leaching solvent.

137

Solvent used for tin extraction 1 M HCl.

Figure 69 Concentration of tin recovered with time using different solvents

From the figure we can see that leaching rate is highest for 1 M HCl, so it is used as leaching
solvent.
4.) Number of impeller used- Number of impeller used with four blades is fourteen. One
impeller is used with two blades.
5.) Dimension of tanks- Shape of tank used is semi cylindrical. Radius of cylinder is slightly
greater than radius of impeller blade. Length of semi cylinder tank is slightly greater than width
of blade.
6.) Temperature of solvent On increasing temperature solubility of solute increase so high
temperature is preferable here. Selected temperature is 30-50 degree centigrade.
7.) Material used for fabrication - In the Kennedy extractor all items that contact solvent are
made of type 316 stainless steel. This material is chosen because it is resistant to the widest
variety of liquids including liquids involved in the processing.
8.) Number of blades used with each impeller -Number of blades used per impeller is four. But
for one impeller nearer to solid feed is two, because solid falling in this tank will be very less.
9.) Rotation speed of impeller- Rotation speed is kept lower so that contact time can increase in
each tank with solvent. Optimum rotation speed is 15 RPM. Power requirement for driving of
motor for impeller depends on the speed of rotation of impeller, torque required.

T = 5252 x HP
RPM
138

T = full-load motor torque (in lb-ft)

HP = motor horsepower
RPM = speed of motor shaft
10.) Angle of inclination with horizontal - On increasing angle of inclination flow rate of solvent
will increase but flow rate of solid will decrease. Optimum angle of inclination is kept 30 degree.
11.) Dimension of blades and impeller- Impeller dimensions: diameter of impellers 20 cm
Width of impeller = 15 cm
1 impeller is 28 cm in diameter X 25 cm in width.
12.) Length of extractorlength can be calculated by formula = number of cylindrical tubes * diameter of cylindrical tube
length= 1*28+20*14 cm
= 308 cm.
13.) Height of first tube- this height can calculated by sin(30)=height/length of extractor
Height= 308/2 cm
=154 cm.
14.) Pump required for solvent- Flow rate of solvent is low so pump required will be of low
power.
Power requirement for pump will be 450 watt. Power required can be calculated by
Power requirement = Q P
P = gh
= density of solvent (149 Kg/m3)
h= head required(154 cm)
Q= flow rate(0.02 m3)
Power required = 450 watt

139

8.5 THERMAL DESORPTION SYSTEM FOR REMOVAL OF MERCURY FROM CCFLS

(Kushagra Deep)
Thermal Desorption is the opposite of adsorption by addition of heat. It consist of two steps:
heating the contaminated material to volatize the contaminants, and then treating the exhaust
gas stream to prevent emissions of the volatized contaminants to the atmosphere.The crucial
factors affecting the efficacy of thermal desorption of mercury are the vapor pressure of the
adsorbed mercury and mass transport in the vapor phase.
The Freundlich adsorption isotherm relates the vapor pressure of the adsorbed mercury to the
concentration of the adsorbed species in the adsorbent. The Freundlich isotherms for most
adsorbed species, including mercury, are much lower than the vapor pressure of the pure
substance at low temperatures. At low temperatures and low vapor pressure, the Freundlich
isotherm often shows a linear relationship between vapor pressure and adsorbed
concentration. However, as adsorbed concentrations reach the solubility limits or adsorption
capacity of the adsorbent, the slope of the isotherm decreases quickly. The Freundlich
isotherms typically decrease rapidly with increased temperature and finally become almost
single-valued at or above the boiling point of the adsorbed substance as adsorption capacity is
greatly depreciated.
The freundlich isotherm is defined as:

x/m= kCn
Where x: amount of mercury vapours absorbed in milligrams
m: mass of adsorbent in grams
C: concentration of Hg vapour in micrograms/cubic meters
k and n are experimentally determined parameters.

These characteristics of the Freundlich adsorption isotherm are very useful for an adsorbed
substance such as mercury, which has a low boiling point of 376C. It means the adsorbed
mercury can be desorbed easily and completely from the adsorbent by heating. This is the
foundation for a clean separation process that separates the adsorbed mercury in the form of a
concentrated vapour phase that is easily removed from the solid adsorbent phase.
Thermal desorption of mercury at temperatures above the b.p. of mercury should theoretically
increase the rate of desorption by roughly as much as the difference between the vapour
pressure of mercury at high temperatures and the mercury-vapour pressure of the adsorbed
Hg. Since the vapour pressure of adsorbed mercury is near 10 -5 atmosphere at room
temperature, it is possible to enhance the desorption rate by as much as 10 5 by heating the
adsorbent. This clearly shows how reduction of the pressure using a vacuum has a considerably
smaller effect on the desorption rate than temperature.
140

Once desorbed, the mercury vapour must be removed from the reactor to maintain the driving
force for the process. The driving force is the differential vapour pressure given by the thermaldesorption equilibrium isotherms. It may also happen that re-adsorption of mercury vapour can
take place as vapour concentration increases or as the temperature decreases. Purge-gas flow
is essential to physically remove the desorbed mercury and to greatly increase the efficiency of
mercury removal. The purge gas flow decreases the mercury-vapour concentration in contact
with the adsorbent, maintains a large driving force for thermal desorption, and prevents readsorption of the mercury vapour.
Though it is possible in principle to get the same process results with vacuum operation as it is
with purge gases, the practical aspects of vacuum operation are more difficult. Purge gas at
atmospheric pressure removes mercury vapour in almost ideal plug-flow patterns with only
small back diffusion flow because of the low diffusivity of mercury in the high-density purge
gas.
Vacuum removal of mercury vapour is dependent solely on diffusion of the mercury vapour by
random molecular motion. Even with a relatively high strength of vacuum, significant amounts
of mercury vapour remain in contact with the adsorbent and diminish the driving force for
thermal desorption. In contrast, the concentration of the purge-gas phase has no effect on the
driving forces essential for thermal desorption, which depends only on the partial pressure of
mercury in the purge gas. (H.H Dewing, 1994)

8.5.1 Mercury vapor recovery

A major problem associated with thermal desorption of mercury from waste materials is
removing the mercury from the non-condensable gases. There are a number of processes for
removing mercury from gas streams often used in mineral processing. Two processes seemed
to be best adapted to remove mercury from the air purge stream used in thermal desorption of
Hg from organic wastes, activated-carbon scrubbers that remove mercury by sorption, and
liquid scrubbing with sodium hypochlorite solution. Hypochlorite leaching of mercuric sulphide
ores has been used to take mercury into solution as mercuric chloride. Continuous recycling of
the leaching solution causes mercury concentrations to increase until all of the chloride is
converted to mercuric chloride. At this point, continued addition of elemental mercury causes
the reduction of mercuric chloride to insoluble HgCI that can be removed by solids-separation
methods.
Scrubbing of mercury vapours with sodium hypochlorite solution is ineffective for removing
mercury from the kiln off-gases. The cause was credited to be the high acidity created by large
amounts of CO2 in the rotary-kiln off-gases. In the absence of economical methods to buffer the
acidity, the hypochlorite scrubbing process was rejected in favour of activated-charcoal
141

adsorption. An activated charcoal adsorber column 5 cm in diameter and 40 cm long is used to

adsorb mercury from the kiln off gas stream and is used continuously during kiln operation.
Mercury-vapour emissions from the activated-carbon adsorber column are monitored at 15minute intervals during operation of the thermal desorption. The sorption capacity of the
activated-charcoal adsorber could not be determined without extremely long-term testing with
mercury saturated vapour. Various literature contains that activated charcoal can adsorb 25- to
35-percent mercury vapour before the saturation or breakthrough concentrations are reached.
Recovery of mercury from activated charcoal can be achieved by thermal desorption and
condensation of mercury by the same process as used for waste materials.

8.5.2 Use of Rotary-Kiln and Design considerations

The most common method of recycling of LCD monitors containing CCFLs is through either
automatic processes (shredding) (Batelle, 1998)
Particle size distribution: Here carryover of fines in the rotary-dryer system is a problem and
hence sieving should be done to separate particles less than (.075mm).
Compostion/Form: It should be ensured that the waste does not form agglomerates.
Agglomerated particles are self-insulating and decrease the exposed surface area, which may
interfere with thorough heat and mass transfer and hence desorption of the contaminants.
Permeability : is important for induction of vaporized contaminants through the material.
Moisture content: The moisture content can adversely affect operating costs because moisture
has to be evaporated in the treatment process, requiring fuel

From rough estimates, we know that approximately 3lac monitors are disposed off every year
.Now assuming 15 CCFLs per LCD we get 15*300000=4500000 CCFls per year i.e. on an
average 375000 CCfls per month. The amount of mercury in each lamp is less than 3
milligrams, (Kristofer Ello, 2008)
So total mercury in lamps in one month(approx.)=.003*375000=1.125kg/month
A CCFL approximately weighs 28 grams, so total weight of CCFLs per month =10500kg

142

Figure 70 Direct contact thermal desorption process (Batelle, 1998)

Figure 71 Rotary kiln

A 10-cm-diam by 76-cm-long rotary kiln was used to conduct thermal-desorption tests on batch
samples of up to 600 g of the CCFL waste. The rotary kiln was fitted with rotary seals made
from graphite cord packing. These sealing technology provided a leak-proof closure and
mercury-vapor concentrations in the air surrounding the seals contained <0.002 mg Hg/m3, the
detection limits for the Hg detector. The afterburner was a 3-cm diameter tube furnace with
ceramic packing that made sure complete combustion of the exhaust gases generated in the kiln.
The afterburner was operated at 1,000 C. Like the laboratory retort, the exhaust gases were
cooled, condensed, and passed through a bed of activated carbon to completely remove mercury
143

vapour. The 600g sample took 4 hours for complete desorption of mercury , so scaling up our
plant for 1000 kg of waste we need to increase our equipment by approx.. 1600 times so we
increase the diameter by three times and length by two. So the final kiln will have 116 cm
diameter and 88.6 cm length.
The temperature of the kiln is maintained above 350oC and the amount of mercury vapour
present is detected by a sensor (JEROME 431-X) which uses Freundlichs isotherms. If the
amount of mercury vapour exceeds the value which may lead to re adsorption of mercury, purge
gas is passed through the kiln which prevents readsorption.

Economics of the Desorption System: From literature it is predicted that a rotary kiln of 10 kg
capacity will cost around 70 -100 dollars and a mercury analyser will cost 160 dollars on daily
rental. (Batelle, 1998)

144

8.6 RECYCLING OF TFT LCD WASTE GLASS

Amar Srivastava

I. TFT-LCD waste glass is not suitable for disposal in landfills, by incineration, or in compost; this
makes recycling and re-utilization the best treatment method for its disposal (Chen, 2003).
Currently, although landfill disposal is still being used by many industries as the main waste
management method for TFT-LCD waste glass, this is not a long term practical solution because
of the high cost of transportation and the scarcity of land for landfills. As a result, sintering
processes has been started to be utilized to render TFT-LCD waste glass useful in the making of
ceramic tile.
Monolithic glass can be produced by sintering technique which when is subjected to controlled
thermal treatments, it can be transformed into more useful forms, i.e., into glass ceramics,
particularly
Wollastonite (CaO.SiO2), Diopside (CaO.MgO.2SiO2) , Anorthite (CaO.Al2O3.2SiO2) ,Iron
oxides (Fe2O3 and Fe3O4) (Ray CS, 1997)
These ceramic glasses can be used as coating materials with excellent chemical and mechanical
properties for thermo-mechanical applications (Lin KL, 2008). We should also note that TFT-LCD
waste glass is a very potential and valuable source of major oxides such as CaO and SiO2.
The goal of any sintering furnace is to provide a consistent, repeatable and economical
relationship between the times that a part is in each location of the furnace, the temperature
of the part as it travels through the furnace and the atmosphere seen by the part during each
stage of the sintering process.

Figure 72 Sintering: a) Initial Stage and b) Final stages (Tang, 2014)

145

From the theoretical aspect of sintering, the driving force required to reach the sintered state is
proportional to the surface area of the powder particles (German 1996).
Therefore, the sedimentation analysis (i.e. hydrometer analysis) was conducted to establish
particle size distribution characteristics for the particles less than 75 m in size.

Figure 73 Neck formation between sintering surface (Tang, 2014)

Then the complete particle size distributions of selected materials were done by combining
the results of sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis. The cullet should be milled prior to mixing
with reservoir sediments ( such as clay etc) to satisfy the requirements for graining and
sintering.
The specific gravity for the TFT LCD Waste glass cullet was 2.67.
The TFT-LCD glass cullet has a high SiO2 content (67.9%) and low concentrations of fluxing
(Fe2O3+CaO+MgO+K2O+Na2O, 10.1%).

The selected process parameters are preheat temperature, preheat time, sintering
temperature, and sintering time. The interaction between the process parameters is neglected.
In addition, performance parameters are particle density, water absorption, bloating ratio, and
loss of ignition which have not been dealt here. (H.S.Nayar, 1982)

146

Preheat temperature (OC)

500

Preheat time (min.)

7.5

Sintering temperature (oC)

1175

Sintering time (min.)

Table 21: Showing

20

appropriate conditions for Sintering condition

Samples of raw materials were dried prior to use in the graining process. Then each sample was
crushed and milled using a hammer machine. The resulting fine powders were thoroughly
mixed to ensure homogeneity. Then a controlled amount of water (20-25%) was added to the
mixture to give a mix consistency that allowed formation of approximately spherical pellets
with a 12-15 mm diameter.

Figure 74 Sintering basic flowchart

147

TFT-LCD glass powder post mixing with reservoir sediments can produce various ceramics and
also light weight aggregates. Experimental combination data shown in Table 1 is suitable for use
as operating condition. (Tang, 2014)

II. Design Modifications to Optimize, Control and Stabilize the Atmosphere Inside a
Continuous Sintering Furnace
The quality of the atmosphere inside a sintering furnace plays a key role in the final properties
of the sintered part. Properties such as the hardness, ductility, dimensions, carbon content,
microstructure and magnetic properties among others are influenced not only by time and
temperature on which the sintering process is carried out, but also by the composition, flow
rate and stability of the atmosphere within the furnace.
The different physical zones within the furnace require different degrees of oxidizing or
reducing power to develop the optimum properties in the final sintered part.
The concept of distributed atmosphere introduction, combined with the use of directional
atmosphere injectors, flame curtains, and gas curtains are used to stabilize and maintain the
atmosphere profile within the furnace.
Optimum and proven designs for atmosphere injectors, flame curtains, gas curtains and
exhaust systems (Thomas Philips, 2000) have been changed according to the requirements for
the plant and have been incorporated in the e-waste recycling plant.
The prime gas to be used in the atmosphere of the furnace needs to be nitrogen and it is the
best and most optimum gas to be used for sintering. (H.S.Nayar, 1982)
The important design considerations that have been taken care of while designing the following
parts of the sintering furnace:

1. Atmosphere Zoning
The primary function of the pre-heat zone is to eliminate all of the lubricant that is added to the
powder blend. An oxidizing atmosphere needs to be there to oxidize the hydrocarbon lubricant
vapors so that no solid carbon residue is left behind to interfere with the sintering process.
Atmosphere zoning is made possible by the availability of atmosphere components, nitrogen
and hydrogen as individual streams of gases and mixing them in the desired ratios as dictated
by the metallurgical requirements of each furnace zone.
148

For most continuous belt furnaces an ideal atmosphere distribution consists of 20% wet or dry
nitrogen introduced into the pre-heat zone, 60% nitrogen + hydrogen into the hot zone and
20% dry nitrogen into the cooling zone. This type of zoned atmosphere helps to minimize the
total gas flow rates required and concentrate the hydrogen where it is most needed. A
simplified schematic of such a system is shown in figure 1.

Figure 75 Process and Instrumentation Diagram

2. Nitrogen gas curtains/Rotatable Gas injectors

Over the years of experience with nitrogen based atmospheres, an empirical rule of thumb has
emerged indicating that the total flow rate ranging from 75 to 100 scfh of per inch of belt
width is sufficient to keep the oxygen levels in the furnace within acceptable limits (Tang, 2014)

A nitrogen gas curtain at the ends of the furnace may further reduce the infiltration of air,
therefore we had to properly design a gas curtain that produces a transverse laminar flow
across the width of the furnace will act as a physical barrier to the air ingress, while allowing the
parts to pass through without interference.

149

To enable this aspect in our unit, we have designed a rotatable nitrogen discharging feature to
enable preferential flow directionality. The directional flow capability also helps to direct most
of the atmosphere towards the front end.
Figure 2 shows a schematic of such a rotational gas injector.
1. It has two rows of holes with an included angle of about 300 O.
3. It has been shown found that a similar design is beneficial for the introduction of the main
dry N2+H2 atmosphere in the slow cool section.
4. The centerline of the holes point towards the front (loading) end of the furnace to facilitate
the flow of the atmosphere towards the front.
5. A welded pin on the tube section outside the furnace has been used to indicate the
orientation of the holes.
6. A heavy walled ceramic tube has been used to minimize thermal distortion and sagging of
the tube.

Figure 76 Design of the rotatable gas injector (Thomas Philips, 2000)

3. Fiber curtains
Figure 5 below shows a steel plate exiting a roller hearth annealing furnace. It is important to
ensure that the curtain extends all the way down to the part conveyors level.
A design variation is to lower the height of the curtain by using a screw down mechanism to
ensure the curtain continues to touch the belt as the bottom edges gets worn out.

150

Figure 77 A fiber cordage curtain at the exit end of furnace. (Thomas Philips, 2000)

4. Exhaust Hood design

Sintering furnace should have an exhaust hood design so as to safely vent the atmosphere that
exits the furnace.

Figure 78 Safe hood design (Thomas Philips, 2000)

151

The parts are very essential in regards to the sintering process and are of great importance in
maintaining the quality of the sintered product. (Thomas Philips, 2000)

Optimization of the Furnace Parameters taking consideration of Cost

The cost of operating a furnace is influenced by many parameters, such as energy to heat the
product in form of electricity or heating up the atmosphere, are one of those variables that
come to mind. Around 50% or more cost of running a continuous furnace is from the utilities (
those used to produce heat and also to maintain the atmosphere). The cost of optimizing the
atmosphere forms a significant part of the cost of the utilities. The most effective way to
optimize utility consumption is to control cost.
An Optimized sintering furnace1. Operates at lowest temperature
2. Lowest cost of the atmosphere in the furnace
3. Should have the fastest belt speed
4. It should be producing products of a very good quality
Various Design Parameters and the reason behind them:
A typical continuous furnace would have normal operating conditions of:
1. 20 cm wide Stainless Steel belt
2. 2147OF Temperature
3. 17 inches/minute belt speed
4. Atmosphere in various sections as mentioned above
5.Electric heating (baulder, 2008)
Cost of utility,
1. $15/ 100 scfh of Hydrogen
2. $0.5/ 100 scfh of Nitrogen
3. $0.1/ Kw-Hr of electricity
One of the approach to reducing the atmosphere component of the cost is to optimize the
composition of the atmosphere. Since one of the major functions of the atmosphere is to react
with the oxygen that may enter the furnace as a result of the leak, the amount of hydrogen in
the furnace atmosphere during the idle time can be reduced and less expensive Nitrogen can
be substituted. (baulder, 2008)
Also, the belt speed has been taken to be 17 inches per minute because if the speed of the belt
is fast, more belt material enters the furnace over the entire time when the furnace is running.
Slowing the belt speed during the idling will result in a savings in electricity and reduction in
152

totally idling cost. Slowing the belt speed also give more time to the heat that is acting on the
surface to increase the temperature of the concerned easily. (baulder, 2008)
Reduction in the belt speed also is beneficial because the amount of water needed to cool the
belt from 1175 OC to 25 OC also reduces if the belt is moving at a lower speed. Under normal
conditions, 36 gallons per minute of water is needed to take away the required amount of
heat.
Derived by using heat balance ( heat lost by ceramic= heat gained by water )
m*c*delta( T) [ water ]= m*c*delta [ceramic]

Considering 1920 scfh of atmosphere is required in the furnace of optimum size (baulder,
2008),

Table 22 Design Parameters calculation and values

Amount of waste TFT-LCD glass produced in tablets (ton/yr)
Amount of waste TFT-LCD glass produced in mobiles (ton/yr )
Total amount of TFT-LCD waste glass produced (ton/yr)

202169.745
9500.68875
211670.4338

Amount produced per day( ton/day)

Amount produced per day( ton/hr)
Density of cullet
Volume of TFT-Waste glass=
Volume of TFT-Waste glass entering furnace per minute
Optimum belt speed=

579.9189966
24.16329152
2.67*10^3 kg/m^3
density/mass
0.015 m^3/min
17 inch/min
43.18cm/min
0.015/0.438 m^2
0.0347 m^2
0.188 m
0.2 m
0.2 m
0.3 m

The Area of the furnace opening

Width and height of the furnace opening ( minimum required )
Taking into consideration variations etc
Height of furnace:
Width of furnace
153

Flow rate of atmosphere ( scfh )

Flow rate of Nitrogen in preheat( scfh )
Flow rate of Hydrogen in pre heat ( scfh )
Flow rate of Nitrogen in heater( scfh )
Flow rate of Hydrogen in heater ( scfh )
Calculating cost per hour of operation
Cost of Nitrogen in preheat ( $)
Cost of Hydrogen in preheat ( $)
Cost of Nitrogen in heater ( $)
Cost of Hydrogen in heater ( $)
Cost of atmosphere per hour ( $ )
Cost per year ( $ )
Fixed Cost ( furnace+ valves+ labor ) ( $ )
Amount of water required per min
Cost of water
Total expenditure for water ( $ )

1920
384
1536
1152
768
1.92
230.4
5.76
115.2
353.28
30,94,732.8
1,20,000
36 gallon
1.5 $/20000 liters
178

Cost of electricity- heating furnace, atmosphere, packaging and

belt ( $ )
Total Cost ( $ )

2856
4297766.8

Total Amount of Wollastanite made ( after mole balance )

[ton/yr]
Cost of wollastanite ( $ / Metric ton )
Profit( $)

127002.2603
5000
2052346.213

Hence the running of the furnace would be profitable for the industry as it manufactures
ceramics that can be easily used by industries outside.

Area consideration:
Length of pre heat section = speed of belt * time of pre-heat
= 17 inches/min*7.5 min
= 323.85 cm

154

Length of heating section = speed of belt * time of heat

= 17 inches/min*20 min
= 863.6 cm
Total length = 323.85 cm+ 863.6 cm = 1187.45 cm=11.8745 m ~ 12 m
Total width= 0.3 cm + 0.2 cm (adding for ambient space)= 0.5 cm =0.5 * 10^(-2) m
Total area required in industry= 0.6 m2

Final Setup:

Figure 79 Sintering Furnace (Lin, 2007)

155

Figure 80 Process Flow Diagram

8.7. Capacitor electronic waste

(Kishuk Goyal)

8.7.1 Capacitor:
Capacitor is a main component in all electronic devices. Due to recent trend of reducing size of
electronic devices like mobile phone and laptop computers ,the demand of tantalum capacitor
has increase dramatically .tantalum capacitor are more general capacitor because of its largest
capacity per unit volume as compared to other capacitors, also tantalum capacitor are thermally
very stable. Tantalum capacitor is a hazardous component of E-waste so special care has to be
taken while recycling. (Kunio Minetaa, 2005)
156

8.7.2 Tantalum:
Tantalum is a scarce resource in the earths crust, and therefore it has a limited resource but in
last 10 years use of tantalum in capacitor has increase dramatically .most of the tantalum goes
into tantalum capacitor from 2000 ton of tantalum which is currently produced annually in world.
So recovery of tantalum from these capacitor is essential. (Okabe1 & *1, 2003)
Since now, there is no effective method for tantalum recovery, these scraps are returned to the
first stage of the tantalum refining process, and treated along with the tantalum ore. But due to
similar chemical characteristic of niobium (present in considerable amount in tantalum ore) and
tantalum, pure tantalum separation is difficult and economically very expensive.
An effective method for tantalum recovery from these capacitor scrap is proposed, by which we
get tantalum powder with 99 mass % purity. Let us first understand structure of tantalum
capacitor.
Tantalum capacitor:
Below given figure shows basic structure of a tantalum capacitor, which is roughly divided into
three components: terminals, a package made of fireproof epoxy resin, and a sintered tantalum
electrode. The terminal is mostly made of iron, nickel, or copper. The fireproof epoxy resin is a
polymer containing oxide of tantalum and in this SiO2 powder is added to enhance its thermal
durability. Silver paste and graphite are daubed on the surface of the electrode as a cathode
layer. And for recovery propose we first have to separate Ta electrode from whole capacitor scrap
before chemical treatment, because tantalum exists only in these tantalum electrode with a very
high concentration. As the epoxy resin covers the tantalum electrode very tightly we will use an
oxidation procedure to recover this electrode before chemical treatment. (Ryosuke Matsuoka,
2004)

Figure 81 : Tantalum Capacitor (Okabe1 & *1, 2003)

157

Figure 82 Cross-section of sintered electrode (Kunio Minetaa, 2005)

Data of delhi:
Tantalum amount in various devices:0.0157 wt % in pc
0.0157 wt % in laptop
0.0082 wt % in mobile
0.0082 wt % in tablet

Table 23: Data for tantalum in E-waste

S.No.

Total
Weight
(in ton)
Tantalum
(in kg)

Personal
Tablets
Computers

Mobiles

Laptops

ton/yr
(or
kg/yr)

14406

25

1347

1538

17316
ton/yr

2262

2.05

110.45

241.47

2616kg/yr

158

Flow rate
Per day
(24hr
Op.)
47.4411
Ton/day
7.167
kg/day

Tantalum in 1 capacitor is approximately 65%

So mass of capacitor = 7.167/.65=11.026 kg/day

Tantalum recovery process:

First step for recovering tantalum from tantalum capacitor is to collect the sintered tantalum
electrodes from capacitor. For this purpose heating and oxidation of epoxy resin is a good idea.
Oxidation: for oxidation capacitor will be heated in the air at high temperature for 1 hour.by this
epoxy resin will become powder and the iron and nickel terminals will be disconnected from the
electrodes after oxidation. Because tantalum electrode retained its original shape even after
oxidation, now itll become easy to separate electrode.
A research found that the temperature for heating should be such that resin become complete
powder. For finding this temperature Capacitor was heated at different temperature and it was
found that 1273K is right temperature for oxidation .the results was given in below figure.
(Ryosuke Matsuoka, 2004)

159

Figure 83: Composition of capacitor after oxidation at various temperatures. (Okabe1 & *1,
2003)

160

Figure 84 : Observation of components of tantalum capacitor before and after oxidation at

1273K for one hour. (Ryosuke Matsuoka, 2004)

After oxidation at 1273K iron and nickel terminal can be remove by magnetic separation, because
these terminals will disconnect from the electrodes after oxidation .And epoxy resin become
powder which is chiefly consisted of SiO2. And easy to separate by mechanical process sieving.

Magnetic separation:
Nickel and iron can be removed by magnetic separation .after magnetic separation we wii left
with tantalum, tantalum oxide, SiO2 and metal oxide. (Okabe1 & *1, 2003)
161

Sieving:
SiO2 will be removed by first sieving and after that washing will be done for flush out the SiO2
completely. Size of sieving to be use is 8 mm. because after oxidation SiO2 become powder which
have size very lesser than 8mm and other component have size greater than 8 mm. (Kunio
Minetaa, 2005)
After Sieving Pulverisation will be done in hammer-mill by which tantalum will be converted into
powder. By this step we will have a mixture of power containing tantalum, its oxide and metal
oxide and copper terminal which would not break. After this these copper terminal can be
separated by sieving. (Kunio Minetaa, 2005)
Now, for removing metal oxide and some copper fragment leaching will be done by nitric acid
which remove all impurity. Now, obtained power will be rinsed with water the powder obtained
after rinsing with water will be calcinated in the air at 1273 K for 1 h to remove water and carbon.
(Ryosuke Matsuoka, 2004)
After this oxidation is done so that whole tantalum will be converted into its oxide. By this step,
tantalum in the capacitor scraps will be recovered as pure tantalum oxide powder.
To recover metallic tantalum, the obtained tantalum oxide will be reduced by magnesium vapour
at 1273 K. (Ryosuke Matsuoka, 2004)
Reduction by magnesium vapour:
For reduction of Ta2O5 with Mg following reaction take place

(Okabe1 & *1, 2003)

As we can see magnesiothermic reduction of Ta2O5 is a highly exothermic reduction process,
and we know in general it is difficult to proceed a homogeneous reaction for producing fine
powder. Also when magnesium get into touch with tantalum oxide, impurity of the reductant
Mg, such as nitrogen and carbon, are transferred to the tantalum phase so to avoid this
magnesium vapour is used for reduction .And tantalum powder with 99% purity is produced. This
process is still very sensitive to contamination from the reaction container, since the Ta2O5 feed
is placed on the substrate material.
To avoid contamination from the reductant and the reaction container, the feed material in the
self-supporting preform was reduced by using reductant vapor as shown below. This process is

162

based on the metallothermic reduction of preform containing feed material, and the morphology
of the tantalum deposit can be controlled by adding flux. (Okabe1 & *1, 2003)

Figure 85: Conventional mettallothermic Reduction (Okabe1 & *1, 2003)

Figure 86: Preform reduction process (Okabe1 & *1, 2003)

Furthermore, it is tough to scale up this process because of the reason that it is difficult to
facilitate a homogeneous reaction when reducing large amounts of feed material in a single
reactor. But by using slurry in this preform reduction process we can scale up our process.
So now our reduction procedure consists of three major steps: preform fabrication, reduction by
magnesium vapour, and recovery of tantalum powder by leaching. The feed preform will
fabricate from slurry, which will be made by mixing Ta2O5 powder, flux (e.g., CaCl2), and a binder.
A collodion solution, which will be a mixture of 5 mass% nitrocellulose in ethanol and ether, can
be used as a binder solution. (Okabe1 & *1, 2003)
The obtained slurry will then be cast into a stainless steel mold, and a preform plate of 5 - 10mm
thickness will produced as shown:
163

Figure 87: plate of Ta2O5 for reduction and their dimensions.. (Okabe1 & *1, 2003)

Now this sintered solid preform containing tantalum oxide will be placed in a stainless steel
vessel, and approximately 20 gm (for each 5 gm of Ta2O5) of magnesium shots will be placed at
the bottom. In this apparatus magnesium will be physically isolated from the feed preform, and
its vapour will be supplied to the feed preform at unit activity through the gas phase while
heating. And pieces of the preform will be installed in a thick-walled stainless steel reaction vessel
as shown in below figure, and will seal by tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding. A sponge titanium will
also be placed at the bottom of the vessel for gettering nitrogen gas in the system. The sealed
reaction vessel will be then heated in an electric furnace, maintained at a constant temperature
1273 K, and at a pressure of 10 atmosphere. After 10 hours of reaction, the reaction vessel will
be taken out of the furnace, and quenched in water. The preforms in the container will be
mechanically separated at room temperature, and then subject to the following leaching process.
The tantalum powder in the preform obtained after the reduction experiment will be recovered
by leaching the preform with acid. The reaction product (MgO), flux, and excess reductant in the
sample will be removed by dissolution in an acetic acid solution. The obtain tantalum powder will
be then washed with water, alcohol and dried in vacuum. (Kunio Minetaa, 2005)

164

Figure 88: apparatus for the production of tantalum powder using preform reduction process (Okabe1 & *1, 2003)

For The designing of this apparatus:

We have total Tantalum in our E- waste is 7.167 kg per day.
So Ta2O5 obtained will be:
Amount of Ta2O5 is= (7.167/181)*(442/2) =8.75kg per day
(Molecular weight of tantalum=181 and Molecular weight of Ta2O5 = 442)
For slurry preparation needed CaCl2 =2*8.75/5=3.5 kg per day
Magnesium required will be= (20/5)*8.75=35 kg per day
Working condition
Pressure inside the apparatus =10 atm.
Temperature=1273K
Magnesium vapour mole will be=35/24=1.46 kmol
So volume required by magnesium vapour will be= 1.46*1000*8.31*1273/(10*10 5) = 15.445
meter3
** It is found that due to some additional volume needed by some metals etc., container
volume should be 5% extra than gas volume required. **
So volume of container should be = 15.445 + 15.445*.05 = 16.217 meter 3
Also container should be cylindrical and let us assume diameter of the cylinder is d and height is
h then
165

( 2 )

= 16.217
4

As we know apparatus cost will be proportional to surface area and to minimise the area

= 0
=0

By this we can say the lesser the height, the lesser will be surface area and hence cost. Bul if we
reduce height and increase diameter then land cost will also increase.
**To get rid of this problem it is suggest to maintain H/D ratio between 1-1.2.**
Let us take H/D=1.2
Hence,
H=1.2*d
So D comes out to be 2.581 meter.
And height will be 3.1 meter.

So apparatus properties and reaction condition are as follow:

Pressure=10 atm.
Temperature=1273K
Height of apparatus=3.1m
Diameter of apparatus=2.581m
Time for reaction =10 hour

166

Summary:
At last we can summarise recovery of tantalum from tantalum capacitor by following diagram.

Figure 89: Flowchart of the tantalum recovery process from capacitor scraps

167

And magnesiothermic reduction can be summarise as follow:

Figure 90: Material flowchart for production of tantalum powder by magnesiothermic reduction
of tantalum oxide using preform reduction process( PRP). (Okabe1 & *1, 2003)

168

Components after different steps are as follow:

Figure 91 : Capacitor analysis at different steps. (Kunio Minetaa, 2005)

169

Tantalum obtain after all this step is very purity very to 99%.we can compare data from given
table.
Table 24: Analytical result of tantalum powder. (Ryosuke Matsuoka, 2004)

8.8 Total Economics of the Glass and Capacitor Recycling:

Total Fixed Cost
Total Operating Cost per year
Total Earnings per year

13600000 INR
248115072 INR
450383949 INR

170

Metal Recycling
Report: Sub-Group-3
9.1 Summary

In this section, the recovery of metal components have been considered. Currently, the main options for
the treatment of WEEE (Waste electric and electronic equipment) are involved in reuse, remanufacturing,
and recycling, as well as incineration & landfilling. The metal content in an electronic appliance ranges
from 20%-50% roughly. The recovery of metals from the e-wastes not only reduces the amount of wastes
landfilled but also saves energy wasted in production of metals from ores and is an environmentally safe
initiative. Using scrap materials instead of virgin materials helps in significant energy savings. The US
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identified seven major benefits, such as saving in energy and
reduction in pollutions when scrap iron and steel are used instead of virgin materials. (Jirang Cui, 2008)

The tables below mentions percentage share by weight as well as by value. We can clearly see that the
precious metals have a huge contribution in the value-shares. For all the equipment considered for our
project, we see the contribution of PMs > 80%. This is what is the major economic drive for the metal
extraction process. The extraction is done in furnaces which requires a lot of heat input. A typical furnace
takes about 10GJ/ton of metal processed roughly. This much energy is compensated by the economic
value gained from the extraction of the precious metals as well as base metals such as copper and lead.

Table 25: Weight based share in various components (Abdul Khaliq, 2014)

171

Table 26: Value based share in various components (Abdul Khaliq, 2014)

Work Contribution:

Copper Smelting: Process Description; Design of Copper Smelters; Design of converters; Piping diameters
(Akriti Bhogal)
Lead Blast Furnace: Description of the equipment; Design parameters of blast furnace (Mamita)
Lead Refinery: Process Flow Diagram; Design of equipments; Mass blance calculations; Compilation of
sub-group Reports (Sumay)
Copper & PM Refinery: Copper Leaching Process Description, Equipments design, Filter Calculations; PM
Recovery leaching design.(Ashutosh)
Cost Analysis: Market value analysis, Fixed Costs, Operating Costs, Maintenance costs (Mamita)

9.2

The Extraction Process - Methodology

The process that we have used for our feed is based on Umicores method of metal extraction and refining.
The extraction process intakes feed which has already undergone plastics removal and magnetic and eddy
separations making the feed devoid of Aluminium, Iron, Plastics and other ferromagnetic metals.

Some sulphur is added with the feed for the smelting process of copper and lead to go on smoothly. This
results in the emission of SO2 which is treated by a bag house filter and converted to Sulphuric acid. Other
by-product of the plant is a depleted slag, which is used as construction material and in the concrete
industry.

The feed composition is as given below:

172

Material

Percentage/PPM

Cu

37.5%

Pb

25.3%

Ag

1000 ppm

Au

250 ppm

Pd

110 ppm

37.5%

O2

9.33%

Table 27: Feed Composition for the Copper Smelter (from estimation)

The main processes of the Precious metals refinery include the Copper smelting process, Lead Blast
furnace, copper and lead leaching, Precious metals leaching. These steps will be explained in the following
sections.

9.3 Copper Smelting Process

The smelter furnace uses the IsaSmelt, submerged lance combustion technology (Fig 1).
This involves injecting oxygen-enriched air and fuel in a molten bath and adding coke as
a reducing agent for the metals. The sulphur added reacts with the copper in the feed to
form copper sulphide. This reaction takes about 8 hours to complete after which the
mixture is sent to a settling furnace. The molten slag, settled at the top, is removed from
the top and this copper sulphide (matte) goes to a converter. This then reacts with the
incoming oxygen to give away SO2 and forms Blister Copper which is highly rich in copper.
A flowsheet of the process is shown below (Fig 2). Note the concentrations and flow rates
at each step.

173

Figure 92: Umicore's IsaSmelt Furnace

174

Figure 93: Flowsheet of the Copper Smelting Process

9.3.1 Design of Copper Smelter

Since we already knew the compositions of slag, copper bullion, Blister Copper and feed from literary
sources, we applied component mass balance and overall mass balance equations to determine the flow
rates of each stream. As an example, one sample calculation has been shown below. The flow rates of
other streams are mentioned in the flowsheet above.

Feed For The ProcessThe feed for our process mainly consists of Copper(Cu), Lead(Pb) and precious
metals such as Au, Ag, Pt, Pd. Also, for smelting reaction to occur, sulphur is added to carry out the reaction
forming slag and matte. Based on the data estimated earlier, we decided to scale up the amount of feed
to be taken as 120 tonne/hr. The feed composition mainly has a major amount of copper and lead giving
175

an average density of about 9.89kg/m3.

Compositions of various streams from Copper Smelter: (from literature survey)

Copper Bullion

Blister copper

Feed

Slag

Material

Percentage

Material Percentage Material Percentage Material Percentage

CuS

60%

Cu

98%

Pb

31%

Cu

37.5%

PbO

1%

Pb

<1%

PbO

35.7%

Pb

25.3%

SiO2

38%

Ag

2300

Cu

6.7%

Ag

1000 ppm

Ag

2300

Au

580

CaO

6.8%

Au

250 ppm

Au

580

Pd

250

SiO2

20.8%

Pd

110 ppm

Pd

250

Ag

190 ppm

37.5%

Au

50 ppm

O2

9.33%

Pd

21 ppm

Table 28: Composition of various streams from copper Smelter

Using the typical composition of Cu matte, slag, matte and lead bullion, mass balance is carried out in
order to know the amount of metal extracted by lead blast furnace.
Nomenclature: The flow rate of Copper Bullion is taken as y, the Slag from Copper Smelter as z, The
Copper Matte from the lead blast furnace (see following section) as m and the Lead Bullion from the
lead blast furnace as p and the aggregates from the blast furnaces s.
Stage 1 (Copper Smelting & Settling Furnace)
Overall mass balance:
y + z = 120 + m
Mass balance on Copper:
0.6y + 0.09z = 44.25 + 0.3m

Stage2 (Lead Blast Furnace)

Mass balance on Lead:
0.9p + 0.04s = 30.09

176

Mass balance on Copper:

0.04p +0.01s + 0.4m = 5.63
Overall mass balance:
p + s+ m = 62.6
Stage 3 (Copper Converter)
For Blister Copper:
0.6y = 0.98B

For SO2:
Overall Mass Balance:
SO2 + B = y
SO2 produced = y - B = 28 tonnes/hr
Solving these equations, we have
Copper Bullion, y= 46.72 tonnes/hr
Slag from Copper smelter, z= 62.6 tonnes/hr
Blast furnace Lead Bullion, p=33.76 tonnes/hr
Blast furnace Aggregates, s=19.71 tonnes/hr
Copper Matte from furnace, m=10.67 tonnes/hr
Blister Copper, B = 28.6 tonnes/hr

Design of Smelter
The smelter furnace is installed, is a vertical cylinder, supported on a concrete base. From (Vignes), we
have the residence time of 8 hours for the smelter furnace. Thus, giving us the required volume of
furnace to be 100m3. Taking the H/D ratio of 3:1, and assuming the design factor of 0.1, we tried to
calculate the dimensions of the furnace.
Volume of furnace= 3.14*D2/4*H
Residence Time = 8 hours
Flow Rate of Feed = 120 tonnes/hr
Density of feed = 9.89 g/cm3 = 9.89 tonnes/m3
Dimensions according to the density of the feed:
=> 3.14 X D2/4 X H = (120 X 8)/9.89
=> 3.14 X D2/4 X 3D = 97.06
=> D = 3.46m
177

=> H = 10.38m
We could also look for a much more sophisticated calculation where we could incorporate the density of
the products as well. We know from previous sections, the composition of products and their flow rates.
Let us calculate the densities of the two product streams from the copper smelter.
Density of Slag = 0.31 X 11.34 + 0.357 X 9.53 + .067 X 8.96 + .068 X 3.34 + 0.208 X 2.65
8.29 tonnes/m3
Density of Copper Bullion = 0.38 X 2.65 + 0.6 X 5.60
= 4.367 tonnes/m3

Averaging over the three streams:

Average Density = (46.72 X 4.367 + 62.6 X 8.29 + 120 X 9.89)/(120+62.6+46.72)
8.32 tonnes/m3

Dimensions according to the average density:

=> 3.14 X D2/4 X H = (120 X 8)/8.32
=> 3.14 X D2/4 X 3D = 115.38
=> D = 3.65 m
=> H = 10.97 m
We have assumed a Design factor of 10% i.e. the values of H & D were multiplied by 1.1 to account for a
sudden increase in demand and for safety processes.
Then,
D= 4.015 m ~ 4 m
H= 12.07 m ~ 12 m

178

12 m

4m

Figure 94: Dimensions of a IsaSmelt Furnace

From the typical smelter furnace specifications for furnace feed of around 110-130tonne/hr, we have 0-6
tonnes/hr Silica as flux and 2-3 tonnes/hr Coal. The fuel and enriched air (oxygen enrichment of the air is
done .The blast typically contains 50 to 60 volume% O2. O2 levels higher than this tend to cause excessive
lance wear) is injected in the furnace with the help of lance. The typical lance for the furnace is made up
of stainless steel, about 15 m long with a diameter of 350 mm. The design of the lance allows the
formation of frozen slag layer on the lance tip. This coating of slag protects the lance tip from wear. The
submerged lance tip has an utility of creating a highly agitated bath ensuring rapid chemical reaction and
good mixing.

The steel smelter is lined with 450 mm chrome-magnesite refractory bricks. This furnace design reduces
capital cost, and an easy installation. The stationary vertical cylinder shape of the furnace allows it to be
bricked easily. The roof of the furnace will be constructed from boiler tube sections containing ports for
feed addition, lance insertion and off-gas removal.

9.3.2

Products

Copper smelting in tall cylindrical furnace while blowing oxygen-enriched air through a vertical lance into
the furnace's matte/slag bath takes place. The products of the process are a matte/slag mixture and a
strong SO2 off gas. The smelting stage involves the oxidation of the feed to form a copper matte. The
matte/slag mixture is tapped into a fuel-fired or electric setting furnace for separation. The settled matte
(~60-70% Cu) Matte (1180 oC) is sent to conventional converting. The slag (0.70% Cu) (1250 oC) is
discarded.
179

Further treatment of matte is done in a furnace in a convertor. Feeding solid matte to the converting
furnace increases the heat load on the furnace which is balanced by the removal of nitrogen from the
system through the use of oxygen resulting in a high SO2 removal in the offgas. The converting stage
mainly
converts
copper
matte
into
blister
copper(98%Cu).
9.3.3 Advantage of Converting Stage:
The smelting and converting processes are very similar and easy to control via a control system which
will simplify operations and logistics within the smelter, allowing all operations to be carried out from
one central control room. These factors will lower the operating costs of the new smelter compared to
other technology. The significantly reduced offgas volume from the converting process will result in
lower capital and operating costs for offgas
collection and cleaning systems.
9.3.4 Matte Settling Electric Furnace
The slag/matte mixture from the copper smelter is separated using a matte settling electric furnace.
With the feed of 120tonnes/hr, around 10,50,000 tonnes/annum, the MSEF used must have a sufficient
capacity. The slag separated is sent to the lead blast furnace and the matte is sent to the converter.
From the literature review(for our feed), the MSEF used is a three-in-line electric furnace, rated at
12MVA using Soderberg electrodes. The furnace dimensions will be around 18.1m*7.4m*5.7m (L*W*H).
(J Ross, 2005)

Dimensions

Value (m)

18.1

7.4

5.7

Table 29: Dimensions of a Matte Settling Furnace

9.3.5

Process Control System

The whole process is controlled by distributed control system (DCS), which mainly looks after the start
and shutdown of the plant. It looks into any deviation alarms and appropriate shutdowns when
necessary. DCS mainly controls the feed to the furnace, control of air, oxygen and fuel oil in the
furnaces. The lance position and the off-gas emission system is also handled by this system. The furnace
refractory temperatures are the effectively monitored by the system. The controller operator inputs
composition of feed with the required target for slag composition, oxygen content in lance air and
required direct lead production. The DCS then controls the plant, to ensure these targets are met and
provides prediction of lead bullion and slag composition. It automatically controls the position of lance
as the molten bath rises and falls.
180

9.3.6 Pipe Designing

Equations are present for the optimum pipe sizing as a function of flow rate and fluid density, can be
converted in optimum velocity.
Optimal velocity, Vopt = 12m0.1 / density0.36

We know, Volumetric Flow rate, Q = A X Vopt

For a circular pipe area, A = 3.14 X D2/4
Using the previously calculated data and the above formulas, we have:
m
Stream

m (tph)

(lbps)

rho
(t/m3)

rho
(lb/ft3)

Vopt
(ft/s)

Area
(ft2)

D
(ft)

Cu Bullion

46.72

28.60302

4.37

272.8465

2.22788

0.047055

0.244831

Slag from Cu smelter

62.6

38.32511

8.29

517.5966

1.821766

0.040644

0.227544

Blister Cu

28.6

17.50956

8.87

553.8096

1.643989

0.019232

0.156521

Pb bullion

33.76

20.66862

10.45

652.4589

1.575699

0.020104

0.160032

Table 30: Diameter Calculation for pipes

9.3.7 The overall process flow diagram for Copper Smelting

181

Figure 95: Copper smelting Process

9.4 Lead Blast Furnace

The lead blast furnace reduces the oxidised lead slag from the smelter with the use of coke as a third party
reactant. The oxygen reacts with the cokes to form carbon dioxide with extensive release of heat. This
carbon dioxide is further reduced by the carbon in the cokes to form carbon monoxide, the main
reductant. The ascending hot gas transfers its heat to the packed bed and melts the charge.
The reduction of lead oxide begins at relatively low temperatures. Other lead species (if at all present)
require higher operating temperatures and thus are not considered from the scope of our work. The noble
metals are largely dissolved in the lead product (bullion),with small amounts distributed to sulfide matte
and slag. The copper content of the sinter is captured in the matte in sulfide form, provided sufficient
sulfur is present. If, however, the sulfur level is insufficient, the copper is reduced and goes into solution
in the lead bullion. A small portion of the copper is always, however, incorporated into the slag in either
oxide or sulfide form. (Fu, 2005)
The lead blast furnace yields the following products:

Lead bullion: which must be further refined (see following sections).

182

Flue dusts and baghouse dusts: which consist of fumes and dust particles carried over by the furnace top
gases. Cadmium tends to accumulate in this dust, and sometimes a special cadmium separation leach is
carried
out
before
the
dust
is
recycled
to
sintering.
Top gas: Blast furnace top gas usually contains 3-4 % carbon monoxide, which represents an unavoidable
energy loss. With normal heat exchange between gas and solids in the shaft the top gas is too cold for
practical heat recovery, so after dust removal it is released to atmosphere.
Aggregates: These contain large amount of silicates and CaO and are used for concrete formation.
Matte: a sulfidic product of blast furnace smelting, forms only if the burden contains enough sulfur. In
general, provided the charge does not contain too much copper or sulfur, matte phase formation is
avoided with the copper remaining in solution in the lead bullion and slag. The copper matte can contain
varying amounts of lead and noble metals. Copper matte is usually sold to special copper smelters, but
processing of matte to copper sulphate or copper metal is becoming more common.

9.4.1 Design of Lead Blast Furnce

We already knew about the composition of Lead Bullion from literary sources. Mass balances applied on
the lead blast furnace unit yield the flow rates for different output streams, as given below:

Lead Bullion

Copper Matte

Aggregates for concrete

Material

Percentage

Material

Percentage

Material

Percentage

Pb

89%

Cu2S

45%

Pb

4.8%

Cu

4.8%

SiO2

35%

Cu

1.5%

0.41%

CaO

4-6%

CaO

40.8%

Ag

1.17%

SiO2

67.8%

Au

0.25%

Pd

0.57%
Table 31: Composition of streams from Lead Blast Furnace

With mass balance, we came to know the amount of lead slag input to the lead blast furnace was
around 62tonnes/hr giving us roughly 1500tonnes/day. Using the typical data, 6tonnes/hr coal is used
with a blast air of 27000m3.Using this feed rate of a lead blast furnace, the typical specifications have
been found out to be:
183

Hearth diameter = 8 to 9.5 m

Working volumes = 1500 m3
Ratio of furnace belly to hearth = 1.09-1.13 (ideally is kept between 1.05 to 1.1)
Ratio of effective furnace height to belly = 2-3
Ratio of furnace top to furnace belly = 0.62-0.71
Taking belly to hearth ratio to be 1.08,
Diameter of furnace belly = 8.75 x 1.08 = 9.45 m
Now taking total height to belly ratio = 2.5,
Effective height of furnace = 9.45 x 2.5 = 23.63 m
Taking furnace top to belly ratio = 0.67,
Diameter of furnace top = 9.45 x 0.67 = 6.33 m
Total height of furnace = effective furnace height + height of stack
(Taking height of stack (upper cylindrical portion) to be 2.75 m)
Total height of furnace = 23.63 + 2.75 = 26.38 m
The lead blast furnace has a funnel like cross-section. The main parts of the furnace are the lling funnel,
the exhaust hood and the hearth. The lling funnel is used to ll the furnace with the charge is made up
of steel plates which themselves are covered with special wear-resistant plates. When damaged these
plates are replaced. The exhaust hood is located at the center of the lling funnel. It is also made up of
steel plates and is used to collect the process gases and dusts which leave the furnace. During operation
of the furnace the exhaust hood is constantly under suction. Through an exhaust channel it is connected
to an installation capable of processing the gases and dusts.
With the feed (lead slag coming from the smelter), an air blast is provided in the furnace with the
help of series of pipes called tueyers on each side of the furnace. The hearth is a massive block built with
bricks. The upper layer is shaped as a bath tub and consists of silica/alumina bricks. This layer forms the
actual bottom of the blast furnace on which the liquid material rests. The upright walls (on which the
cooling plates rest) consist of chrome/magnesia bricks. The entire hearth is surrounded by a steel
construction. As the reaction proceeds, several layers forms in the furnace. The heavy layer settles at the
bottom mainly comprising of lead bullion. From here the liquid phases leave the furnace through a taphole.

184

Figure 96: A typical lead Blast Furnace

9.5 Lead Refining

Granulation of Lead Bullion is logical prior to refining. The transfer between the furnace and refinery
operations is a significant source of leakage of lead fumes to the surroundings. Granulating the lead by
quenching a molten lead bullion stream at 1,100 C1,200 C and transporting flaky, bulky, and
interlocking granulated bullion, can prevent this. (Funsho Ojebuoboh, 2003)
9.5.1 Fluobor Process

Fluobor is an intrinsically simple aqueous process in which the bulk of the lead is dissolved as lead
fluoborate. The dissolution mechanism is ferric, Fe3+, oxidation rather than fluoboric acid, HBF4,
dissolution. The overall reaction is:

Pb + 2Fe(BF4)3 = 2Fe(BF4)2 + Pb(BF4)2

The solution of lead fluoborate in iron fluoborate and fluoboric acid (HBF4) becomes the electrolyte from
185

which lead is recovered by electrowinning. Similar reactions occur between ferric fluoborate and the
impurity elements in the bullion (i.e., zinc, cadmium, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, copper, silver, etc.)
albeit to varying degrees. Therefore, the solution from leaching must be purified by contact with lead
granules in a cementation step. Zinc and cadmium, not amenable to removal by cementation, accumulate
in the electrolyte over time and must be removed otherwise (e.g., by electrolyte bleed). Electrolytic
deposition of lead occurs by the following reaction:

Pb(BF4)2 + 2e- = Pb + 2BF4

Pb2+ + 2e = Pb

The counter reaction at the anode regenerates ferric fluoborate:

2Fe(BF4)2 + 2BF4 = 2Fe(BF4)3 + 2e2Fe2+ = 2Fe3+ + 2e-

The regenerated ferric ion is returned to the leach step to dissolve lead by leaching new granulated
bullion, thereby closing the loop.

Cementation was the primary method of purifying the leach solution; thus, lead was used to displace the
impurity metals from solution. This is done to remove any unwanted metal from the leachate. Lead
displaces the other metal and forms its solution. The residue (cement) is sent back to the previous steps.
(Funsho Ojebuoboh, 2003)

9.5.2 Results & Discussion

Output

Input
Material

Quantity

Granulated 810 tonnes

Lead
Soft Lead

58 tonnes

Material

Quantity

Percentage

Refined Lead

687 tonnes

83.4%

Leach Residue

51.2 tonnes

6.2%

Percentage
93.3%

6.7%
Table 32: Input compositions for the Lead Refining Proces

186

Total

868 tonnes

100%

Cementation
Residue

44.5 tonnes

5.4%

Total

825 tonnes

95%

Table 33:
Output Composition of the product

Volume of Lead bullion to be handled per hour = (33.76 tonnes/hr)/(10.52 tonnes/m3)

= 3200 L/hr

For this much lead bullion, an operational flow rate of 220L/h can be maintained, giving a residence time
of 3200/220 = 14.5 hr per batch for leaching.

The electrolytic portion of the Fluobor process is based on a divided cell configuration where the cell is
divided into strict anolyte and catholyte compartments. The division is enforced with a diaphragm made
from fine-mesh polyethylene separators.
Lead was deposited on 316 stainless steel cathodes in two air-agitated catholyte compartments. Four
sheets of deposited lead could be harvested after a deposition cycle of nominally 24 h. The anode was a
graphite sheet (approximately 13 mm). Electrowinning was conducted under a fixed current of 500 A
and a current density of 250 A/m2. (Funsho Ojebuoboh, 2003)
Total lead bullion + soft lead to be handled = (33.76 tonnes/h X 24 h) X 100/93.3
= 868 tonnes/cycle

Initially, cementation was conducted with soft (pure) lead, and the process was maintained at 50C. For a
cycle of 24 hrs, we get the soft lead requirement to be = 868 X 0.067
= 58 tonnes/cycle
= 2.41 tonnes/hr
The results obtained for the electrolysis of the leachate (24 hr retention time) are as follows:The
imbalance, 5%, is primarily in process or accumulated material, an indication of the amount of material
the plant maintains relative to raw material loading.

For a retention time of 24 hours, we would need a large no. of vessels (each of capacity 3000L).

Mass of iron fluoborate required = 2 X (moles of Pb in Lead Bullion feed) X Mw

187

= 2 X (0.89X33760/207) kgmoles/hr X 314 kg/kgmol

= 91 tonnes/hr
Density of fluoroborate solution = 31.4 kg/lit
Volume required = 91 X 14.5/31.4 = 42 m3

Volume handles per cycle for leaching step =810 tonnes/(10.53 tonnes/m3) +58 tonnes/(11.34
tonnes/m3) + 42 m3 = 124.11 m3

If each vessel has a capacity of 3 m3 (3000L), then the no. of vessels required = 124.11/3 = 41 vessels.

Lead obtained = 687 tonnes per cycle i.e. 24 hours for a feed of 818 tonnes of Lead bullion and 50 tonnes
of soft lead.
The electrolysis setup is as shown below:

Figure 97: Electrowinning section of the Lead Refining Plant (Funsho Ojebuoboh, 2003)

9.5.3 Process Flow Sheet (Lead Refining):

188

Figure 98: Schematic of the Lead Refinery Process

189

190

9.5.4 The overall Process Flow Diagram for the whole lead refining process.

Figure 99: Overall Lead Refining Process

9.6 Copper Leaching Step

Hydrometallurgy (leaching and recovery processes)

For metals other than Fe, we handle their extraction using leaching processes after smelting is completed.
The feed in this process consist of 98 wt% of copper and some precious metals in quantities(1000ppm Ag,
225ppm Au, 110ppm Pd) . The leaching tanks in each case of leaching is basically a continuous stirred
tank reactor. The conditions vary in each case of leaching depending on the process and quantity to be
handled. Filtration is performed after every leaching process using rotary vacuum filters. The extraction
of copper is done using electrolysis while the others are precipitated using Sodium borohydride as a
reducing agent. (A. Tuncuk, 2012)

9.6.1 1st leaching process:

Leaching by sulphuric acid in the presence of hydrogen peroxide

191

This step mainly involves the extraction of copper along with small amount of silver. Copper can be easily
extracted by leaching to 99.75% of the original content and 11.3% of the silver content. (Ali Behnamfard,
2013)
Since the scrap metal is in crushed form initially, a slurrification process is needed at this stage to
form a slurry for proper flow along the process. The slurrification is done in two tanks where the liquid
used is the anolyte from the electrowinning section which contain a mixture of CuSO4 and H2SO4.
Hydrogen peroxide is also added at this stage itself so as to initiate the reaction in the slurrification tank
itself. (Bernt Lie)

The reaction followed:

Next come the Leaching tanks which are 5 tanks in series each of which is essentially a stirred
tank reactor. The sizes of the leaching tanks are bigger than that of the slurrification tanks. Sulphuric
acid is added at the first tank to make up for the utilized acid. Since these findings are at steady state,
the anolyte itself provides for sulphuric acid too. The conditions throughout the slurrification tank and
leaching tanks is maintained the same which is temperature maintained at 298K and rotation speed in
the leaching tanks at 210 rpm.

Equipment Specifications

The mathematical approach towards sizing and measurements goes as follows. The reaction rate, which
is assumed to be elementary, is governed for each species by (Bernt Lie) :

where k = 2.91 mole L/hr.

The rate of change in the mass concentration of the species in the leaching process has the form (Bernt
Lie) :

192

where is the mass concentration of the species j in each tank of slurrification and leaching sections. mi,j,i is the total
input mass flow of the specie j to tank i, while Vi,o is the total volumetric flow out of the tank, M j is the molar mass
of specie j, Vi is the volume of tank i, and ri.j is the reaction rate in tank i of specie j.

On the basis of these equations and the sample run and its data from the research paper referred to, we performed
a run to estimate the time for the process by use of the integrated form of the above differential equation.

The results of the calculation are as follows:

PH2SO4

Pij

Vol of
tank

Total mass flow

rate

Molar
mass

Vol flow out

Rxn rate

Time

74.326

58.6158

7400

7330000

82000

79.5

131.7539 3.532384

67.7597

53.2891

4000

4369706.2

82000

79.5

109.1988 3.603032

55.2208

34.0256

14000

2807112

82500

79.5

56.82202 10.61678

42.6167

23.8008

16000

1963566

82500

79.5

30.67464 9.701167

34.9698

17.5975

18000

1451793.75

82500

79.5

18.61025 34.37769

29.9405

13.5176

18000

1115202

82500

79.5

12.23959 23.36948

26

10.538

18000

887299.6

84200

79.5

8.2859

68.90984
2.568506

Table 10: Results of the calculation of the 1st leaching process

The schematic diagram for the leaching tank (Ltd. U. I.):

193

Figure 100: Schematic of CSTR for Leaching process

Therefore, the estimated time for one slurrification and leaching cycle to be completed is 2.57
hrs. Since these processes are the ones taking longer time compared to filtration and electrowinning
processes, the time taken for these will be used for further calculation since we are taking it to be a
continuous process.
From the estimation data, which was done before, we use the amount of Cu generated on a per
day basis due to e waste. Assuming that the plant is being run for 12 hrs, we approximate there to be 4
cycles of processes in a day since each one takes 2.56 hrs and allocating the remaining time as losses. SO,
in this way, we figure out the Cu to be handled per cycle. Since the percentage of Copper in the feed
coming from the smelting process is around 60%, we calculate the total amount of feed to be handled.
Using the feed amount, we refer to the sample data for the process and using unitary method, we get the
capacity needed for each process. For leaching process, since we need to use a stirred tank reactor, the
specification were needed to be found out. Using the capacity needed for the process, we used the
commercially available leaching tanks which can support the given capacity. We finally, concluded to use
LB - 3000 model of Unionsum International Industrial Co.Ltd. which had the following specifications:
(Ltd. U. I.)

For the leaching tank:

Model

LB-3000

Internal
Diamete
r
(mm)
3000

Internal
height
(mm)

Effective
Volume
(m3)

Blade
Rotation
(rpm)

Blade
Diameter
(mm)

Motor
model

3000

19.1

210

700

Y180M-4

194

Moto
r
powe
r
18.5

Table 11: Equipment Specifications of the CSTR

Sample calculation:

The amount of feed being handled is taken to be 120 tonnes/hour.

Out of which 28 tonnes comes to the leaching units.

Total feed per cycle = 28000/4 = 7000 kg/cycle

Volume required for leaching tanks = 20*7000/7330
= 19.09 m3

Other volumes (Bernt Lie) :

Slurrification tank 1 = 7.06 m3

Slurrification tank 2 = 3.82 m3
Filtration tank 1 = 14.32 m3
Filtration tank 2 = 14.32 m3
Filtration tank 3 = 43.26 m3
Electrowinning tank 1 = 33.42 m3
Electrowinning tank 2 = 38.19 m3
Electrowinning tank 3 = 40.11 m3

The amount of feed being handled is taken to be 120 tonnes/day.

Out of which 28 tonnes comes to the leaching units.

9.6.2 Filtration Process

195

The filtration tank are actually modified to rotary vacuum filters with the capacity of the third
filtration tank to make the process continuous. the liquid from the filters is taken for electrowinning
process and the solid residue is taken further for leaching of precious metals.

The Schematic Diagram of the rotary vacuum filter (Feltenstein, 1987):

Figure 101: Schematic of Rotary Vacuum Filter

9.6.3 The Electrowinning for Cu and Ag

The Electrowinning in the end, is done in an electrolysis chambers which are in fact a large number
of electrolysis tanks in parallel. The fluid at the exit is known as anolyte. The outlet from the electroysis
tanks are combined ina manifold, and is then sent to a mixing tank with the volume calculated before
recycling the anolyte to the slurrification tanks. (Bernt Lie)
The electrolysis can be described as follows: although the content of the liquid has been described
as copper sulphate CuSO4 and sulphuric acid H2SO4, these molecules will in fact exist partially
disassociated, i.e. in some equilibrium.

196

In addition, water is partially disassociated:

This mixture is an electrical conductor and by injecting current I through this, the following happens.
At the cathode, copper is neutralized:

At the anode,

The specie balances for the electrowinning tanks, we have:

where ew is the mass concentration of the specie in the electrowinning chamber. Ved2w is the volumetric
flow rate out to the tank, Vew is the volume of the electrowinning tank Vew2m is the volumetric flow rate of
water which is added to compensate for any bleed during mixing and mew is the mass flow rate of the
specie into the chamber. (Bernt Lie)
The time taken for the process can be calculated in a similar way as that of the leaching tanks but it is
unimportant as the time is shorter in this case to be relevant for process calculations.
Along with Copper, Silver also gets extracted in the similar manner by forming AgSO4 though it is in much
less but relevant quantity. The amount obtained on a per hour basis for a 120 tonnes of feed is 99.75% of
Cu and 11.3% of Ag. which amounts to 13.56kg of Ag and 27,371.4 kg of Cu. (Ali Behnamfard, 2013)

197

9.6.4 The overall process for the first leaching process:

Figure 102: The overall Process flow diagram for the first leaching step.

9.6.5 2nd Leaching Process:

Leaching by acidic thiourea in the presence of ferric iron.

A detailed model of the process was not to be found but a reference could help us relate this process and
the leaching by sulphuric acid. On the basis of this correlation, we predicted the time and equipment
design for this process also.
The solid residue from the first leaching process is mixed with a solution of 20 g/L thiourea, 6 g/L of ferric
iron as an oxidant and 10 g/L of sulphuric acid. The Leachate formed from this process contains Cu, Au,
198

Ag and Pd out of which only Au and Ag are economically useful to be obtained since the amount of others
is significantly low. (Ali Behnamfard, 2013)

From the referred paper, we get to know that in a span of the same time as that of the first leaching step,
that is 2.56 hrs, we obtain 84.31% of the gold content and 71.36% of silver content that was present in
the feed.
The reactions taking place in the leaching process are as follow:

The Copper and Palladium content remains low bacause Palladium doesn't react with thiouera
and Copper has already been extracted more than 99% of its original content.

The volumetric capacity required for the second leaching process remains same to that of the first leaching
process. So, the specifications for the first process can be made use of in this too. So the leaching tank to
be used will be LB - 3000 model itself along with filtration done using rotary vacuum filter.

Precipitation of Au and Ag from the leach solution:

Sodium borohydride is used as the reducing agent for both gold and silver from acidic thiourea. It has a
more selective precipitation of gold than any other reducing agent and if a satisfactory two stage process
can be developed, it is possible to recover the gold and the silver separately in each stage though further
research in this particular area has not been done yet to estimate the possibility of these stages.

The anodic oxidation of the borohydride in the aqueous solution where the electrons are generated is
given by:

The overall precipitation reaction for gold is expressed as:

199

The results of the paper referred to showed that the acidic thiourea at 8 g/L concentration is ideal to be
used for the reduction process as the efficiency saturates over these concentrations both in the case of
Au and Ag. (Ali Behnamfard, 2013)

The precipitation equipment to be used is a continuous precipitator. Though a model for a liquid-solid
continuous precipitator is not in practice, a proposed idea in a referred research paper is using a number
of batch precipitators connected in series, and continuous streams of the medium and the precipitating
gas are passed through them consecutively in counter flow. It is a very expensive process where the cost
of installation along with maintenance of temperature at a higher degree than room temperature is very
high. (Ali Behnamfard, 2013) (Carl W Carlson, 1961)

A filter unit is applied again after the precipitation which separates the liquid waste water from the metals.
The waste water can be taken further to treatment plant.

This step, taking into account 120 tonnes of feed, gives us 25.293kg of Gold and 101.172kg of Silver in
an hour.

9.6.6 3rd Leaching Process:

Chloride Leaching

The same reference used to predict the process specifications in the 2nd leaching process is also applied
in this case. Therefore, the mathematical calculation in the first leaching process are utilized and
correlated to roughly find the equipment specification for this process too.
The solid residue from the 2nd leaching process is mixed with solution containing 1 V% H2O2, 10 V% NaClO
and 5M HCl with the temperature being 363K and the process continues for 2.56 hrs. Filtration is
performed using rotary vacuum filter.
200

From the last leaching process, still 15% of the original gold and almost all of the Palladium still
remains which is needed to be extracted in this stage. Palladium forms stable chloro complexes with the
acidic chloride solution such as PdCl+,
PdCl-3 and PdCl2-4, but at Cl- concentration more than 0.1 M, the dominant species is PdCl2-4. This selectivity
is why NaClO-HCl-H2O2 system is used.

The leaching process of Palladium occurs through the following reactions:

There are multiple reactions taking place in the reactor. H2O2 reacts with HCl to form Cl2 and water. The
chlorine along with HCl reacts with Palladium as follows:

Palladium also react with an active compound HClO, formed from the reaction between NaClO and HCl,
which can be written as:

The leaching of Palladium increases with the increase in concentration of NaClO from 3 to 10 V% and
further increase doesn't have any significant effect on the leaching process. Also, in the case of increasing
concentration HCl, the Pd leaching increases. However, it has negligible effect when the concentration of
NaClO is as high as 15 V%. But the gold leaching efficiency is higher in the case of 5M HCl. Therefore, the
solution used has concentration as 5M HCl and 10 V% NaClO. (Ali Behnamfard, 2013)

In case of temperature, The Pd recovery increased with increase in temperature up until 336K after which
it decreased. But in the case of Gold, The efficiency kept increasing until 363K. And since the decrease in
the Pd recovery after 336K wasn't very high, we choose the temperature conditions at 363K.

Precipitation of Pd and Au from chloride leach solution:

201

The precipitation of Palladium and Gold was taken from the referred paper which investigated the amount
with respect to the amount of Sodium borohydride(SBH) used. The result indicated that after addition of
only 2 g/L of SBH, all of Palladium and Gold got precipitated and the process was fast enough to be
completed in only 15 minutes.
The anodic oxidation of the borohydride is same as that in case of the 2nd leaching process. The
cathodic reduction od Palladium is however, expressed as follows:

The reduction of Gold are as follow:

The overall reactions for PD and Au:

The precipitation equipment model has the same specifications as that of the 2nd leaching process. Along
with that, there is a filter unit to recover these metals after precipitation and the waste water can be sent
to the treatment plant. (Ali Behnamfard, 2013) (Carl W Carlson, 1961)

Figure 103: Block diagram for the Leaching process

202

The amount of recovery in this step for Pd is 97.87% of the feed content and for Au is 16.48%. The Pd
recovery per day is of 12.9 kg and for Au, it is 4.94 kg.

203

9.6.7 The overall Process Flow Diagram for the whole copper hydrometallurgy process.

Figure 104: Overall Process Flow Diagram

9.7 Economics of the Process

204

9.7.1 Fixed Costs

Fixed costs include the cost of the equipments being used in the processes. We are using the following
equipments.

S.
NO.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Equipment

Power consumption
(in kW)
Copper smelter
1800
Lead blast furnace 700
Converter
650
Settling furnace
600
CSTR (3000 L)
12
CSTR (2000 L)
10
Rotary filter
10
Solids precipitator 70
Mixing tank
4
Electrowinning
60
tank

Cost of 1 unit
(in Rs)
1343750
6250000
1343750
5140000
937500
875000
100000
562500
1375000
1562500

No. of units
being used
1
1
1
1
41
72
1
1
2
1
Total Costs =

Total cost
13,43,750
62,50,000
13,43,750
51,40,000
3,84,37,500
6,30,00,000
1,00,000
5,62,500
27,50,000
15,62,500
12,04,90,000

Table 12: Fixed Costs for various equipments used in the Metal Recovery unit

9.7.2 Operation Costs

Assuming cost of 1 KWH = 8 Rs, cost of operation of an equipment with power consumption of 1 KW
operating for 24 hours every day annually = Rs. 8 x 24 x 365 = Rs. 70080

S.
NO.

Equipment

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Copper smelter
Lead blast furnace
Converter
Settling furnace
CSTR (3000 L)
CSTR (2000 L)
Rotary filter
Solids precipitator
Mixing tank
Electrowinning tank

Power
consumption
(in kW)
1800
700
650
600
12
10
10
70
4
50
Total Costs

Operation Cost
(in Rs.)
12,61,44,000
4,90,56,000
4,55,52,000
4,20,48,000
14,01,600
12,61,440
7,00,800
49,05,600
2,80,320
35,04,000
27,48,53,760

Table 13: Power Consumption costs for various equipments (in kWh)

205

9.7.3 Maintenance Costs

In a chemical industry, the maintenance cost is usually 20-30 % of the operational costs. Assuming it to
be 25% of the operation costs, the maintenance costs of the equipments are calculated as followed:

S.
NO.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Equipment
Copper smelter
Lead blast furnace
Converter
Settling furnace
CSTR (3000 L)
CSTR (2000 L)
Rotary filter
Solids precipitator
Mixing tank
Electrowinning tank

Operation Cost
(in Rs.)
126144000
49056000
45552000
42048000
1401600
1261440
700800
4905600
280320
3504000
Total cost

Maintenance
costs (in Rs.)
3,15,36,000
1,22,64,000
1,13,88,000
1,05,12,000
3,50,400
3,15,360
1,75,200
12,26,400
70,080
8,76,000
6,87,13,440

Table 14: Operation & Maintenance Costs for equipments (n Rs)

Initial fixed capital costs = Rs. 12,04,90,000

Total annual investment costs annually = Rs. 34,35,67,200
Therefore total operational and maintenance costs per day = Rs. 9,41,280

Production:
Cost of copper = 481 Rs/ kg
Cost of copper produced= 27371.4*481
= 1,31,65,643 Rs
Cost of lead = 125 Rs /kg
Cost of lead produced= 125*687000
= 8,58,75,000 Rs
Cost of Gold = 2419500 Rs/kg
Cost of Gold produced = 30.233*2419500

206

= 7,31,41,485 Rs
Cost of Silver = 32687.5 Rs/ kg
Cost of Silver Produced = 114.732*32687.5
= 37,50,236 Rs
Cost of Palladium = 1525000 Rs/kg
Cost of Palladium produced = 1525000*12.9
= 1,96,72,500 Rs

Total production worth per day = 19,56,04,864 Rs

Consumption:
Cost of sulphuric acid used = 1,17,83,125 Rs
Cost of thiourea used = 182762 Rs
Cost of sulphuric acid in second leaching process = 2,27,14,105 Rs
Cost of iron oxidizing agent = 71967.76 Rs
Cost of hydrogen chloride used = 24000 Rs
Cost of Sodium Hypochlorite = 3014 Rs
Cost of SBH = 24,150 Rs

Total consumption per day = Rs. 3,48,03,123

Total profit per day = Total production worth per day - Total consumption per day - total operational
and maintenance costs per day
= 19,56,04,864 - 3,48,03,123 - 9,41,280
= Rs. 15,98,60,461

*We have not considered many other factors in the plant economics like installation cost, labour cost,
utilities, administration overhead and distribution of final products due to their non-availability.

207

Sources: (Bagajewicz, 2010), (www.alibaba.com), (Houghton), (Max S. Peters, 1991)

9.8 Overall Process Flow Diagram for the Metal Refinery Process

208

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