57 1

E N G I N E E RI N G.

YPHO

LOClC

ON THE apex to the lock, as can be seen in Fig. 5. In t his above the suction cylinder commandmg the two
THE HOTOPP
fiaure the principal dimensions, which are the same volves
and c. If the valve v be opened so that
0
ELBE-TRAVE CANAL.
f;r all t he locks, are given : Available length, the air can escape t hrough t he pipe l , ~nd the
THE North-East .ea Canal, which joins .. IGel
Bay and the Baltic w1th the Elbe at Brunsbuttel,
below Hamburg, has not satisfied all the imp~rtant
demands for canal connection between the Balttc and
the Elbe. The Old head town of the Hansa, L \ibeck,
n particular does not profit by the great canal, as
~~- 18 long' wa.y by sea to K.iel Bay around the
1eastern
11
project10n of H olstetn, though not a long
.stance
by
rail.
In
the
great
days
of
the
Hansa,
dl ~
h e E 1b e
nitz
Canal
was
constructed
from
t
the Steck
d . N ow
to the Trave, on which L iibeck. i.s sitl.;I ate
t
t
that Liibeck is once more rismg In o Impor ance the old Stecknitz Canal, opened in 1398, has
beed closed after al~ost ~xactly fiv e hundred years
of service, to be revived !n the mod~rn Elbe-Trave
Canal which is approachmg complet10n. The new
canal 'follows essentially .the .old route. Starting
from Laiienburg, on the JUnctwn of the Elbe and
the Delvenau about 30 miles above Hamburg, it
makes use of the watercourse.s of the Delvenau and
the Stecknitz, which flow m to the Trave. To
anticipate correct.ion, we may say that the Delvena.u
Q

80 met res (262.5 ft. ) ; width, 17 metres (56 ft .,

about) ; and depth, 2.5 metres (8ft. 3 in.). The
area of the lock chamber is abo ut 15,070 square feet,
its capacity 135,969 cubic feet; the resenoir basin
has twice the area of the lock chamber, and can

d
f
supply four-elevenths of the water requue . or
fillinQ: the lock chamber. At t he gates the w1dth
) . Th e h ead s
of the lock is 12 metres (39 f t . 4 m.
and t he walls of the lock piers wer e each built
'
Th e b et on 1ayer of
with its own sheet p il mg.
k ness o f 400 m1'11'1the lock chamber has a t 1uc

5 ill' t
(l )
(15 75 )
metres
.
111. ; wues, . m. Ime res 3 l.n.
in thickness, are embedded 1n t h1s beton, forming
a n etting. Other parts of the concrete have been
strengthened by means of 1.6-in. iron bars. The
gaps left between t he heads and the walls have
been stopped with flat bars, wound with oakum,
impregnated with tar.
Of the two gates of each lock, the one closing
against the upper water, i~ a bear trap dam or li~gate, presently to be descn .b ed; the other an ord1nary two-leaf gate. In F1gs . 1 to 5 we see the
...,

lever j ust ment ioned be moved, the 'Yater wlll enter

into the cylinder through the plpe 't and the
valve c . the feed comes from t he side of the
upper w~ter. The air outlet is then. closed again and
ill
fl
t
the lever is turned. RThe water
w
now
ow
ou
.d d
t'

through the pipe , pro~1 e connec Ion lB established between the cy tinder Sand theTh
syphon
through the valve and pi.pes , s.
~
linder will begin to empty 1tself, and the
. d a1r will
In
be sent from the syphon into the cy1m er. h
t he syphon the water will rise and fall over t e
overflow. As the syphon is narrower at its
h. h
apex than lower down, the air current w 10 '
as yet, was from the syphon i~to ~he cylind~r,
will soon be reversed, and the au will be carr1ed
down the syphon with the water. As a consequence, the suction cylinder can automatically r efil
itself, the air finding an other outlet than formerly
through l and v. This r efilling will, however, take
place through R, fr01n the side of t he lower wa.te:.
When it is desired to work another syphon, 1t IS

er-

Cros8 8ecti.on.s .

Ftj .J .

...

A.
r : ;
Q
I

:'

'

I
o

LorJv Cha:mhe:r

;
I

..
o

'

'

(0

I I
: r
I

L+- ~- - - - - -

- -

8 0Tn./.

- "}-- - - - - -- - -
I

- -

- - - - - ~ -

I
I

I.

- -

Tifj .4 . .

LOCX

CHAMBER

Fl,oat WelL .

PLAN .

(SI]/ " )

appears also to be known under the name of Stecknitz. The new canal has a length of 67 kilometres
41.6 miles), a bottom width of at least 22 metres
(72 ft. ), and a minimum depth of 2 metres
(6 ft. 7 in.). It is not a big canal, therefore,
and the means placed at the disposal of the
constructors were scanty. But the manner of working the locks is novel and very interesting. F or
the facts which we publish, we are indebted in the
main to a paper which Professor Hans Arnold, of
Hanover, has published in t he '' Zeitschrift des
Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure," and our thanks are
given both to the author and the editor. We
further wish to acknowledge our indebtedness to
Mr. Hotopp, the designer of the syphon locks, who
o?liged us with a descriptive pamphlet compiled by
htmself and the engineer.in-chief on the canal, Mr.
Rehder.
The canal is fed from Lake Molln, which is about
24ft. above the level of t he Elbe, and 40ft. above
the level of the Trave. The central reach of the
canal, a length of 18. 6 miles, has been exeavated
to a depth of 2. 5 metres (8! ft. ). The incline
down to the level of the Elbe, 5. 6 miles in length,
has been overcome by two locks, and the incline down
to the Trave, 10.5 miles, by five locks. The fall of
the locks varies between 5. 6 ft. and 13.3 ft., three
of the looks having falls of less than 6 ft. In the
~e of. the other four, the locks have been proVIded w1t~ reservoir basins, from which they can be
filled durmg the dry season. These reservoir basins
have the shape of a sector, the sector turning its

culverts and the sixteen ports, through which they

communicate with the lock chamber; the aggregate
sections of the p orts represent double the sections
of t he culverts. But there are no sluices to close or
open t he culverts, the sluices being replaced by
syphons. As shown in the illustrations, the culverts
rise near the ends of the lock to form overflows.
All these overflows rise to the level of the water
in the upper reach. The syphons by which
the culverts aro continued, are made of wrought
iron, and are lined with cement to lessen the danger
from oxidation which the alternating action of
water and air might cause. They are r ectangular
in section, the width at t he t op being 0. 7 that
of the culvert, while their lower ends have the
full culvert width. The water which passes into
or from the lock chamber has to flow through
these syphons. This action takes place with the
help of the devices illustrated in Fig. 6, page 572.
A wrought-iron cylinder has been placed in the lock
walls, on the same side as the operator 's cottage, that
is on the side opposite t o the reservoir basin, as
shown in Fig. 5. The capacity of the suction cylinder is one-fifth greater than that of t he r espective
syphons which are simultaneously in operation. Its
upper edge is on a level with the upper water, and,
therefore, with the syphon back, and its size is
such that its lower edge always r emains above the
lower water level.
The suction cylinder communicates with the
upper and lower reaches, and also with the
syphons and the atmosphere, by pipes and tubes,

necessary only to change the valve v. It would,

therefore, appear that filling the suction cylinder
from the upper water, in the manner first explained, will o~y be required once for starting
the operation . The lever mechanism is, however,
also needed, because the cylinder might leak and
r efuse to operate after a so mew hat long period
of rest. The valve V is in the operator's cottage,
to which the pipes S and s are taken through a
conduit.
This arrangement was first introduced at the
Krummesse Lock, which has a fall of 2.75 metres,
and having given satisfaction there, was adopted for
t he other locks. The suction cylinder has a length
of 8. 5 metres and a diameter of 2 metres (28 ft.
by 6ft. 7 in.). This gives a. volume of 26 cubic
metres (918 cubic feet), while the capacity of the
syphon is 11 cubic metr es (388 cubic feet). The diameters of the pipes ar e : S, 150 millimetres (6 in.); s,
100 millimetres (4 in.) ; l (air pipe), 50 millimetres
(2 in.); 't , pipe communicating with the upper water,
300 millimetr es (11.8 in.) ; R, pipe between cylinder and lower water, 500 millimetres (19. 7 in.).
The section of the culverts is 2.4 square metres
(28.8 square feet) ; of t he syphon at its apex,
1. 7 square metres (18. 7 square feet). The capacit y of t he lock chamber is 3850 cubic metres
(136,000 cubic feet); 1400 cubic metres can be
taken from the reservoir basin. To empty or fill
t he Krummesse L ock requires seven minutes; but
ten minutes are required when the reservoir basin
is put under requisition.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
Some other details have to be described. The
gates are moved by means of compressed air and
the flow of water through t he lock cham her cr~ates
t he nec.essary ~nergy. The arrangement is illustrated In the diagram, Fig. 7, which does not refer
to. Kru~messe, h owever , but to one of the locks
W:Ith a higher fal~. The principle of this hydraulic
au ~o~presso~ IS not new. We illustrated an
apphcat10n of It, on ~ ~igantic scale, on page 563,
vol. _lxv:, when .descnbmg Mr. C. H. Taylor 's inter esting Ins_t~llatlons at Magog, Quebec, and at Ainsworth, Bnt1sh Columbia. The latter plant was to
be brought to a capacity of 500 horse-power. On the
Elbe-Trave Can~llocks no great power is called for.
But the adaptati~n of t his hydro-pneumatic method
of power generation to lock-working has not been
attem_pte~ be!ore, so far as we are aware, and the
comb1nat10n lB very interesting. A well has been
s~nk to a depth of about 20 ft. on the upper
pier-head. In t_h e concrete a cylindrical bell, 1.9
metres (6 ft. 3 In.) has been fixed ; this vessel ia

F-0 .6

(MAY 4,

that th~ fl~w t hrough f can re-start ; t he water will

then rise In the ascending leg of h. Before t he
lock chamber is .emptied, this valve again is closed.
The syphon h will then automatically beoin to act
a~a~. I~ this way a fresh supply of c~mpressed
ai: IS o~ta1ned by merely turning a cock twice ; the
2-m. p1pes o and u take t he air to the operator's
cottage. The ~ell has a capacity of 4.5 cubic
metres (159 cubtc feet); about 3 cubic metres of
compreseed air are required for operating the lock
gate.
The bear trap dam or lid gate, Fig. 7, which closes
t he. lock cham~er on the high-water side, forms
an uon box whiCh turns about its horizontal axis
Being a little heavier than water, is lies norman;
on t he floor of t he lock chamber. To move t he
g,.te, air is admitted into one of the gate compartments, the second one reckoned from the
top of the gate, marked. k in Fig._ 7. The pipe
o conveys compressed a1r to an 1ron trough in
the floor of the lock-gate chamber.
The gate

Byphcrt/ a:n..cL Suction,

Compressed air is also used for operating the

lower gate. The arrangements made for this purpose are illustrated in Figs. 5 and 8. To a chain
are f~s~ened an iron bell T, which we will call
the dtv~ng bell, and a counterweight G. The bell
m?ves In a well, the position of which is shown in
F1g. 5 ; t he counterweight is suspended in the gate
r~cess. The parts are duplicated on th e opposite
s1de of the lock for the other leaf of the gate. The
well has a depth of 4. 5 metres, and is always full of
water. T~e bell has a diameter of 1.6 metres (about
4ft.), a he1ghtof 1 metre, and weighs 665kilogrammes
(1466lb.) more t han the counterweight. 'hen compressed. air is introduced into the bell through
t he flextbl~ tube 11,, the bell beoins to rise when
q u~te full of air, its buoyancy is twice its' excess
we.Ight, s? that the acting force is 665 kilogrammes.
With th1~ pull the load acts on its own gate
leaf, closmg the gate when the bell is risina.
The chain is fixed direct to the rod. At the
Krummesse Lock, where these novel arranaeo

cy b.nder .

Sl..U}ti.o IV

1900.

..

t!ltb.l er~.

-----

Sca..Le 1 1W
,

Fif;.? .

Fig .B

B ear Trap D G.m./.

Air Ccmpress or
~

L .W .

-- .

(S/39 B)

called t he compressed-air bell. The pipef through

which the water from the upper reach falls into t he
bell, is double funnel-shaped; at its bend it has
only 0.4: of the maximum width, 13.5 square feet,
at its lower extremity, which is about 10 ft.
below upper water level, and 16 in. above
the floor of the well. The syphon pipe h rises
from a slightly higher level, 20 in. above the
floor of the well, extends its horizontal arms just
up to t he level of the upper water, and then down
into the lower water. In t he top of t his syphon
an air pipe n~t, 1. 6 in. in width, has been fixed,
which leads to the val ve v in the operator's cottage. The overflow pipe f is also provided at its
bend with an open air pipe x , about f in. in diameter. When water falls into the well through
the pipe f, a strong suction will be set up at
the bend where the section of the pipe is diminished, and air will be drawn in through x and collect above the water in the upper part of the
bell, pressing the water through h over into the
chamber. This will continue until the water level
in the bell has sunk below the mouth of h. The
syphon h will then cease to act, and the air will
not further be compressed in the bell. The greatest
water pressure obtainable in t his well is that due to
9. head of 16 ft. 5 in.
If the valve is now opened
in the pipe m, the air will find an escape from h, so

is provided with open ports, which guide t he

compressed air into the compartment k, where
it replaces t he water. The gate begins to rise;
finally it leans against the pier blocks in the
slightly inclined position indicated in Fig. 7. This
rise of t he gate is accomplished within one minute.
The pressure of t h e water above keeps the gate in
this position, while t he lock chamber is being
emptied, although t he buoyancy of the gate would
soon become insufficient to prevent it sinking.
There is a bent air pipe i, 1 in. in diameter,
leading to t he back of the gate, through which
the enclosed air can escape, as soon as the
water in the lock chamber has sunk low enough.
The compartment k, th erefore, becomes refilled
with water from t he upper water side, and the
gate will be ready to fall again and to reopen
t he lock. This cannot take place, of course,
before the lock chamber has been refilled by
a r enewed action of the suction cylinder and
syphons. The dimensions of the compartment h
are 12 by 0.6 by 0.3 metre (39ft. by 23.6 in. by
11. 8 in .), corresponding to a capacity of 2 cubic
metres (70.6 cubic feet). The mouth of the air
supply pipe o is 3.3 metres (130 in. ) under water
level. One cubic metre of compressed air, under
a pressure of 4. 5 metres, suffices to move the
gate.

ments were first t ried, a. rack and toothed gear

was employed; simpler mechanisms have been
adopted, however, for the other six locks. When
the gate is shut, no further force is needed to keep
it closed. The compressed air may, therefore, at
once be discharged. The bell will then be ready
to sink again, and when the lock chamber has been
emptied, and the water pressure taken off the
gate, the bell will automatically descend n.nd
again open the gate. This movement also occupies one minute, and about 2 cubic metres (70ft. )
of air are required to effect it.
To summarise the operations, we will assume
that a ship approaches from the lower reach. The
lower gate is closed by manipulating t he air
pipe u; the lock chamber is filled with the help
of the syphon on the upper water side ; these two
operations take from one to seven minutes. During
t his time the valve in the pipe m is opened, allowing the air to escape from the syphon pipe h of
the compressor (Fig. 7). The upper gate will now
open automatically, and the vessel pass out of tho
lock ; valve m has now to be closed and valve u to
be opened, so that the diving bell is released.
\Vhen the vessel comes in the other direction, the
upper gate-the bear trap-has first to be closed,
which is done with the help of t.he air pipe o.
The lock chamber is then emptied by means of

573

E N G I N E E R I N G.

the syphons on the lower water side. During

this operation, the syp~on h of the c~mpres~or
starts by itself, ge~erat~g compre~sed au, whllst
th compressed atr wluch has lifted t he ga~e
es~pes through the pipe i . . The difference m
water level having been equal~s~d, t he lower gate
0 ens automatically as the dlVmg bell 'Yas n?t
b~oyed up all t his ~ime. The ~vh?le ~ocki~g will
be accomplished, in eit~er ca~e, w1thin n1ne minutes,
and as all that is r equired I S to turn a few v~l ves,
laced in the operator's cottage, the lock machinery
aoes not need more than on~ att~ndant. ~he syphon
locks are therefore economiCal In operation.
The construction of the Krummesse L ock firat
finished has cost a little less t han 20, OOOl. The
Hotopp syphon appliances them~elv.es, apart from
culverts, &c., which would be Indtspensable for
any system of working, have been constr~cted at
the expense of ab~ut 1200l., ~ot reckon1ng the
reservoir basin, wh1c~ would brmg the cost up to
165m. H and mecha.msms would, no doubt, have
been cheaper, but the lock-~eeper could not have
managed t hem without assistance, and t he .constructors were desired to r educe the ~xpend1ture
for the lock senice as much as posstble. The
manner in which Mr. Hotopp has solved t he problem is certainly ver~ ingenious, and tl~e success
of his mechanism wtll be watched w1th great
interest.

MODERN FIELD ARTILLERY.

(Con tinued from page 542 )
TnE ScHNEIDER-CANET SYSTEM.

75-kiillimetre (2.952-In.) (}wn,. L ong Type, on

(Janiage ~with lndepen~ent Axle (F~gs. 97 and 98).The following are particulars of this gun :
...
... 360 kilogs. ( 793lb.)
Weight of gun.
ca.rrtage .. .
. .. 540 , (1190 , )
"
projectile
.. . 5. 2 , ( 11 ~ , )
Mu~~le velocity
...
...
550 m. (1804 fu.)
Stnking t;nergyof projectile 80 t.-m. (266 foot. tons).
The carria.ae consists of two steel-plate brackets
joined together by riveted pl~tes fo!ming transoms;
1t is supported by t he trail wh10h rests on t he
ground and on an elastic arrangement which connects
it with the axle. This arrangement consists of two

FIG.

97.

75MILLIMETRE

GUN

by a handwheel. Acc?rding to t he direct~on in

which the handwheel IS turned, the nut nses or
descends, and gives the r equired elevation to the
gun.
As the trail is n ot fitted wit h a spade, the carriage recoils at each round over a length. wh.ich
depends chiefly upon the energy of the proJectile.
The r ecoil, however, and subsequently the work
the gunners had to do to run out the g un afresh,
was less than that required for the types of guns
and rigid carriages already described.
76-lVIillimetre (2. 962-Jn .) Gun, Long Type, on
Cwrn'age with Spade in. a Line u:ith the .Axle
(Fig. 99). The following are particulars :
Weight of gun
...
. . . 360 kilogs. (793 lb.
,
oa.rriage complete 750 , (1256 ,
,
projectile
... 5.5 ,
(11~ "
Muz;r.le velocity
...
...
550 m. (1804 ft.)
Energy of projectile
... 80 t.-m. (266 foot-tone).
Several examples of this. typ~ were experimen~ed
upon successively at the Vllledieu and Hoc provmg
grounds. It was the first of a comparatively large
series.
The carriage consists of two riveted
brackets stayed together by top and bottom trailplates ; at the lower front part are two supports
for an axle, on which the spade is jointed. The
latter is formed of two vertical arms, the blade
being at their lower part and adapted to penetrate
the ground. 'rhe top part of this anchor is fitted
with an inclined plate which throws back the ear t h
when firing takes place in loose ground. The spade
is secured to the trail by jointed t ie-rods, a set of
Belleville springs being placed between t he ends
of the rods and the vertical arm, to deaden the
sudden reactions which might arise during firing.
When it is desired to shift the gun, the spade is
lifted near the bottom trail-plate. When a round is
fired, the spade is driven in the ground and forms a
bearing-point to deaden the force of recoil. The
conditions in which this device works vary, ho wever, according to the nature of the ground, and
when the latter is not suitable, the gun and carriage are lifted up and may be thrown forward.
But when the ground is favourable, the recoil is
much less than with the types firin g with no recoil
checks ; on the other hand, the g un often deviates
largely, the carriage platform not remaining still.

AND CARRIAGE WITH INDEPENDENT AXLE.

gun and carriage lifted less than wh.en the spade

was placed direct under the axle, ~ut It entered. the
ground to a less depth: The c~rr1~ge was ~~dlfied
several times with a view of bnng mg th~ JOint of
the spade nearer the vertical of th~ ,ca.n~age ax.le,
but without removing the same d1fficul~1es, w~lCh
were, a rising of the whole system, or 1nsuffi~1~nt
penetration of the spade, according as the JOint
was more or less n ear the plane of the axle.
76-Millirnetre (2. 962-In.) (}u.n , Long ~Pype, .on

Carrictge wUh I ndepe11dent A xle, and Spade tn Line

with the Axle (Figs. 101, 102, and 103).-The following are some parti ~ulars :
Weighbofgun
...
. .. 360kilogs. (793lb.)
Weight of carriage, in one
(
)
1388 ,
case . ..
.. .
.. .
.. . 630 ,
Weight of carriage, in
another case
...
. .. 640 ,
(1410 , )
Weight of projectile
... 5.2 ,
(11! , )
Muzzle velocity
...
...
550 m. (1804 ft.)
Energy of projectile...
... 80 b.-m. (266 foot-tons).
Another type was then tested, which combined
the use of a spade placed directly under the axle,
but the latter was independent. Two mountings of
this kind, wit h slight vari~tions, were tested. ~he
system of elastic connectiOn between the carriage
and the axle, remained as in those already de.
scribed.
These patterns did not show any marked improvements on t he preceding ones, as r egards the
resul ts obtained separately with a carriage on
independent axle and with a carriage, the spade of
which is directly beneath the axle. The spade
penetrated even less than with the preceding types,
and acted very ineffectually when firing took place
on hard ground.
.
76-Millimetre (2. 962-In .) Long Type, on CaT'?tage

with Inclined Slide and Spade beneath th e Axle.

- The following are particulars of this gun :
Weight of gun
...
... 360 kilogs. ( 793lb.)
"
carriage ...
.. . 660 ,
.(1454 , )
"
projectile
...
5.2 .,
(11 ~ ,. )
Muzzle velocity
...
...
550 m. (1804 ft.)
Energy of projectile
... 80 t.-m. (266 foot-tons).
The gun-carriage in this case consists of the
brackets with a spade beneath the axle, the slide,
and the hydraulic recoil cylinder. The brackets
and spade are similar to t hose already described ;
a horizontal plate prevents the trail from ploughing
up the ground . On the carriage head plate is placed
a support which forms t he slides, and is provided
with the hydraulic recoil cylinder. The support is
mounted on a pivot, and ca.n be inclined under
various angles. A cast-steel cradle in one piece,
with two vertical supports, the top of which forms
the trunnion rests, is made to slide on the gun-metal
guides, and is held by lateral clamps. In the
central part of the cradle is a lug to which is fixed
the recoil piston-rod. The recoil cylinder contains
a piston, the rod of which is g rooved out along its
centre, for receiving a regulating counterrod. A
number of ports establish communication between
the front and the rear of t he cylinder. The gun
runs out by gravity alone, the slide resuming its
former position gradually, and without any shocks.
Owing to the spade being placed beneath the carriage axle, t he rising of the gun and carriage was
still too great. The hydraulic cylinder acted well,
but t.he general working would have been much
more satisfactory had the travel of the piston been
greater.
80-Mill,imetre (3.149-In.) Gwn, on Carticrge uith

T1ail-Spade:
rods linked to the brackets, the elastic system being
in two parts, one jointed on a carriage-bar, formed
of a hollow cylinder made to turn round an axle
parallel with the carriage-axle; the second consisting of a piston which travels in the cylinder, t he
piston-rod end being so arranged that it can turn
freely round the carriage-axle. A set of Belleville
springs is placed on the piston-rod, between the
piston and the front end of the cylinder. When
the gun is fired, the springs are compressed and t he
jointed system comes into action. Part of the
force developed during firing is thus absorbed by
the springs ; this eases the various parts of the
carriage, so that they can be made lighter in consequence. When the action has attained its height
the carriage and the gun resume their respective
positions by the relaxing of the springs.
The mechanism for elevating the gun consists
~ainly of two jointed rods; one is jointed on the
Jacket at the breech end of the gun, and the other
on a carriage bar. Upon this second rod is fitted
a nut which can be displaced over a screw worked

This system n evertheless marked a decided improvement on the preceding ones ; it was less
fatiguing to work, and the firing sp eed was a little
quicker.
76-Millime~re (2.962-In) Gwn, R cat~>y Type, on
Ca,rriage with ll1ont Spade (Fig. 100). - The following are particulars of this gun :
. .. 360 kiloga. ( 793 lb.)
Weight of gun .. .
,
carriage
.. . 580 ,
(1278 , )
,
projectile
... 5.2 ,
( 11! " )
Muzzle velocity ...
...
550 m. (1804 ft.)
Energy of projectile ... 80 t. -m. (26G foCJt-tons).
In order to improve the working conditions of
the preceding type, a. mounting with front spade
was made and tested. The joint of the vertical
arm was placed at the height of the muzzle by
1neans of two supports fixed at the rear part of the
brackets and joined to the axle by stays. To prevent the trail from cutting into the ground, ae frequently happened with the preceding type, a plate
having a wide bearing surface was bolted to the
lower end of the trail. With this arrangement the

Weigh b of gun
. ..
. . . 425 kilogs. ( 936 lb.)
,
carriage .. .
.. . 495 "
(1091 " )
,
projectile
.. . 5. 6 ,
( 12 , )
Muzzle velocity
...
.. . 490 m. {1608 ft.)
Striking energy of projectile 68.5 b. -m. (228 foot-tons).
The carriage is the same as that first describedfor the SO-millimetre gun-but the trail is fitted
with an elastic spade.

Schneide?-Oanet Gtvns on Cat~Tiages with Comp?essible T1ail.- One of the deductions from the
first series of theoretical r esearches and practical
experiments, an abstract of which has been
given in the preceding paragraphs, was that among
all the types of mountings tested, not one had the
req uired stability which is essential to modern
quick-firing field artillery. Though in the long
course of successive experiments, results were obtained which suggested alterations and improvements, so that the series was essentially proaressive, and though no definitely satisfactory type
was elaborated, the experience gained served as a.
basis for a new programme for improving ordinary

E N G I N E E RI N G.

574
gun-carriages still in service, as well as to a complete revolution in field armament . Each of t he
types we have d escribed, when it was fired, r ecoiled,
lifted, and d eviated, of ten to a great exten t ,
b ehaving, in fact, in quite an unsatisfactory fashion.
In some examples, t hat part which was t he main
bearing point of the system, was liable t o shift

progressively. This series of t he Schneid er-Ca.net

exp eriments had p ractical results, and various
examples of fi eld gun moun tings with elast ic trail
were manufactured, one impor tant order being
executed for Uruguay.
The compressible t rail system is one likely t o
have so wide and impor tant an application t hat a.

t hat t he syst em originated and was first tested in

Germany ; it will be of interest t her efore to put
forward the chneider -Canct claims in this matter.
I t was in F rance and in conj unction with the
Schneider- Canet type of artillery, that t his special
kind of t rail was first desig ned and manufactured;
it was afterwards improved by Messrs. Schneider

...
...-'\

...-

.Fl"n.98.
I -.._7

....-
I
/'

...-

_....

...-

...-
...-

I
\

Fig.101.

I
I

---- +
-1
-\
-

fllor- - - - -1

--- -1

..,

, ,

-f

-.-

~-------------------=~~=------------

.....

...... -

.........

-~;-

...

F1o. 98.

_,...._

75-MILLIMETRE G uN AND CARRIAGE WITH INDEPE NDENT AxLE.

Ftg.102.

______ _

\
I

F0 99.

............

---.
.....- I """" .
.. .--

Pig.103.
-

~~~~~;-::._+
t=
- -~r-.::=-~=-_:-::.:-=-=-. :.:=.J

-r-.f- -

FIG.

99.

75-MILLIMETRE G cN AND CARRIAGE WITH ANCHOR-PLATE

BENEATH Ax.LE.

::.4~ ~~

Zr-S-

-i
I

'

------------------------

FUj.lOO.
I

F ws. 101

... -..... -.'

+- .. ......

TO 103. 7 5 -MILLIMETRE G u N AND CARRI AGE WI TH

I NDEPENDENT A XLE AND ANCHOR-P LATE.

Fr{J. 105.

-
FIG.

100.

.-

75-MILLIMETRE G u N AND C ARRIAGE WITH A NCHOR-PLATE

iN F RONT OF A XLE .
,

II

Fifl:. 104.

.,.., ............- . ,

___..-

-.
r=::-::;?:===
=--=rJ
- +- J...--- -

-- \
I

....-,

_ j_

J_
:---- - - - . I

FIG.

105.

7 5 MILLThiETRE

GAS

GuN WITH ELASTI C T RAIL AND

BRAKE.

--.
I -...
"'-...

I
'

' ---
........

Fro . 104.

--...

...........

SIN.

I /I
:;::._____ _ . . :.--- ---==-:
" L. . .<.:::.:.:../_~----------

----

- .-r-

..- '1

- -

.,

/
/

F lfJ.106.

./

7 5 -MII.LIMETRE GuN WITH ELASTI C 'l'ttAIL AND

IN DEPE NDENT A xLE.

under fire to a. large extent. ; this often disorganised

the trials in a. very short tlme, and ca~sed ~he gun
H YDRO-P NEUMATI C
75MILLl
METRE
G
cN
WITH
F iv. 106.
t o trip up suddenly in the course of rap1d ~mg.
T RAIL BRAKE .
These conaiderat ions led Messrs. Schnel~er and
Co., during the fir&t series of tests~ to des1~ and
experimen t with a ~ew type of ca.rrlages h a.vmg an
and Co., until they felt justified in executing an
elastic t rail. I t will be seen hereaf~er t hat t he few words should be given in r eference to a. co~ impor tant order for
ruguay, as a.bo~e stated.
extent t o which one part of the. trail .t elescope~ t rovers of recent date as t o t he origin of . this F ive complete batter ies of guns on t lu s system
within tho other , was progressively l~cre~ed d system~ in the contr oversy referred t o it is clalmcd
various details were, also, of course, lmpr ove .
,

MAr 4 Igoo.]

EN G I N E E RI N G.

575

SCH I EIDER-CA ET SYSTE~1 OF J\'[0 NTIN G FIELD ARTILLERY.

Fro. 107.

75-MI LLil\[ETRE

GoN

WITH H YDR O P NEUMA'l'IO TR AIL BRAKE.

were put in regular service in that count ry with

complete success, after exhaustive trials had been
carried out at t he H oc proving ground, as well as
severe cross-country and rolling tests made at
Monte Video by a ruguayan regiment of artillery.
I t was, moreover, during the experiments carried
out in France with this system, that, so it appears,
a carriage wit h a double elastic trail W 3S tested in
Germany. It is worthy of comment, that considering t he rigid rule in Germany to simplify field
artillery and its mountings, t hat a system should
have been designed which embodied not one, but
two distinct devices for hydraulic r ecoil. As a
matter of history, t he French patent was first applied for in France, then in Germany and the Berlin
Patentamt granted a patent, as is customary, after
preliminary researches into t he question of priority. Everyone knows the care taken by the
German P atent Department before a. decision is
arrived at, and t heir having granted t hese patents
appears to settle t he discussion in favour of t he
French manufacturer. With t hese few wo1.qs of
introduction, we may proceed to consider the
second series of experiments.
75- MiUimet?e (2.952 In . ) Short {rlt,rr,, on Ca rriage u:ith Elastic T1ail and I ndepende1tt A xle
(Fig. 104). - The following are particulars of
the gun:
FIG. 109.

75-MILLIMETRE G c~ WITH ELASTIC T RAIL :FoR THE URUGUAY GovER NMENT.

Fxo. 112.

3- I~ .

Gv N

wiTli T ELESC<"' P IC

R.eco1L

BRAKE.

\Veight of gun .
...
,
ca.rrtage .. .
.,
projectile
Muzzle velocity
...
Energy of projectile

... 260 kilogs. (573 lb.)

.. . 410 ,
(903 ,, )
... 4.6
,
( 10 ., )
...
480 m. (1579 ft.)
. .. 51 t.-m. (180 foot-tons).

The first carriage of this type was made with a

telescopic trail which con tained an elastic device,
consisting of india-rubber rings placed one over t he
other; t hese were compressed when firing took
place, returning t heir energy immediately afterwards. The carriage may be considered to be
formed of t hree main parts ; the carriage proper
carrying the gun ; the spade connected to the
cn.rriage ; the independent axle and the wheels.
The carriage consists of two steel plates and
brackets which take the gun trunnions; at the lower
part of the brackets, and in front, are soleplates
on which slides a saddle-plate carried on t he axle.
The brackets are joined together in t he rear and
end by cylindrical connections formed of two
ockcts of different diameters made to slide one
within the other. Thes~ two cylinders are con.
nected by a set of india-rubber rings, which, when
t he gun is fired, are compressed, and cause t he
trail for the moment to decrease in length. The
india-rubber rings t hen relax and run out t he
gun again. The bot tom of the lower cylinder
is made wit h a circular groove, t he cent re of which
is practically on a vertical line drawn from the
centre point of the axle. The trail-spade consists
of a. steel blade that bears against a horizontal
t rail-plate. The top surface of the latter is made
with a ridge that fi ts in the circular groove in t he
lower cylinder, in which it can slide freely, the
slide being limited by catches at both ends.
'Vith this axrangement, when the spade has been

E N G I N E E R I N G.

placed in a hollow, or when it has penetrated the

ground automatically after firing the first r ound
t~e carriage can b e shifted over small angles to th~
right or to the left ; the lateral training of the gun
?an thus be co~rected, when only a slight shift ing
Is neces~ary, without extracting the spade.
In thlS. first type, the a.xle was independent of
the carn~ge, the foll~wing arrangement being
a~opted: It was fitted with two saddle-plates opposite the ~oleplates of the brackets ; these plates
were provided at one end with india-rubber buffers
the other end bearing against angles ri vetted to th~
brack ets. When the gun was fired the brackets
by r ecoiling, drew back t he axle a~d the wheels'
by pressing down the intermediate buffers. At th~
same time, the trail cylinders telescoped and compressed the set of india-rubber rings. The trail
spade penetrated the ground more or less deeply
accordtng to the hardness of the soil it formed
the r equired bearing p oint to limit ~ecoil and
cause.d the ca~ria:ge to ru~ out again by the
r elaxtng of ~he Indta-rubber rings. In some experimen~ t he rmgs were replaced by metallic springs.
It w~ll be ~ee_n t hat ~l~ost t he whole of the system
r ec01led wit~m the hmit allowed by the compression
of the elast1c column, the 1iis-viva of r ecoil beina
0
greatly reduced.
The results obtained with the first trials of this
type were very interesting ; the carriage still
r e?oiled. and ros~ when fired, but to a lesser degree ;
th1s ev1l was, In fact, so much reduced that it
appeared likely, br_improving the various parts, a
much greater stability would be obtained t han with
a~y of the preceding systems.
Numerous other
tr1als were made, among others, some with the
gas ch eck at the muzzle, already described. With
this appliance, recoil was lessen ed; but its disadvantages as regards inconvenience t o the gunners
still existed, and it was finally abandoned.
The type which was tried with the gas check at
the muzzle, is shown in Fig. 105; from this it will
be seen t hat the trail had been lengthened.
75-Millimetre (2. 952-In.) Gnn, Long T ype, on
Carriage with Compre'3sible and H ydro-Pnenmatic
R ecoiling T rail (Figs. 106 and 107).-The following
are particulars of the gun :
Weight of gun .
...
,
carnage .. .
,
projectile
Muzzle velocity
...
Energy of projectile

it was closed at t h e r ear by a cover in t he centre

o.f which was fixed the central cdunter-rod. A
rmg, t o which was fitted t he trail-lifting lever, was
also scr ewed on t~e l?wer end. The spade was
att~ched to t he trail with a groove and rib, as descrlb~d for the preceding type, this arrangement
enablmg the gun to be trained over small lateral
angle~ . The s.pade was of steel, and bore against
a honzontal trail-plate ; it could be easily r emoved
when, for any reason, it was desired to fire wit h
free r ecoil, as in the old rigid trail system. To
obtain this, it sufficed t o fix the two tubes one on
t he other by placing a ring in a groove on the
r~ar tube; the movable tube butted against t he
nog, and the trail remained rigid.
The hydraulic recoil cylinder and the recuperator were contained in t he lower fixed tube. The
recoil cylinder was on the Schneider-Canet system

Weight of gun .

...

carrtage .. .

,,
projectile
M uzz1e velocity
...
E nergy of projectile

...

260 kilogs. ( 573 lb.)

.. . 585

,
(1289 , )
...
5 ,
( 11 , )
...
470 m. (15t2 ft.)
... 56 t. -m. (186 foot. tons).

: This . type contained, besides t hose parts menhoned ID the preceding descrip~ion, a small carriage

Fig. IOB .

75-MILLtMETRE GuN WITH ELASTIC TRAlL FOR

FIG. 108.

THE

URUGUAY GovERNMENT.

-- - - -

F,;g.no.

. .. 360 kilogs. (703 lb.)

... 770 ,
(1607 ,
...
5.2 ,
(11' , )
...
590 m. (1936 ft. )
... 92 t. -m. (306 foot-tons).

The trials which had been made with t he first

types of carriages with elastic trail proved the new
system to be on e of great promise ; they also
showed that by increasing the length of action of
the two parts of the trail, t he stability of t he system
was also increased. I t may be mentioned here
that all the trials we r efer to were carried out in
the proving grounds belonging to Messrs. chneider
and Co., with the hel p of the most perfect measuring and recording instruments, such as crusher
gauges, velocimeters, chronographs, &c., wit h which
every action caused by firing was duly analysed ;
all parts that were found to work unsatisfactorily
were, of course, modified immediately.
These trials showed that the working conditions
of the carriage would b e further improved if the
elastic parts first employed, and which acted simply
as buffers, were replaced by a hydraulic brake device,
which would constantly offer a resistance directly
proportioned to the energy of recoil. If this were
obtained, it would check the rising of the gun, and
prevent its deviation. A first example of t his type
of carriage was therefore experimented upon. It
consisted mainly of the carriage proper, t he trailspade, and the hydro-pneumatic r ecoil trail.
The carriage was formed of two principal parts;
one, of cast steel, was a cylindrical t ube carrying
in front two vertical brackets in which the gun
trunnions are fitted. The tube was closed in front
by a cover , in the centre of which was a passage
through which compressed air was introduced in
the r ecuperator ; this was closed by a valve. The
carriage formed, with the gun, the axle and the
wheels, t he movable part which r ecoiled and ran
out again. The second part was the trail, which
remained fixed during firing; it consisted of a
forged-steel tube, which contained the hydro-pneumatic arrangement for checking recoil. I t was
provided in front with an outside gun-metal lining,
which facilitated t he sliding of the two parts during
recoil and r eturn, t he sliding action being, moreover, controlled by lateral guides.
A gland,
through which ran t he tube for t he int roduction
of compressed air, closed the t rail at its front part;

In some ca~es t he gun rest.ed in a small carriage

made to pi vo~ on the . carriage proper, a special
ha~d ~heel be~ng provtded for r ectifying lateral
traH~mg.
Th1s arrangement also gave satisfaction,
and It was chosen by the Uruguayan Government
for the ordnance t hey ordered, and which was manufactured at the Havre works.
75-Milli?netre (2. 952-In.) Gun on Carriage 1t:ith
Compressible '!rail Adopted by the Untuuay
Government (Ftgs. 108 and 109). - The following are
part-iculars of t his gun :

SJSC V

Fxo. 110.

3-IN. GuN WITH TELESCOPIC RECOIL BRAKE.

Fi<J . lll.

'

.......-- - - - - -

(SJao. vJ

FIG. 111.

SECTION OF TELESCOPIC RECOIL BRAKJt

with central counter -r od. The liquid when displa?ed, acted on an airtight movable diaphragm,
whiCh separated the liquid from the air contained
in the top part, and the diaphragm compressed the
air in front of it. The air by expanding when
recoil ceased, caused the liquid t o flow b ack, and
the gun ran out again automatically.
The r esults obtained with this type were very
satisfactory as r egards stability. The gun which
r ecoiled after each r ound with t he front t ube of t he
t rail, returned alnwst completely to t he position it
occupied beforo firing t he preceding round; and by
regulating t he ports in t he recoil cylinder and the
air pressure in t he r ecuperator, the rising of t he
whole system was practically done away with. The
spade h eld well, and generally p enetrated completely at the first r ound without loosening the
ground. The device for slightly r ectifying the
lateral training acted well, even when covered wit h
earth and mud.
Several specimens of this type and of various
calibres were manufactured and test ed in succession.

movable on the gun-carriage proper, and whit h

serves for rectifying lateral training. This arrange
ment necessitates a second hand wheel for the late1al
training. The small carriage consists of a cast-steel
circular platform in one piece with two vertical
brackets, the gun trunnions fitting in t he top part of
t he latter. The platform is free to turu rvund a
central bearing which forms a vertical pivot ; it rests
on two circular guides fitted with gun-metal slideplates t hat form part of t he gun-carriage proper,
clamps in front and in t he rear preventing the
shifting of t he system when the gun is fired. The
left-hand bracket is continued at the rear as a support for the gun-training mechanism. The required
elevation is obtained by a screw, t he head of which
bears constantly against the breech end of the gun.
It travels in a nut carried on the cxt~nsion of t he
small carriage, the rotation of the nut being produced by an endless screw worked by the handwheel. The gun is trained laterally by displacing
t he small carriage by means of a screw, tlie nut of
which is jointed on the shoe-plate of the gun. carriage

proper the rear end of the screw rests on a second

jointed'support mounted on the extension of the
small carriage. The system is W?rked by a handwheel. The wheels are of wood with steel centres ;
the brake used when the ordnance is wheeled from
one place to another, consists of a circulAr band
that surrounds the nave ; it is not used during
firing.
. .
.
.
This descriptiOn completes t he sect10n dea.lmg
with elastic trail carriages. This system has been
carried by Messrs. Schneider and Co. to a high
degree of perfection ; it allows the firing of 10 and
12 rounds per minute by gunners having no special
training. This speed is in excess of what can be
obtained with rigid tail carriages, provided with
elastic devices for deadening the force of recoil. As
has been previously stated, the system works
smoothly and the spade scarcely recoils, when the
gun has once started regular firing. The rising of
the carriage is negligeable. This type is, therefore, suitable to replace the older ones, over which
it constitutes a. marked improvement.
During firing, however, the gunners are obliged
to stand in the r ear, or outside the wheels, owing
to the backward and forward motion of the latter.
The consequence of this is that the guns cannot be
fired with the rapidity now demanded by modern
conditions without undue fatigue to the gunners.
This has led Messrs. Schneider and Co. to design
and experiment with another class of gun-carriage for extra rapid firing, in which the wheels
remain in place, and by which 20 or even 25 aimed
rounds per minute can be fired, without fat igue for
the gunners.
The following section deals with this type, and
especially wit h t he 1898 pattern, which it is
claimed fulfils to a high degree all the conditions
embodied in the present programmes of the French
Ordnance Committees, whose main study is now
the transformation of field artillery.

3-In. Gun, Long T ype, on Oat'riage with Telescoping Recoil Otjlinde1 (Figs. 110, 111, and 112).
The following are particulars of this gun :
Weight of gun

,,

...

carriage ...

projectile
Muzzle velocity
...
Energy of projectile

577

E N G I N E E R I N G.

MAY 4' 1900.]

...

430 kilogs. (948 lb.

.. .

870

(1917 ,

...
6.2 "
(13i ,
.. .
610 m. (2001 ft.)
... 117 t. m. (390 foot-tons).

The carriage may be divided, for purposes of

description, into two main parts ; the carriage
support and the carriage proper. The carriage
support consists of t wo fixed plate brackets ; it is
joined by a circular rib and slide to a trail-spade,
on which it can be displaced to the right or to the
left, for regulating the lateral training. The gun
rests in two collars placed one near the r einforce
and the other in front of the breechblock ; the
collars are in one piece with the slide. The latter,
during recoil and return, travels in a forged -steel
cradle fitted with the recoil cylinder ; the cradle
rests partly on the brackets through its trunnions
and partly on the head of the elevating screw, to
which it is jointed.
The telescoping cylinder (Fig. 111) has been designed specially with a view to meet a long recoil of
the ~un without its being necessary to lengthen the
carriage excessively. An outside cylinder forms
part of the cradle and remains fixed when the gun
recoils ; it is fitted in front and in the rear with a
gland and two flanges, in which are screwed t he
tubes that contain the recuperator springs ; these
tub~s are supported near the middle of their length.
A Pl:Bton travels in the outside cylinder and forms
an mtermediate recoil cytinder with r elation to
the piston proper, which is joined to the gun.
These concentric cylinders and the piston proper
telescope one in the other during r ecoil and return.
A head-piece is screwed on the r ear end of the
int~rmediate cylinder ; it is fitted with two flanges,
agamst one of which bear the right-hand r ecuperator springs, the other supports the lefth~nd recup.erator-rod: The gland plug of the recoil
plStofl:-rod I~ screwed m the centre of the head-piece;
t~e .Ptston IS made with a port which allows the
hqm.d to flow from one side to the other, a reglet
caus~ng the opening of the vent to vary as may be
reqmred. The piston-rod is joined direct to the
~reach end of the gun ; a neck fitted with a valve
Is placed in. the ~entre of the system, and serves to
fill the ~ecoil ?Yhnder. The shoulder-piece to which
t~e recoil-rod IS fixed, is fitted on the right-hand side
With ~ arm on which the rod of the right-hand
recuperator i~ bolted. The recuperators are formed
of seta of sprmgs placed inside the cylingrical tubes

fixed to the cradle; these springs are divided by

diaphragms, and are placed on a central rod.
The r equired elevation is obtained by means of a
screw jointed on t he cradle and which turns in a
nut, t he latter being worked by two bevel wheels
- one keyed on the nut, the other on a hollow
horizontal shaft set in mot ion by a handwheel
driven by the gunner. Lateral training is obtained
by displacing the trail. To obtain this, the spade
is provided with a rack worked from a pinion
keyed on the same shaft with a pitched wheel
driven by a plate-chain. The latter is worked by a
pinion keyed on a shaft placed concentric with the
hollow shaft for elevating the gun. The two handwheels for elevating the g un and for lateral training are therefore on the same centre.
(To be continued.)

THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERS.
ON Thursday evening of last week, April 26, an
ordinary general meeting of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers was held at the Instit ution
House, Mr. J. Hartley Wicksteed, Vice-President,
occupying the chair in the absence of the President.
RoAn L ocoMOTION.
The only business on the agenda. was the r eading
of a paper by Professor H. S. H ele.Shaw, of Liverpool, on the subject of " Road Locomotion. " We
commence to print this paper in full in our present
issue, and may therefore at once proceed to the
discussion.
Mr. A. J . F. Aspinall, in response to an invitation from the chairman, referred to the statement
made in Appendix II. of Mr. Hele-Shaw's paper to
the effect that in the case of a steam lorry, made
by the Thornycroft St eam Wagon Company for the
Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company, t he
daily consumption of coke was 259. 7lb., and of water
191.7 gallons were the average daily consumption,
giving an evaporation of 7.38 lb. of water per pound
of coke. The coke consumed had been 23.4 lb.
per hour, or 22.05 lb. per mile; whilst the water
evaporated had been 17.14 gallonR per hour, or
16.15 gallons per mile. How much had to be
spent for maintenance and repair could not be
stated. The wagon was one of the Thornycroft
type, and they were determined to give it a
thorough trial in carrying goods to and from their
depots, after persuading Mr. Thornycroft to part
with the vehicle, although he had no small difficulty in doing so. The experience gained led him
to the conclusion that the results were fairly satisfactory ; but he could not say that the mechanical
traction was bett er and cheaper than horse traction
in all positions. It was, however, true that they had
found nothing to complain about'; but the question of
cost was not yet Rettled. They had heard papers
read before that energetic body the Liverpool SelfPropelled Traffic Association, in which it was
attempted to be proved that the new method
was cheaper than the old-fashioned way of
moving goods on the railway. He would like
to know how the 10-mile rate was arrived at,
seeing that in this country such a thing does not
exist. There were plenty of references t o cost of
carriage, but these only referred to a certain class
of goods. In regard to the passenger traffic he had
recently been staying in a part of France where
the motor car may be said to be rampant. It was
impossible to take a walk in peace, for one had
constantly t o get into the ditch t o let the motor
cars tear past. He sincerely hoped that in this
country motor cars would not be allowed to 0'0 at
the excessive speeds that were sometimes ~een.
Such a course would bring the whole thing into
disrepute, and choke a new and promising industry.
Mr. J. Brown, of Belfast, the inventor of the
'' Viagraph," an instrument to which reference hacl
been made in the paper, said that he had made the
invention for philanthropic purposes, and not for
the purpose of putting it on the market. It had been
said how much better the roads were in England than
in Ireland, and his object had been to reduce t he
statement to more precise t erms. The arrangement
consisted mainly of a straight-edge placed on the
road surface, and in this way the raised parts and
the depressions could be measured and a record
taken, by mellns of a serrated wheel which followed
the unevenness on the road and marked them on
a paper. There was an addition by which the sum
of. the irreg~laritie~ were automatically ascertained for a gi van distance. The instrument had
not come into general use, but the cycle clubs had

taken the matter up, and h~ ~oped t hey wo~ld be

able to impress t he authont1es. The quest10n of
surface was of importance, as it was useless to compare the power needed to propel two vehicles r espectively if one were on a smooth r oad and the
other on a rough one. In a leaf spring used in the
Thornycroft wheel there should not be friction
between t he plates, otherwise there would be a loss
of energy. ln this respect it differed from a ~p~ng
used for ordinary pur~oses, where the fr10t10n
acted much as on the principle of the dashpot. In
spiral springs there was the difficulty of likelihood
of breaking at the point of attachment.
Mr. J. I. Thornycroft, who rose in response to
an invitation from the chair, said that the author
had left very little to say. The paper was of
uniform merit, but he could hardly concur in the
statement as to the life of wheels. It was, however, most desirable, if it were possible, to employ
a pneumatic tyre to "absorb an obstacle" (to use
the author's expression), as in that case t he difficulty
of heavy roads would be largely overcome. However, this might be, he thought it was most desirable in the meanwhile to have a better r oad. He
had been making further experiments of late wit h
wheels, and reached better results. Fore wheels
built up with plenty of wood would last well under
ordinary conditions. If they were run at extreme
speeds, it would be necessary to have something
different from ordinary wheels, but the answer to
this was that they should not be driven at too
high speeds. The driving wheels would last a
reasonable time, but the first thing to go was the
tyre, and they could not increase the weight to any
great extent when travelling on the r oad. In regard
to resistance, that increased enormously with a bad
road, and he had found sand worse than really
formidable obstacles, it acting almost like an
adhesive substance. Speaking on the question of
cost, Mr. Thornycroft stated that it would not be
so great as to detract from the value of steam-driven
vehicles for moving goods on common roads. These
motor wagons would take loads over hills not practicable with horses, and which it would not be
thought of negot iating by the railway.
Mr. Wicksteed at this point said that the discussion would be adjourned until the June meeting,
when the 1000-nliles competition then in progress
would be completed, and they would have the
ad vantage of some American guests being present.
He would, however, call on any one present who
would be unable to attend at the next meeting to
move a vote of thanks to the author, and, at the
same time, make any remal'ks on the paper that
were necessary.
Mr. Shrapnell Smit h, in response to this invitation, said it was gratifying to those who took an
interest in this subject to hear from Mr. Aspinall
that his experiment had been so far satisfactory ;
although the statements made had not been of so
favourable a nature as the r eport received from the
Corporation of Liverpool, who had purchased a
vehicle previously, nor as that of the Dock and
Harbour Board. There would be another competition of the Liverpool Association in May. He
wished to add, in proposing the vot e of thanks to
the author? how much.those interested in self-propelled vehicles appreCiated the fact that the Instituti?n of Mechanical Engineers had taken up this
subJect, and a good many of those engaged in the
1000-miles competition regretted they could not be
present.
Professor V ern on Boys seconded the r esolution
which was carried by acclamation.
'
This brought the proceedings to a close.

PARIS EXHIBITION RAILWAYS.

(Continued frt:nn page 547.)

THE second sect ion of the Exhibition line extends

from the Avenue du Troco.dero station to the
junction with the railway following the left bank
of the Seine- the Moulineaux line. These works
have been carried out by M. Bonnet, Ponts et
Chaussees engi~eer, wh?, like M. Rabut, has kindly
afforded us all Information. The entire undertaking
has been under the general direction of M. Moise
and M. Widmer, eDgineer-in-chief and assistantengineer respectively, of the Western Railway of
France.
On t~is section the work~ carried out were much
more difficult and more original than those on t he
fir~t se?tio.n. The direction of the line may be
br1e~y md10a.ted : beyond the Avenue du Trocadero
stat10n, and the crossing b eneath the Avenue

THE PARIS INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION; THE COURCELLES-CHAMP DE MARS RAILWAY.

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LoNGITUDINAL SECTION FROM THE 'l'RocADERO STATION TO THE CHA?rfP DE MARS.

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THE VrADOCT AND BRIDGE AcRos s THE SEI NE .

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Henri-Martin, the down track turns to the left

and goes into tunnel, while the up t rack is deflected
t o the right t o another tunnel that passes beneath
the Ceinture. At a distance of about 50 yards
beyond the crossing, both tracks come together, in
open cutting, until they again enter a common
tunnel, which is intetrupted for a length of 110
yards by a station. Beyond this is a tunnel for a
length of 650 yards, and a short distance further the I
Seine is reached at a point where the stream is divided into two channels by an island ; it is crossed
by two steel viaducts, after which, with a curve of
348ft. radius, a j unction is made with the Moulineaux line near t he Champ de Mars station , which
has been enlarged. (See longitudinal section, Fig. 10.)

I.
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THE VIADUCT AND BRIDGE A c Ross THE SEINE

p, (J . 13
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THE VIADUCT AND BRIDGE A CROSS THE SEINE.

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To go somewhat into detail, we may start with

t he branching of t he two tracks from the Ceinture. The exact spot was decided on after much
consideration. At the point chosen, the Ceinture
line has a somewhat sharp curve ; and, on the
plan, at least, a tan~ent branch was, of course,
easy. The Ceinture line, on leaving the Trocadero station has a rising gradient of 1 in
100. Therefore, by giving the up, or right-hand
track of the new work, a falling grade of 1 in 100,
a sufficient difference in level was soon reached, to
obtain headway for an under crossing. The down,
or left-hand, track was also given a falling grade,
so as to meet the up line in the open cutting beyond
t he tunnel as already described ; in t his way the

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E N G I N E E RI N G.

579

THE INVALIDES STATION OF THE COURCELLES-CHAMP DE MARS RAILWAY.

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PLAN OF THE E s PLANADE DES I NVALID ES STATION.

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INTE RIOR OF I NVALI DES STATION B u lLDING

Fig . 76

Fm.

lo.

THE B ors

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Bour"oo ~ E

STATI ON.

danger of a level crossing was avoided. But this

plan was attended with considerable difficulties,
not only on ac count of the heavy traffic t hat had to
be maintained on t he Ceinture, but also because
t he tunnel crossed beneath t h e line at an angle of
14 deg. Moreover, the levels only allowed a distance of .68 metre (26.77 in.) between the rails of
the Ceinture and t.he extrados of the tunnel arch.
The length of the tunnel is 75 metres (246 ft.) and
the work was completed in two months and a half
without accident, an average of 430 trains per day
passing over the Ceinture line during the time.
Fortunately the ground offered a good foundat ion,
but it was impossible to drive the heading in the
ordinary manner, on account of the slight depth.
The method was, therefore, adopted, which had
been successfully followed in making t he Paris
extension of the Sceaux Railway.* The arch was
built in short sections of about 10 H., on templates formed by leaving a bolster of earth,
brought to exact shape by a covering of
plaster-of-Paris ; there were 25 of these sections,
each being completed down to the footings before
the next was commenced. In the tunnelled lengt h
beyond, though many difficulties were met wit h, t he
work could be carried on with the assistance of two
shafts which gave additional working faces for the
headings ; all excavated material, and that required
for construction, was removed from , and brought
to, the works by the shafts, so that the tracks were
not encumbered with the contractors' trains. The
headings were driven on the lines to be occupied
by the side walls and footings of the tunnel. In
that part of the work immediately under the rails
of t he Ceinture the excavation of each section was
in open cuttin.g; this ~volved the preliminary
work of carrymg t he ra1ls across each successive
opening. F or this purpose longit udinal bearers
were employed long enough to span t he opening ;
t he bearers were braced together and further
strengthened by a system of girders, the whole
forming a sort of grill which was put in place in a
few hours during the night, when there was a brief
interruption to the traffic. The corresponding
section of arching was completed on the plastercovered earth centring above dQscribed, the mass was
quickly removed, the side walls b eing previously
constructed in. the open trenches prepared for
t hem. The sohd n ature of the ground, which was
rock at t he level of t he footu1gs, greatly facilitated
this work. Those sections of the tunnel, which were
partly under the Ceinture track, and partly outside
were constructed o.n a mixed ~ystem ; the outer part~
were made b:r dr1 ven .headmgs, and the retaining
walls of t he Cemture Railway, where they were interfered with, were underpinned and carried in 10-ft
lengths by oak beams. This work cost about
*See ENGINEERING vol. lix., page 101.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

s8o
200,000 francs (8000l.) ; as it a voided the dangerous alternative of a level crossing, the money was
well expended, and might with advantage be imit ated in many other places. The L ondon Metr op olitan widening at King's Cross affords a somewhat analogous example. It remains to be added
that ventilating and lighting shafts are made, opening into the retaining walls of the Ceinture lin6.

were 2.50 metres (8 ft. 2 in. ) wide, and of the same

heigh t . The headings were afterwards lo wered to
the level of the springing of the arch, and close
tin1bering was put in; t he masonry then followed
in short sections, and side headings were driven
in which t he masonry sides of t he tunnel were built,
also in short lengths. These latter excavations did
n ot exceed more than 10 ft . in length at any one

very bad, it was found n ecessary to excavate for

lengths of 10 ft. to the invert level, and build it so
as to pre\ent t he sliding inwards of t he vertical side
walls. Owing t o the special conditions, and particularly when passing beneath houses, great care
was necessary in excavating the clay; the pick and
shovel could not be used, and explosives were,
of course, out of the question. R ecourse wa<3,

Fig.1'.

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Caossuw,

BRIDGE

As said above the two new tracks come t ogether

beyond t he t unn'el in a short length of_op~n cut ting,
this length b eing follo wed by the prm~tpal t_unnel
on the line. The ground through whteh thts w~s
constructed prmyed to be very ~nf_avo0:rable ; 1t
consists at least down to t he sprmgmg hne of the
arch or't hin layers of limestone much dislocated by
cracks, many of large proportions. B el?w t he arch
springings a considerable depth of plastte cla~ r esting on marl was encounter ed . The constructwn of
the tunnel ~nder these conditions had,_therefore,
t o he carried out with great care, and ~1th ~he use
of close and heavy timbering. The dtmenswns of
this t unnel, which is interrupted by a ~h ort length
of open cutting, are as fo_llow : 6. 5~ metres
(21 ft. 4 in.) between the ratl an~ the tn trad?s;
~ metres (29 ft. 6 in.) between th~ stde walls, w~Ich
are vertical ; the thickness of arch ts 1 metre(39. 3_tn.)
at the top, and 1.25 metres (49.2 in) at the sprtn~
the side walls are also finiShed to t lus
m g,
90
t
(3"" 4 )
thickness. The invert I S
me re
o. to.
thick. The process of carrying Ol;lt the work was
as follows : ~hafts were sunk at Interval~ on the
.ne, and headings from t hese workmg face.s
Centre ll
were driven, t he t op of which correspond e d . to
level witn the top of the t unnel ~rch ; t}lese drtfte

F~. N'P'1

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B ot:LEVARD L ANNES.

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C.EMENT

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BEAMS AND R EVETMENT

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GIRDERS.

time, and the piers forming t_he s ide wa~ls w11en

.
dl
bl
joined up, were put ID as rapt y as poss1 ~so as
not to leave th e arch unsupported. Aft er th~s :was
completed the mass of ea.rt~ and roe~ remamtng,
were removed down to t he tnvert wluch was then
1
h
h
d
constructed. I n some p aces w ~re t e ~roun was

therefore, had to a special class of work m_en

called "glaisiers," who are acc ustomed t o deal w1th
clay beds in brick and tile works, and who use tools
that remove only small cubes of about 8 in. on a side.
The work is very slow, especially as the tool has
al ways to be used wet, otherwise ~t would not enter
t he plastic mass. All the matenal exc~vated was
brought out in small wagons t?, and c~rrted across,
the Seine over a t emporary brtdge, whtch had_ been
built On the other side these wagons were tlpped
into iarger ones on a siding of the Mo_ulineau.x line,
and taken outside PariE~, to be used In makmg up
e10bankments for another railwn.y. I n order to
insure solidity of work, it was found necessarr to
inj ect liquid cement into the fi ssures of t he hmestone at the blck of the arch. This was done . as
the work advanced, by means of compressed a1r ;
about 250 cubic feet of liq uid cement ~ere. th~s
used for each metre run of tunnel. V cnttlat10n 1s
assured not only by the ends of the tu~nel, ~u t b_y
a central shaft of 107 S<iuare fe~t area, m ~htch, tf
it be found ne~essary, a fan dr1ven electncalJy can
be placed.
.
On this new Courcellcs-Cbamp de Mars Ratlway
t here is another work of considerable interest- the
viaduct ta.kin~ it acroB t he Seine on a curve, and at

E N G I N E E R I N G.
a very oblique angle (see Figs. 11 to 13, page 578). t he Esplanade were very favourable, especially as THE JAPANESE BATTLESHIP "ASA HI."
T]1e curve was n ecessary in order to effect a junction t he existing q uay wall h ad in any case to be taken
WE g ive with this week's issue another two-page
with t he Moulineaux line b efore reaching t h e Ch amp down and r econstructed under different condi- plate, on which are reproduced the longitudinal secde Mars station. The crossing of t h e river and the tions. Ther e is a lower and an upper quay tion and the plan of the upper and main deok of t he
quays comprises a series of viaducts. Th~ first of wall h ere as in m ost part of t h e Seine within t h e new Japanese battleship Asahi, recently completed
these is askew span of 20.96 metres (68 ft . 8 1n.) over city limits ; t h e latter is much high er than the by Messrs. J ohn Brown and Co. , Limited, at t heir
the roadway of the q uay (see Fig.l3), and approached former, and serves as a h eavy retaining wall. As Clydebank works. The former two-page plate, which
by five masonry arches; the secon d is a masonry via- con structed, the line runs in cutting between a ppeared with our issue of April 6, gave a profile and
duct spanning the lower road by t he river ; a third t h is retaining quay wall on one side and a a plan of the boat deck. In subsequent issues we
is a gil'der bridge 81.71 m et res (268 f t.) span. Then wall on t h e oth er side, separating the rail way hope to reproduce further plans and sections, and
follows a masonry pier wit h an ar ch of 23ft . open- fron1 the lower q uays on the bank of the Seine. need only here briefly refer to the illustrations on this
ing built on the island dividing t h e Seine at this This extension will be in open cutting for almost week's plate. These are specially interesting as showplace ; there are also t hree g irder spans over t h e its whole length ; it will be electrically worked, ing the great armament of this ship, which exceeds
further arm of t he Seine, and finally a 13-metre for th e Municipality, to say n othing Gf the people, t hat of any of our battleships now afloat; for, in
(42 ft. 7 in.) land span across the quay on t he other will not tolerate any of the inconveniences in- addition to the four large guns, of 12 in. bore, mounted
side. This leads t h e railway to the M oulineaux separa ble from a Metropolitan railway like that of in t he t wo bar bettes there are fourteen 6-in. quickfiring guns, each in a separate casemate, t wenty 12junction. The principal part of this work was the L ondon. It is covered by various existing streets pounder, eight 3-pounder, and four 2~-pounder, and
268-ft. span across t he mai~ branc~1 of the ~eine. and avenues, and, n ear the terminus, it c urves several Maxim guns of rifle calibre. The guns in the
I ts erection was attended wtt h considerab le d ifficul- away from the Seine in a short tunnel, which leads main battery are all of the E lswick type, and t hey
ties on account of t h e h eavy traffic on the river to t he la rge underground station on the Esplanade were only shipped last week at Portsmouth Dockyard.
which could not be interrupted by the construction des Invalides. This station occupies the whole width wit h the sanction of the Admiralty. When leaving
of staging, and only on e span was possible, because of the Esplanade between the two side streets that Portsmouth Harbour to proceed on gun t rials on
the construction of piers was n ot permissible. enclose it . The very large area thus obtained is Monday there was a slight hitch in connection with
Moreover, the level of the Moulineaux line at t h e entirely covered; in some portion by a system of the steering gear, a nd wind and tide swung the hew
point of junction was such that only a Yery limited columns, shallow girders, and brick arches, but to a of t he ship round on to the beach. I t was ebb tide,
headway was available. A scheme for a rigid sus- large extent by thick sh eets of glass resting on a girder but at the next Hood, at midnight, on Monday, t he
pension bridge was at first prepared, but was struct ure, and through which sufficient light is ob- vessel was easily got off, a nd will now be docked for
abandoned on account of the difficulty involved by tained below. The station, of which an interior view examination; but the long itudinal section we reproduce suggests sufficient strength to withstand a much
the obliquity of t he crossing. Another project for is g iven in Fig. 15,'is a decorat ive building adjoining severer trial t han was involved in this grounding on a
a lattice-girder structur e was negatived on the one of t he streets t hat bound the Esplanade. Access gravel beach. It may be added that t he Asahi has
ground that it would look unsightly, so that t h e from t his t o the numerous platforms is by a series a displacement of 15,200 tons; her length between
arched bridge was the only alternative. The struc- of stairs; t h e general arrangement is shown on t he perpendicula-rs being 400 ft., and o,er all 425 ft. 6 in. ;
ture consists of t wo arched ribs with large inter- plan, Fig. 14. One of the special accessories of t he breadth extreme, 75 ft. 2i in.; and depth moulded.
section bracing, carrying the rail way by suspension the station is a considerable pum, ing installation. 43 ft. 7! in. Wit h her engines developing 16,360
rods placed 4 metr es (13 ft. 1 in. ) apart, excep t As the whole work is beneath the level of the indicat ed horse-power, she attained a speed of 18.3
near this abutmen t. The structure appears very Seine, it was n ecessary to provide means against knots on a deep-sea trial, with a draught in excess of
light, and the clear h ead way obtained is 7. 26 metres p ossible inundations ; indeed, it is feared that t his the contract ; t he design was for 18 knots.
(23 ft. 9 in.), sufficient for the requirem en ts of may prove from time t o t ime a serious inconveniAUSTRALIAN RAILWAYS.-Queensland is arranging to
navigation. The oth er arm of t he Seine is crossed ence, and even a possible danger.
by the iron arches above referr ed to, and the design
Figs. 16 to 26 illustrate various types of construc- develop more rail ways. She is expected to place on the
market shortly a 3, 000, OOOl. loan to be apphed solely to
of which calls for no special comment. Figs. 11 t o tion adopted on different parts of the Courcelles- the
construction of new lines. The New South Wales
13 are profiles of the Seine crossing, and show the Champs de Mars Railway. Fig. 16 illust rates the Railway Department will shortly call for tenders for
relative positions of arches and gird er spans.
faQad e of the Avenue Bois de Boulogne station. 19,000 tons of 00-lb. flanged steel rails, 1420 tons of steel
The Champ de Mars station h as h ad to be en- Figs. 17 to 20 are various views of the end of the angle fishplates, and 220 tons of steel fish bolts and nuts.
larged and considerably modified to provide for the covered way beneath the Avenue d es Ternes, where The Queensland Railwa-y Department bn.s let a contract
the erection of railway machine shops at Ipswich at a
great increase in traffic during the Exhibition ; the th e old Ceinture lines are in the centre in girder for
cost of about 200,000l.
remainder of the work was the extension of the covered way, and the new lines, one on each side,
--railway to the E splanade d es Invalides, and the are in brick arches ; an example of the use of the
STEEL.-The exports of unwrougbb steel from the
construction of the terminal station there.
reinforced concrete is shown in Fig. 17, wher e the U nited Kingdom in March amounted to 33,732 tons, as
As for the Champ de Ma rs station, the general side walk of the Boulevard P ereire overha ngs t he compared with 24,104 tons in Marc~, 1899, and 26,697
arrangement adopted in 1889 has been maintained, railway, and is supported on concrete slabs. Figs. tons in March, 1898. In the three months ending
March 31 this year, the aggregate exports were 91,448
but the number of tracks and platforms has been 21 to 23 illustrate a type bridge crossing ; the one tons, as compared with 65,608 tons in the corresponding
increased. There are now 20 lines and 10 platforms, selected carries t he Rue Lalo over the railway into period of 1899, and 73,357 tons in the corresponding
all placed at right a ngles to t he faQad e of t he t h e B oulevard L annes. F our plate girders carry period of 1898. The exports to Australasia in the firsb
station building, in which t here are 10 ticket offices, the road way over t h e track, the spaces between three months of this year were 10,372 tons, as compared
so as to provide for the great crowds t hat will cer- being filled in wit h jack arches ; the side walks are with 7420 tons and 721() tons respectively ; and those to
Germany, 10,196 t on!l, as compared with 15,782 tons and
tainly have to be dealt wit h. This collection of carried partly by the outside girders, and partly by 8780 tons respectively. No other country took as much
tracks will serve both for anival and d eparture brackets. Figs. 24 and 26 illustrate the method as 10,000 tons.
trains, the destinations of which are varied as far adopted of revetting the outer face of existing girders
--GAs AT P ARTs.- The Parisian Company for Lighting
as possible, in order to prevent the inconvenience with concrete (Figs . 24) and the cross-section of a
so prevalent on French suburban rail ways, of fre- reinforced b eton girder (Fig. 26), of the type which and Heating by Gas has had an experience of 45 years
(without taking account of the current twelve months),
quent change of carriages. Of t h e 20 tracks, six has unfortunately been made so prominent by the and
during that long period the sales of the company's
connect wit h the Gare St. Lazare, running over r ecen t accident.
gn.s have made very great progress. In 1855 the annual
the new line we have d escribed. Two t racks will
In spite of the opposition of the Paris Munici- consumption was 40,774,400 cubic metres, and in 1865 the
carry trains to the Moulineaux Junction, but for pality, it is to be supposed t h at an extension of this total had been carried to 116,171,727 cubic metres. The
the Ceinture only : two oth ers are also for the line will be made to join that of the Orleans R ail- sales steadily expanded during the next four years, until
Ceinture service, but for that part on the left bank way, which is to have a terminus on the Quai in 1869 a total of 145,199,424 cubic metres was attained.
Then there came a great check in the company's operaof the Seine, by way of a branch, that was built d 'Orsay. Such an extension could, of course, be tions. Paris was besieged by the Germans in 1870, and
before 1889 ; four t racks will join the Gare du easily made, a nd would add greatly to s uburban was the seat of civil strife in 1871. The result of this
Nord following the Oein t ure on the right bank ; t ravelling facilities. Visitors to the Exhibition terrible experience was that the consumption declined in
four are reser ved for passengers taking t h e line via will scarcely see the Invalides station, except from 1870 to 114,476,904 cubic metres, and in 1871 to 87,481,346
Moulineaux to the western suburbs of Paris; and t wo the str eet outside its enceinte ; but in passing cubic metres. The French, however, have a remarkable
facility of overcoming difficulties of the most formidable
will accommodate those passen gers going towards along the Avenue in the centre of t he E splanade character; and in 1878, which was an Exhibition year, the
Versailles by the branch not yet complete, between d es Invalides, they will walk over the glazed roof consumption of the company's gas had risen to 211,949,517
Moulineaux and Versailles. Alt hough so much care of t he station. From the '~Street of Nations" t he cubic metres. Then there was a. gradual advance to
and expense have been lavished on t h e Ch amp de rail way is not visible, for although it has been 287,443,662 cubic metres in 1884. The competition of the
~ars station, it is only to be temporary, and will con structed in open cutting, it is for the present electric light now began to tell, and in 1885 the company's
sales declined to 286,463,999 cubic metres, although
dl.Sappear with the Exhibition. We have explained covered by r einforced beton arches, on which most ga-s
they rallied again in 1886 to 2d6,851,360 cubic metres.
that the main object of the M oulineaux line was to of the foreign pavilions are erected. There is no There was then a gradual advance year by year to
bring railway accommodation towards the cen tre of doubt that this part of the Pa.ris M etropolitan Rail- 3l2,258,070 cubic metres in 1889, when another great
Paris by its extension to t he E splanade d es Inva- way system will be of great permanent u tility to Exhi~itio_n was held ab Pari~. The competition of the
v~lides. Before reaching the Champ de M ars sta- the city, and, later on, to the Exhibition esp ecially, electrtc hght now began aga1n to make 1ts adverse influence felt, and in 1894 the company's gas sales bad detiOn the line branches in the direction of the river but unfortunately it will n ot be availa ble for the clined
t~ 300,823,710 cubio metres. In 1895 and 1896 they
and is continued parallel to the Seine ben eath th~ latter purpose immediately, since the electric trac- again recovered, a.nd in the last-mentioned year they
quay. AB, or n early all, the trains coming from t ion station, being constructed by the Western stood at 318,020,060 cubic metres. In 1897, there was a
decline to 315,308,270 cubic metres, but in 1898 there was
~umerous directions enter t he Champ d e Mars sta- Railway Company, is n ot quite comple te.
a rally to 320,031,250 cubio metres, and in 1899 a further
tiOn, but to provide for those passengers who d esire
(To be oontinued.)
advance to 325,874,000 cubic metres. The general conto g? on .to t he Esplanade des Invalides, an exch ange
cl1sion which may be derived from the company's expestatt~n ls provided, so that visitors can pass from
rience is tha.b while the electric light has not reduced the
one hne to t he other with but litt le trouble. When
T HE RussiAN MERCANTILE MARINE.-At the date of a demand for the company's gas, it has greatly checked the
the Exhibition is over t his little exchange station recent return, the R ussian mercantile navy comprised progressive increase formerly observable in the consumpwill continue to serve as t h e Gare Champ de Mars, 604 steamers and 2294 sailing vessels. The steamers of t~on ?fit. Th~ company shares its profits wit_h the muniand a goods depot will be established on t h e site of the Russian mercantile marine are principally screws with Clpahty of P aris. The aggregate length of p1pes laid by
one engine, but a few are of lar~er dimensiOns with two the undertaking in PariR and its suburbs was returned at
the present temporary station.
engines; these latter are used principally on the Ca-spian the close of 1899 at 1541 miles. The capital expended by
The conditions for const~ucting the ~xtepsion ~o and l3laclc e~~s.
tpe Qompany a.t the sft,me date was 12,989, 765l.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

THE DUDDELL OSCILLOGRAPH.

CONSTRUCTED BY THE

CA~IBRIDGE

--

SCigNTIFIO

INSTRUn!l~NT

C0?\1PANY,

LT~IITED~ CA~1BRIDGE.

----

.. , ...
F IG. 1.

THE determination of the actual relation between

the potential difference of an alternating current and
the current itself in different circuit conditione has
for long been a matter of considerable difficulty. I n
certain simple cases the problem could be solved from
th eoretical.consi~lerations without much difficulty, t he
more espeCially 1f the generator was such as to give a
sine curve for the wave of potential, but with the
types of wave curve common in commercial machines
matters became more complicated. Further, as in
t he case of an alterna t ecurrent arc, data were
wanting t o permit of any satisfactory prediction of
the current wave, even when the wave of potential
was of the simplest character ; and in other cases
where t he nat ure of the circuit was better underst ood,
it was at least highly desirable to ma ke a n cxperi
mental comparison between t he theoretiQal deductions
and t he actual fae:ts of the case. The only methods
aYnilable up t o quite a recent date were highly
laborious. These involved th c det erminat ion of t he
curves concerned p oint by point ; ana t hough much
valuable research work had th us been accomplished by
different ob cr vers, t he time needed t o complete a research was enormous, and in cer tain cases led t t t he
abandonment of the attempt after the full magnit ude of the undertaking was completely appreciated.
Some few years back Professor Blonde! succeeded in
subst ituting, by means of an iHstrument he named an
oscillograph, an a ut ographic arrangement, for t he
point-by-point method of curve tracing then in vogue,
but t hough he did obtain some interesting results, his
instruments did not come into general use, and it rema ined for a young English engineer t o overcome the
practica l difficult ies involved, a nd to devise an inst rument which seems capable of meeting t be se\ erest of requirements. Mr. W . Duddell, the gentleman in quest ion, in addition to his theoretical kn owledge, is at the
same time endowed with considerable manipulative
skill, which enabled him t o construct the first of t he
inE~truments ma de with bis own hands, though much
of t he work was of an exceedingly delicate cba ractu,

Fro. 2.
and t he instruments are now being made by t he Cambridge cientific Instrument Company.
The instrument consists cs entia.lly of a modified
D'Arsomal galvano meter, combined wit h a rotat ing or
vibrating mirror. I n this instrument the st rength of
a. current is measured Ly t he angular displacement of
a beam of light reflected from a mirror mounted on a.
coil suspended in a strong magnetic field. The beam
of light in question being received on a screen, t he
st rength of a current is proportional to t he linear
displacement of t he rEsultan t spot of light. With
1

alternating currents the spot of light reflected from

t he mirror of this galvanometer oscillates to and fro as
the current th rough its coil Yaries, and would t hus
trace a straight line on a screen iuterpo ed in its path.
In the oscillogra ph, bowevtr, a second mirror is interpo P.d in the path of the beam, and this mirror is
caused to vibrate by a cam driven by a synchronous
motor, a nd there is thus added to t he beam of light a
vibration at right angles to its original plane of motion ,
and it now t races on the scnen a cur ve of potentia l
or current as the case may be. The apparatus is

E N G I N E E R I N G.

THE DUDDELL OSCILLOGRAPH.

CON TRUCTED

BY THE CAMBRI DUE

CIENTIFIC I N TRUMENT COl\IPANY,

CA~JBRIDGE .

LIMITED,

Fig. 4-.

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FIG.

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a. 04 oh.nt6

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p.D. dyrv.unc
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influence on the strength of the magt1etic field in which

t he moving coil or coils are placed. In the instrument
shown there are two such coils, enabling simultaneous
obsen a tions to be made on both current and potential.
The coil in each case consists of a simple loop of
phosphor bronze, arranged as indicated in Fig. 4.
The upper end of the loop passes round a pulley
which is a ttached to a light spring balance, as shown
in Fig. 3. By altering the tension of this spring,
t he periodicity of the instrument can be varied at
will. In t he instrument shown, t hese loops are but
7 mils wide by i'tr mil thick. Each lE>g of a loop
pasees through a slot in a soft iron armature, thE\
clearance between the Eides of t he slots and the
moving strip being but 1.5 mils, and t hese slots
are then filled with a viscous oil, over which is
placed a small lens, which is held in position
entirely by the surface tension of the oil, and a.t t he
~ ame time serves in its t urn to keep this oil in place.
The object of the oil is to damp the oscillations of the
coil. A small mirror marked !vi, Fig. 4, is attached to
the loop, as shown. The effect of passing a current
through one of these loops is to cause one leg of it to
advance whilst the other goes back, and the mirror is
thus oscillated round a vertical axis. In the instrument
shown t he natural period of vibration of the loop is
10 ~00 th of a second, and the clearances being, as
stated, extremely small, the damping effect of the oil is
very great, so that the instrument can be relied upon to
give good curves even when the periodicity of the ourrent t o be tested is over 300 altt-rnations per second.
Small fuses, shown bolow the loops in Fig. 3, protect
these from iojury in case of accidental excessive curren t . These fuses consist of very fine wires enclosed
in gl~s t ubes. They are ht-ld in position by spring
clamps. The motor, Fig. 2, has been specially designed for its work. It is a synchronous motor, on
the armature ehaft of which is a. cam. This cam engages with a follower rigidly attached to t he frame
carrying the vibra ting mirror. The shape of t he cam
is s uch that it gives a unifor m displacement to the
point of light reflected from the mirror on to the
screen a.boYe it. The return of t he mirror to its initial
po itioo is effected by means of a spring, and during
this back motion a shutter mounted on the motor
shaft cuts off the light from the lamp. This shutter
is clearly shown in Fig. 2. Provision is made for
t9.king the load off the motor whilst the latter is
running up to speed. The current required is but
. 75 ampHe at 100 volts.
ome extremely interesting results have already
been obtained with this apparatus. In particular, the
remarkable researches on the alternating arc described
in the paper road by Mr. Duddell and Mr. Marchant,
before the I nstitution of Elect ricaJ Engineers, were
made with the assistance of thi instrument. In these
ex periments photography was used t o record many of
the observations, the spot of light being received on
a sensitive plate in place of ou a screen , the remark
able changes, in t he curves of potent ial and current,
occurring on alterations being made in t he circui t condjtions, being brough t out in a very st riking manner.
W e reproduce here some of the curves obtained with

...

.J

shown complete in Fig. 1, whilst in FigP. 2 and 3 we j vibrated by the motor is thrown up on t o t he curved
show separately it s pt incipitl components. As will be screen above, as shown in Fig. l. A piece of t racing
SfPn, the galvanometer and t he motor are placed in a paper ca n bo sec ur~d above t,his screen, and t he curve
\\ oorl~n case. A lamp, fitt ed with a condenser of the pencilled in.
Tho curtai ns shown keep out tray
u~ual. type, is placed outside the case to the right, light, and ena ble the experimenter to follow the curve
nnd tts light, passing through a vertical slot, is re- more easily.
fiected back from the galvanometer mirrors, and passes
The galvanometer constitutes the most important
throng? a cylindrical lens cJearly shown in front of the part of the inst rument. Its magnetic circuit is satu~otor 1D Figs. 1 and 2. This condenses the line of rated with a comparatively small energising current,
hgbt to a. point, and this point fa.lling on a. mirror ~o that considera.ble changes in the latter have little

E N G I N E E R I N G.
the same alternator and frequency, but with circuits
differing in their self-induction or other particulara.
Thus in Fig. 5 we have first the curve of potential
difference for a Ferranti alternator when sending
current through a non-inducti,re resistance of 3. 3
ohms in series with a resistance of 3. 04 ohms ;
the potential difference curve across the termina]s
of the latter is a lso shown, as well as the current curve. In Fig. 6 the resistance of 3.0! ohms is
replaced by an arc, and the changes in form of the
<.ltffer ent curves are very striking. The potential difference across the arc is, it will be seen, represented
by a very fia.t-top curve, whilst the current cune is
s harply peaked. In l?ig. 7 the conditions correspond
to those in Fig. 5, save that one of the r esic;tances
is highly-inductive, and there is thus a considerable
lag between the current and the potential difference
of the dynamo. In Fig. 8 the circuit contains both
self-induction and an arc. The frequency in all four
cases is 100 alternations per second.

NOTES FROM THE NORTH.

GLASGOW, W ed nesda.y.
Gla~gow Pig-Iron MMket.-At the forenoon session_of
the pig-iron warrant market last Thursday a firm feehng
ruled a.b the opening; but the selling of Scotch iron
became rather pronounced, a.nd there was a sharp setback. The close was fi!l.t, with Scotch down la. O~d. per
ton at 72d. 7d. Hematite iron fell 2d. per ton, but Cleveland was unchanged. In the afternoon the market was
irregular. S cotch was very flat, and closed l s. 4~d. do~n
on the day, and Cleveland fellls. per ton; but hemati~e
iron was supported, and closed ld. per ton better than m
the morning, or only ld. down on the day. The sales
for th& da.y amounted to 40,000 tons. Cleveland was ~old
at 693. 6d. per ton six months fixed. The settlement pr1ces
at the close of the market were : Scotch 72s. 3d. per ton ;
Cleveland, 75s. 9d. ; Cumberland and Middlesbrough
hematite iron, 845. 3d. and 86s. per ton. The m~rket
opened on Friday at 72~. 6d. per ton for _Scotch Iron,
and receded to 72~. 2d., but afterwards 1mproved to
73s. ld. per ton, closing with buyers at 733., the
settlement prices being 73s., 763., 84.s. 4~.d., and 863.
per ton. Owing to the unexpected calhng up of. a
large quantity of hematite iron, the afternoon sees1on
was excited, and the prices had a very ~m~rt ride,
Scotch rising 9~d., Cleveland 4~d., and hemat1te u on id.
per ton. The reports as to the condition of the iron tt:ade
m America were somewhat mixed on Monday mormn~,
but! they were generally regarde~ as unfavourable. BusinefiS in the local market was qmefJ, only some 10,000 tons,
chiefly Scotch, bE'ing dealt in. The price fell 7~d . . per
ton, and Cleveland gave way 9d. per ton. The deahngs
in hematite iron were few, and were only for ~xed
periods, as a result of the calling up announced on Frld.a.y.
The prices rose l!d. per to~ and the settlement pnces
were: 7b. 9d., 75s., 8-!s. 3d., and 86s. per ton. On account
of the calling up of hematite iron, and the ~hreat~ned
squeeze in tha~ claes o~ i~on, there was exceedmgly httle
bueineas done 10 the pig-uon market on Tuesday forenoon,
when less than 10,000 tons changed hands. For the same
reason the feeling amongst ope~ators 'Ya~ very .n.erv<?us,
and prices were strong, there . ~mg a dl.S~l~ct dismchnation to sell under the existmg conditiOns. . Sc<?tch
rose lO~d. per ton. Cleveland 4~d., and hema.t1te uon
9d. per ton. ~n the af_ternoo~ the market was ~tea.dy,
very little bus10ess domg, st1ll the turnover d1d n ot
exceed that of the forenoon session. It was repor~d ~hat
warrants representing about ~,000 tons of bema.tite 1ron
were lifted and some Scotch uon was also called up; but
in the latter connection it was. &"iven out that the
movement had nothing to do Wlth. a. squeeze-that
it simply had relation to the squarmg of an open
account.
Scotch and Cleveland. w~re unchanged
from the forenoon close; hematite uon ga.ve way
~d. per ton, there being leas nervousness over the
threatened squeeze. At the close of the market the
settlement pr1ces were: 72s. 7id., 75s. 3d., 8~s.. 6d., an~
8GJ. per ton. The market w.a s i';l a_very sen~Itive con~l
tion to-day. The squeE ze lS still m force 10 hema.tite
iron, which rose in the forenoon 4~d. per ton. Abo~t
13 000 tons of iron changed hands, and 10,000 tons m
th~ afternoon. The settlement prices were: 7~. nd.,
75s. 3d., 84s. 9d., and 86s. per ton. The f~llowmg are
the current quotations for makers' No. 1 uon: Clyde,
893. Gd. ; Gartsberrie, 90s.; Summerlee an~ Cal~er, 9La.;
Coltness, 93s. 6d. per ton-all the foregomg sh1pped at
Glasgow; Glenga.rnock (~bipped a.b Ardrossan), 88s .. 6d. ;
Shotts (shipped at Leith), 90s. 6d. ; Carron _(shtpped
at Grangemouth}, 90d. per ton. Here are given the
shipments of pig iron from all Scotch porta for the we~k
ending lasb Saturday : Fo~ the United States 200 to';IS; for
Canada, 267 tons; for Indta, 120 tons ; for Austraha, 407
t ons for Italy 225 tons; for Germany, 940 tons; ~or Holland; 1074 ton~; lesser qua~tities to other countnes, and
2709 tons c::>astwiae. The shtpm~nts for the week a~ounted
to 7597 tons against 5983 tons m the correspondmg week
of last year 'and the total shipments for the year amounted
to 186 090 ~ns as compared with 86,138 tons ab the eall?e
date ~f last y~a.r. The fluctuations of the. past we~k 10
the pig-iron market were ~oth rapid and vi~lenb, swayed
up and down by ever-varymg and C?ntra.dic~ory r~<?rts
received as to the state of the trade m AmeriCa. . ncea
have aho been influen?ed adversely by the contmue~
absence of all fresh buymg, whether on home. or o~. Con
tinental acconnt, and makers h~reshow so~edis~sition to
meet the market with concea~10ns on thetr offimal quotations Speculative dealings 10 warrants ha.ve been on a
very large scale, and some interes~ing developments may
be looked fo: in west coast hematite brands, as attempts

are being made to manipulate the Glasgow market. The

furnaces going ab present number 85, of which 40 are
making ordinary iron, 3!) are working on hematite ironstone, aad six are making basic iron. At this time last
year there were 83 furnaces in blast. ~be stock of pig
uon in Messrs. Conna.l and Co.'s pubhc warrant stores
stood at 154,827 tons yesterday afternoon, against 150,107
tons yesterday week, thus showing a reduction for the
past week amounting to 4280 tons.
Finished Iron~ Steel.- The sizing up of the Scotch
manufactured iron trade is becoming increasingly diffi.cul b,
for with the severe break and ultimate rally in the apecnlati ve branch, brokers are at a loss as to how to de.a l with
quotations. Prices cannot well be reduced, so h1gh are
wages and fuel charges; and, on the other hand, some m_ove
is called for if fr~sh orders are to be attracted. AdviCes
give it that the Belgians and Americans have both shaded
prices, although, on the other hand? t~e prospect of the
federating of the bar-iron trade associations sho~14 have a
hardening and assuring effect on . the trade. po~ItlOn . . It
is evident that the sreat productive capaclty lS gettmg
abreast of consumptiOn, and when that ~act is f~lly r~
cognised makers will be forced to consider their position. Sheet iron is in satisfactory request, a.nd steel
rails are asked for. L ocal makers, as recent contracts
go to show, are s~ill en~bled to compete successfully with the fore1gners m neutral markets. Scotc.h
steel workers are asking 5 per cent. of advan~e. Th~u
leaders base their calculations upon the pnce which
the masters are asking for material, hub which the.y ~re
not getting. Indeed, makers assert that under ex1stmg
circumstances steel plates a.t 8l . 15s. per ton do not pay
them. Steel angles are quoted at 8l. 5s. ~o 8l. 7s. Gd. per
ton; ship-plates, 8l. lOa. to 8l. 12s. 6d. ; b1llets, 7t. 15s. to
7l. 17a. Gd.; raild, 7l. 53. to 7l. 10s. per ton. Bars are
again quoted at Dl. 15s. to lOt. lOa. per ton.
~fotherwell Bridgebuilding.- The Brandon
Bridgebuilding Company have secured the_ ?Ontrac.t for the
viaduct at Yorkbill of the North Bnhsh Ratlway. Io
will be remembered that the viaduct was destroyed by
fire in March. The Parkneuk Bridge Works Motherwell are very full of orders just now, both for home and
foreign requirement~, although they ba.':e just g~t out of
their hands the steelwork of the termmal sta.t10n and
~oods yard a.t Marylebone-road, L ondon, for tha Gr~at
Central Railway and the steelwork for the power stat10n
and car sheds for Edinburgh Corporation. At present
they are engaged with the manufacture of t~e steelwork
for the ~rand concert ball for. the forthc~mm~ Glasgow
Exhibit10n, and bridges for ratlway extens10nstn Lanarkshire and elsewhere.
Sulphate of Ammonia.-Tbis commodity is weaker in
demand spot business having been done on Monday at
l ll. 7s. '6d. per ton f.o.b. at L eith. The shipments of
sulphate at that port for last week amounted to 168 tons.
Glasgow f!opper Market.-No ~usiness has been done in
col?per durmg the week, and pnces have generally been
qu1te nominal, ranging between 76t. 5s. per t9n and 78/.
No change to-day.
Engineer to the Clyde Trust.-A meeting of the Com
mittee of Management of the Clyde Trust was ~eld le:st
week, Dr. U re presiding, when amongst other thmgs di.s cussed was the subject of the filling up of the vacancy m
the official staff occasioned through the recent death of
Mr. J a.mes D eas, the engineer-in-ch~ef. After ~ rather
protracted discussion, it was unammo~sly decided to
appoint Mr. William Murray Alston engme~r at a sa.la~y
of i50l. per annum, and to appoint Mr. Archibald Hamilton outside superintending engineer at a salary of 600l.
Mr. Alston has been 34 years ~t least in. the employment
of the Trust. He a~ted as rea1dent engme.er at the construction of the Queen's D ock, and be was r!_ght-~and ~an
to Mr. D eas in Parliamentary work. Mr. Hamll_to~ hkewise has been long connected with the Tru_st, prmc1pally
superintending outside work.. He was res1denb engmeer
during the erection of the Pnnce's Dock.

NOTES FROM SOUTH YORKSHIRE.

SHEFFIELD, Wednesday.
Gas-Making Difficulties in West Riding. -~everal important points have arisen between the Ass~Clated Coalowners of South Yorkshire and the C<?rporat10ns of ~eeds
and other big West Riding towns, whtch, unless amicab!y
arranged, may very shortly lea_d t<;> a new departure m
gag production, if not a revolution In t~e ~ethods of coal
sup.Ply. The Associated Coalowners, It lS state~, seek
to msert in future gas-coal ~ontrac~s terms !f'h~ch .the
Corporations unite in regardmg as uks<?me, Irntatmg,
and unfair. The latter have entered a. vigorous Pt:otest,
and have informed the colliery proprie~ors tha.t If the
new terms are insisted upon, steps w11l be taken to
restrict the purchase of coal : one of the mean~ to th~t
end being the use of carburetted wa~r- gas, wh1ch, as 1s
well known, not only acta as an .enr1cher, but renders a
large percentage of cannel c~al superfluous. The Corporations epecially concerned m the ?latter are t~ose of
Leeds, Bradford, Huddersfield, ~ahfax, and Keig~l~y;
and suggestions have been made ~n favour of mummpal
combination in colliery undertakmgs, S~<?uld_ th~ worst
come to the worst. In. this age of ?lUDlClpaheatlOn, t~e
question of corporation co~l-gettmg, for the pubhc
benefit, is doubtless one that m the near .futur~ ma.y be
added to the rest. Leeds is about to acqUire a .big esta~
for sewage purposes a.t Gateforth, under which coal 1s
said to be found .
N ovel Armoured Trains.-An interesting feature of
the visit of the Institute of Suryeyo~s to Leed~ last week
was the inspection ab the engmeermg esta.bh.shment of
Messrs. John Fow)er .and .eo., ~imited, of part of an
armoured train whiCh lS bemg bUilt by th e firm for ufe

with the British forces in South Africa. The wagons

inspected formed a portion of two trains which are to be
despatched by order of the Govern!Dent at the e':ld of
May. The traina do not run on ratls, but are designed
for use on the veldt or on roads, to be drawn by
traction engines. The wagons are bullet-proof a.t 21)
yards, and have openings for long field guns.
Sheffield Di~trict .Railway.- The opening c~romon.y,
which has been fixed to take place on May 21, wtll cons1sb
of a trip over the line and on through Beighton toE~ winstowe, returning to Sheffield, where luncheon will ~
served in the Cutlers' Hall. The Duke of Portland will
be the principal guest.
Iron and Steel.-The reports of the condition of the
heavy branches of trade continue to be extremely satisfactory, and at all the iron and steel wor~s men are
being found full empl~yment. In the f~undnea de_voted
to the turning out of Iron a.nd steel castmgs there 18 the
greatest activity, the demands for ~11 kind.s of w~eel.s
a.nd parts of electrical and other macbmery bemg specially
heavy. Manufacturers of dynamos and motors are well
off for orders, and there is a. well-sustained demand for
all descriptions of engineers' tools, especially for_ anvil~
vices and heavy hammers. A very large busmess 1s
being done in gas and oil en~inea, as ma~y manufactu~ers
are adoP.ting them and clea.rmg out thetr present engmes
and botlers. Apart from Government. orders, the file
trade is quieter t hat?- it ~as, and there IS .a great deal of
slowing down of busmesP m almost all articles of luxury.
Manufacturers of edge tools, pen and pocket c~tlery
and scissors, are seriously hampered by the scarcity of
labour.
South Yorkshire Coal.-A feature of the coal trade in
the district this week is the inquiry from many of the
principal __gas companies for tenders !or supplies, commencing July 1 next. The compames, as a rule, a~e
asking for a much larger tonnage than was the case m
last year's contract$, with the object, it is assumed, of
securing better terms. Colliery owners, however, do not
seem inclined to respond to their req nests, on account of
the very heavy demand a.b present existing from all
quarters. The contracts which have been already
entered into for supplies for next year have been made
ab advances of at lea.gt 6s. per ton. An increasing demand
exists for coal for export purposes, the inquiry f<?r home
consumption being also very Ja.rge. House coal 1s somewhat easier but while in coke for foundry and steelpurposes, va.iuea are steady, blast-furnace coke is selling
at fully ls. per ton more than was the case a. month ago.
In Sheffield prices are as follow: Mortomley, 16s. 6d. per
ton ; Silkstone branch, 16s. per ton ; W allsen.d 15s. p~r
ton; picked large Silkstone, 15s. per ton_; Htgb Hazles
(hand picked), 14s. per ton; screened ~1gh Ha21les and
Silkstonea, 13~. 6d. per ton; Barnsley p1cked house, 14s.
per ton ditto seconds, 10s. to 12a. per ton; Ba.msley
bards, lSs. to 14s. per ton; ditto, unscreened, 11~. to 12d.
per ton; Parkga.te bards, 12s. ud. per ton; steam nuts,
10~. 6d. to lla. per ton ; best Barnsley slack, 93. to !>d. 6d.
per ton pit slack, 7s. 6d. per ton; foundry coke, 28s.
per ton; steelmelting coke, 26s. per ton; blast-furnace
coke, 22s. 6d. per ton.

NOTES FROM CLEVELAND AND THE

NORTHERN COUNTIES.
MIDDLESBROUGH, Wednesday.
The Cleveland Iron Trade.-Y esterday there was only
a thin attendance on 'Change, the mar~eb ~~ dull and
very little business wa.s done. A few 10qmnes were reported, but they led to little business, as pi.g iron was ex
ceedingly scarce, and buyers and sellers d.ttfered a good
dea.l in their ideas a.~ to what should be paid for early delivery. Little or no disposition was shown to do business
ahead makers being well sold a.nd purchasers well bought.
At th~ sa.me time, confidence was felt in the fature1 and
reports of pjg iron having been bought. on .t he <;'ontmenb
and in the United States for consumpt10n 10 th1s country
had little effect on the market!. 'l'he general market
quotation for l?rompb f.o.b. delivery of No. 3 g.m.b.
Cleveland pig u on was 77s. Sellers, as a rule, would
nob quote below that figure, but, on the other ha.nd,
buyers endeavoured to purchase at considerably les~,
some of them offering as low as 753. No. 4 foundry p1g
was about 76s.; grey forge, 75s. ; and mot~led and white,
74s. 6d. Middlesbrough warrants were qmet thro~ghoub
the day a.t 75s. cash buyers. The nominal quotation for
Nos 1 2 and 3 east coast hematite pig iron was 87s. 6d.,
but th~r~ was absolutely none to be had. Mi9dlesbrough
hema.tite warrants were not quoted. Rub10 ore w~
2ls. 6d., ex-ship T ees. There was no change whatever m
the market to-day.
Manufactured Iron and Steel.-In all departments <?f
the manufactured iron and steel trades a. lo_b of work 18
going on, and most firms have orders t~at wtll keep them
fully occupied for a month or two. It 1s understood thab
more orders have to be given out s~ortly, ~?ut those who
have the placin~ of them are holdmg off m the .hope of
easier rates ruhn~. Up to the present, quotations a.re
very well maintamed. Common iron bars are. 9l. 10s.;
beat bars, lOl.; iron ship-plates, 8l. 10s.; steel sLip-plates,
8l . 7s. 6d.; iron and steel ship-angles, 8l: 5s. to 8l. 7a. 6d.
-alll~s the customary 2! per cent. diScount for cash.
Heavy sections of steel rails are firm at 7l. 15s., net ab
works.
Rumunvr of A rmour-P late Works fo r Tees-side.-There
are rumours afloat that armour-plat~ works ar~ to be esta
blished at Middlesbrough. It 1s said that a Site ha.s been
purchased on the river side below Cargo Fleet, and for
merly belonging to the Cargo Fleet Iron Company,
Limited. Negotiations are a.lso reported to have_passed
with the Tees Consenancy Commissioners regardmg tho

MAY

4, rgoo.]

river frontage. and arrangements for shipping facilities.

Notwithstanding the circumstantial statemen ts, many
business men here discredit the report. There are others,
however, who believe that the establishment of such
works is very likely, as the district is admirably suited for
such a. purpose.
Shipments of I ron and Steel.-The shi(>ments of iron
and steel from the Tees and from Skinrungrove during
April were very satisfactory, reaching a grand total of
167 419 tons. Of this, 11,100 tons of pig iron were sent
tro:U Skinningrove, 106,839 tons of pig iron from Middlesbrough, and 2l,109 tons of manufactured iron, and 18,371
tons of steel from Middlesbrough. Germany was the
biggest customer, taking 49,109 tons of pig iron, Holland
came next with 20,792 tons of pig, Scotland took 9075
tons of pig, Italy 6500 tons, and B elgium 4228 tons. The
largest customer for manufactured iron wM India, with
orders for 4742 tons. and the mo~t steel (7672 tons) was
sent to Portuguese East Africa..
Coal a;nd, Coke. -The demand for bunker coal is s teady,
hub the supply is good a nd quotations are unchanged.
Gas coal is firm, a nd this week very heavy shipments
have been made to the south. Manufacturing coal and
coking coal steady and strong. Coke continues in very
goo? request, and m~dium bla.at -fur?a.oe q ua.lities are
selling a.t 28s. 61 , dehvered at Tees-stde works over the
next half year.

NOTES FROM THE SOUTH-WEST.

Cardiff.-The demand for steam coal has continued

good. Colliery managers have not been in a position to
accept much new business in connection with which
prompb delivery is insisted upon. The best steam coal
ha.s made 2ls. 6d. to 22~. 6d. per ton, while secondary
qualities have brought 193. 6d. to 20s. per ton. The house
coal trade has shown little change ; but, of course, business in these qualities has fallen off with the advance of
the season; No. 3 Rhondda. large has brought 2ts. to
2Z3. per ton. Coke has made about former terms, foundry
qualities being quoted a.t 323. 6d. to 33s. 6d., and furnace
ditto, ab 303. to 3ls. 6d. per ton. As regards iron ore,
the best rubio has made 20s. to 20s. 6d. per ton.
Bute Shipbuilding, &c., Complllny.-The report of the
directors of the Bute Shipbuilding Engineering and Dry
Dock Company, Limited, for the year ending March 31,
1900, observes: "The balance to the credit of the profit
and loss account for the year. after allowing for depreciation, &c., amounts to 17,987l. 4.s. 9d. An interim dividend a.t the rate of 10 per cent. per annum was paid in
September, after providing for which there remains
(including 33,269l. 5s. 1d. brought forward from the last
account) a. balance of 42,506l. 9s. 10d. available for dividend. The directors recommend the payment of a further
dividend at the rate of 10 per cent. per annum (free of
income-tax), which will amount to 8750l., leaving
33, 756l. 93. 10d. to be carried forward. "
Wirelus Telegraphy.-Signor Marconi's system of wire
less telegraphy was further tested at La.vernock on Tuesday, when messages were transmitted to Weston-superMare without any fault being observable. Some substantial alterations had been made, Marconi's cylinders
having been substituted by strips of wire gauze; and the
most essential feature of the scheme-the coherer-having
been altered. It is not unlikely that, owing to the fact that
the military authorities require the sole control of the fort
at Lavernock, but few further experiments will be made
there. Should L avernock be not available, trials will probably be made between Ilfracombe and the Mumbles, a
distance of 25 miles.
Glov..cester.-As a result of a. recent inquiry, an intimation has been received that the Local Government Board
will be prepared to issue a. provisional order for including
in the city adjacent parishes representing 800 acres. A
scheme of the town council provided for the addition to
the city of 6451 acr~ .
Swansea..-At a meeting of the members of St. Thomas,
s~. John's, and Landore Wards at Swansea OD Wednesday, a resolution was passed instructing the borough
surveyor to prepare plans for a footbridge over the river
from Hafod to F oxhole, on lines suggested by the surveyor. The bridge will cost between 15, OOOl. and 16, OOOl.
The South W ales I nstitute of Engineera.-The fortyseco!ld annual meeting of this society was held at the
Ins~ttute, Park-place, Cardiff, the chair being occupied
du!lng the. earlie! portion of the proceedings by the outgomg prestdent, Mr. H. K. Jordan, F.G.S., who subsequently re3igned it to his successor, Mr. Thomas Evens,
M. Insb. C.E. Mr. Evens' inaugural address ra,l)ged
over nearly every department of engineering. With
refere~ce to the coal industry, he gave figures according
to whtch the world1S output of coal had risen from
393,695,000 tons in 1889 to 627,250,000 tons in 1899.
CATALOGUEs.-The Atlas Engineering Company, of the
Atlas Tool Works, Levenshulme, Manchester, have sent
~-a. copy of. their new illustrated catalogue of lathes,
rillihng machines, planing machines, milling machines, and
ot er tools.-We have received from Messrs. N. C.
Szerelmey and Co., of Rotherhithe New-road, S.E., a copy
of a. paii_lph~et describing applications of the stone-preservmg liqUid and paints made by the firm.-Mr. R. J.
Moss, of 97, Great Hampton-street, Birmingham has
rent us a catalogue of generators and fittings for ~tyene ~.-M~rs. Joseph Adamson and Co., of Hyde,
Cheshire, have 1SSned a list of the fianged plates they are
prepared to sup.PlY. to the trade, together with the prices
of same. The hst moludes a very la.r~e variety of boilerend plates, manhole fittings, and the hke.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
MISCELLANEA.
THE bon A ge is responsible for the statement that a
train 6000 ft. long wa.a recently hauled over a certain
p ortion of the Cleveland and Pittsburg line. The brakeman in the van at the rear of the train had to telegraph
the order to start to the enginedriver in front.
By alloying aluminium with tungsten, M. H. Partin
claims that a metal can be obtained, having in its oast state
a sp ecific gravity of 2.89, and a tensile strength of about
9 tons per square inch. The same metal rolled has a density of 3.09, and a tensile strength of 22 tons per square
inch.
The Council of the Sanitary Institute have arranged to
hold the Institute dinner on Friday, May 11, in the Venetian Chamber, H olborn Restaurant. His Royal Highness
the Duke of Cambridge, K. G ., President of the Institute,
has consented to take the chair. Tickets can be obtained
from the secretary at the Parkes Museum, Margaretstreet, L ondon, ,V,
The annual dinner of old students of King's College,
L ondon, will be held at the Holborn Restaurant on Monday, June 18, with the H on. Sir J ohn Alexander Cockburn, K.C.JM:. G., F. and A.K.O. M.D., Agent-General
for, and formerly Premier of, South Australia, in the
chair. His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge,
KG., has signified h:s intention of being present.
The traffic receipts for the week ending A pril 22,
on 33 of the principal lines of the United Kiogdnm.
amounted to 1,801,509l. , which was earned on 19,865f
miles. For the corresponding week in 1899, the receipts
of the same lines amounted to 1,746,789l., with 19,604}
miles OJ?en. There wa.s thus an increase of 54, 720l. in
the rece1pts, and an increase of 261i in the mileage.
The North Sea.-Baltic canal still fails to pay its working
expens~, though, of course, as its construction was due
to strategic and not commercial consideration~, this was
only to be expected. The traffic is, however, increasing.
the tonnage passed through in 1898 totalling 3,117,840
tons, an increase of 26.24 per cent. on the preceding year.
The receipts were 1,634,337 marks, and the expenses
2,066,737 m arks. The average time of transit was
8 hours 43 minutes for boats nob exceeding 17.7 ft. in
draught, and 11 hours 30 minutes for boats drawing
between 17.7 ft. and 22.6 ft. of water. The time taken
in {>&SSing the locks a.t the Baltic end has averaged
8 mmutes; whilst at the North Sea. end, 17 minutes has
been required.
Plant for automatically charging blast-furnaces has
recently been erected at the Zanesville furnaces of the
National Steel Company by the Brown Hoisting and
Conveying Company. An inclined girder is constructed
from below ground level up to the top of the furnace, and
is provided with rails on which runs a skip of 100 cubic
feet capacity. This ~kip, after being filled at the bottom,
is hoisted by a small engine, overwinding being prevented by an automatic stop, which shuts off steam when
the oar has reached the proper point for dumping. The
bell and the hopper doors a.b the top of the furnace are
all regulated from below, and a regtstering device is provided which records the height of the stock in the furnace
every time the bell is lowered. The whole of the work of
hoisting and filling into the furnace is done by a single
man, who is much less hardly worked than the men replaced
by the machine.
The Board of Trade inspectors have of recen t years
repeatedly called attention to the slackness of British
railway companies in adopting some mechanical method
of fog signalling, which would, at any rate, insure the
safety of trains until the fogmen can get to their places.
According to the .Railroad Gazette such a system has been
in successful use on some of the New York lines since
1892. The trouble with such systems lies in the fact that
in case of failure of any portion of the mechanism, no
danger sign al is given, the ideal system of signalling
being on the other hand one in which the absence of a
positive signal t o proceed, means danger. Even so, however, the adoption of this system would go far to reduce
the accidents which now occur before the fogmen can get
to their posts, and we do nob believe that the problem of
mechanically giving a. positive signal for safety, and for
safety only, is by any means insoluble.
~he water works of. Daw:son City, on the Klondyke
RIVer, are probably umque m the world. The supply is
pumped from a well sunk in the river valley, into a tank
holdmg: about 8000 imperial gallons. This tank is enclosed m a house heated by a stove which maintains a
temp~rature inside of about 50 deg. Fa.hr. The water as
it comes from the well has a temperature of about 35 d eg.
to 36 deg. Fa.hr. From the tank the water is pumped to
a number of hydrants, from \vhioh the supply is drawn
by the consumer as needed. These hydrants are all
housed within wooden shelters having double walls, the
space between being filled with sawdust. A stove in
these shelters keeps the water from free 7.ing. The water
is kept in constant movement, being, we gather, pum~d
back to the main tank where ib is reheated. One dlffi.
oulty meti with on the part of the water company is the
very considera.blf;\ loss by theft, estimated to amount to
one-third of the total supply. To oheok this, it is proposed to institute some form of penny-in-the-slot meter
similar in principle to the prepayment gas meters no~
so common.
An American engineer resident in the Rand reports in
the Engineering and Milnimg Journal, that the Trans;aa.l
Government adopted a very simple plan of reduci~g the
working expenses of the mines operated by them. Under
company management the native workmen were paid 4l.
per month, plus food and lodging, hub the Government
cut this down to 1l. in the mines operated by them ; and

even this amount was paid under protest, so to speak, as

they claimed the right to make the negroes w<?rk f~r
nothing. And the same time that they agreed to gtve th1s
compassionate allowance, as it may be called, they
decreed that no Kaffir labourer anywhere in the
country should be paid more; but it has been found
impossible to adhere to this striotl;r, in the case of
natives who had facilities for esoa.pmg, such a.s th<:>se
employed on the railways. In the oase of the mme
labourers, however, the decree has been enfor~d ; a.~d
though under ordinary conditions such a. dra.st1c cut m
wages would be followed by a fa.lling-otf in the efficien~y
of the labourers, this, it is believed, has not foJlowed 1n
the present ir.stance, since the correspondent states that
the Dutch officials who are now in control underata.nd
the management of natives better than EnglishmenA
Presumably the frequent and forcible application of
"sj ambok , forms a prominent feature of their &3Stem of
management.
Observations on the propagation of sound have shown
that under certain conditions a very loud noise is transmitted more rapidly than less powerful ones. Some
experiment3 bearing on the same subjeot, viz., the propagation of very violent waves, have recently been made
by M. Paul Vielle, the inventor of a smokeless powder
adopted by the French Government. Theory shows that
if a. wave front becomes perpendicular, the ordinary Jaws
of wave movement cease to &J;>ply, and this condition is
readil;r attained with explos1ve waves. In M. Vielle's
experiments a steel tube about 1 in. in diameter and
some yards long was provided with recording pressure
gauges at different points through its length. On detonating charges of powder or fulminate near one end of
the tube the pressure gauge nearest the point of explosion
recorded a gradual rise of pressure, but the records taken
further along the tube showed that this wave front
quickly became vertical, and from this point the pressure
gauges gave deceptive indications since the rise of pressure was so abrupt that the inertia. of the moving parts
of the gauges vitiated the record. After the wave
ha<i, however, travelled still further it lost its steepness of front and took, again, the usual wave form,
its velocity falling therewith to that of sound. With
the vertical wave front the velocity of propagation was
always much greater than this. It is suggested that
these experiments gave an explanation of the fact ths.t
the barrel of a shot gun can be bulged by {>lugging it near
the muzzle and firing a cartridge with 1t in this state.
In these conditions the explosive wave has acquired a
vertical front before reaching the obstruction, and a.ccordingly the rise of pressure there on the arrival of the wave
is enormous. An ordinary wave passes through a. fluid
medium without taking up or giving out energy, both
expansion and contraction taking place automatically;
but, with a vertical fronted wave, this is no longer the
case. Energy is given up to the medium, which is heated
thereby, and this loss of energy finally re~ults in the
me~hod of propagation being at length reduoed to the
ordma.ry wave type, in which condition the velocity is
equal to that of sonnd.
LEAN's RoYAL NAVY LrsT.-We have reoeived from
Messrs. Witherby and Co., 326, High Rolborn, and
4. Newman's-conrt, Cornhill, the April issue of " Lean's
Navy List." W e have so frequently written in a. com
mandatory way of this comprehensive and well-arranged
Navy List that it need only be said now that the new
issu~ embraces all recent changes, including the South
Afncan war honours. It should be remembered that thie
list gives a narra.ti ve of the war and meritorious services,
&c., and of all officers- an interesting record not found
in other similar publications.
THE WEAR.-An agreement was concluded on Fridaty
between the committees acting for the Sunderland Town
Council and the Southwick Urban District Council with
reference to a bridge which it is proposed to build over
the Wear between Southwick and Deptford. The chief
points of the arrangement are that the Town Oounoll will
pay 140,000l. towards the cost of the bridge, and make the
south approaches which will cost about 20 OOOt. The expenditure on each side will be returned by tolls and after
wards 10,000l. will be allowed to accumula.'te for the
expense of keeping the structure in repa.ir, the bridge
then to be declared free.

---

. THE BAOT~R~AL TRE.ATMlpYT Oli' SEWAGE.-A capital

httle book, gt. vmg an htstonca.l survey and details a.s to

the mode~n method of treating sewage by biolysis, has

been pubhshed by The Councillor and Guardia!n of 29
Old ~ueen-street, S. W. The author is Mr. he~rg~
T~ud.toh~m, F.C.S., who _has been associated with Mr.
Dtbdm m a number of unporbant applications of the
syste~. .To those who already have some knowledge
of. thts Important departure in the disposal of the
dejecta. of our towns and cities, the most interesting
part. of r. Thudiohum's pamphlet will be that
dealing wtth trade wastes. These differ much in
ohara~ter. Some, such. a.s brewery wastes, are, Mr.
Thud10hum states, unemted for septic tank treatment
but can readily be rendered innocuous by a.erobi~
method~. At. Yeovil, on t~e othe~ hand, where the
sew~ge IS parbtoularly obnox10us owmg to the large pro.
port10n . of. fell mongers and leather -dressers' wastes included m ~b, the s~ptic tank supplemented as usual by
tr~tment 1n. aerobto beds, has proved successful in ptoducmg a. sa.ttsfaotory effluent. In Scotland these bene
ficent bacteria. bid fair to save the threatened destruotio~
of the salmon streams ~y distillery wastes. In faob, it
~ou~d see~ that there lS hardly any organically polluted
hqwd, wh_tOh cannot. be successfully dea.lb with by these
recently dtsoovered frtends of humanity.

sS6

E N G I N E E R I N G.

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E N G I N E E R I N G.

MAv 4, 1900.]

far wider in proportion to the traffic, and are much

NOTICE
TO
CONTINENTAL
ADVBRTISBR&.
more easily restored, since they ar~ generally of
AGENTS FOR "ENGINEERING."
Advertisements from Germany should now be sent macadam or of granite pitchin_g. . In the c~se of
AusTRIA, Vienna: Lehmann and Wentzel, Kartnen~raaee.
OAPB TowN : Oordcn and Ootch.
through Messrs. G. L. Da.ube and Co., Frankflirt-am wood-paving, and of as~hal ~, 1t JS almos~ 1mposEot.NBURGR: John Menzies and Oo., ~2, Han?ver:s~reet.
Fa&'iOB, Paris : Boyvenu and OheT1llet, L1brame Etrang~re, 22, Maln, who have been appointed our Sole Agents for sible to insert a new stnp whtch shall be, 1n ever_y
Rue de la Banque ; M. Em. Terquem, 31 bia, Boulenrd Hauesmann. that country for Trade displayed Advertisements. way, equal to the origi_nal ~urface. B?t this
Also tor Advertisements, Agence Bans, 8, Place de la Bourse. Advertisements from France, Belgium, and Bol d ifficulty does not obtain wtth other ktnds of
(See next column.)
.
should be sent through the Agence Havas, roads. and there is no reason whatever why a
GIJUIANY Berlin : .Messrs. A. Asher and Oo., 6bUnter den Lmden. land
8, Place de la Bourse, Paris, our Sole Agents for
'

th
' Frankfurt-am-.Main : .Me~RJI"I. G. L. aube and Oo. (tor those
countries for stmnar Advertisements.
local surveyor should n ot be able to tnsure . e
Advertisements).
--====----=----====~--====---=:=- perfect r einstatement of macadam and gran~te
Leipzig : F. A. Brockbaua.
Mulhouae : H . Stuckelberier.
RsADtNo OAsES.- Reading cnse8 tor containing twenty-six surfaces after the electric mains have been laid.
GLASGOW : WiUiam Love.
numbers ot ENGINEERING may be had of the Publisher or of any The aeneral plan in such circumstances is to allow
newsagent. Price 68. each.
o
IMDlA Calcutta: Thaoker, Spink, and Oo.
the local authority to make good the pavement,
' Bombay : Thacker and Oo., Limited.
ITALY : U. Hoepli, Milan, and ~ny post office.
and
charge
the
company
with
the
expense,
and
NOTICES
OF
MEETINGS.
LIVBRPOOL : .Mrs. Ta.ylor, Landmg Stage.
MANCHBSTBR: John Heywood, 143, Dennsgate.
SOCIP.rr OJo' E~OIN&KRS. - Monday, May 7, at the Royal United under these condit ions the surveyor has a perfectly
NoRWAY, Obristiania: Cammermeyers Bogbandel, Oarl Johans Service Institution, Whitehall. A paper will be read, en~itl ed, free hand, and if he does not make a good job of
Oa.de, 41 and 43.
" The Economical Disposal of Town Refuse," by Mr. Bnerley the work, it is his own fault.
Nsw SouTH WAL&S, Sydney : Turner and Henderson, 16 and 18, Denham Bealey. The chair will be taken at 7.30 p.m. precisely.
Hunter-street. Oordon and Ootch, George-street.
The passing inconvenience of _h~ving t he roads
TliK INSTITUTION OF ELECTRIOAL ENGINBERS.-Thursday, 1\lay 10,
QUBKNSLA.ND (SouTu){ Brisbane : Oordon and Ootoh.
rueetiog at the Society of Arts, John-street, W.O. A Friction opened is all that the local authorities have to fear.
(NORTHJ, TownsviUe : T. Willmett and Oo.
less Motor !leter," by 1\ir. S. Evershed, Assoc. 1\lember.
RonDDAll : H. A. Krn~er and Son. .
SOOJETY OF AR1'S.- Monday, May 7, at. 8 p.m. Cantor Lectures. On the other hand, the ''electricity in bulk " schemes
SOUTB AUSTRALIA, Adelaide: W. 0. R1gby.
The Incandescent Gas Mantle and its Use," by Professor Vivian offer them very notable advantages. They will reUNITKD STATBB, New York: W. H. Wiley, 43, East .19ths~re~t.
B.
Lewes.
Three
Lectures.
Lecture
I.
Tbe
History
of
lnoan
lieve the smaller municipalities of much of the
Chicago : B. V. Holmes, 44, Lakes1de Buildin~.
descent
Gas
Lighting."
Tuesday,
May
8,
at
8
p.m.
Applied
Art
y 1oroRlA .Melbourne : Melville, Mullen, and Slade, 261/264, Oolline Section. .. Art Metal Work," by Mr. Nelson Dawson Henry H. anxiety of their present position under t he Electric
1treet.' Oordon and Ootch, Limited, Queen-street.
Ounynghame, O.B., will preside. Wednesday, May 9. at .8 p.m. Lighting Act. Accordin~ to t hat they h~ve t~e
Twentieth Ordinary Meeting. Improvement of Our Roads," right to set on foot electric supply works tn t~eir
-======
We be to announce that American Subscriptions to ENGINE'8RING by Mr. A. Moresby White. Sir John Wolfe Barry, K.O.B.,
may now be addressed either direct to the Publisher, Mr. 0. R. Chairman of the Council, will preside.
areas, even if other undertakers should be al1Xlous
JoBNSON at the offices of this Journal, Nos. 35 and 36, Bedford IRONAND STERL INSTITOTE.-Annual meeting, at the Institution to execute the work. The councils enjoy the
street Strand London, W.O. , or to our accredited Agents for the of Oivil Engineers, Great Georgestreet, Westminster, on Wed
United States' Mr. W. B. WILSV, 43, East 19th-street, New York, nesday and Thursday, May 9 and 10, commencing each day at preference at the Doard of Trade, and can block
and Mr. H. V. BOLMES, 44, La.keside Building, Chicago. The 10.30 a.m. On Wednesday the Council will present their report their dist ricts against the entrance of private enterprices of subscription (PO:Y~ble in advance) !or one ~ear are :. For for the year 1 99. Tbe Bessemer Gold Medal for 1900 will be
thin (foreign) po.per ed1t1on 1 ll. 1~. Od. , for thick (ordinary) presented to Mr. Henri de Wendel, President of the Oomit~ des prise. Great numbers of them have exercised this
paper edition 2Z. Os. 6d. ; or 1f rermtted to Agents, 9 dollars for Forges de France. A selection of papers (4, 5, 6, and 9) will right, without, however, taking any steps to provide
thm and 10 d~llars for thick.
be read and discussed. On Thursday a selection of papers (1, 2, a supply themselves. There is, however, a limit to
AMERICAN ADVERTISERS can obtain full particulars con 3, 7, and 8) will be read and discussed. Tbe following is a. list of
cerning our Advertisement Rates from Mr. WILLARD C. TYLKR, papers that are expected to be re1d and discussed : 1. .. On Ingots the time during which they can play the dog-in-the9LS Morton Building, New York; and Mr. B. V. Bot.MJUJ, 44, for Guu Tubes and Propeller Shafts," by Mr. F. J. R. Carrulla manger, and many of t hem are now face to face
(Derby). 2. On the .Manufacture and Application of Water with t he necessity of either taking action or allowLakeside Building, Chicago.
Gns,' by Mr. Oarl Dellwik (Stockholm). 3. On the Equalisation of
the Temperature of Hot Blast," by Mr. Lawrence Gjers and Mr. ing other persons to do. In not a few towns an
ADVERTISEMENTS.
Joseph II. Harrison (Middlesbr'J ugh). 4. On Blowing En~ines electric lighting station is certain to make a loss
The char,e tor advertisements is three shillinr for the first Driven by Orude Blast-Fu rn aceOa~," by Mr. AdolpheOreiner, Mem
four lines or under, and eightpence for each additional line. The ber of Council {Serain~, Belgium}. 5. " On the Solution Theory of for some years, and increase, instead of relievi~g,
line anrages seTe!l words. PM me ~t mus~ B?OOtn~any all orders Iron," by the Baron H. von JUptner (Donawitz, Austria}. 6. .. On the rates, and such an occurrence is certain to bring
for single advertiSements, othenv1se theu msertion cannot be the U11e of Fluid Metal in the Open Hearth Furnace," by Mr. James
iUaro.nteed. Terms for displayed ad';ertisements ?n ~he wra.p~er Ri1ey, Vice-President (Stockton-onTees). 7. "On the Manganese odium to the council from a certain portion of the
and on the inside pages mo.y be obtamed on a.pphoahon. Senal Ores of Brar.il," by Mr. H. Kilburn Scott (Minas, Brazil). 8. "On electorate. On t he other hand, there are plenty of
advertisements will be inserted with all practicable re,ularity, bu\ the Utilisation of Blast-Furnace S lo~, " by the Rttter Oecil von
ab!olute regularity cannot be guaranteed.
Schwarz (Li ~ge). 9... On the Continuous Working of the Open far-sighted commercial men who have sufficient conFurnace," by Mr. Beojamin Talbot (Pencoyd, Pennsyl fidence in t he ultimate success of electric lighting
Advertisements intended for insertion in the cur Hearth
to accept a temporary loss for the sake of fut ure
rent week's issue must be dellvered not later than vania).
profits, and who will snatch at t he opportunity
5 p.m. on Thursday. In consequence of the necessity
for going to press early with a portion of the edition,
if the councils let it pass. The dilemma is an
alterations for standing Advertisements should be
awkward one for those who are eager to obtain
reoelved not later than 1 p.m. on Wednesday after
the profits of municipal trading without undernoon In each week.
taking its risks- a ' 'ery numerous class in our
FRIDAY, MAY 4, 1900.
urban councils.
The institution of a general
SUBSCRIPTIONS, HOME AND FOREIGN.
supply in a district would, however, completely
ENGINEERING can be supplied, direct from the Publisher,
solve the difficulty in tnost cases. The council
post free for twelve months, at the following rates, payable in
ELECTRIC ENERGY IN BULK.
would buy what they wanted in bulk, at a rate
advance:THE Committee appointed to inquire into the which would b e quite as low, i f not much lower,
For the United Kinrdom . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 9 2
, all placet abroad :Bills now before Parliament for t he supply of elec- t han t hat for which they could generate it for themThin paper copies........ .. 1 16 0
tric en ergy '' in bulk , commenced its sittings se! ves, and the only expense they would incur
Thick
,
. . . . . . .. . . . . 2 0 6
yesterday. These Bills were read a second time in would be for mains, or about one-third that required
All accounts are payable to "ENGINEERING," Limited. the House of Commons some weeks ago, somewhat for a complete equipment. 11he arrangement is an
Obeques should be crossed " Union Bank, Oharing Oross Branch."
to the surprise of many who were interested in t he ideal one from their point of view . The r isks conPost Office Orders payable at Bedlordstreet, Strand, W.O.
When foreign Subscriptions are sent by Post Office Orders, subject, and who anticipated that the opposition of nected with electric lighting are at the generating
&<h'ice should be sent to the Publisher.
ForeifO and Colonial Subscribers receiving incomplete copies the municipalities would secure their rejection at station. There it is that fires and accidents
through newsagents are requested to communicate the fac~ to that early stage. Fortunately Mr. Ritchie took a occur. Not only does machinery depreciate, but,
the Publilher, toiether with the a,ent's name and address.
statesmanlike view of the subject, and advocated what is of more importance, it rapidly grows
Oftloe for Pnbllcation and Advertisements, Nos. 36 fuller inquiry before any final decision was adopted, antiquated.
Already many alternate- current
and 36, Bedtordatreet, Strand, London, W.C.
and so, owing in great measure to his influence, stations have had to spend large sums in lowerWe desire to oan the attention of our readers to defeat was avoided. It must not be supposed, ing the frequency of their supply, although their
the f~t that the above is our SOIE Address, and however, that the danger is past, and that t he machines ar e comparati \?ely new ; and we are still
that no connection ex:J.sts between this Journal and measures in question will necessarily r eceive the far from finality in such matters. l\1ains, on the
any other publloatioDJJ bearing somewhat stmtlar
Royal
assent
before
the
close
of
t
he
Session.
They
contrary, if of good quality and well la.id, are a
titles.
are still on t heir trial, and immense exertions will very safe investment. Indeed, many of them
Tlueaumo ADD!I.BB&-BNGINEERING, LONDON.
be made by their opponents to secure their rejec- have recently had their earning capacity increased
TILllPHONB NUliBBR- 3663 GePrard.
tion, if possible, and, failing t hat, to load them fourfold by the increase of pressure from 100 to 200
with so many liabilities and obligations that no volts, which we think is quite a unique experience
CONTENTS.
one will undertake t he r esponsibility of construct- in engineering. The town, therefore, that underPAGB
PA&B ing the works which t hey authorise.
takes to distribute to its inhabitants a supply of
The Hotopp Syphon Looks
Notes ..... .. .. ..... .... .. 600
At
a
cursory
glance
it
is
difficult
to understand electrical energy bought in bulk, tackles a problem
on the Elbe-Trave Canal
The Late Mr. Willia.m Duff
(lllmtrated) . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Bruce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 why there should be so active and widespread an in which there are practically no unknown quantiModem Field Artillery (IlI Steel Rails .... :. . . . . . . . . . . 691 opposition against measures which seem to promise ties, and at the same time indulges its a mbition to
lustrattd) .... . . . ... . ... 673 Road Looomot1ves (Illtt8.) 692
The institution of .Mech&
Yacht Measurement .. .... 693 nothing but good to t he districts which they will enter into municipal trading.
nical En~oeers .... ...... 677 Th(CoalMining Industry . . 593 affect. The only point in which t he urban and
One of the proposed companies, which will have
Paris Exhtbition Railways
The Flip or Jump of a Gun
(l llmtrated.) . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
or Rifte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 rural authorities will be injuriously affected by the ils field of operations in Durham, only asks powers
operations of the companies supplying electric to supply '' undertakers," municipal or private,
The Japanese Battleship
Notes from the United
Asahi " (llluttratecl) .. 681
States ......... .. ....... 69! energy in bulk is in connection with the breaking leaving the entire work of distribution to them.
The Duddell Osoillograph
Diagrams of Three Months'
and reinstatement of the roads. In this matter The others, however, have wider aspirations, and,
(fllmtrated) . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
Fluctuations in Prices
Notes from the .North... .. . 68~
of Metals .. .. .. .. . . . . . . .. 694 they, representing the inhabitants, will suffer some as a. rule, seek the right to enter into direct relaNotes from South Yorkshire 68-! Six-Yard Dipper Dredge(n
inconvenience, and in that respect t hey have the tions with customers requiring power. To this
Notes from Cleveland and
lmtrated) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
the Northern Counttea .. 584 Industrial Notes . ... .... .. 696 right to demand guarantees. This, however, is a extent they will invadt:} the domain of the municiNotes from the South-West 5 5 Road Locomotion (lUu1.) .. 697 very trifling matter. In London, with its enor- palities. It is, however, a Yery small matter.
Miscellanea .. . ...... . ... 685 The Physical Society ...... 600
Eleotrio Energy in Bulk.. . . 587 Launches and Trial Trips . . 600 mous traffic, we manage to exist and conduct our According to a paper read by Mr. Alfred H. GibThe British Arsenic In
Graphical Constructions in
business, in spite of the many interruptions of t he bings, the electrical engineer to the city of Braddustry .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. 688
Engineering .. .. .. .. .. . . 601 streets due to the repair of gas, water, electric, ford, before t he Northern Society of Electrical
Cor_npulsory Boiler lnsoea
I " Engineerin~' Patent Reton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 I oord (IUttstrated). . 60S and hydraulic mains, in addition to frequent re- Engineers, on lVIarch 13, 1900, the number of elecl'ith a f'wo P(IIJo Ew.rraving oj THE TWIN SCREW newal of t he surface, and what can be borne t~ic motor~ in use in various towns is only conBATTLESHIP cc A5ABI" FOR THE I:4fPERIAL in the Metropolis can surely be endured in siderable m t he cases of Manchester, Liverpool,
JAPANESE NAVY.
the smaller provincial towns. Their streets are Bradford, Edinburgh, Birmingham, and Nor11

11

11

11

11

11

ENGINEERING.

11

E N G I N E E R I N G.
wich, just the places into which the "bulk"
companies are certain not to gain admittance.
In nearly every other case the demand for motors
is a negligible quantity, and will remain so at t he
prices at which a small electri~ station must demand t? assure itself against loss. The supply
companies are founded in the expectation of inaugurating a new condition of affairs. With them
t~e heavy costs of supervision and management
w~l be vastly reduced, while labour-saving devices
'~ill be employed to the ubmost. They will be
situated where coal and water are cheap, and will
lay themselves out from the commencement to
obtain a good load factor. They will start on the
assumption that they are going to do business in a
wholesale fashion, with a comparatively small percentage of profit on an immense output, and unless
they realise this they will not be successful.
'fhey will, therefore, have to foster a demand in a
way which is quite impossible for a municipality,
and in doing this they must necessarily stimulate
the industries of these districts in a remarkable way.
The quack advertisement of a few years ago used
to declare '' Electricity is Life, '' and certainly the
presence of an immense electric supply company
in a manufacturing district will quicken and vitaliee it in a way that nothing else can. It is
a stock platform phrase that cheap power has made
this country the workshop of the world, but it is
a phrase which may easily mislP-ad. We have had
cheap coal, and shall have it again when the
present scarcity is over, but a great deal of the
power we use is very dear. In the cotton mill
and the steamship, and also in our locomotives,
power is generated economically, but in most of
our manufactories it costs far more than it should
in the first instance, and then a great part of it is
wasted in friction. The smaller the works the
greater the waste. The supply company will give
cheap power to all, and will put the jobbing
mechanic who seizes his opportunity on a better
footing than the large manufacturer who plods
along the old way. Industries will spring up
beside its mains, just as formerly they did
along water courses.
There are scores of
valleys in Derbyshire and Yorkshire, which are
dotted with the remains of mills built there
in the past for the sake of the water p.:nver.
When the steam engine became common these
mills suffered from their position, and many of
them were closed, the neighbourhood returning
to its original pa~toral simplicity. We may possibly
see a like migration of the smaller industries to the
districts Rerved bysupplycompanies to the detriment
of those which have not the same advantage.
The Bills before the Committee have, however,
an interest to engineers quite apart from any economic advantages they promise to the districts
concerned. Upon their passage, or rejection, depends the creation or loss of a great industry. If
they succeed in becoming law, British engineers
and manufacturers will have a new field opened to
them-the transmission of power by electricity to
considerable distances ; and in competing for orders
in our colonies and elsewhere, t hey will be able to
point to what they have done at home in evidence
of their ability to design and construct such machinery. At present they have to acknowled.ge,
not without shame, that they have no practical
experience in this branch of their art, and that
what they know o_f it has been largely ~l~aned
in America and Switzerland. Upon the dems10n of
the Committee bang most important issues to the
profession and the ~dustry. The matter in question is not the erect10n of three or four large generating stations ; that is an affair of comparatively
small moment. It is whether the scientific knowledge the inventive skill, the manufacturing ability,
and the commercial enterprise of this country are
to be deliberately fettered in order that the counc~s
of a number of third-rate towns may play at mun~
cipal trading and, if successful, may reduce their
rates by 5 pe~ cent. That is the plain sta-tement of
the case. Just as the famous Mr. Robins in selling
a great London brewery told his audience he was
not offering them so many tuns and vats, but the
chance of growing ~ich beyond the. dreams of
avarice, so the Committee are not settling whether
electric stations shall be large or small, but whether
Englishmen shall be allowed to obtain th~ir share of
the wealth which other peoples are cre!l'hng. by following this important branch of engine~rmg. It
is worse than useless for us to have published .the
views of many of the leading m.en m the l T:n~ted
States on the subject of Amencan competitlOn,

a~d ~or the Times to have sent its Special Com- mine known as the Devon Great Consols which is

nusswner across the Atlantic to spend weeks in

examining steel and iron works to learn the secret
of their success, if the Legislature is so blind to
our danger as to regard the breaking of a few
streets as of equal importance to the birth of a
great industry.
The opposition to the Supply Bills will be strenuous, because so many people are interested in
fomenting it. The paymaster-the general public
:-has no voice in the matter, and so the restraining
mfiuence of a cautious litigant is wanting. Town
councillors find it agreeable to have their expenses
paid to London in May, when there are so many
things to be seen. Clerks to boards like contentious business, because it adds to their income and
importance. Parliamentary agents and counsel
live on other people's quarrels, and, generally,
there is quite an army of men to whom an occasion of this kind is bread and cheese, and often
champagne too. We are sorry, however, to see
leading 1nembers of our own profession affording
the support of their names to the opposition. We
should have thought that at this great crisis their
sympathies would have impelled them to exert
their influence in aid of the movement, and
that, unless bound by general retainers, they
would have declined to assist their municipal
friends in attacking their own brethren. We are
quite aware how strong are the temptations in the
opposite direction. There is a certain class of
consulting engineer who would be pleased to see a
miniature electric light station in every street, so
long as he was called in to advise on it, and it
would be expecting too much to think that such
members of that branch of the profession will feel
anything but hostility to the new schemes. It is,
however, of those engineers who have already
made their mark in the world, and who have
reaped full sheaves in the harvest of success,
that we are thinking. As men of science they
must be interest.ed in the success of such an
important forward step ; as men of light and
leading they must desire to be in the van; and
as prudent men they must welcome the opening
up of a n ew department of practice. How comes
it, then, that we find them providing ammunition
for the forces of obstruction 1

THE BRITISH ARSENIC INDUSTRY.

THERE is one branch, at any rate, of the Cornwall and Devon mining industry which has not felt
the pinch of foreign competition, and this is the
arsenic industry. True, the production of recent
years has n ot attained to the figure of fifteen years
ago, but against this must be put the fact that the
prices ruling at present are considerably higher,
and suggestive of a larger profit than was the case
when the output was greater. The product of few
branches of mining has been so much in the hands
of merchants, who on several occasions have formed
rings to regulate the price, a proceeding that can
only be done with any degree of success where the
total bulk of material dealt with is comparatively
small. Arsenic itself cannot be considered a commercial article ; it is the white arsenious oxide
which finds so much employment in the arts and
manufactures, and it is this body which is meant by
the term arsenic, as used in the present article.
The main reason which prompts us to say a few
words on this rather special industry at the
present time is that a new mine, which is
expected to add considerably to the amount
now put yearly upon the market, has recently
been opened in Eastern Cornwall, and anything which tends to provide the Co1nish miner
with work whereby he can maintain his household,
and yet stay in the country, is not without ilnportance in these days of depopulation of rural
districts. It is to be regretted, we may say, while
on this point, that the expected revival of tin-mining
has not come to pass, or, at least, only to an insignificant extent, although the fltct that the metal now
stands at 140l., instead of 60l., at which it was a
year or two ago, certainly seemed to warrant the
sanguine hopes of the native miners who looked to
many of the 1nore recently abandoned mines being
re-opened. However, we are trenching on ground
which hardly concerns our present subject, and we
hark back to arsenic, which, although it was at one
time entirely, and still is, to a limited extent,
merely a bye-product of tin-mining, is now worked
entirely for itself in the case of one or two mines.
Especially does this remark apply to the noted

located on the Devonshire bank of the Tamar

which divides the county just named from Cornwall. How a group of mining speculators ceased
their operation when almost within touch of the
great lode of copper ore which made the fortunes
of the speculators of a later date, and how, when
the copper ore gave out, a rich vein of arsenical
pyrites or mundic, as it is locally called, was struck,
are matters of history which border on the romantic.
To-day the mine is in full swing, and turns out, in
addition to an insignificant quantity of copper ore,
an amount of ars~nic approximating to 2500 tons
annua1ly, equalling the total yield of the other dozen
or so of arsenic-producing mines in the two counties.
To those who are not aware of the extent to which
this body is used in the arts, the fact that from
6000 to 8000 tons have been annually produced by
British mines may come somewhat in the light
of a surprise ; that ignorance does prevail on the
point is clear from the statement recently made
by a chemical manufacturer in the North of
England, that it was preposterous to talk of
putting another 60 tons per month on the market.
Whet her there is any good reason for opening out new arsenic property at the present
time, is a matter on which we shall dispense with
giving any decided opinion, but considering that in
the seventies the substance was produced and sold
at a profit for 7l. per ton, it certainly seems
likely to be a profitable business provided
that the present market price of 20l. per ton
can be maintained. Probably, from the reason
already mentioned, this will be the case, and we
very much doubt if calico-printers, pottery manufacturers, and the makers of green pigments, not
to mention sundry other consumers (in a technical
sense) of this chemical, will have the benefit of any
substantial reduction in price, or will witness a
shrinkage in values to those ruling twenty-five
years ago, when two of the most prominent mines
were selling in active opposition.
Although there is nothing of novelty to describe
in the methods in present use for the manufacture
of the arsenic from the ore, yet in view of the fact
that the apparatus employed is peculiar to this
business, and that, moreover, it is to be seen at
work in but few districts of the world, it may n ot
be superfluous to say a few words on the subject.
The ore, which is variously called arsenical pyrites,
mispickel, or mundic-the last being its common
designation in Cornwall- is composed of arsenic,
sulphur, and iron, and contains, when pure, 46 per
cent. of arsenic. It is the only ore from which
arsenic is obtained in England, though in Saxony
and Silesia the substance is generally found in conjunction with cobalt. As for the process of obtaining the arsenic, it is a very simple one, consisting
merely in calcining the ore and collecting the volatilised oxide in long flues. Naturally, the efHux
of time has brought about changes in the details of
operation, and the calcining furnace of an earlier
date has been superst~ded by that in general use today, and which is known as the Oxland and Hocking calciner. This briefly may be described as a
wroughtiron cylinder 30 ft. or so long, and about
3 ft. in diameter, with a firebrick lining. It
inclines upwards from the furnace with which it
is connected at its lower end, and is supported upon rollers, whioh cause it to revolve
slowly. By this action, and aided by a number of
projections in the tube, the crushed ore, which,
after being mixed with coal, is fed in automatically,
gets very thoroughly exposed to the furnace heat
and rapidly becomes incandescent. The furnace is
kept going night and day, Sundays included, until a
sufficien t quantity of arsenic has collected in the
flue, when it is cooled down, or in some cases
connected with another flue. These flues, made
usually of brick, are often of considerable length,
and at intervals widen into chambers where the
arsenic is deposited on projections. The length of
the flues is necessitated not only from motives
of economy in manufacture, but also from a desire
to prevent the poisonous dust from passing out
into the atmosphere. From 300 to 500 yards is a
common length, though it is said that they have
been made as Inuch as a mile long. From the
chimney at the end nothing should exude but
sulphurous acid, and tests which have been made
show that this is practically the case. The deposit
in the flues from the calciner is commonly known
as arsenic soot, though its colour approximates
more closely to that of flour than to the tint of coal
soot. But for market it must be quite white, and

E N G I N E E R I N G.

Although in Germany the manufacture of arsenic

therefore it undergoes tre~tment in the refining
furnace, which in. England IS of th~ reverboratory is generally associated with that of other of the
type the verticalrron pots and upright condensers rarer metals, such as cobalt, in England this is not
used' on the Continent not being found here. The the case. True, 30 years ago a considerable amount
arsenic soot is mixed with coke, and t he volatilised of silver was extracted from the arsenical pyrites
product which is now quite white- or should be of Cornwall, but none of the metal is now proso- is collected in flues similar to those of the duced from this source, a remark which applies with
firpt process. After this t here only remains the similar force to cobalt, which under the name of
grmding and packing into small casks, ho_lding smalt, finds a considerable application in the pott ery
generally about 3 cwt., and t~e .stuff is ready f.or manufacture. An increasing quantity of arsenic in
market. With regard to the mmmg of the mundtc, the form of realgar or the yellow sulphide is
there is nothing about it which is n ot general to shipped from this country to South America in
tin mining carried on at deep levels, though the sheep-dip composition, for in spite of the increase
stamps and huddles wl~ich f?rm a. necessarJ: part of in the use of carbolic acid for the purpose, the
the equipment of a tm mme are here dispensed bulk of opinion inclines towards arsenic as being
with. To say a word or two more especially of the most effective remedy for the parasitical troubles
the Devon Great Oonsols, as t he most impor tant with which sheep are affiicted. On the other hand,
mine the drainage of the shafts, of which there are we understand that the use of arsenical paints is on
two ~r three situated on various eminences, is car- the decline, n ot so much because of their supposed
ried out by water-power, which is di~tributed by rods dangerous properties in wall paper, &c., but rather
of considerable length connected w1th water-wheels because they have been superseded by something
in the valley, the whole arrangement being one of cheaper.
To conclude with a few remarks of a more or less
considerable ingenuity. As at Dolcoath and some
other of the more important mines, the man-engine statistical nature, it must be understood that the
is still to be found, and the present generation of amount of arsenic mentioned above as being prominers who have accustomed t hemselves to its use, duced in England is not by any means all utilised
would certainly not care to return to the toilsome at home, much of it being exported, America being
ladder way. Accidents connected with the more an important customer, as, so far, very little of this
modern means of locomotion are now of extreme substance is produced across the water. It is not
rarity, though. in t~~ light of the dis~strou~ experi- much beside the truth to say that England satisfies
ence of certam visitors to a Cornish mme, the the world's requirements of arsenic, because we turn
ladder with all its toil, seems more suitable to the out a very much larger quantity than is yielded by
uninitiated than is the man-engine. The company the three or four other arsenic-producing centres
possesses its own line of rail way from the mines to of Europe put together. The fact that so much of
the guage, about four miles down the river ; and the arsenic soot is obtained at a nominal expense
is thus more favourably situated a~ regards the as a byeproduct of tin-mining is a point in favour
carriage of coal and finished products than are of the decaying tin industry of Cornwall ; and at
several of the Cornish mines, such, for instance, present, at any rate, it does n ot seem that the
as those at the Land's E nd. The new arsenic Straits or Tasmania are likely to enter into commine already referred to, is not particularly well petit ion with us in the matter of arsenic, great as
situated as regards railway accommodation, a fact has been t he part they have played in deposing us
which may not be without effect upon its fortunes. from our once proud position as the foremost tinThat the question of carriage is of some import- producing country. We can, with safety, of course,
ance, is clear from what one hears about t he pro- speak only for the immediate future as regards projected opening of certain closed mines as soon as bable competition, for it mtist not be lost sight of
some of the light railway schemes which are in the that tin and arsenic are generally found in juxtaposition; and if the important deposits, which are
air come to maturity.
Our readers may naturally wonder what effect said to occur in the States come to be worked on
this well-known poison has upon t he workpeople the large scale, it is more t han probable that our
who have to deal with it, and it is reassuring to be shipments of the poisonous commodity across the
able to say that the strict Government regulations water will show an appreciable decline at no very
which are now in force have done very much to distant date.
lessen an evil which in earlier times was cer tainly
one of some prominence. Where every precaution is taken in the way of preventing t.he in- COMPULSORY BOILER INSPECTION.
halation of the dust, and where the change of
IN E NGINEERING for March 30 and April 27 we
clothes and bath are rigidly adhered to, the men do referred to the Bills for enforcing periodical boiler
not seem to suffer to any material degree, though, inspect ion, which have been brought in during the
as may be noticed in most industries where un- present session of Parliament by Mr . F en wick and
pleasant, if not dangerous, processes have to be Sir William Houldsworth. The third proposal in
worked, the constitution of the individual workman this direction is contained in the Factory Bill introis an important factor in the situation. In the duced by t he Home Secretary, in which one of the
operation of breaking and grinding the ore for the clauses reads as follows :
calciner's work, which is carried on to some extent
'' Every steam boiler used in a factory or workby girls, there is nothing of a dangerous character, shop, or in any place to which any of the provisions
nor can it be said t hat the men in charge of the of the Factory Acts are applied by t he Act of 1895
calciners experience any unpleasantness. It is in or by this Act, must, whether separate or one of a
the periodical removal of the arsenic soot from the range, (a) have attached to it a proper safety valve
flues, and in the subsequent grinding and packing and a proper steam gauge and water gauge to show
that the danger lies, and those engaged in t hese the pressure of steam and t he height of water in
operations protect themselves by covering the face the boiler ; and (b) be cleaned out and examined inwith fuller's earth, putting a cloth in their mouths, ternally by a competent person at least once in
and by generally taking every precaution to prevent every three months, and oftener if necessary; and
the irritant dust from settling on the skin, where, if (c) be examined internally and externally by a comallowed to lodge, it causes a peculiar eruption. The petent person once in every 12 months. Every
teeth, as in the case of the salt-cake furnacemen such safety valve, steam gauge, and water gauge
in the alkali districts, are peculiarly liable to attack, must be maintained in proper condition. The
~nd it is said that dental troubles are very common person making an examination in pursuance of this
m the populous town of Camborne, where there are section must forthwith enter in the general register
g.enerally traces of arsenic vapour in the air de- a certificate signed by him containing the prescribed
rlv~d !r?m. the roasting of the arsenical tin ores. particulars of the result of the examination. A
ThlS mJunous effect of arsenic on the teeth is also factory or workshop in which there is a contravenhome witness to by Englishmen who have held t-ion of this section shall be deemed not to be kept
posts at the Rio Tin to copper mines at Huel va, in conformity with the principal Act. "
whe~e, although the proportion of arsenic in the
This clause may perhaps be considered as a
ore ~s but very small, it all passes into the air and step in the right direction in so far as it shows
not mto condensers, as is always the case in Corn- a desire on the part of the H ome Secretary t o
wa~. However, taking into consideration the do something to reduce t he loss of life from
pOisonous nature of the substance, it must be a boiler explosions. The utility of the proposal,
mat~er for c?ngratulation that the industry is however, is open to question; it merely touches
carr1ed on With such comparative immunity to the fringe of the matter, and its limited scope
th~se engaged in it, and it is to be hoped that by would seem to be its weakneas. The Bill applies
stnct enforcement of the Government regulations to factories and workshops, and would, presumably,
we sh~ll hear no more of men in the prime of life have its principal sphere of operation in the manu" rottmg away " as the result of their occupation. facturing districts. In Lancashire and Yorkshire,

where factories abound, the boilers . on the wh?le

are of a superior class, the constr~ctlon a~d equtp ment of fittings, generally speakmg, being up to
date. It would be difficult, for instance, to find a
boiler without a safety valve, a steam gauge, and a
water gauge. In by far t~e gre~ter nm~ber of
cases the boilers are under mspectw~, mam}y. by
the organised inspecting and insunng soe1et1e~.
That is a point on which manufacturers and their
managers are most particular. They have the
boilers examined over all parts once a year, and
occasionally under steam, by inspectors wh? are
understood to be competent, and a repor t IS received after each visit . The yearly thorough examination is considered to be sufficient for ins.uring eafety, but in many instances the enginemen or attendants clean the boilers out at intervals,
and make an examination, more or less complete,
themselves. Special attention is paid to the fi ttings, and the percentage of accidents due to defective safety valves, steam gauges, or water
gauges, is small. The clause, therefore, appears
to be some what unnecessary so far as factories
and workshops are concerned, where, as a rule,
its provisions are already observed. Even if we
admitted that it is necessary and applicable,
we may point out that no provision is made
in any degree for securing the competency of
the inspectors. There are always to be found
amateur engineers who are anxious to pose as
experts where the q uestion of the inspection and
safety of boilers is concerned, and the Board of
Trade have on many occasions reported on explosions where the boilers had been examined by such
persons, and, though dangerously defective, had
been ignorantly pronounced to be perfectly safe.
No declarat ion of competency, so far as we can see,
has to be signed either by the boiler-owner or
inspector, and we think that some decided modification would be necessary to make the clause as
effective in this respect as could be desired.
If t he clause, as at present framed, became
law, it might to a certain extent be useful, but the question arises whether it is wise
to introduce piecemeal legislation on such an important matter as the inspection of boilers 1 A
law is required which will reach all sorts and conditions of works all over the country, and not
simply factories and workshops, as defined in the
Home Secretary's Bill. The clause would by no
means touch the exact spot of the evil ; it would
include boiler-owners at the specified works, but
the careless owners, who are engaged in many
other trades which we could mention, would be
allowed to go on as before in their calm indifference
to the state of their boilers, and the safety of their
workpeople. If the Home Secretary in his wisdom
could frame a measure in which the clause, now
applied to certain factories and workshops, could
be extended to include practically all the boilers in
the country, useful legislation would, we think, be
the result . A Bill, based on similar lines to the
one referred to in detail by us last week, would
probably meet the case. A remedy is needed for
a wide area of disease, and legislation should by no
means be confined to the narrow limits which the
Home Secretary's Bill proposes.
Another measure now before Parliament is the
'' Steam Engines and Boilers (Persons in Charge)
Bill," brought in by Mr. Jonathan Samuel and
other members. It differs from the three Bills to
which we have referred, inasmuch as it is not a
boiler inspection Bill, although its object, as stated
by the promoters, is to save life. The propositien
is that persons in charge of engines and boilers
shall be examined and certified by the Home Secretary. I t '' does not a,pply to any boiler or engine
used exclusiv~ly for domestic, agricultural, or farming purposes, or to any boiler or engine used in t he
service of Her Majesty, or to any boiler or engine
used by a railway company, or to any boiler or
en gine used on board a steamship having a certificate from the B oard of Trade, or to any road traction engine or steam roller."
The qualifications required are as follow :
'' 1. A person taking charge or control of any
boiler or engine to which this Act applies, of
5 horse-power or upwards, or of any engine to
which this Act applies, used for winding workmen
or minerals up or down the shaft of a mine, must
hold a first-class certificate or a special certificate of
service under this Act.
'' 2. A person taking charge or control of any
other boiler or engine to which this Act applies
must be the holder either of such a certificate as

590

'

aforesaid, or of a. second-class certificate under this

Act.,
Applicants for certificates have to satisfy the
Secr~tary of__State as ~o character, knowledge,
physical ability, expenence, &c.
The entire
management and control of the examination of candidates as to subj ects, method of conductinO' the
examination, time, place, &c., is left to the Secretary of State, and the expenses of carrying out the
Act are to be defrayed out of moneys provided by
Parliament.
Some three years ago (see ENGINEERING, March 5,
1897, page 317)westa.ted ourobjections to the general
principles of this Bill, so that it will not be necessary to go over the whole ground on the present occasion. We 1na.y point out, however, primarily, that it
is the boiler that needs exan1inationa.nd certification,
and not the attendant. Year by year the proportion of explosions due to the neglect of attendants
is very insignificant. Out of 152 explosions referred
to in the reports by the Board of Trade issued
under the Boiler Explosions Acts, for the two
years ending June 30, 1898, and June 30, 1899,
only 22 are ascribed to the ignorance or neglect of
the attendant. Analysing these 22 explosions, we
find that eight arose from shortness of water, four
from the accumulation of scale, four from the impact of water, three from unequal strains induced
by rapid cooling, &c., one from over-pressure consequent on overloading of the safety valve, one
from overheating owing to the circulation of the
water being checked by air in the pipes, and one
from the vibration due to the breaking of the propeller shaft, the explosion consisting of the cracking of the main steam pipe on board a vessel. The
explosions, therefore, due to actual oversight or
ignorance on the part of the attendant, it will be
seen were few in number. On the other hand,
120 of the explosions dealt with in the reports
named, were attributed to deterioration by corrosion, defective design, undue working pressure,
&c., which would seem to confirm the view that
boilers and not attendants are, as a rule, at fault.
Further, if boiler attendants were examined and
certified, there would be no guarantee of permanent
fitness or carefu]ness.
Many explosions have
occurred on board ship, where the boilers were in
charge of certificated engineers ; but the fact that
those engineers had passed an examination and
obtained a certificate, did not necessarily lead them
to exercise greater skill or care. The remedy for
explosions is careful inspection. Would the passing
of an examination formulated by the Secretary of
State, and the obtaining of a certificate, enable
the ca.ndidate to be a good h1s pector ?. vVould it,
indeed, make him in any way superi0r to the
ordinarily intelligent and faithful attendant who
probably. could not pass such an examina~ion, but
yet is qu1te competent, as shown by experience, to
perform his allott~d d_uties ?. Ag~in, the propo~i
tion that the examinatiOn of cand1dates shall be 1n
the hands of the Secretary of State is open to
criticism. The Department is not conversant with
the technicalities of boiler inspection, and would
probably have to depend for information mainly
upon the Board of 'frade. The result, we fear,
would be the introduction of a theoretical and book
test as t he basis of examination. It is by no means
necessary t hat a man in order to qualify as _a g~od
boiler attendant should pass such an exam1nat10n
as is proposed : in nine out of every t~n cases we
doubt his ability to do so, and, even 1f he could,
we cannot see that he would in any practical degree
be better fitted for his position.
The Bill we consider is antagonistic to the
interests of steam users. A fictitious Yalue would
possibly as one result of its passing into law,
be plac~d on t~e wages of boiler attendants, and
this would ser1ously affect small employers. A
dangerous power and an equally ~angerou~ monopoly might in process of b~~ anse, and 1t would
be unwise to place an add1t10nal burden on our
already handicapped industries. Another point
is that the employment of men who possessed
certificates fron1 the Home Office .w?~ld tend to
relieve the boiler-owner of respons1b1hty. In the
case of an explosion he might urge that the attendant had been examined and certificated by the
Home Office, t hat h e had trusted him as a competent man and t hat he alone was to blame. Fal~e
confidenc~ might be inspired, and e~en lead 1n
some instances to steam users neglectmg to adopt
the principle of independent inspection which, up
to n ow, has so safe-guarded th?ir boilers. A further objection to the measure IS that the cost of

E N G I N E E R I N G.
the exa~ination of candidates is mainly to be borne
by Parliament. This would 1nean introducing class
legislation of a character to which, at present, we
are strangers, and the taxpayer might protest
against contributing to such an expenditure of
public money.
On the other hand, if the Bill is, as its promoters
affirm, so necessary, why are so many boilers left
outside the pale of its operations ?. In the case of
agricultural boilers, which frequently explode, the
attendants, as a rule, are lamentably ignorant, and
certainly neQd some education and training to fit
them for their duties. We remember a case which
occurred some years ago in which the boiler attendant, who was a farm labourer, sat upon the lever
of the safety valve in order to increase the pressure,
and was ultimately blown up with the boiler and
killed. There have been other cases in which even
the most elementary knowledge and care has been
wanting on the part of the attendants. PerhapR it
may be urged that this affords an argument in
favour of the Bill. If so, we may ask, why exlude
these men from r eceiving its benefits 1 If agricult ural boilers, a mong others, came under an efficient
system of compulsory inspection, greater care would
be exercised in their use, and attendants, whether
good, bad, or indifferent, could not fail to derive
ad vantage from the exan1inations made and the
information given by the inspectors. Boilers at
hotels and public buildings, many of which are to
be found in our principal cities and towns, are also
excluded from the Bill, as well as steam roller and
traction engine boilers, all of which often work in
populous districts and need careful attention.
We have only glanced at a few objections to the
Bill, and others might be advanced if needful. In
our opinion the Bill is totally unnecessary, and it
could not fail to incur strong opposition on the
part of steam users. Long experience shows conclusively that the attendant is but seldom the
guilty party in the case of an explosion, and we
may repeat that it is the boiler which needs examination. This point the Select Committee would do
well to keep in mind when considering the general
question of legislation. If the promoters of this
Bill are anxious, as they doubtless are, to save life,
we would suggest that they should go direct to the
head and front of the offending, and inaugurate or
support a proposal for the enforcement of periodical
boiler inspection. They would be rendering a distinct public service, and would be thereby more
likely to attain their desired end of saving human
life, than by agitating for the passing of a measure
the effect of which would probably be to partially
benefit a certain class of labour, but which, we fear,
would be h~rassing to trade, and a constant source
of trouble to boiler owners.

N 0 T E S.
HIGH-TENSION ELECTRICAL EFJ.l'ECTS AT PARIS.
A VERY interesting high-tension plant has been
arranged by M. D'Arsonval for obtaining the electrical effects, which are used to decorate the fagade
of the Palais de l'Electricite at the Paris Exhibition.
For the purpose in view it was necessary to be able
to obtain at will either short or long sparks, which
had moreover to be very brilliant and very noisy.
The desired end was attained by the discharge of
very powerful condensers charged to a high potential by an alternating-current transformer. The
transformer used is of 30-kilowatt capacity, and
the alternator to which it is connected has a periodicity of 42 cycles per second. The primary of the
transformer consists of two sections, which can be
coupled either in parallel or series. The hightension circuit can be relied on to work up to 90,000
volts for prolonged periods, or to even higher
voltages for shorter length of t ime. The condenser
gave much trouble at the outset, since when glass
was used as the insulator, even in a thickness of
5 millimetres (.196 in.), it was invariably pierced by
the sparks, while ebonite, celluloid, and paraffined
paper, proved equally ineffective. Finally, however, micanite was adopted, and has resisted satisfactorily. The condenser, has in consequence, been
built up of alternate layers of very thin tin-plates
and sheets of micanite 2 millimetres (.079 in.)
thick, and measuring 365 millimetres (14.37 in.)
in length by 285 millimetres (11.22 in.) in breadth.
The micanite in question, it 1nay be useful to
add, is an American invention introduced some
years back, and is made by cementing together very
thin sheets of mica with gumlac, the whole being
kept under heavy pressure while the cement is

har~ening.

The c?n~enser used is divided up into

sect10ns, each cons1stmg of 20 plates of mica interleaved with the sheets of tinplate, and the capacity
of each section is about one-hundreths of one microfarad. The sections are finally completely immersed in paraffin oil. These condensers have
given every satisfaction, they do not heat, and
being immersed in paraffin lose nothing by brush
discharges. The spark is passed between two
balls, the formation of a permanent arc being prevented by a blast of air or by the device due to
M. d'Arsonal, of causing the balls to rotate by means
of a small motor the rush of air being then sufficient
to prevent the formation of an arc. The display
with this arrangement is very striking and the noise
is deafening. The length of spark obtained with
the condensers, charged to 50,000 volts, is 18 to 20
centimetres (7.08 in. to 7.87 in.), but by suitably
adjusting the speed of rotation of the two balls,
the apparent length can be greatly increased,
owing to the persistence of the vision, and in this
way sparks appearing to be nearly 12 metres
in length have been obtained. These sparks are
really built up of many successive discharges, the
balls having rotated into fresh p osition between each
discharge and the next. Long sparks have, however, been honestly obtained by electrical means by
making use of a high-tension transformer, through
the primary of which is passed the current from
the condensers already described, and with one
of these, sparks 80 centimetres (31.49 in.) long
were obtained, and with the more powerful transformer now being made this length will be still
further increased.
SEW AOE PURIFICATION PROBLEMS.
We believe that it is by no means generally
known that the fact that sewage could be purified by intermittent sand filtration was brought
before the Rivers Pollution Commission in 1870 by
the late Dr. Frankland, who based his statements
on laboratory experiments, and held that the
system would provide the r eadiest method of
solving the problem of sewage disposal. 'Vith the
exception of certain works carried out by Mr.
Bailey Denton, the discovery was, however, almost
completely ignored, probably owing to the impossibility at that date of r ecognising the mechanism by which the purification was effected. The
scientific mind is slow to accept processes it is unable to explain, and from this point of view it is
possible that a less able commission would have been
more easily impressed with the advantages of the
system proposed. At that date, though bacterial life
was known to exist, its importance was but faintly
grasped even by leading lights of the scientific
world. In fact, the existence of such organisms
had been established mainly by indirect reasoning,
and some eminent men, such as Dr. Bastian, were
prepared to maintain that they were spontaneously
generated in putrefying matter. Indeed, the earlier
attempts at sewage disposal, based upon the scientific know ledge of the time, generally succeeded
in making matters worse, and purely empirical
processes, unguided by reason or scientific knowledge, were generally more satisfactory in practice.
The true nature of the process of putrefaction being
ID:isunderstood, disinfectants were added, with the
result that whilst an eftiuent free from offensive
odour might be discharged into a waterway, the
process of putrefaction was meJ;"ely postponed, and
the nuisance was transferred from the outfall
works to the streams some miles below. Though
the significance of Dr. Frankland's work was not
grasped at the time, yet the r equirement that sewage
should be passed through land before being discharged into rivers serving as sources of water
supply, was effective in putting an end to these
attempts of well-meaning chemists to cheat Nature;
but the very large area of land required for broad
irrigation works was a very serious matter to many
of the towns concerned. The great possibilities of
the system of intermittent filtration for the disposal
of sewage were, however, again brought prominently
forward by the Massachusetts State Board of Health
in 1889. In the meantime the science of bacteriology
had taken immense strides, following l{och's invention of a method of estimating their number and
character by culture on gelatine plates, and the time
had accordingly arrived when some rationalconception could be formed of the true mechanism of the
extraordinary degree of purification which experiment showed could be effected by passing sewage
through well aerated filters. Experiments made at
Barking by Mr. Dibdin led to the adoption of the very

59 I

E N G I N E E R I N G.
interesting sewage filtration p!ant at Sutton! where
't was found that greater effiCiency was obtamed by
dividing up the given filtering area into two sets of
filters, through ~hie~ the sewage was passed in
succession const1tutmg the so-called double con~his was foll~wed by the very
tact syste'm.
important invenhon of the sept1c tank, the first of
which was constructed .by ~r. Oameron at Exeter.
The sewage is kept ~n this tank, excluded frot~
light and air for a period of some hours before 1t
is allowed to' pass on to the filter~, and it is found
that in this way the rate of filtratwn can be greatly
increased, and tha~ owing to t~e solution of ~u~h
of the solid orgaruc matter whilst the sewage IS In
the tank the sludge question is practically solved.
At Mandhester a system combining those in use at
Exeter and Sutton is being adopted.

allowed to pass for several years longer. Experience shows, however, that in s uch cases the metal
is liable to be deeply pitted. The paint inside the
t ubes of the }i'orth Bridge is as perfect as when
first applied twelve years ago. The parts of the
bridge most subject to rust are near the water,
where the underside of the girders get sprayed
with salt. The rust ing commences on t he rivetheads and the edges of the plates. These portions
of the bridge are cleaned and repainted every year.
The work is in charge of Mr. A. Hunter, who has
supplied Mr. Smith with the above particulars .

THE LATE MR. WILLIAM DUFF BRUCE.

AN engineer who contributed in no small measure
to the prosperity of our great Indian dependency, since
it suffered a;ll the calamity of the Mutiny, has just
passed away in the person of Mr. William Duff Bruce,
THE PRoTECTIVE PowER OF PAINTS.
of whose death, on the 24th ult., we heard wit h regret,
IN a paper rece1_1tly read bef? r e the Newcastle for he was yet comparatively young, although he had
section of the SoCiety of Chemical Industry, 1\lr. done a life's measure of good work. He was born on
Harry Smith, F ..I. C., d escribes a series ?f very April 10, 1839, and had thus just completed his 61
interesting experu!lents upo1_1 the comp~rative . pro years. Although born in Ireland, where his father
tective powers of different paints as applied to non- had temporarily taken a country estate- at Brooklawn,
work. Three series of experiments were made. In in County Leitrim - he came of an old Banffshire
the first series a m ethod originating with Mr. Max family, as is almost suggested by his name. When
Toltze was employed; a number of iron dishes, nine years of age he was sent to St. Andrews to be
5 in. across and about ! in. deep, were cleaned and educated, and returned t o Ireland in 1854 to serYe
with Messrs. Thomas Grendon and Co.,
carefully painted with two coats of the paint to be apprenticeship
Drogbeda; and during the five years he went through
tested. These dishes were then filled with water, the shops and drawing office, and was, towards the
which was allowed to completely evaporate at the end of his time, engaged in the design and erection
ordinary tempera~ure of the labo~atory, af~er wh~ch of locomotives, marine and land engines, iron bridges,
the dish was agam filled up ; this operatwn bemg and mill work. J\IIr. Bruce followed up this practical
repeated six times in the cou1se of the six m onths training by taking the engineering course at St.
over which the experiments extended. The paints Andrews University, with the special intention of
used were prepared by grinding the pigments with competing for a place in the Indian Public Works
linseed oil on granite rollers to a stiff paste, Department, at the examinations instituted about this
which was then thinned with best q uality boiled time by Lord Stanley of Alderley, the Secretary of
linseed oil- itself capable of drying in seven State for India. He took second place in the examihours to a hard film when painted on to a glass nation of July, 1860, and proceeded at once to India,
plate. Thus tested, the only paints which re- where he continued until 1887, doing, as we have
said, most effective work towards the material
mained practically unaffected were red lead or orange advancement
of India.
lead paints, some of which, however, such as the
The first six months of his time walL spent in
"vermilionette" and the scarlet red paints, contained Roorkee College, learning the language, and becoming
also a certain proport ion of aniline colours; whilst acquainted with essentially Indian problems. His
two of the red-lead paints contained, in the one first appointment was assistant engineer in the
case 45 per cent., and in the other 66 per cent., of Cawnpore military division, with special charge of
barytes. All the other dishes were more or less the Futtegarh district ; and it is interesting to note
rusted, the order of merit of the b etter paints that his first work was the erection of a memorial
being as follows : 1. Zinc white. 2. Equal parts church there to commemorate those who had fallen
zinc white and barytes. 3. Zinc wbite 3 parts, during the Mutiny. In 1863 he was transferred to
barytes 7 parts. 4. Lithopone (a mixture of zinc Oudh, being appointed assistant to the chief engineer
sulphide, zinc oxide, and barium sulphate). 5. and secretary to the Chief Commissioner in Lucknow;
and two years later he became municipal engineer
Pure white lead.
6. White lead, 5.37 parts, at Lucknow, and during his residence there reconbarytes 4.03 parts.
7. White lead 5.05 parts, structed the drainage system, and built a bridge with
barytes 4.21 parts. All the other paints, 36 in three 80-ft. spans in brickwork across the Goomtee
number, proved very inefficient, the first dish to Rhrer. It was at this early period of his career that
show signs of rust being that painted simply with he became a member of the Institution of Mechanical
linseed oil. In the second series of experiments a Engineers. When at Lucknow, too, he designed and
number of painted iron plates were exposed to the built a fine series of double-storied barracks.
Mr. Bruce's next move in the service was to Cal
weather for a twelvemonth, and with the single exception of the plate painted simply with linseed cutta, where probably his most effective work was
oil, all withstood the test remarkably well. In the done. Many of the fine public buildings in that town
third series of tests, strips of iron were painted, are his design- the High Church, the Telegraph-office,
and when the second coat was quite dry these strips the High Court, the Museum, &c., but his reconstruction
of
the
harbour
is
the
most
notable
improvement
were placed in wide-mouthed glass bottles, which effected. In 1870 he was promoted to the charge of
were then nearly filled with water, and allowed to the works, at a time when new Commissioners were
stand. The bottles were not closed, but the con- constituted on the same general lines as the Mersey
tents were protected from dirt by standing them Board, and of this body Mr. Bruce became vice-chairunder a shelf, there being about ! in. of space be- man and chief engineer. In 1873 the river works between the top of the bottles and the underside tween the town of Calcutta and the sea also came
of this shelf. The bottles were left untouched under the jurisdiction of the Calcutta Port Commisfor three months.
Some of the plates were sioners, and Mr. Bruce was called upon to reconsensibly affected within seven days; but those struct lighthouses, lightships, and to improve the
which successfully withstood the shallow-dish test channel generally. 1n 1884 his scheme for the extenalso resisted this one most successfully. The fact sive dock system was approved ; and this work, costthat paints containing such large proportions of ing 2! millions, he carried to a successful issue.
not
be
dealt
with
at
any
length,
These
works
need
barytes, as some of the lead paints noted above,
t hey were described at the time in ENGINEERING;
gave such excellent results, is of much interest, and Mr. Bruce contributed a paper on them
as it goes to show t hat this material can hardly be to the Institution of Civil Engineers, for which he
co~sidered as a mere adulterant. In fact, one was awarded a Telford Medal. He had joined the Instipamt made up only of barytes and linseed oil tution in 1873.
gave better results than an oxide of iron paint.
Mr. Bruce continued in Calcutta until1887, when
Mr. Smith refers with approval to the methods on retirement he was presented with a valuable seradopted in painting the Forth Bridge. All plates vice of plate by the officers and servants of the Comand bars for tha.t structure were cleaned with mission; but even after his return to London he
st~el scrap~rs and wire brushes, and then coated held the appointment of consulting engineer to the
Wlth . hot lmseed .oil. As soon as possible after Port Commissioners, and his memory will be cherished
erectiOn they received two coats of red-lead paint in the Indian city alike for his splendid work as well
for his genial society. In 1887, Mr. Bruce com~hich ~ere subsequently followed by two coats of as
menced
business
in
London
as
a
consulting
engineer,
1ron. onde. The life of the paint on the upper
and later assumed as partner Mr. J. Angus, and since
portiOns exposed to the weather is found to be then the firm have done important work. Mr. Bruce
about three years ; but it must be added that the was consulting engineer to the Delhi-Umballa-Kalka
paint is then still in good condition, and on less Railway and to the Assam-Bengalline, concessions for
llllporliant bridges would by many engineers be both of which he obtained from the Secretary of State

for India. He laboured long and unceasingly towards

the establishment of iron works in India, and the results aro now being realised and will continue. t o flow
from his efforts. He was also connected With the
Rio Tinto mines, as a technical adviser, director, and
deputy-chairman. Mr. Bru~e had a very wide cir~le
of friends, for although he d1d not take a very active
part in the public proceedings of the institutions associated with the profession, he liked social life, and was
s. charming companion.
STEEL RAILS.
Ar the ordinary meeting of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, held on Tuesday, April 10, Sir Douglas F ox,
PreAident, in the chair, two pa~rs were read.
In the first of these, on " The Development of the
Manufacture and Use of Rails in Great Britain," by
Sir Ieaao Lowthian, Bell, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., M. Inst.
C.E., the author traced the history of the development of
wrought iron and steel manufacture, with particular
reference to its employment for rolling into rails. Comparison was made of the relative loss of weight of iron and
steel rails due to wear in use. Experiments made by the
author, in order to study the circumstances which influence
the comparative rapidity of the disappearance of carbon
and phosphorus from the liquefied metal, were then re.
erred to. With regard to the properties of Bessemer
steel, the author commented on the irregularity in the
strength of rails produced from this metal.
Results of experimental tests of rails, by fra-cture under
a falling weight, were given. Rails rolled from the
upper middle, and lower part of the ingot were compared
in this manner, and also by chemical analysis. The
results of an experimental investigation of the deflection
of rails at various speeds of the train were given. These
tended to prove thab the deflection, and therefore the
pressure on the rail, diminished as the speed increased.
The author referred to the extreme brittleness of rails
after use, and also to the grinding effecb of traffic on the
rails. The molecular change brought about in rails by
use, and the effects of the presence of phosphorus and
silicon in the material of rails, were touched upon. In
conclusion, the author remarked that the durability of
rails mannfactured by the basic process had proved equal
to that of steel rails manufactured from h~matite ore.
In the second pa:Q_er, on " The Wear of Steel Rails in
Tunnels," by Mr. Thomas Andrews, F.R.S., M. Inst.
C. E., the author investigated the effects of the deteriorating influences peculiar to rails laid in tunnels. Among
these were the increased corrosion of the surface of the
rail, due to the action of moist chemical vapours, and the
increased chemical action of the ballast on the foot of the
rail ; the ballast, on account of its porous nature, absorbed
the chemical vapours, and hence acted with increased
deteriorative force on the rails.
The author had made a careful examination of a rail
which had done its life's work in such a situation. The
results of this examination were given, with reference to
the mechanical, chemical, and phy:sical changes which the
rail had under~one during its hfe in the tunnel. The
rail had been latd in a tunnel for seven years, on a straight
piece of road having a falling gradient of 1 in 90, and it
had carried the main-line traffic during this time without
fracture. The tunnel was about 1000 yards in length, and
it was situated fairly near the sea-coast. It lay in a
direction nearly north and sou~h. This fact was pointed
out, as the author had observed'indications that magnetisation E\xerted an influence tending to increase the corrosibility of steel in certain solutions.
The rail, which originally weighed 84lb. per yard, had
lost weight at the rate of 2. 8 lb. per yard per annum, and
on the face the rail had worn down to the extent of i in.
Tha chemical analysis showed that sulphur was present
in considerable excess, but otherwise the general composition of the steel was excellent. The physical tests
showed a very good result, the strength of the metal
bein~ normal, and an elongation of 27 per cen b. being
obtamed. To ohviate the excessive wear of rails in
tunnels, the author advocated the employment of a
heavier section of rail, with a wider wearing surface. He
also expressed the opinion that, as a general rule, rails in
tunnels should only be allowed to remain in the l>ermanent
~ay for OI~e-half (or in some cases only. one-thud) of the
time that IS usually allowed for the ordmary use outside
tunnels.
SOROOABA.-Steps are being taken to provide Sorocaba
with a good supply of water. The water is to be taken
from the Valtarantim, and is to be raised to a certain
height by means of turbines.
HAMBURG.-The entrances of shipping at this port in
the first three months of this year were 1,778 400 tons
as compared with 1,731,640 tons in the corr~sponding
period of 1899. The clearances of shipping from the
port in the first quarter of this year were 1,803,133 tons as
compared with 1,691,531 tons in the first quarter of 1899.

- --

CoAL.-The quantity of coal exported from the United

Kingdom in the firat three months of this year was
10,274,745 tons, as compared with 9,691, 596 tons in the
corresponding period of 1899, and 8,508,542 tons in the
corresponding period of 189~. Th~ exports of coal to
France have been largely mcreasmg of late having
amounted to March 31 this year to 2,200 06i tons as
c~mpared with 1,81~,813 tons an~ 1,579,421' tons respectively. The .quantity of coal shtpped in the first three
mon.ths of thiS year for the use of steamers engaged in
foreign trade was 2,939,410t6ns, as compared with 2 867 304
tons and 2,642,283 tons, respectively.
, '

r:

592

E N G I N E E R I N G.
I

ROAD LOOOMOTIVES.
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
S~~~-Y:our very interesting and instruoti ve remarks on
the Wetghtof Motor Wagons ,on page355amte, have induced me to send you a few observations on the limit to
which your propo~ed increase of weight should be allowed
to extend. And also to call attention to the fact that there
ar~ other poin~s of road locomotive legislation, besides
thts, that require readjustment; and which it may be
useful to h~ve get;lerally stated, even although there may
!lot be. any tmmed.tate prospect of obtaining the relief that
ts obv10usly requtred.
In the first place, I think that some further reference
should be made to t~e all-important point of the necessary amo';ln~ of bearmg surface for the driving wheels ;
~s th~ extstu~g motor wagon, with its low narrow wheels,
18 qu1te unsuttable for those "rural districts, into which
at pre3ent it. seems so anxious to wander. And in order
to have a suttable and universal basis of comparison it
~s evident that the diameter of a wheel must be taken
1nto account, as well as its breadth for a ton 0:1 a
3-ft. wheel 3 in. wide, is obviously twice as severe
o~ a road, ~s ~he same weight on a 6-ft. wheel 3 in.
w1de.. A~?. tt 18, therefore, quite indefinite to merely
men~10n . mches of. breadth per ton,, without this
q ua.hfioa.t10n, by whwh the practical results can be so
largely varied. And so as a general statement we may
ta.ke it that .the breadth ?f a ~oad wheel, per to~ of load,
must vary mversely to tts dtameter in order that the
pressure on t~e supJ>orting surface ~ay, on a soft road,
~hua be equal~ed. But on a hard road, this attempt to
Increase bearmg surface by mean~ of increased width of
wheel, very soon attains a hmit beyond which it is useless
to go ; for the reason that a common road does not make
any ~pproa.oh a.t ~ll to being a prue plane, but invariably
conststs of a senes of very trregula.r projections and
hollows, formed on a surface which is curved and which
slopes rapidly awa.y in a very uncertain man'ner to ea.oh
side of its course.
'
The a~oJm_pa.n:ying Fig. 1 is an illustration of this,
from whtoh tb Wlll be seen that no amount of increase of
wi?th, will ever_prevent ~he projection on the road from
bemg crushed, tf the wetght on the wheel is sufficiently
gre_at. And the same applies to Fig. 2, where, if the
wetght ts great enough, the inner edge will disintegrate
the surface, whatever the breadth of the wheel will be.
If, however, a flexible tyre be used, as in Fig. 3, capable
of a large amount of transverse, as well as other adjustm ents, these defects can be eliminated. However, with
rigid wheels, on a hard road, there is a moderate breadth
for any diameter, bsyond which it is practically useless
to f{O.
With rigid tyres then, on a hard road, the only way to
increase tlie bearing surface is to enlarge the diameter ;
a9 it is evident that 3 tons on the wheel in Fig. 2, will distress the road twice a.s much, if the wheel is only 3 ft. in
diameter, as it would if it wer~ 6ft. high, even although we
make the small wheel twice as wide a.s the larger. This
study of the question of road wheels might have a large
amount of time devoted to it, which, however, cannot here
be given. And so it will have to suffice to merely say
that, for heavy work, the present motor wagon system of
driving by a low wheel, is very objectionable for either
ha.rd or soft roads, as on a. hard road, it concentrates all
the weight and driving strain on one little portion of the
surface, which it disintegrates ; while on a. soft road, it
sinks more readily than one bhab is larger, rolls with an
increased resistance, and more easily leads to floundering
in the mire, from which it can only be extricated with
increased difficulty.
In order to bake cognisance of this means of driving by
means of heavily weighted low wheels, ibis probable that
if the 3-ton limit should be raised, that then the motor
wagon mA.ker will bs thrown upon some such provision as
that in the 1878 Act, which states : "A locomotive shall
have the tyres of the drivin~ wheels thereof, not less than
2 in. in width for every ton m weight, unless the diameter
of such wheels shall exceed 5 ft,, when the width of the
tyres may be reduced in the same proportion as the diameter of the wheels is increased." This Act did nob contemplate driving wheels smaller than 5 ft., but as such
have come into use for heavy weights, the provision that
the wheels may be narrowed for increases of diameter,
will probably in the future be accompanied by the condition that they must be a.lso proportionately widened, for
wheels smaller than this size. So that the 5-ft. wheel
would thus become the standard diameter, at which to
reckon the prescribed minimum width of tyres.
Turning now to actual practice with traction engines,
and always differentiating for any variation from a standard diameter of 5 ft., as just stated- we find that this
width of 2 in. per ton, is alwayo very largely exceeded;
the minimum width for any kind of driving wheel being
4 in., while many have 5 in., and others even more. The
width of driving wheels, 4ft. 6 in. in diameter, on the
first of Thomson's rubber-wheeled road steamers, which
was shown in ENGINEERING for December, 1867, page 579,
and which was the firat illustration of theee engines that
ever appeared-was 5 in. f<?r each ton. While a v~ry
common width for such eng mes made afterwards, w1th
5-ft. wheels, was 6 in. per ton; from which we see that
their ability to pass over even. th.e sand o~ the seashor~,
was quite as much due to theu h~ht loadmg as to their
possession of the rubber tyres, which, of course, could not
become flattened to give increased bearing a.rea, unless
they rested on a surface sufficiently hard and firm to
deform them. Moreover, the constant practice with ordinary traction engines is to co.n~inually go on increas~ng
the bearing surface of. the drJ.vmg ~heels _by et;llargmg
their diameters, by whtch means thetr relat1 ve wtd th per
ton can be. greatly advanced over ~ny of th~ figures
given; and 1b may be ta,ken t~t the mmunum w1dth of ~

traction engine. driving w~eel. with ~he or4inary rigid

tyre, ab 5 ft.-diameter, wtll, m the tmmedtate future
not ~ le..~ than 6 in. per ton of load for soft ground:
And 1t wtll always be sought to obtain this proportion
fr?m an increase of diameter, rather than from that of
wtdth.
Taking now the motor wagons tested at Li verpoollast
year, we find that the widths of the driving wheels per
ton.of load-on the standard 5-ft. basis of computationvaried between only 1.8 in. and 1.1 in. for a light and
heavy wagon respectively. And we are therefore at once
struck by the fact of the utter inadequacy of the carriages
for soft ~ound ; as not one of them has even one-half of
the t~&<~t10n eng\ne ~inimum all~wanoe. And yet how
easy tt ts for even thiS latter engme to get into trouble
when it leaves the terra firms. of the high road to pursue
its ad ventures in rural districts ! And how then can the
existing type of motor wagon, with its little narrow
wheels, hope to bring that relief to the " distressed
far~er, :' for which he is suppos~d to be waitin~ until its
arrtvalm the farmyard? For agr10ultural work, It is quite
evident that the present design will have to be re-oast
with muoh larger and wider wheels ; and for this a liberal
increase of wetght will ha.ve to be provided.
~n order to ascertain next what this p~ospective wei~ht
mtght amount to, we commence by takmg the followmg
statement from the last report of the Liverpool Self-Propelled Traffic Association : " Four tons of load, carried
on the legal tare of 3 tons, at the legal speed of 5 miles
a.n hour, is the maximum performance that has so far
been obtained by a. four-wheeled vehicle." And then
further as to future requirements, "self-contained vehicles
capable of transporting regularly loads of from 6 to 8 tons
at from 4 to 5 miles an hour, and up to 10 or 12 tons ab
red uoed speeds, would shortly be available were a 4-ton
tare sanctioned." That is, tha.t the present tare of 3 tons
only allows 4 tons of useful load to be carried ; while if
4 tons of tare should be allowed, that a paying load of
even 12 tons would then become practically obtainable.
But is not that an obviously incorrect conclusion to be
put forward by the writers ? For in this latter case the
weight of material would have to be very largely increased;
the extra amount in the wheels, springs, a.nd axles alone,
being considerable. For the driving axle would have to

8.

.1.

. -2.

carry 14 tons, which would require wheels, only 39 in.

high, to be 21 in. wide, on the basis of 2 in. per ton for a
5-ft. wheel, while the front wheels at 33 in. high would
be 11 in. wide ; which would lead to formidable proportions in the Akermann stering axle and gear. These
dimensions might be taken for ordinary macadam, hub if
we attempt to apply the minimum traction engine width
of 4 in. we then find that each driving wheel would
actually have to be 42 in. wide. From which we a.t once
see that the proposal to carry 14 tons on 39-in. wheels,
is, for soft ground, impracticable; and that wheels very
much higher than this would have to be used. But however we modify the arrangement, how can one single
extra ton of material be sufficient to comfortably cover
all the possible contingencies of increasing the present
load three times? Surely even one-half of the load to be
carried, or 6 tons of material, would be required to prevenb the designer of a 12-ton wagon from again getting
into trouble with his proportions and weights, and so
calling out afresh for the proverbial " more."
However, another matter that the writer considers of
more pressing importance than increasing the weight of
motor wagons, is that of allowing large omnibuses to run
on the roads a.b useful speeds. For the motor wagon, up
to 3 tons, has at J:>resenb all the liberty that is required
for it; and in addttion to that, it could, if desired, be at
once put to work under the 1898 Act, up to any size and
weight that would be practicable. But the large motor
omnibus cannot be put mto any kind of useful work at all
on account of its absolutely necessary requirements of
weight and speed. In regard to this, it may perhaps be
said that it has the same opportunity under the 3-ton
limit as the wagon, but this 1s nob the case. For a 40passenger omnibus mus t of necessity be very much
heavier than the existing wagons. It requires a much
longer frame; a b_ody having heavy gla~3 win~ows, outside
seats, and ascensiOn ladders ; and a b01ler twtce as powerful as that of. th~ wagon. So that if the wa~o~ can. only
jus t keep wtthm the 3 tons at preseJ?-t, tt .18 evtdent
that the omnibus musb go far over th1s wetgh t. And
to avoid any kind of risk with s uch a. larg:e number of
people, it must also be a very subs tant1al ptece of work,
considerably different in pattern from that suitable for a
goods wagon. And, _in ~d~tion to all t~is~ eyen if it
were possible to get tt wtthm the 3-~n hmtt, tt WO';lld
still only be allowed to run a.t 5 miles an hour, which
would be useless for passengers ; so that the omnibus is
worse off than the wagon. The 1896 Act makes no distinction at aJl between various kinds of traffic. It evidently never intended to provide for the transit of goods;
it is merely by a fortunate accident that the "motor
wagQn " has been l\ble to find s4elter within it~ fold; and

it also never contemplated the working of large omni

buses. It was simply passed to promote the use of what
may be styled p~eas~re carriages, a.nd the idea of any
larg~-sca.le ~rade m . etther goods or .Passengers, is quite
out:~ude .of .tts provmce; as is suffimently shown by its
wetght hmtt of 3 tons.
And so here is, in itsel1 a very large field of engineering
usefu.lness, into '!hich it IS impossible to enter, on a commermal scale, w1thout contravening the law. And yet
there would be a great opening for such omnibuse~ for
many places in which tram ways could never be made to
pay, and where they would offer advantages fairly comparab~e with those given by even the most advanced
electno tramway. ~or, as reg~rds comfort, the omnibus
~ould be made wtth very w1de wood tyres, running
dueotly on the ground-a system which it has been proved
makes, e':en at 20 miles an hour, a reasonable approach
to a contmuous wood pavement, while the seats inside
and oub woul4 be .l uxuriously upholstered. As regards
speod1 an ommbus IS nob delayed by traffic to anything
hke tne same extent as a. tramway car frequently is and
on a. clear road it would run at any speed allowed
la.w.
And as regards cheap fares, the omnibus could be pub
to work f~r a. very small fraction of the money that would
be sunk m the tramway; and hence, even in outlying
d~tricts, could always well afford to run at truly popular
priCes. And yet the only objection, of any kind whabev('r, to all th1s _possible enterprise and work, lies in the
mistaken limitatiOns of a hastily passed la.w.
.c,1 minor po!nt that ~lso requires attention is the regulation as to w1dth. W1th horse-drawn wagons and onmibuses, measured over the naves of the wheels, this frequently extends to 8ft., and a road locomotive may go up
to 9ft.; while, however, the Local Government Board
prescribe only 6 fb. 6 in. This should be increased to
acco?lmodate the wide wheels of prospective larger
carriages, and we may suppose, would be allowed for,
if a new Act should ever be passed.
However,_ although ibis quite feasible, and, ~ndeed, an
extremely stmple matter, to make a self-contamed omnibus to carry even fifty passengers, it would yet probably
be going beyond the supporting capabilities of ordinary
common road surfaces, to make a. self-contained wagon,
with a fla.t platform floor, and therefore with low wheels,
to carry a load so great as 12 tons, even withoufl raising
the question of the width of these wheels, and of its consequent ability to leave the high road. For while the
omnibus, loaded, would always be well within 10 tons,
the wagon in the gross, would actually weigh about 20
tons, with 14 tons on a. single pair of small driving wheels.
This proportion of weight might, of course, be altered by
dividmg the 20 tons equally amongst the four wheels;
but this would lead to a lack of a{ihesion, which, with the
ordinary proportion Gf loading, is even now deficient.
The Liverpool judges expressing their desire for much
more than the usually existing amount, say : " The
importance of placing as much as possible of the weight
of the vehicle upon the driving axle cannot be magnified,
and is seriously commanded to the immediate attention
of manufacturers. No vehicle has yet come before the
judges which would not, under some conditions, have
been more efficient had more adhesion been available."
And so they are thus presumably asking for at least 15
tons to be placed on the two low wheels of the prospective wagon, which would evidently thus become a. very
near relation to a. loaded boiler trolley ; and the everobservant road surveyor of the district in which this
wagon worked, would quite probably consider that 7 or 8
tons, carried on a. sin~le 3-ft. wheel, was more than sufficient to bring it wtthin the "excessive weight " and
'' extraordinary traffic " clauses of the 1878 Act ; a.nd his
certificate to that effect could cause a. great amount of
trouble.
For such large loads as this, I consider that the work
would be much better d one by means of a small light
road steamer, having flexible driving tyres which would
be unslipping on either paved inclines or any other surfaces ; and which would draw a. suitable truck or trucks.
For greasy paved inclines, smooth circular iron driving
tyres will never be satisfactory, whatever practicable
degree of loadin~ may be given to them. And hence the
necessity for usmg suitable flexible tyres if the engine
or carriage is to be kept in control, and prevented from
slipping about sideways or even backwards on such surfaces ; often in much worse condition than those experimented upon at Liverpool. By means of spare trucks
very little time would be losb by the engine in either
loading or unloading-which would be very different
with the expensive 12-ton wagon-and the steamer could
quickly move the wagons into the loading bays, or instantly draw them out. Also, euch an engine would
never be bogged on soft ground, or be unable to proceed
over a. patch of newly la.id road metal. It could ta.ke its
load over a.ny unmade ground, could visit a farm if required, and could transport far more goods in a day than
could be managed by the low-wheeled ponderous, selfcontained vehicle, whatever its practicable amount of load
might be. Besides which, the small flexible-tyred steamer
would not be limited to a maximum load, a.s the selfcontained carriage is; and so on suitable roads it could
take a. paying load of even 18 tons or more, and so far outdistance the work of the motor wagon. There is not any
mechanical difficulty at all in this proposed manner of
working, the only trouble being the ever-obstructive "law,"
perpetually holding up its legal finger, and threatening,
You must not do this, a.nd You mu~t not do thab, and
10l. fine or imprisonment if you do!
Originally, speed was unhmited, and rates of 30 miles
an hour were often attained in the days of Gurney, between 1825 and 1830. Then in 1861 speed was limited to
10 miles in the country and 5 miles m the town, which
was reduced to 4 miles and 2 miles, respectively, in 1865.
The~Je remained the legal rates until18~6, when liberty to

by

'

3 tons at 14 miles was given, to be immediately redun d by the Local Government Board to half that
u~e ht at only 12 miles an hour. And what w.e now yet
weg. 1s not merely permission to use a little extra
requu~ 1 1n a motor wagon- useful as tha.b would be,
mo.teru~
'"'
1
b b liberty to
proceed in a. .commerm~
manner Wl th the
u tor wagon, the self-conta.med ommbus, and the sma~l
mod steamer together, in such a. r easonable mam~er as IS
roa d din every other country of the world, w1th the
a~oole :xoeption of our own ma.nufac~uring England.. So
:hn~ the smallest motor oycle, the ordma.!Y motor ?arria~,
the largest motor wago~, the ~elf-contamed ommbus, t e
d teamer the tractton engme, the road roller, and the
~a shing engine migh~ all have equal chances ~f being
P otus to practice in mannera that would be am table to
pu . m
n capabilities and thus each of them be
!~:~~~~raftowed to drift' into that. pa.rti?ular sphere of
usefulness, for w~ich it should prove Itself m actual work,
to be the most sUitable.
And in order tha.b this may be a{)bieved, would I_lOt the
following concessions be both necessary and suffi01ent. to
enable us to take p~ssession of all tha.b road l~comoti ve
d that still remams to be po~essed, and ~hi~h we are
~~ll able to do if only the exiStmg legal restr10t10ns were
removed :
T -Al
Fo1 Goods ?'aJJ~o.
Weight of material
...
...
up to 6 t<?ns.
Width over all . ..
.. .
...
,
90 m.
6 miles.
Speed Us~d to d~~w o~iy tw~'vehicl~.

For Passenger Traffio.

Weight of material
...
...
up to 6 t<?ns
Width over all ...
...
...
,
84 m:
Speed for oountry omnibus ...
" 12 m1les.
Yours sincerely,
L EONARD J . Tonn.
97, Queen Victoria-street, L ondon, E .C.

THE COAL-MINING INDUSTRY.

To True EDITOR Ol!, ENGINEERING.
Sm -I have taken your publication for 20 years, and
consider it about the best publ~ahed, for. the value of i.ts
information hence why I wnte to pomb out .the misleading figu;es you give this week re ~be a.bo~e mdustr.y.
I am sure you do not publish them With the Idea of misleading the public ; but, as a matter of fact, they do.
You say the men have worked an average of 5.67 days
per week for the month of M~rch, and that, therefore,
the scarcity of coal does not arise from neglect of work
on \he part of the colliers.
AB one who sends in one of the returns to the Labour
Office every month, let me point. out to you the:t ~.67
refers to the number of days the pits have been wmdmg
coaJ and not to the number of days the men have worked.
The' Labour Office does not ask for the information, and,
therefore cannob have it; and I doubt if the Labour
M.P.'s w~uld allow them to ask for it,. as it is ~ell kno:wn
to them how badly the men are workmg. It ~s nothmg
unusual for collieries to have 25 per cent. of their men off.
I am, &c.,
ONE INTERESTED.
April 30, 1900.

YACHT :MEASUREMENT.
To THB EnrroR oF ENGINEERING.
Sm -Judging from the wording employed by Mr.
H. c.'Vogt M. Inst. Danish C. E., in a. paper he recently
read at our Institution of Naval Architects, on "Yacht
Measurement ,, (for racing purposes), ''with some remarks
on the action of sails,,, and judging from the discussion
which followed, it would appear that the author of the
paper and his audience are equally ignorant of the efforts
made by others for several years past in the same direction. Mr. Vogt's principal proposal is to introduce dis.
placement into the ratio~ formula in such a manner a.s
to pub a premium on displacement. This has been
preached incessantly, in season and out of season, in
signed and unsignoo articles, in lettel'il to the press over
the signature "Thalassa,, in signed and unsigned pamphlets, in proposals to the Yacht Racing Association, in
chapters on the "Rating- Rule , in the Badminton Series
on "Sport,"in conversatiOns, and in endless private letters
by Colonel Bucknill, ever since 1892, when he first saw
Mr. Herreshoff's proposal noticed in the Field of
December 17 of that year, viz , that the rating of ra cing
yachts should be foun d by multiplying water length by
square root of Rail and dividing by cube root of tonnage.
The late Mr. Dixon K emp, as the then Y a.chting Editor
of the Field, suggested, on Decem her 24, 1892, that displacement should be used instead of tonnage-as a
divisor. Neither Mr. Herreshoff, nor Mr. Dixon Kemp,
followed up the subject with any persistency; but appa.
rently let it drop. Colonel Buckmll, on the contrary, has
wor~ed a:t it ever since1 and has suggested nUT;nerous
modtficat10ns of the origmal proposal, one of wh10h, so
far as the divisor is concerned, has practicall y been
adopted in the new French rule, which is to come into
force next ye1r-vide pages 178 a.nd 179 of Badminton
"ya.cht'mg, , vo1. 1..
. On September 18, 1896, a careful analysis of the rela.hon of Bpetd, sait area and cUsplacement, was written by
Colonel BuokniU, and published in ENGINEERING. It
had been wotked out by Colonel English, Rear.Commod?re R.E. Y.C., and a good mathematician. He based
hlS calculations on hlS own towing experiments with
models, and on the late Professor Willia.m Froude'$
method of sep1rating the resistance due to skin friction
and that due to wave and eddy making. A summary of
these ca.lcula.tions and the conclusions arrived at by
Colo~el English, and of other matters and writings, was
puhhebed ijy Colonel Bucknill 4t Soqthampton, in 1~97,

E N G I N E E R I N G.

593

of it in 1890, viz, linear rating

and circulated privately to friends, fellow spo~tsmen, and Mr. Vogt's modification
2
oa
Sail
yacht designers. A few abstracts from thts pamphlet t o vary ...., .
' and the contention of its author
may be interesting at the present moment. "The result
Di.iplacement
,
..
of the Y.R.A. rule will be small displacement ~or each that (sail)2 is a measure of the yachts . stabihty, because
class, very much over-canva:sed.': C~lonel ~nghs~ . . . it happens te be of the same a1gebra.to form as. that of
May 1896. ''Differences m m 1dship sect10n w11l not the moment of stability is, to say the least of lb, vera
have' much value under this rule. , Ibid. ."A rule o~ghb far fetched ; and in verity it can yery safely ~e a.sserte
not to fetter design in any way beyond sa.ymg that a g1 ven that the sail area itself (and nob ItA square) 18 the true
weight of hull ~hall have 9: given propulsive power (dete~ measure of a yacht's stability, for . ~he reason that a.ll
mined by previous expenence) allotted to It. .. . . and If yachts are canvased up to their &t~bihty, .so far as thell'
this be done I think that the type of boab which 1s a com- requirements necessitate-the crmser bemg, of course,
promise, but meets ordinary conditions, would be the re- less severely canva.sed than the racer.
That yachts in the small classes should be actually
suit., . . Ibid.
.
d
" From my tria.Js the total resiStance of the one es1gn weighed to find their displacement was first .propose~ by
Solent class of boat at ordinary racing speeds varies a.s the Colonel Bucknill in 1896, and he. has urged 1t ever smce,
and Mr. Vogt's l?roposals to wetgh large y~cbts do nob
fourth power of the speed." . . !bid_. .
" If the sail areas of two b!'ats of sumlar type ~e made appeal to the engmeer, !LS he appears to ent~re~y neglect
proportionate to the two-thud powe~ of thetr dt~plac~ the friction of the cup pistons m the hydraulic Jacks emment~,, it can be proved ma.thematt~all~ that
the1~ ployed for the purpose. .A small. floating dock would
speeds vary as the twelfth power of their dlSplacements. probably succeed if spe~Ially .destgn~d to record the
weight carried at any .gt!en Immersion~ as also the
Ibid.
quantity of water held IDStde the dock ~Imultaneously.
'' Hence the rule should be :
.
. (1). Fix the sail a~ea for the ?oat of largest diSplacement Such a. dock could probably be usefully e~ployed ab any
in a class from prev10us expenence.
yachting centre, and thereby pay a good mterest on the
(2). Allow a boat of smaller displacement to carry two- money so in ves~ed. .
.
.
,
thud power of her displacement.
Colonel Enghsh eVIdently constders that the des1gner s
(3). Allow a boat of smaller displacement ti!lle in !lccord- knowled~e of his yacht's displacement should be emance with the one-twelfth power of relative diSplace~ ployed- If one may judge by the sentence already q~oted;
and there cannot be any doubt that all modern destgners
ments."
.
This proposal amounted '&O a pure d1spla~ement rule, know their ya{)hts' displacements within a very small
the class limit (1), the sail area {2), at;ld the time scale (~), margin of error. Even. if the bo~t does not float ~xactly
all depending_ an~ being expressed m terms of the diS- on the designed water line, her displacement per mch !Jf
placement. But Ib was too perfect. It assumed the boats immersion at water line is known, and the calculated disto be of the same type, and this would only occur after placement can be corrected accordi11gly. The questio!J,
the rule bad been employed for many years and the best therefore, with regard to large yachts s~ems, to be:. Will
type unde~ the rule de.monstra.ted. Moreover, t~e boa.ts the Council of the R. Y .A . accept a designers certificate
of small di9placement m any class would be assisted by of displacement in the same way th~t the sailrna.~er's certime-an assistance which they probably would nob re- tificate is already accepted? Or, will the CounCil prefer
quire in which event the rule would nob encoura~e a the expense of some special dock or weighbridge for large
healthy amount of displacement, but would fa.vc;mr light yachts? If neither of these be acceptable, it would
displacement freaks a.s much a-s any rule yet de~se?.
appear that the wei~hing of boats to obtain their disAb the time (September, 1896) Colonel Buckmll, m cor- placement, and a ~atmg rule in which ~ispla.c~menb is a
responding with Colonel English, said:
.
factor or with whtch an allotment of sa1l area IS ordered,
"It is absolutely necessary to have the time scale and can o~ly be entertained by small yaohts.
classification on continuous curves. . . ,
If the Council were satisfied with a proportional dis~
"I do not see how displacement is to be found for boats placement for the purpose of racing measurement, it
over 30 ft. or 40 fb. . . . "
.
might be obtained by the product of. hull length ~nd be~m
"I do not follow the argument as to length not bemg on water line, and the depth of Immersed nnd-sect10n
necessary in the rating of formula.. . . " .
.
measured internally at quarter beam. The latter measure" I think it would be better to classify by a hne or ment would, however, be most difficult to obtain with the
rating equal" (proportionate) "to the two-third power of required accuracy in the miniature fleet, for which the
displacement and to limit sail on each boat to the square actual weighing machine is immensely to be preferred.
of her rating " .. which would then, of co~use, be proWe hope to see displacement introduced into the ~a.ting
portionate with the two-third power of her dtsplacement. of racing yachts by one or other of the proposals avatla.ble,
The proposal placed before the last gene.ral meeting of the any one of which would be a great advance on the type
Y.R.A. differs but slightly, and is an Improvement, the of m easurement hitherto employed by our yacht-racing
classification and rating being si~ply by length. of. hull on men in this, and, indeed, in any other country ; but it
water line which can be chosen m each class hmtt, so as must not be forgotten that France has adopted a. rule of
to inconvenience present owners as little as possible, if at the k ind which is to come in force with the new century;
all and the allotment of sail being precisely the same as and we should not lag behind her.
suggested in 1896, viz., proportionate to the two-third
April 29, 1900.
THALASSA.
power of the yachb's displac9m ent.
.
Colonel English replied, Septe~ber 1~, 1896, sho~mg
how length could be. introduced m to hiS l?roposa.ls if so THE FLIP OR JUMP OF A GUN OR RIFLE.
desired, but demurrmg as to the necessity. He also
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
added:
.
SIR,-In your last issue, Mr. John Rigby gives some
"It seems to me to be absolutely essential to any interes ting particulars on the above subject, to which,
logical rule to devise some method of measurin~ displace- with your permission, Sir, I will add a few remarks.
ment, .. . "Every merchant vessel is pract1~1ly sold
The springing of the hand of the stock has an important
by displacement, i.e., to carry so much dead weight on a influence on the flip or jump of a gun or rifle. Light
given draught, and there ~s no end of a .wrangle if .a. game guns, firing full charges, have been known to shoot
vessel is, say, 20 tons short m 4000.. The displacement 1s 12 in. low ab 40 yards range, this being caused entirely by
accurately calculated to a. ton for every man-of-war, and the springing of the stock. It has been proved by exI do not see why much difficulty should arise for yachts." periment that a gun or rifle may be made to shoot high or
. . . " I agree with you that it would be much better low simply by strengthening or weA.kenin~ the hand of
nob to make separate steps for classification . . .".
. the stock. Mr. J. Bridges-Lee in his article makes the
Much of this and a great deal more was publiShed m following incorrect statement :
ENGINEERING on September 18, 1896, to ~hich ~ refer
"Double-barrelled guns and rifles jump so much away
Mr. Vogt if he desires to know the manner m whtoh the from the line of sight that the barrels are set ab a conproblem of the measurement of racing yachts as regards siderable angle to each other with the object of compendisplacement and sail area., has been m ost carefully worked sating for lateral jump."
out and examined by Colonel English (late Royal EngiThe principal reason for putting double barrels together
neers), who also ~ea.d a paper early in 1~9.6 at the Institu- at an angle, lS to compensate for the shortening and contion of Mechamca.l Engmeers, explammg the mathe- sequent springin~ of the barrel being fired. The action is
matics of his towing experiments.
as follows: The mternal pressure in the barrel being fired
Although the resulting rules proposed by Colonel causes circumferential expansion, which induces a decrease
English do nob appear likely to. meet th~ reguireme~ts in the length, the result being that the pair of barrels are
of racing men, many facts received eluCidatiOn durmg s prung round towards the one being fired.
his examination which are most valuable.
This matter was fully exolained, and a series of experi~
The same can scarcely be said in connection with Mr. ments on the subject described, in your valuable journal
V ogt's manner of atta.ckin~ the problem.
about 15 years ago.
The only valuable J?Ort10n of his proposed rule- the
I will conclude with the remark that problems in gun~
divisor-was made origmally by'Herreshoff in 1892, and has nery require very careful handling even by experts.
bsen recommended over and over again by others since
Yours faithfully,
that time. The proposal to rate yachts by their sail area.
HORATIO PHILLIPS.
- the numerator of Vogt's fotmula- was made by RicbardRoedean, Brighton, May 1, 1900.
son during the discussion before the Council of the Y.R.A.
prior to the adoption of the l~ngth an~ sail area rule
in 1886, and was carefully exammed, and Its defects fully
FRENCH STEEL MAIUNG.- The production of rolled steel
recognised and enumerated in the arguments of other designers. It is true that these defects would be greatly in France last year was 1,253, 701 tons, as compared with
modified by a displacement divisor; but the omission of 1,174,075 tons in 1898. In the.~e totals steel rails figured
length of hull-one of the most important speed-produc- for 265,796 tons, and 242,806 tons respectively
ing elements in a. yacht-is an objection which holds good
THE ELE<YrRIO LIGHT AT SuNDERLAND.-Mr. J . F. C.
now g.uite as forcibly as in 1886. Moreover, a premium
on dtsplacement encourages greater length of hull, as Snel1, electrical engineer to the Sunderland Town Counany added weight is better disposed for speed in that cil, has reported tv the lighting committee than the
manner than in any other. Hence, in all displacement profits on the corporate electric ljght undertaking during
rules extreme length of hull should be even more carefully the past year amounted to over 1000l. Of this sum 700l.
guarded a~ainst than heretofore. It is, therefore, certain has gone towards the reduction of the rates, and there
tha.b Mr. Herreshoff's rule of 1892, viz. , linear rating to remains in hand a. balance of 350l. The committee will
decide shortly whether this balance is to be devoted to
Hull, length, Jea.il .
vary as 11
IS greatly to be preferred to the reduction of the cost of the illuminant, or to building
';J Dtsplacemenb
up a reserve fund.

595

E N G I N E E R I N G.

SIX-YARD DIPPER DREDGE.

CONSTRUCTED BY THE BUCYRUS COlVIPANY,

SOUTH MIL,AUKI~~J~,

FIG.

WISCONSIN,

U.S.A.

4.

FIG. 3.

I
I
I

,,
I

'

,'

,
I

,I

I I

I
I

.l ,'

lfl-1

/t I'

/~~
//(,?:~~

,-...,~4

~~

fl

'

{..__

.. ,

-~
fJ I{}c

THIS dredge,

'-.V~
I
,
I
---_ _ _ _=-i-._s'~-L~----

,r

'

which is illustrated on page 5 6 and on

the present page, is one of a series, built by the
Bucyrus Company, and possessing many points of
interest. The great reduction in cost of dredging
during the past few years, and the low price at which
contracts are now taken, have bePn largely brought
about in the United States by the use of these large
and powerful dredging machines. Some years ago a
3-yard dipper dredge, with 12-in. by 16-in. hoisting
engine was considered advanced practice ; but now
they are built with 18-in. by 24:-in. engines and a
10-yard dipper; e,en t his size is likely t o be increased.
This development has resulted in t he cost of dredging
being reduced to one-half of what it was eight or ten
years ago.
The dredge illustrated, and which was built by the
Bucyrus Company, of South Milwaukee, is an excellent example of a modern dipper dredge of fair power
and capacity. The hoisting gear is on t he direct wirerope system ; the chain system of hoisting answers
very well for smaller dredges, but for high power and
speed, the hoisting chain becomes too large and
c~mbersome. Hoisting chains are also liable to break
Without warning, and when such a chain fails and
leaves everything in the bottom of the river, considerable delay, trouble, and expense are involved. Many
experiments have been tried with wire-rope substituted
for chain in the usual way, but t he great wear on
~he rope, d.ue to its speed of travel and frequent bendmg, causes 1t to wear out rapidly, and the expense for
renewal is quite equal to that of the chain. The Bucyrus
Company has therefore adopted the principle (first
us~d and buil~ by them for l\1r. John Kennedy, M. E.,
Chtef_Engineer, ~arbour Commissioners of Montreal)
of a smgle-part wtre rope running at slow speed over
very large sheaves, and to operate which the engines
were. ~eared up the necessary amount to give the
requt~lte pull. In the dredge illustrated the hoisting
r~pe Is made of extra flexible plough steel, 2! in. in
dtameter, and ~he engines are 16 in. by 18 in., with
drum ~n~ gearing a,s illustrated in Fig. 2, page 586.
The hotstmg gears, as will be seen, a re double for the
aak.e of strength. They are each 9ft. in diameter by
1~ m. fa~, a~d drive a grooved d rum between them of
dtfferenttal dt&meter, the smaller producing a heavy
~ull at slow speed. when. th~ dipper is on the bottom,
f nd the rope rap1dly chmbmg to the larger diameter
or the purpose of hoisting the dipper at sp eed. The

effect of this is that the actual worldng speed of the

dredge is very consider& ble, and this speed is fur ther
aided by the grea t fre edom with which the dipper
drops to the bottom and o\rerhauls the wire rope. It
will readily be seen that in t he three-purchase chain
dredge t he dropping of the dipper must necessarily
be slow, as it has to overhaul the long and heavy
hoisting chain. In this case the weight of the rope is
practically a negligeable quantity, and the dipper drops
with absolute freedom and great speed, being controlled by a brcJ.ke at the proper moment. To permit
t he dipper to drop freely through t he water without
too great impact, its door is made double with a part
of its aree:t opening inwards, so t hat it can pass through
the water in its descent with slight resistance.
The hoisting drum is driven by two p owerful band
friction clut ches of a special type, designed and
patented by Mr. A. W. Robin son. This type of
clutch is one which has proved itself peculiarly adapted
to the work, and its o~eration has been very successful. Although carrymg such a very heavy load,
t he power can be applied either gradually or instantly
at the will of the operator. It is frequently necessary
or desirable to slip the friction clutches in order to
ease the engines in case they become stalled. The
two clutches a re both actuated by one steam cylinder
attached to t he ma in frame, directly in line with the
shaft. The movement of this cylinder is controlled
by a very small slide valve and compensating links,
so that the mot ion of the piston follows the motion of
a man's hand in operating the lever. There is thus no
necessity for any dash pot or oil cylinder, or other
restraining mechanism. The two main pistons are
k eyed fast to the intermediate shaft , but only one
of the hoisting gears is keyed to this shaft; the
object of t his is to allow the gears to accommodate
themselves so that each will do half the load.
Another speciality in the design is that no space is
occupied upon the shaft by sliding collars or other
devices requiring end motion. The hubs of the main
hoisting gears are close to the bearings, and the main
hoisting drum fits freely between them, and is lined
wit h phosphor-bronze, so as to enable it t o run loose
upon the shaft.
The illustration, :Fig. 1, on page 586, gives a good
idea of this dredge. I t will be seen that all its parts
are well balanced and in good proportion. The boom
is of steel 50ft. long, and the wire-rope sheaves are of

cast steel 8 ft. in diameter. The A -frame is also of

steel and is stepped upon the upper deck on top
of t he spud casings in such a way that when the
dredge is pinned up, the t hrust of the A -fram e is
practically carried upon t he spuds, and the stresses
resulting from it are not transmitted through
the hull. The spuds ~re of Oregon fir, 36 in. square
in one stick 50 ft. long.
They are likewise
operated by wire rope for movement in both directions. There are two ropes to each spud, and both
ropes are attached to a drum, which is fitted with a
powerful friction clutch and brake, and is operated
from the main engines. In this way the entire power
of the main engines is availa ble for handling the spuds
and for pinning up the dredge. Although the spuds
are so la rge and heavy, t hey c!l.n both be raised simultaneously with considerable speed, all the operations
of throwing the clutches and brakes being performed
by steam ; no racks and pinions attached to the
spuds. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 1, on
page 586, and Figs. 3 and 4 a hove.
The swinging of the boom is effected by independent
engines, and by wire rop e. The engines are geared up
in such a way as to give ample power and speed,
and the dredge when at work can readily make two
dipper loads per minute from a depth of 25 ft. Steam
is furnished by one cylindrical boiler of the Scotch
marine type, having two corrugated furnaces. The
boiler is 10 ft . in diameter by 9 ft. 6 in. long. The
hull is 38 ft. wide by 110 ft. long by 12ft. deep, and
is stiffened by two internal steel trusses.
Altogether, this dredge is an excellent example of
its kind , and all t he details have been very carefully
and satisfactorily worked out. It has been at work
during the season of last year near Detroit, and we
understand it has given satisfaction from t he start,
there having been no breakdown or mishap of any
kind. The dredge was built from designs of M.r . A.
W. Robinson, M. Amer. Soc. C. E., the engineer of the
Bucyrus Company.
TRAMWAYs.-The number of pagsengers carried
upon the Havre tramways in 1898 was 11,763 992 as compared wit~ 11,131,363 in 1897; 9,659, 754 i~ u396; and
8,670,227 m 1895. The revenue acquired in 1898 we.s
66,468l., as com pa~ed with 65, 3~7l. in 1897; 46,115l. in
18~6 ; an~ 42,214t. m 1895. The lines are worked by eleo
tnc tract10n.
HAVRE

E N G I N E E R I N G.
INDUSTRIAL NOTES.
~HE fortieth annual report of the Carpenters' and

J omers' Amalgamated Society, just issued, extends

to a volume of 436 pages, full of minute details relati':lg t<? the union. In reviewing the year 1899, attent ton 1s called to the fact that the expenditure ex?eeded that of the previous year by 16,473l. , of which
m ~r~ased amount ll,606l. was expended on trade
prtvtleges alone. It was not a year of great st rikes,
but it was what the report calls "a turbulent one "
from beginning to end. There were numerous disputes, mostly in places where wages were low, and the
c~nd~tions of w~rkin.g were not up to the level of other
d1str10ts, resultmg 10 struggles as to working rules,
the least satisfactory of which, the report states, were
attempted to be thrust upon the members by the
cen.tral federation or associations of the employers, and
whtch the members of the society resisted, with the
sanction of the council of the union. Of course, there
is another side to this- the employers accuse the men
of trying to enforce rules injurious to the trade.
These naturally opposite views eventuated in disputes
and stoppages of work. The total cost of those troubles
was 20,307l., the largest amount that the society ever
expended in one year on labour disputes.
As a set-off to this increased expenditure the report
says that large numbers of new recruits joined the
society, no fewer than 10,682 joining in the course
of the year. At the commencement of 1899 there
were 774 branches, with an aggregate of 56,634
members; at its close there were 61,781 members, a
net gain in the year of 5147 members after allowing
for deaths and exclusions through arrears. This in
crease beats the record of any previous year, and is
regarded as most satisfactory.
The total income of the society in 1899 was
150,653l. 2s. 6d. Of that total 140,294l. 7s. 9d. was
from contributions, levies, &c.; 4827l. 13s. 5d. ent rance fees, &c.; 3625l. 2s. 2d. interest on cash and from
investments, sale of reports, &c.; the balance being
miscellaneous receipts.
The total expenditure amounted to 122,835l. Os. lOd.
The chief i terns in this large sum were expended on
provident benefits, apart from the amount spent in
disputes, before referred to. The cost of unemployed
benefit, inclusive of fares, sending men to situations,
&c., was 15,341l. This is a large amount considering the state of trade; it was rather larger than in
the previous year. Sick benefit cost the society
33,413l. 7s. 1.; accident benefit, 3495l.; medical certifi
catef:l, 979l.l8s. 8d.; and sick stewards, 1232l. 16s. lOd .,
all of which amounts had to do with the health of
the members, as in a. friendly society. The next large
items were for superannuation benefit, the total cost of
which was 16,267l. 19s. 6d. in the year, and funeral
benefit, 5806l. 14s. 6d. Tool benefit was large, many
disastrous fires having taken place; the amount so
paid was 2905l. 19s. 8d. The benevolent grants to
members in distress and t o other trades, amounted to
4462l. 7s. 6d.. All these amounts came under the
head of provident benefits, in addition to the total
sum of 20,307Z. expended in support of trade privileges.
The cost of management is necessarily large in a
union with 774 branches and an aggregate of 61,781
members. Secretaries' salaries for all branches and
general office amounted to 3570l. 2s. 3d.; treasurers'
salaries to 1516l. 7s. lOd.; other branch officers
and committees, 2157l. 17s. ld.; auditing account s,
735l. 4s. ld.; rent, fuel, gas, taxes, cleaning, and repairs cost 234ll. 12s. lOd.; banking expenses for
the year, 332l. 17s. ; printing and stationery coat
3154l. la. 4d., but a port ion of t his came back for
reports, cards, &c.; postages, parcels, money orders,
and telegramCJ cost 1058l. 14s. 6d.; and insurance,
2l. 17s. 6d. The law expenses amounted to 1415l. 9s.;
and defalcations to 703l. 4s. Delegations and meetings
of the executive council cost 70It. 6s. 5d.; and summoned meetings, 388l. lls. 7d. The meetings of t he
American Council cost 40l. 19s. 6d.; the Australian,
W . 3s. 6d. ; and a general council of the latter,
23l. 10s. 6d. The Trades Congre~s and grants to
the Parliamentary Committee and the Federation of
Trades cost 168l. 3s. lOd. Various kinds of property
purchased for t he use of t he branches, &c., amounted
to 234l. la. 4d. The remainder consist of several
small items, details of which are given.
The cash balance at the close of the year was
200,530l. 13s. 2d., t he total worth, inclusive of pro
perty, houses, and goods amounted to 206, 738l. 9s. 6d.,
or 3l. 6s. 11d. per member. Of the total balance,
118 93ll. 16s. lOd. was held by 771 branches, the
gen~ral office, and the Australian and A~erican di.st rict offices while 81,598l. 16s. 4d. was mvested m
corporation' bonds or other public securities. The
latter amount is regarded as a rese~ve f?nd for
provident benefits, such as superannuatiOn, s1ckness,
accidents &c. The cash balances are in the Post Office
savings b~nks, or other banks available at short notice
in case of need.
The aggregate amount paid a~ benefits to mem~ers,
during the forty years of the extstence of the soetety,

is shown by the following '!'able, the cost per member of a permanent board, which is still under consiclernbeing also given :
tion. The outburst of enthusiasm by reason of the
S?ttlement shows how the operatives regarded a posTotal
Amount per Sible rupture. It was not merely that the concession
Obaraoter of Benefit.
Amount.
Member.
was made by the employers, but the fact that a ceesa.

tion of work was averted. When the announcement

8. d.
Unemployed benefit
674,&64
27 1 7~ was made at a great meeting at Ashton, cheer after

Tool benefit . ..
..
47,165
2 4 6

cheer was given, the name of the Mayor of Oldham

Sick benefit ..
496,319
23 7

being bailed with enthusiasm .

Funeral benefit
89,201

Accident benefit

Superannuation benefit ..
Trade privileges-disputes
Benevolent grants . .

Grants to other trades

Aggregate

47 ,91}6
129,983
193,490
30,747
25,601

1,635,325

4
2
6
9
1
1

~1

4
6 2t
2 6~
2 8!

3llt
4 1,

76 16 8t

This is a worthy record for a trade union. The

actual a.mQunt spent on disputes is comparatively
small, when it is remembered that the primary object
of the society is the maintenance of trade pdvileges.
The cost of superannuation benefit was 5s. 3d. per
member for the whole ;year; the highest amount so
paid in any one year was 5s. 6d.- in 1896. The two
benefits which cost most are'' unemployed " and " sick:"
the former, in 1879, cost ll. 12s. 9d. per member in
the year; the latter, in 1893, as high as l5s. 3d. in
the year.
The Ame?ican Federationist for April, just to hand,
gives us a glimpse of the American trade and labour
unions, and how t hey proceed with their organisations. It is handsomely got up, with an emblematical
design on the front cover which surpasses anything of
the kind in British trade union reports. The motto is
-"A bond of silk stronger than brass or &teel." It
gives a reproduction of the photographed group of
de~egatea at the last Trades Congress at Plymouth,
with views of the Guildhall, exterior and interior,
where the sittings were held. It contains an article
descriptive of the recent formation of a Federation of
Trade Unions in this country, some "British Labour
Notes," various reports and articles. One of the
editorial articles is headed, "Wage-earners, beware !"
The warning is directed against persons not in the
ranks of labour-that is, of the wage-earning class,
who, since the popular development of trade unions,
have endeavoured to foist themselves upon the labour
organisations, and the article says' 'the purpose sought
by them is not calculated to promote the welfare
of the cause for which the organised labour movement
stands. " The same thing has been manifest in England
of recent years, with results not always favourable to
labour. The writer then calls attention to the fact
that "all trade and labour unions under the banner
of the .American Federation of Labour are corn
posed exclusively of wage workers, men who work for
wages, and the exclusion of others does not necessarily
rPflect upon them." Such outside men are reminded
that if they sincerely sympathise with labour, they
can show it by assistance outside the organisation
better than they can by seeking to become members.
In an address to the trade and labour unions, signed
by the President and Secretary of the American
Federation of Labour, they are urged to extend their
organisations, as the best means of advancing the
interests of the workers. On May Day, Independence
Day, and Labour Day, they are advised to hold meetings and public demonstrations, especially to support
shorter hours, with the object of ultimately gaining
the eight-hours day in all trades in America.

The engineering trades throughout Lancashire con

tinue to be well employed, there is indeed, very little
change in the position in this respect. Exceptional
activity is maintained generally on work in hand, a.ud
the reports of trade unions show full employment for
all sections of workmen. This applies to all the chief
branches. In the iron trades the market has been
somewhat unsettled, the effect of which has been to
check business of any weight being put through.
The possibility of American iron becoming a. serious
competitor is one of the causes of hesitancy, but it is
thought that the reports are exaggerated to depress
English brands. Still it is reported that a number of
sales of American pig iron have been effected, and it
is said that larger quantities are offering for delivery
ere the close of the year. But local makers' prices
are still firm, though some sales have taken place
below the full figures. In t he finished iron trade
prices are strongly maintained, in spite of the fact
that only a small weight of business has of late been
put through. The steel trade has also been uneettled,
.American competition being the cause. Nevertheless,
on the whole, the posit ion is not unfavourable, nor are
the prospects, so far as can be seen, discouraging.

In the Wolverhampton district, new businees, it is

reported, continues to flow in, and merchants offer
freely for various classes of rolled iron for delivery
during the current quarter. But the manufacturers
are very chary of accepting orders except at full rates;
having plenty of orders in hand, they can afford to
wait . Bars, hoops, and strip iron are in good demand,
and there are large inquiries for boiler-plates, angles,
girder and other sectional iron for bridge-making purposes. Black sheet makers report a steady demand
for working up sheets and galvanisers' doubles; but
there is room for improvement in the latter branch.
Prices generally are firm, with no change from quarter
day. Steelmakers appear to haYe been adversely
affectes by .American producers, as some steels have
receded to the extent of 2s. 6d. per ton. Pig iron is
in great demand ; some works find a difficulty in
obtaining sufficient for their requiremen ts. All classes
of finished iron maintain full rates, wi th a firm tone as
to future deliveries. The general branches of iron and
steel-using industries continue fairly busy, with here
and there some complaints as to quietude. Engineers,
ironfounders, boilermakers, tankmakers, bridge and
girder constructors, smiths, and hammermen are well
employed, very few indeed being out of work in cornpa.rison withthe whole, and some that are out of work
may be so from causes other than slackness. Dearness
of fuel and of raw material have naturally affected some
branches, but not to the serious extent of throwing
the workers out of employment. There are no serious
labour disputes on hand, or pending, so far as we can
see. The disposition is on all sides for peace; and
hence the relations between capital and l&bour are
more friendly than they were when trade was less
flourishing than it now is. It is the output that is
required. On all hands, the complaint is that the
The settlement of the dispute with t he card-room supply falls short of the demand, and therefore a
hands, ere the close of last week, .was received with stoppage of work is regarded with more dread than it
great enthusiasm in the Lancashire districts. The waa when there was no pressure for supplies.
dispute was with a s_ection only, called the "datal,"
In the Birmingham district a steady tone has been
or make-day-wage handP, who demanded 10 per cent.
advance, or 5 per cent. beyond the general concession manifest in the iron market, though the new business
previously made. The conference was brought about coming forward is not so plentiful as it was some
mainly by the good offices of the Mayor of Oldham, weeks ago, and in some instances prices are somewhat
Mr. John Hood, but there was not any strong dis- weaker. But as makers generally have enough orders
position on the part of employers to risk a cessation of on their books to carry them over most of the quarter,
work, in which not only those directly affected by the the fluctuations in prices do not affect them very much.
dispute, but thon~and s of others would be indirectly For marked iron there seems to be no diminution in
affect ed by the stoppage of the mills. At the con- the demand at full rates, and there is a. heavy output
ference it was pointed out by the employers' repre- in t.his branch of the iron trade. In unmarked iron
sentatives that the great objection on their part to the there has been some underselling, and the subject was
proposed advance was the .invidious _positi?n in which brought up at the meeting of the Unmarked Bar
it would place a few men m comparison w1th the large Association. But it appears that the firms in ques
majority. As the extra 5 per cent. was intended to tion were not mem hers of the .Association, and there
do away with a long-standing grievance, practically fore no aotion could be taken. One was said to ba
dating from the Brooklands agreement, the employers only recently embarked in the trade, another was
considered that the matter should have been the sub- stated not to be a regular maker. The members were
ject of separate negotiation, and not form part of the all loyal to the association, full prices being adhered
general adYance. Moreover, it might become a. pre- to in all cases. 'fhere is a good demand for all classes
cedent, and the same hands might make some similar of iron, and no prospects of lower prices at present.
demand in the future. In the end terms of settle- It appears that the rules for a Federation of Bar
ment were agreed upon to avoid friction in the future. Makers' .Associations have been approved, and will be
The two parties agreed to strike out a. sentence in submitted to a meeting to be held in :Manchester at an
Clause 4 of the Brooklands agreement bearing upon early date, when the federation will be launched.
this question. The whole of the operatives are now, The federation will include the Scottish, Lancashire,
by the deletion of that sentence, under one arrange- Yorkshire, Shropshire, and the Midland Associations.
ment with regard to advances or reductions i~ wages. There has been a good demand for gas and water tubes,
It will also help to pave the way for the estabhahment t he latter being wanted in large quantities for South

MA\' 4 I 90~.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

597

:o

Africa.. The bedstead trade is quiet. The demand h our was founded on inaccurate information. No (page 598). This curve shows clearly that UJ? to
mil~
for galvanised sheets is good, the black sheet bra~ch com~unication has taken place between the masters there is a field for a system of ~on veyance 10 .t e !'fOr

The steel trade is and has bee n very bnsk. and the men since the strike commenced.
ing of which terminals are not 10curred, and It will be
IS qu v.
b '1
k
... h
01 erma era, smiv s,
The engineers, ironfounders,
at once appreciated by engineers.
b
Apart from these considerations, there .can .be no d:ou b
~
continue fairly bu~y, very few men out of work.
that with the rapid means for commumcatwn of Ided
T~~ major portion of the other i~on ~nd ste~l-using
ROAD LOCOMOTION.*
by telegraph and telephone, and of passengers. afdl gof s
industries, and of other metal-us10g 1ndustr1es, . are
by means of the railway, the general want lS et o a
By Profese:or H. S. H ELE-SHAW, LL.D., F.R S.,
fairly well employed ; but in some there a.r~ complamts
more speedy means of transport by road. The ~reab
l\1ember, of LiverpooL
of slackness. Generally, however, there 1s not mu ch
THERE are s trong reasons for thinking that the subject improvements which are needed in our road traffic ave
to complain of in respect of employ ment.
of mechanical propulsion upon common roads has now been set forth by Major R. E. B. Crompton, R.E., ~b
present in South Africa, and one of our old .members, ~n
The strike of some 300 labourers at Woolwich reached a point when it deserves th e v~ry carefu.l c~:m a paper read by him before the A utomob1l~ Club, m
dockyard last week throws a aide-light upon the sideration of mechanical engineers. .Th~ 1dea of .brmg~ng which he clearly shows the vast and benefi01~l changes
estion of a.n eight-hours' day as regarded frorr;t the the matter generally before the Institutwn .for ~tspusston that the general. introduction .o~ the motor v~hwle v.:o~Ild
is due to our President, whose far-_reachmg Jud~ment
~~rkmen's point of view. 'rhe me~ had been domg. a will be a<lmitted .by alJ, although posstb~y not the w1sdom effect in the rehef and expeditiOn of traffic m our Cities,
and especially in the Metropolis.
0 od deal of overtime recently ow10g to the war 10 of his choice of an exponent for the subJe?t.
~ uth Africa but the pressure being over the m en The title. of this paper must be ad~Itted to be ver.y Nor must the hygienic consider~tions be overlooked.
~re told to 'revert to the eight. hours. There was a comprehensive, but It seems that wh!l't ~s needed ab th~s This subject has been ably dealt wtth. by Mr. Shrapnell
wod deal of discontent as to th1s, and the men pro- time is a discussion of the general prmc1ples of the et?gt- Smith, Honorary Secretary of the LIVerpool Sel~-P~o
pelled Traffic Association (to w~oru the au~hor IS 10
~~eded to hold a meeting, but were tol? that no meet- neering features of the question, rather than a detailed debted
for valuable assistaD:ce m ~any pom~s d~lb
ing could be permitted on the premises ; they ~ust description of any particular system.
For many years the uses and importance o~ the tracti?n with in this paper, and particularly m connectiOn with
'ther return to work or leave ths yard. Some Sixty
the final section). In his paper, ~ead: before t~e Congrees
engine
have
become
more
and
more
recog01sed,
and
~ts
~~ more resolved to remain, but about 300 wen~ out- possibilities in connection with the present war have qu~te of the Sanitary Institute at B1rmmgham m 18.98, he
' de to hold a. meeting, where delegates were appomted
recently been brought very strongly before the P!Jbhc. points out that with mot or vehicles, not only will our
~wait upon the officer in c~mma.nd, with terms and This engine the work of which covers only a portwn of streets be less offen si ve, especially in summer weat~er,
conditions. He refused to discuss terms ; tl~ose who the field fo'r mechanical propulsion on roads, has been but exposed food-stuffs willle~s frequently affo:d a n-zdu&
liked could go to work, others could have tbetr money very fully d'e alt with before this Inst.itution . a.nd else- for organisms conveyed by dtC3semmated partiCles from
at 2 p.m. At that hour the gat~s were cl~sed, a.n.d where; and it will be, in the first p~ace, m structive to con- the roads and further, that the disintegrating effect of
the men were admitted six at a. t1me a nd pa1d. The1r sider what has led to a general revival of a movement for the horses~ hoofs which accounts for most of the dust of
places were soon filled up, an~ they we~t away sadder, lighter road locomotives, which, about seventy ye~rs ago, summer and the' pasty slime of winter, will be to a. great
'f not wiser men. They th10k an etght-hours day in the days of Hancock a.nd Gurney, reached a. pomt that extent obviated. The sanita,ry advantages of the motor
a time appeared to. be leading .to permane~b results of vehicle have also been recognised and e.trongly urg~d. by
~xcellent, with pleJ?tY of overtime at higher rates- for
the most important kmd, but wb10b ended m complete many medical officers of health and surveyors to mum01pa.l
but that is not an e1ght-hours day.
failure. In one sense this revival is undoubtedly due to and urban councils. This shows, then, what forces are at
work urging us, both for light and heavy. traffic, in .the
The MayD.ly L abour Festival at the Crystal Palace the passing of the L ocomotives on Highways Act in 1896, direction of utilising more efficientlJ: and With mec~am~l
previous to which, for more than twenty years, a l~w bad
on Tuesday was intended to be the greatest Interna- existed
which might be known as the "Man With the power the 100,000 miles of road which we possess m thl8
tional Labour Demonstration ever k_nown .. .There were Red Flag " Act, which made it impo~sible for any s~lf country.
great preparations for amusements, 1n add1t10n to t.hose propelled vehicle to proceed at a rate of mo:e than 4. mtles
From this side of the question we natura;lly turn to conarranged by the Palace Company.
The ~ommlt.tee an hour. The immediate cause of the pas9mg of tbts Act sider the difficulties of the problem, and It must at once
arranged for ~even platforms, two ~esolut10ns be10g was the attention aroused in this country by the success- be admitted that these difficulties are very great. The
a11reed upon sending fraternal greetmgs to labour all ful introduction of the motor vehicle for purpo~es of author has frequently s~en the S!Jbject referred to as a.
o~er the wo;ld, and demanding an eight ~ours d~y, de- pleasure in France, where the red flag was not a;t any rate question of mere mechamcal detatl, and the progress of
cent housing accommodation, old age p en siOns, um ver sal used specially for obstruction on highways. Th1s freedom the railway locomotive mentioned as a proof that these
adult suffrage, with second ballot, and pay me~ t of from legal restriction enabl~d ~n enterpri~ing paper, mechanical difficulties will be easily and rapidly overcome.
Moreover, the whole. blame for small progress ;m~de, &nd
members and all official election exp enses. It w1ll be "Le Petit Journal," to orgamse, m 1894, a tna~ of motor for previous failure, lS often thrown upon restnctive Acts
observed that the nationalisation of all ~be means vehicles between Paris and Bordeaux, over a distance of of Parliament. The truth is that the argument of the
more than 700 miles. These trials :proved conclusively
of production, distribution, and exchange d1d not find the great pos~ibilities of motor vehi cles, and attracte~ railway locomotive, so far from giving any grounds for .the
a place in the programme.
much attention in this country, ~here, aft~r .the first exb~ hope of an easy solution of the problem of road locomotion,
bitio.n and trial i? Engla.n d, which was ortgmated by S~r really tends in the opposite di.re.ction. In the first pl:\~,
The Factory Acts Amendment Bill seems likely to Da.VId Salamons 10 1895 In the grounds of the L ocal Agri- rail ways are one of the m o t strikmg examples of the nature
be a. most contentious measure, judging by tf:le cultural Society at Tunbridge Wells, successful measures of mechanical progress first pointed out by Reuleau~,
criticisms on the Bill and by the proposals for 1.t s were taken to obtain a more enlig-htened legislative treat- that machines became more and more perfect as their
amendment. At a conference held last week, the B1ll ment. We must, however, look deeper for the real causes restraint by what is called "pairi~g " was m<?re comwas denounced as a retrograde step.
The Master of the present movement, which can be traced. to the pletely effected; i .e., as the mechamcal boundanes comBakers want the withdrawal of Section 23 as to ,gradual feeling amongst all classes of the commumty that pelled the parts to move with more certainty under recondit~ons. The provision ?f a.suitabl~ tr~ck, ~pon
underground bakehouses. . Laundry proprie~ors con- mcdes of transport, both for purposes of p~easure and quired
business
on
the
road~ had not kept pace, or, mdeed, had which the tram moves and by which Its motiOn Is guided,
demn the sections relatmg to the laundnes. The
made little progress at all, compared with the great is the real secret of railway development. Hence it is
PQrliamentary Committee of the Trades. Congress as.k changes which had ~een .effected in sp.eedbcom~ort, and that with a ste~l wheel rollin~ upon a bard smo<?th track,
for extensive changes. All these w11l render 1t convenience in the dtrect10n of locomot10n y rall.
a continuous mcrease of weight and of tractive force,
difficult for the Government to carry the Bill. Some
:Mr. Samuel W. J ohnson, speaking of the ~rogr~ of together with increase of speed, is enabled to be obtained.
of the unions of large and important industries require railways in his Presidential Address+ before thiS Institu- Tlie conditions of the historical "Rocket" were a weight
more drastic provisions; so that between those w~o tion showed that in thirty years the annual train-mileage of 6 tons, a speed of from 20 to 30 miles an hour, and a.
regard it as too drastic, and others as not drastic had' increased from 200 million to 350 millions, and re- load of 20 tons ; while the modem locomotive and tender
marked that "Our iron roads are the arteries and veins together weigh lOO ton s, having a speed of over 60 miles an
enough, the Bill is in danger.
of the nation." Pursuing this very true and striking hour and drawing a load of 300 tons. Now this result has
What threatened to become a strike in the building analogy farther, it may be said that the capillaries and been'obtained by increasing the number of wheels, until the
trades has been averted. The carpenters and .joiners smaller blood-vessels are in the4' way jnst.as importa..n t locomotive and i~ tender may have the weight distributed
over from 16 to 20 wheels, ea.ch resting upon a hard smooth
A.S the larger veins.
Now,
whtle
the
railway
arterial
gave notice six months ago that they required an
systems have developed enormously and satisfactori,Iy, surface of contact; whereas the motor vehicle, a.t any rate
advance of Id. per hour. The employers offered id. there is still much room in present modes of. collectmg at present, is limited to four wheels, which have to run
per hour, and at a conference held last week the offer and distributing goods, for Improvements wh10h would upon an uneven surface which, if it is hard, intensifies the
was accepted, and a new clause in the conciliation materialJy benefit the trade and commerce of the action of shocks and vibrations, and if it is soft, causes a.n
agreement was suggested, which may avert..ot?er country.
enormous amount of resistance. The load thns being on
disputes. It seems probable now t h!l.t the conmha.twn
Railways are undoubtedly the cheal?est sy~te.m of laJ?d four wheels, both this sinking and shock are magnified as
scheme will be approved.
carriage for long distances, but there lS a nnnunum dts- the load is increased; and therefore inventive effort has
tance below which the disproportio~ bet~een haula~e been naturally almost entirely directed to lightening the
The master builders of Bolton have offered to and terminal charges operates to theu .detriment. Th1s working parts for obtaining a given power, and this coradvance the wages of the joiners a id. per hour feature of rail way transport, and t~e ser10us con~equ.ences respondingly diminishes the tractive adhesion which is a
if the men will forego the demand for a redu ction of of "breaking bulk," are exhaustively ~ea.lt ~1th m an necessary feature for succeesful workin~. In s~ort, the
of ~he problem !l're~~ch ~to mvolve .tmproyeworking hours. This offer is relegated to the workmen interesting and important report, pubhsbed m .1898 by conditions
ment exactly m the opposite d1rect10n to that m wh10h
the
Special
Light
Railways
Committee
of
the
Liverpool
for consideration and decision.
Incorporated: Chamber of .Commerc~ ; in w~ich report it the rail way locomotive has been successfully developed.
No doubt the progress of invention will ever increas.
is made ev1dent that Ltverpool 10 ~art1cular suffers
The ballot taken respe cting the millmen's wages in from these causes, and what is true of Liverpool is pro. ingly enable a greater amount of power from a given
the Welsh tinplate trade has resulted almost unani- bably true of other great commercial cities. Cartag.es weight of motor to be obtained; but the surface to be
mously in favour of the men's demand for an increase and terminals exceed the haulage charges over short dis- moved over, which is the real difficulty of the road locoof 6 per cent.
tances by rail, while they become only a very small motive, will remain the chief factor of the problem.
The first section of the paper ie, therefore, devoted to
percentage of the whole when the distances are considerthe mechanical problem of the behaviour of the wheel
able.
It
must
be
obvious
that
a
motor
vehicle,
which
The strike of compJsitors at Amaterda.m caused a.
can travel from any one point to the other, which absorbs upon the road, and the progress which has been made in
stoppage of some newspapers, and pu.rtially BO of the short cartages in.to. one stra.i~htforward _journey, and this direction.
others. It is stated that a lock-out was decided upon, which absolutely ehmmates rallway termma~ charges,
The ~econd section deals with Steering and Turning.
but a fresh conference is called.
The subject of Motive Power is treated in the Third
has a wide and promising scope for applicatiOn. Mr.
Alfred Holt, one of the leading shipowners of the section, which is divided into internal combustion motors
The dispute in the Potteries eventuated in a lock-out country, has for many years urged the n;ecessitJ: of ob- or oil engines, external combustion motors (steam), and
of, it is said, about 20,000 operatives on Saturday viating these terminal charges, concernmg which he electrical motors. In this section Transmission and Gearlast, the demand for a. 10 per cent. advance being states that the matter of handling is a "giant, and the ing are briefly dealt with.
Finally, a summary is given of the results which have
refused by the manufacturers. The operatives have transport a wharf, and the giant is daily growing larger,
been obtained, and certain general conclusionsl together
resolved to stand firm and fight the matter out. It is and the dwarf smaller.''
The relation between these two charges may be shown with an appendix containing some notes and Taoles.
to be regretted that conciliation was not able to avert
a stoppage of so many workers. Conciliation used to in a very striking manner by plotting the terminal and
conveyance charges, worked out in pence per net ton- I.-PnoBLEM O.b' THE WHEEL RoLLING UPON A RoAn.
be popular there.
mile, tak~n from the Government Blu.e ~ook. of 1.892,
When a wheel with a hard rim rolls upon a level hard
dealing With the rates and charges, and IS g1 ven m F1g. 1 surface, every point upon the wheel follows the ourve
.The strik.e of patternmakers in the Leeds district
shown in Fig. 2, a; and since each point on the tyre
*
Paper
read
before
the
Institution
of
Mechanical
still continues. The statement, in our issue of the Engineer~.
comes in succession perpendioularly upon the surface
20~h ult., that it had ended in an advance of ~d. per t See ENGINEERING, vol. lxv., page 611 .
beneath, there is no appreciable resistance to the motion.
When, however, the surface beneath is either sofb, Fig. 2

1'e'"

--

---

E N G I N E E R I N G.
b, or irregular, Fig. 2, o, the wheel no longer rolls in t he
Aame way, and the invaluable properties which it possesses are in a greater or less degree destroyed.
Now it is difficult, from any data. at present avaiJable,
to separate the amount of resistance respectively due to
each of the two foregoing causes. But in F ig. 3 are
plotted, from T elford and Babbage's data, the resistance
to traction on roads of various kinds; and here it would
appear as if a. soft road involved greater resistance than an
irregular one, and was more to be considered.
The truth is that, when we are considering the question

'FifJ ].

RiLATION 8ETWU:N

comes serious, but that the vibration which occurs tends

greatly to destroy the structure of the motor vehicle, and
makes the problem of keeping in working order the mnchine parte which it will be seen are necessarv for automatic action, incr~singly difficult. .
'
.
Mr. J . . Brown, of Belfast, h~ l!lvented, an .mstrum~nt (wh10h ,h~ has called t~e V1agrafh ) wtth the
obJect of obtammg aut?g~aph1o recor~s ~ the s~rface of
roads. The nse of ~h18 mstrument md10ates, m a .remark~ble way, the v1bratory effects pr?duced accordmg
to dtfferent states of roads of nommally the same

T~RMINAL AND CONVEYANCr.

CHARQS ON RAI LWAY8 ( CLA8SIS 3AN04-)

Fig . 4.

6
tu

l!

~4

....
~3

~ ............

C0h1VY

.....

.,..'!1"

if

G:
~

HORS POWR VtLOCITY CURVtS

85

..J$

tu

a motor vehicle may be subjected when it has to run indisorimina_tely up~n. th~e various kinds of road, unless
some spec1al provts1on 1s taken to counteract such influences. Fig. 5 gives a good illustration of the severe
effect produced by~ bad oros..qing. Now, obviously, the
~emedy for shooks ts a means of causing the vehicle and
tts load to ride over the obstacles without being lifted
bod~l~; since a reference to Fig. 2, c, shows that
a hftmg of wheel and axle must take plac~, unless
the. unevenness of the roa<i. is .d~stroyed by being pulveriSed or removed ; and thts hftmg, which amounts to

10

:1.0

80

l/0

50

IVC

30

,,.,

60

80

SO

100

110

tzO

F.

IQ. -

0
n ils
-J
'

7S

------------------- --- - - --------- ---- ................ -------- ------

/
I

--------------------------------- -

10

V
V

Ordul.ary M~ rbL _________________________________ __

V
/

I/
/

V /

~------------ ........................................ _____ .. ____ .. __ _ __

Cobble Ston..e.s . . ............. ------------------------- -- - - Ordinary TWa.d & GrewM.... -------- - - - - - - - Orduuuy Ccbb"Le Swn..e.s ------- - - - - - - - Pre.sh ECArth

---------------------- ----

10

PER

I'

'~
./

..,~

0)

~'

/
.V

.... V

~"' V

:/

\: ~

/
/

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:.,.......

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~~ f 1" l

'/ ~ 7
1/ V l/ l1 V
V

~/

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/

V
/

/V~)

~,

'/

~"/ .b/

.V

.V

,..,

......

.....- .... _.....;. .....

......... .........

15

MILES

../

"'l

/
/

17

'/

!/

V /

V V / :;;;" V
/
........
/ './
/
/ ~/ "'...,.... ~
'7
..,.,.. ...... /
/ ~ :..::: ;........:
~~
.........
:;.: ....

Har-d.Dry

V I/

~C

--- ---------BestMcuadont --- ----- -- ------------ ------------------ -PlU"'U Stre...r -----------........... ... _______ ----- ----------- ~y:Mrx.,co.,darn (a}

')

Asp~ --------------------------------------------------- ...

.
TrQ.l"Tl, .R,a,il,o ________ ------ _______ ... _____ ... _------ . . -------------.WeU La.U1 Stone.
-
-------. .... ---------- -- .. - -

pj

Fi1j .3.RSISTANCE TO TRACTION

I
V

T7"a/TlAtV

20

()

I
)

17

&.EN(; TH OF ti01JRNY I 1'1 M I I.& S

2j

1/

"

I
10

"

:JO

:/.0

IIOUR

VIBRATJO~S CUE TO ROAD SURFACES , ntCORDEO BY VIAGRAPH .

f.iACAUI\M (FAIRLY GOOD) .

'.

I I

.,

Fig. 5 .

....

DEEP

DEPRESSION

L~ - ft'!..
- --~~~--;T"';_ll'J\o::':w~..,_--,l~~~--hlr;r7'irtilv~~=\1t:;::::::>""~ ~t:fttw~~-..r-~,.....,,J'-

SHOWS
CROSSING

MACA. DA M ( BA D .

'

Fig.b.

. ... .. -r

. -.

SETS ( BAD) .

Fig. 7.

--. .

(DeFectint
rill be
t epUu:ed)

- - ---- . ....

- -----

WOOb {OLD)

..... . . .... .
'

-......

Fig .9.

S377.D

of the motor vehicle, the opposite is the case, for while

the amount of the resi!tance due to the softness of the
road remains J?ractically the same as the speed is increased, the resl8tance due to obstacles which cause shocks
and vibrations rises rapidly. MM. Bovaine et Julien, in
their ''Tableaux Nu meriq ue Gra.phiq ue, " have investigated
the horse-powu up to speeds of 50 kilometres (31 miles) an
hour for varying loads. It is nob necessary to reproduce
their numerical investigations, but the Sel'ies of curves
which the author has t ranslated into English measures,
Fig. 4, indicates clearly the great increase of resistance
as the speed increases. Now it must be remembered that
t is not merely the increase of resietance itself that be-

a change of direotion of the vehicle and its load, must

be accompanied by shocks and consequent loss of power.
Sprin~ under the body of the car are the natural method
of aoh1eving this result, since even if the wheel rises, the
springs give so as to allow the main body of the load to
pass onwards over the obstacles without being lifted
bodily. But even ~ith springs, t~e periphery. of the
wheels have to sustam a. shook wh10h causes n01se and
destruction of the wheels themselves, and the best result
is obtained by placing a.n elastic medium between the
wheels and the road.
More than 50 years ago, a brougham was running in
* P roceedings, Belfast Natural History and Philoso- L ondon
with pneumatic tyres, which were the invenphical Society, 1800.

character, and the curves which he has given of

macadam roads in various parts of the country
show remarkable and instructive differences. The
city engineer of Liverpool, Mr. J. A . Brodie-who
is using one of these instruments-has kindly taken,
specially for this paper, a. series of curves which are reproduced in Figs. 5 to 9. From t hese diagrams it will be
seen the difference in the character of vibration on
asphalte and wood pavement compared with that on sets
or macadam road, and shows to what different influences

E N G I N E E R I N G.
neers a few years ngo. * These trials were conducted for
all kinds of load, in all kinds of weather, upon varied
kinds of road, and at various speeds, and though it would
require a separate paper to deal with them adequately,
the general conclusions may be briefly s ummarised as
follows :
1. The force required for the pneumatic ty re increases
very little from walking to trotting, while that absorbed
by an iron tyre percepta.bly increasos with the speed.
2. The advantage of the pneumatic over the iron increases rapidly as the speed increase~. Taking 100 as the
force required for the pneumatic tyre and iron tyre at a
slow speed, the resis tance of the iron tyre increased at an
ordinary trot to 126, and at a quick trot to 164; and
probably if the matter bad been investigated for ordin&ry speeds of an a.utooar, the relati ve resistance of the

tion of an engineer, Mr. R. W. Thompson. This invention did not attain a practical success at the time, for
reasons so well understood by en~ineers, vi z., that the
mechanical appliances and m~tenals available at that
time did not enable the mventor successfully to
oope with the prac~ical dif!iculti~s in ~be ~ay of its
commercial constructiOn. Smce Its rev1val m recent
ears, it has already played such an important part in
locomotion, and is probably d estined to play a. much
greater ~rt, that a few facts concerning It may well
be brought forward. The action of the pneumatic
tyre is really two-fold; it not only interposes the
desired elastic o~shion between th~ irregula: r oa.d and
the vehicle, but 1t does so by a contmuons sprmg of com~ressed air, extending round the periphery of the wheel.
This air, when once compressed by the load being placed

i'oad

F1(J.10.

Ftg.11.

DU NL OP ( ENGLISH).

Fig.1:l.

MICHELIN ( FRENCH).

pneumatic is made clear." It is interesting to note,

as confirming this statement, that it was recorded in
the automotor journals that during the recent heavy
snow and bad weather, automobilis ts were able, to
their great delight, to use their vehicles freely, the
pneumatic tyres appearing to be almost unaffected by the
bad state of the r oads. In addition to the numerical
results obtained by M. Miohelin, a. series of graphic
records were obtained from the body of the vehicle, which
explains to the eye at once, better than any figures, the
reason of the satisfactory results obtained by the pneumatic tyre. One or two of these are reproduced in F1gs. 14 to
16, in which the curve traced by the vehicle with iron tyr es
meeting an obstacle is shown by a. full line, while the
behaviour of the vehicle fitted with pneumatic tyres is
, shown by the dotted line. In these curves, iustead of the

Fig.14.

--......

--

GOODYEAR ( AMERICAN)

RELATIVE DISPLACEMENT CAUSED

-~-------

Fi[j.13.

C ALLUS ( FRENCH).

.'

'

599

AND PNEUMATIC

AT HIGH SPEEDS .

TYRES

PNEUMATIC

tRON

------

-------------------

----

--

.15.

-- -------- -----------------------

/ROll

,..._

----....

- .._. ,

- ---- -~--.,.

..
_
...
..

-- -- -----...

--

....

-----

..:

Pig.16.
~,

IRON

,,
.._.

SJ77E

..

-----

pNEUMATIC__ __ _ ____ --

. <

.,

PNUMATIC

..:--

'
----------------- ------

'

--------------------

--

TYPES OF DRIVING WHEELS FOR HEAVY MOTOR VEHICLES .

Fig.17.

L EY LAND.

Fig.18.

Fig.19.

THORNYCROFT.

S INPSO N - BOOMAN .

PifJ.20.

COULTHARD.

Pig.:U.

- -L.... , --J...I

Fig.22.

SINPSON-BODMAN,

BAYLEY

I
I'

I.

.J.=f -- J - -= J.. t = . _

.b.___. --.--.

--1 - - 1

upon it, absorbs, so. to speak, the obstacle with only a iron tyre would have been found to rise even more sha.rp jump indicating a.. violent shook and loss of power
~mrarary def~rmat10n _of the elastic covering, so that no rapidly.
w~10h occurs when tlie uon tyre meets an obstacle it is
ur~ er. work 1s done m the compression of the main
3. The solid indiarubber tyre is better than the irontyred wheel in certain oases, especially at the trot if the
surface be sticky, very irregular, or <'O Yered with' snow
but it becomes inferior to iron if the surface be bard and
~mootb. It never gives a much better result than the
uon whe~l, and it always remains vas tly inferior t o the
pneumat10. On the other hand, the pneumatic is 50 per
cent. better than the iron tyre.
As ~I. Michelin remarks, "It is a curious thing, but we
have known many people who have only seen pneumatic
ty~es, and who have never tested them, affirm that these
th10k tyres must drag heavily. It is specially on bad
ground, in mud, in snow, tha.b the advantage of the

evident that the pneumatic carries the vehicle over' with

~fnng Itself. ~hoto~aphs have been taken by the author
an easy and gliding motion. This, which is evident in the
!'- pn~umatic-tyr_ed wheel passing over obstacles of
small obstacle, Fi~. 14, is much more so in the case of the
vartou.s.kmds; and 1b can be seen that, even allowing for
la.rg~r obstacle, F1g. 15 ; while, when the three obstacles
ft certain amount of preliminary compression upon the
are .mterpo_eed, Fig. 16, the beneficial effect of the pneu~t sbrfaoe, how ~mall a. distance the load resting on the
ma.tlO tyre 1s very remarkable.
a e ~ been ral8ed, and that the idea. involved in the
For heavy traffic, when it is remembered that the load
expressalIon ".absorbi~g an obstacle,, when the obstacle is
has to .be concentrated upon the point of contact on
a
1one, lS pra.cttoally correct.
the per1phery .of four wheels, it is no wonder that the
. any measurements have been made to compare the
wheels have hitherto been almost entirely made of iron
~IStanc~ to motion of a. hard tyre with that of the
tyr~s.
At the first Liverpool. trials of. heavy motor
P e~mat1o, but these are nob very useful unless taken a."
varymg speeds .
. .
h
u
ve~toles great trouble w~ experienced ~th the wheels
that tli d'ff ' smce Ib IS w en the speed is increased
wh~ch had b~n made m the best posstble manner for
. e 1 e.rences become most marked. The best and
ordma.ry _vehicular traffic. In almost all oases the wheels
~ost tnstructtve results are those given by M . Michelin
* Translated a.nd published in a series of articles in the showed s1gns of th_e severe stresses and shocks to which
a paper read before the French Society of Oi vil Engi- "Autocar," commencing August 15, 189(>.
they had oeen subJected, and some of the vehicles utterly

i.{

6oo

E N G I N E E R I N G.

brok e down in consequence. The construction of the appreciable difference of t h ickness for t he tread of this
wheels themselve3 has latterly been the subject of much type, whir h is circular in section, b ut it is sufficiently
careful d esign on the pa rt of makers of motor vehicles, thwk for all practical p ur posss.
the wheels having necessarily nob only t o bear the ac tual
With heavy traffic, where noise and vibration are not
load, but t o transmit tractive force from t he motor. so fa tal to success as in the case of pleasure vehicles, the
Figs. 17 to 22 show some of the wheels which have been importa nce of having pneumatic tyres cannot be said to
specially d esigned by the m akers of motor vehicles. These be so great. On the other hand, it becomes of more imwheels show in each case the arrangements for dri ving, portance t o carry if p ossible a heavy load easily over an
and this feature is a vital part of the d esign of the wheel. ob ataole withou t shock than a light one, as the destructive
The iron portion has been cross-ha tohed in to indica te effect on the vehicle of the inequalit ies of the road is
which is metal and which is wood, and t he nat ure of the naturally ~reater. This problem of spring wheels in conoonsbruotion will be evident without any detailed de- nection w1th road locomotion is one which has exercised
scription. It m ay be p ointed out that M essrs. Coult- makers of traction engin es for many years, but ten years
hard use a wheel entirely of iron, Fig. 20, which seemed ago it ws.s stated,* "The exertions of inventors during
to gi ve very satisfactory results at the Liverpool trials, tl:ie last quarter of a century seem t o ha ve been inadewhere ib mqs t be noted that pa rt of the 40 miles run was qua te t o the p roduction of a wheel with elastic tread,
over a road p aved with cobbles of the sort well known in which will satisfy all the complex and moat difficult con certain parts of L ancashire, affording a t est scarcely to ditions governing the nse of traction engine wheels. N ot
b e surpassed in severity. The la,st wheel shown on the a few of the most eminent and successful makers of tracseries 1s tha t of M essrs. B ayley, which differs from the tion engines h a vf\ abandoned elastic wheels altogether,
other driving wheels in the important detail of beiug and resorted to springs between the main axle a nd the
con ed or dished, Fig. 22. A great deal might be said in eng ine, and they have, on the whole, been successful. "
considering whether the ad vantages of a coned wheel for In spite of this, however, when one looks at the original
heavy traffic are not m ore t han counterbala nced by the design of Thompson's wheel in his patent, one cannot
constant t endency of such wheels to run outwards : since help feeling t hat he underst ood what was required; and
when t he axles are hori zon t al, they can only be made t hat al though the practical difficulties may be great, there
to r un in a straight line by a certain amount of slipping a re no mechanical impossibilities in the prod uction of a
constant ly going on at the tyre, and a constant outward pneumatic tyre for t he very heaviest vehicular traffic.
drag upon the axle. M essrs. Bayley's wheel, however, With any existing system, in which four wheels are used,
worked very well at the Liverpool trials and subsequently, the problem is a difficult one, because of the concentrawhich is, after all, t he m ain {>Oint t o be considered. There t ion of the loads upon such a limi ted area of support. The
i3 another important pecuharity, and tha t is t hat the pneumatic tyre, however, extends this a rea of resistance
spur wheel a t t ached to the d riving wheel is ann ular, and by yielding, so tha t t he area in con ta-ct is much greater
is driven by an internal pinion. This affords considerable than in the case of an iron-rimmed wheel, especially when
protection from dust and dirt, and enables th e out- running over sets or hard ground. Beyond this, it is
side of the annular wheel t o be used ,ery effectively as a quite con~eivable tha t, just as in railways the number of
b rake wheel encircled by a band brake. The spoke'3 are wheels has been largely increased un til a modern bogie
of oak with ash felloes, the i ron t yre being 5 in. wide. carriage has commonly t welve wheels suppor ting it, it
In consequence of the ne w design a nd special construc- may be found economical t o support a motor vehicle also
tion of the wheels adopted by most of the makers. they upon a much greater number t han a t present.
were enabled t o stand much bet ter at the second Liver(To be continued. )
p ool t rials ; but even in the second report, t he j udges
wrot e in their sp ecial conclusions as follows : "The
wheels and t yres were generally efficient; but concenTHE PHYSICAL SOCIETY.
tration of h eavy loads upon the present small a rea of
AT the meeting of the Physical Society , held by the
wheel ooRtacb 1s a serious difficulty in the proble m of in vitation of Sir N orman Locky~r, F .R. S., in t he Solar
goods transport by motor vehicles, a nd constit utes the Physics Obser va tory, South Kensi ngton, on F riday,
chief mechanical cause of the ~low progre3s ma.de.,
April 27, Mr. T. H . B lakesley, Vice-Presiden t, in t he
Quite recen tly, on e or two makers have been a ppre- chair, Sir Norman L ockyer gave '' A Short A cco'W1tt of
ciating the great .dif?cu~ties of this question, and . have the P hysical P1oblems now being investigated at the Solcw
tried to adopt sohd m d1a-rubber for tyres ; and Fig. 21 P hysics Obse1vatory and their A st1onomical A pplications."
shows M essrs. Simpson and Bodma.n's wheel, in which The chief work carried on at t he obser vatory is the comthe india-rubber is sho wn cross-ha tched in section, parison of stellar spectra with spectra obtained from
and from which t hey have obtained very satisfactory lights emi t ted by laboratory sources. The light from a
results. The action of the solid tyre, however, differ.s _in star (or the sun) an d from an arc (or a spark) are focussed
a most important resp ect from that of the pnenma tiC, alternately upon the t~lib of a spec troscope, and the two
viz., that although deadening shocks, t here m ust al~ays spectra. are photographed side by side upon t he same
b e a great loss of ~nergy coneequen t upon the con~mual plate. The number of lines in the arc spectrum depends
expansion of the d tfferen t parts of the s~bstance Itse~f, upon which par~ of the arc is focussed on the slit. The
which is totally d ifferent. from the behaytou~ ~f t he at~ image of the centre is rich in line.s, the image of the edge
cushion in the pneumattc t yre. In Mtchehn s expe rt- gives a few single lines. Changes in spectra are also
m enta the solid india.-rubber sh owed itself always greatly dealt with. The thickening and thinning of lines deinferior to the l>neumatic tyre, and under some ci r- pends upon several things. In the first place it dep ends
cumst an ces infen or t o the iron tyre itself . . It was put upon the density of the substance, and thus the hydrogen
into competition with the pneumatic t yre m the early lines in the spectrum of Sirius are much b roader tha n
days of the cycle, and in that competition has disappeared t hose in a Cygni, the hydrogen being denser in the
for ever. The same process of competition .seems to be former sta r. Changes may also be produced by vari ations
going on in the case of t he light mot~r vehiCle, t hough in quan tity. A reduction in t he quantity of a t~ubstance
the difficulties are more than proporttonally greater as generally simplifies its spectrum, the longest line di sthe load upon each tyre increases. In t hi!:i co~mtry, ~he appearing last. The motion of a lumin ous body t o or
Dunlop Company have been for years a t work tmprovmg from the sp ectroscope alters the wave length of the light
the tyres for mot or vehicles, and the sectio.n of their emitted, and prod uces a shift in t he lines of the spectrum.
latest production is shown in Fig. 10. I t will be seen The amount of deviation is a measure of t he velocity of
that the tread has been made thicker w.h ere t he great~st approach. ~n the case of Nova Auri~ae we _h a.ve d ar)<
wear t akes place, and . where t here 1s t~e most lia- and bright hnes of the same substance side by stde. Tlus
bility t o punct ure, wh1le the ex ternal cu cular form shows tha t t here are two bodies invol ved, moving wi th
is retained. It is found n ecessary t o ~se t.h e very different velocities, th e one giving a. radiation and t he
best india-rubber for the external P<?rt10n, I.n order other an absorption spectrum. A nother ohang~ in the
t o admit of the n ecessa.ry deforma t10n, whilst the lines depends upon temperat ure. In general an 1~crea.se
inner p ar t of t he body of the on ter tu be has ~o be in tem perature produces a greater number of hn&a, a
strengthened by means of layers of woven can vas m ser - notable exce(>ti on being sodiu m, which gives its full
tion The steel rim on the wheels holds the two enlarged number of hoes ab the tempera ture of an ordinary
edg~s of the outer covering of. the ty~e, .so tha t wh~n the B unsen flame. T he spectra of metals ob tained from
inner tube is inflated the tyre 1s bel~ 1.n tts place wtt~ou t the arc and by sparking are often quite d i ff~ren t.
the n ecessi ty for any internal wtrm g o~ fast emngs. Those lines which m ake their a ppearance or are mtenSpecial machinery i3 required t o make this tyre at all sif1ed in passing from t he arc to the higher temperacheap ly; b ut this M essrs. D unlop .are now put~mg down, ture of the spark a re known as enhanced lines. The
and 1t is hoped t hat the pneum~tiC tyre f~r hgb ~ mot~r comparison of stell~r spectra with laborat?ry sv ectra.
vehicles will before long be obtamed at pnc~ wh10h w11l is often easy. F or mstance, the p resence of tron m the
sun and hyd rogen in S irius. is easily seen. Several lines
enable it t o be universally placed on such vehicles.
F ig. 11 shows a section of t h.e M i_ohelin tyre ; an~. it is in t he spectrum of ;B.ellatn x hav~ been s~own to be d ue
interesting to not e that M . Mwhelm, who, as .h e n~I v~ly to helium, the p os1t1on of the hoes bem g exactly the
as those d ue t o th e gases from Clevite. In many
remarks, commenced h is research. on ~he subJect with same
the object of proving t ha:t the Enghs h.dtd not ~ow possess cases it is possible to build up the spectrum of a sta.r
the spectra of its constituen ts taken at the pr?p~r
the monopoly for makmg pneum~t~c ty res,. has n ow from
succeeded in producing tyres that, 1t 1s only ~Ight ~o sa~, temperatures. F or instance, t he spectrum of i' On oms
be closely imitated by means of oxygen, nitrogen, and
are referred by many users. c;>f motor . v~htcles m this can
t ogether with the well-ma.rked lines of hydrogen
cou!try. This is not so surprismg when It !Bremembered carbon,
and heli um. W e can roughly estimate, by the character
that t he French have been fa r ahead of us m the p r?duo- of the spectra of stars, the temperature of thos~ stars aad
1
t ion of ligh t motor. vehicles, a nd the d emand for suitable
thus arri ve at a stellar t hermometry. Star tmg wtth a.
t res for such vehtole8 has been ver.Y keenly .felt.. The
hot star, like :Bellntrix, and passing through f:J P ersei,
d alluR which is also a F ren ch t yre, 18 shown 1n Fig. 12, 'Y
L yrae Siri us, Oastor, Prooyon to A rcturus, a cold star,
and is' seen t o be almost iden tical wi th the Dunlop. tyre, we hav~ a gra~ ual change in t he character . of the lines
exce t that in the important m atter of .tr~ad th~re IS not which appear m the spectrum of any constituen t. T he
s~ m~ ch extra t hickne3S allowed, and 1t 18 obvious that widening of t he lines 10 the case of spectra of sun spots
the Dunlop t yre 'Yould carry a much great er load as well enables us to trace changes in tem perature of t he sun,
.
.
t
as have a lon ger hfe.
and can compare these temperat ure changes wi th a variety
The Goodyear, F ig. 13, w~ich 1s a!?- Amer1o~n yre, of terrestrial p henomena, such as var iation in latitude.
di ffers from the three ~reced i~g ones tn th~t, hke mo~t The extraordinary number of lines exhibited by many
American t yres, there 18 n o muer t~be, ne.1ther . does 1t me t als suguests that what we are accustomed to call
de end at all for attachmen t t o t he nm by mflat10n, l:>ut
is held on by means of sm all screws, the nu~s for wh10h
*
T he Engineer, D ecember 12, 1890, page 469.
are inserted in th e body of the tyre. There 18 not much

[MAY4, I goo.

chemical elemen ts are really complex bodies which are

made up of simpler ones. A t tempts have been made
to build up the spectra of metals by superimposing simple
sets of lines upon one another. In many oases a great
number of serie~ would be required to represent things
completely. In the cage of hydro~en it would be necessary to have a t least 27 series to gi ve the structure spect rum only. T aking the atomic weight of hydrogen as
unity, the atomic weight of the little masses which might
~ive rise to any one of t he series would be about .0019.
This i3 of the order of magnitude of the small bodies,
whose existence has been suggested by Professor J. J.
Thompson from his work on ions.

LAUNCHES AND TRIAL TRIPS.

MEssRs. Short Brothers, S underland, launched, on the
11th ult., a steamer of about 6000 t ons CELpacity, which
they have built for the Prince Line of steamers,
Newcastle-on -Tyne. This steamer is of the following
dimenaions : L engt h over all, 363 ft. ; breadth, 45 ft. ;
and dept h moulded 27 ft. 9 in. The vessel is divided by
six watertight bulkhead~, forming four large cargo holds.
The vessel was named N orman Prince. She is to
be fi tted by the North-E astern Marine E ngineering
Company, Limited, of S underland, with engines having
cylinders 24~ in., 40 in. and 66 in. in diameter, with a.
stroke of 45 10., steam being su pp lied by two large steel
boilers, working at 180 lb. pressure.
The s.s. Firda wen t out on trial from the River Tees on
Tuesdar., t he 17th ult. S he was built by the F evig
Shipbmlding Yard, of Arendal, Norwa y, for B.Pecial earvice as a passenger boat among the N orweg1an fjords,
and was towed across to the Tees to receive her machinery, which is supplied by Messrs. S ir Christ opher F ur
ness, W estgarth, and Co., L imi ted. The engines have
cylinders 16~ in., 27 in., and 44 in. in diameter by 30 in.
strokE', with an extra large steel boiler which supplies
steam ab 175lb. pressure. On the trial trip the machinery
generated between 700 and 800 indicaood horse-power, and
the vessel maintained an average speed of 13 knots.
Messrs. R opner and Son, Stockton-on-Tees, launched,
on the 17th ult. a. steel screw steamer of the following
dimensions, vi~. : L ength between perP.endiculart~,
277 ft. 9 in. ; bread th extreme, 39 ft. 6 m. ; depth
moulded 19 ft. 2 in. She has been built to t he order of
Messrs. 'R. R opner and Co., W est Hartlepool. The
vessel will carry about 3100 tons deadweighb on Lloyd's
freeboard. She will be fi tted with a set of tripleexpansion engines by Me.~rs. Blair and Co.? Limited,, of
about 800 indicated horse- power, steam bemg supphed
by two steel boilers 12 ft. 6 in. by 10 ft., with a working
pressure of 160 lb. Tbe ves~el was named Glenby.
On A pril18 there was launched from the shipbuilding
yard of Messrs. Da vid a nd William Hend~rson and Co. ,
P artiok, a steel screw cattle steamer, wh10h they ~ave
built to the order of Messrs. Lamport and Holt, LIVer
pool for their Sou t h A merican trade. The vessel is
405 ft. long between perpend iculars by 52ft. broad and
31ft. d eep. A seb of triple-expansion engines, with cy.
linders 29~ in., 47 in., and 78 in. in diameter by 4ft. 6 in.
stroke, and three single-ended boilers construct~d for a.
working pressure of 200 lb, have been supphed and
fit ted aboard by the build ers. On leaving the ways the
vessel was na med the R aeburn.
Messrs. M ackie and Tuomson, Gova.n, launched on the
18th ult. the Y ukon, a. steam trawler of about 180 tons,
which they ha ve buil t for Mr. Thomas H amling, Hull.
The vessel is 132 ft. long over all, and 125 ft. between
perpendiculars ; her bread.th is 21ft. ~ in., a~d her ~epth
(mould ed} 12ft. 3 in. Tnple-expans10n engmes wt~l be
supplied by Mr. W . . V . V: Ltdgerwo~d, . Coa:tbr1dge.
The cylinders are 13 m, 22 10. , and 36 m. m d1ameter,
by a stroke of 24 in.
The Ardrossan D ry D ock and Shipbuilding .Company,
Limited, la unched on the 18th ult. from thetr yard ab
Ardrossan a st eel screw quarter-deck ca.r~o steamer,
built to the order of M essrs. Ma.nn, Macnelll, and Co.,
Hope-street, GlaQgow, ~nd intended for the general
coasting trade. D 1mens10ns : L ength between perpendiculars, 135ft.; breadth m<?ulded, 2~ ft.; depth moulded,
10 fb. 9 in. She has a carrymg capacity of 375 tons. The
vessel was named the Glassford.
M essrs. Da.vid and William H enderson and Co., Partick launched on the 18th ult. a steel screw cattle steamer
whi~h t hey have built to the ~rder of Messr~. L amport
and H olb, Li verpool, for thetr S outh ~mertcan t rade.
T he vAssal is 405 ft. long between perpend10ul8:'rs, by ~2 fb.
broad and 31ft. deep. A set of triple-expanston engmes,
with ~ylinders 29~ in., 47 in., and 78 in. in diameter by
4 ft. 6 in. stroke, and three single-ended boilers constructed for a working pressure of. 200 lb., have been
supplied and fitted aboard by the bmlders.
The steel screw steamer Lucia, built by Mess~. Craig!
T aylor, and Co., Stockton-on-Tees, for ~essr~. Fra.telh
Cosulioh, T rieste, left the Tees for ~er tr~al tri.P on ~he
28th ult. The vessel is of the followmg dtmens10ns, vtz. :
290 ft. by 42 ft. 6 in. by 18 ft. 10 in. mou.lded. She ~as
large centre deckhouse for acoommodat10n of oaptam,
officers, &c., water ballast in double bottom fore .and afb
and in peaks. She carries over 3300 .tons deadwetghb on
a light draught of water. The engm es ar~ by Me~rs.
MacColl and P ollock, Sunderland, t he ~Y hndera bei.ng
21 in. , 35 in., and 57 in. in diameter by 39 m. stroke, Wl th
t wo large boilers wol'king at 160 lb. presE u re.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

MAY 4 1900.]
GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTIONS IN
ENGINEERING.*
By F. H. HuY~EL (of Ma..qon University College, Birmmgham}, Assoc. 1\ti.I.C.E.
THE profession of engineering is one ~hi~h P.robably
requires even with the amount of speo1a.hsa.t10n that
we now have a wider knowledge than any other.
Over and ~bove special talents and abilities, the actual
knowledge of a thoroughly and completely successft.l
engineer has to be very comprehensive. It can be
divided roughly into three parts:
1. Commermal knowledge.
.
2. Technical knowledge from experience.
3 Scientific knowledge.
The first of these is so completely outSide the scope of
this paper that it ca.n not . be more t han . mentioned here.
It becomes a. necess1ty dueotly the engmeer has to consider questions of finance, purchase, investment, depreoia.tion, and to a. large ~xtent employment and ID;a.nagement, and such quest10ns are, of course, contmually

occurr10g.
.
. .
.
Under the term experience, 1s moluded all that va.r1ed
knowledge of material, methods and form, accumulated
a.s a. result of the failures as well as the successes of our
predecessors and our3el \'es, It enables a.n engineer to act
quickly and with certainty, to anticipa te difficulties and
to meet them successfully, because he is able to recall
the material and form of a. part successfully used or method
employed under similar circumstances. Such a. knowledge, however, whilst absol!Jt~ly necessary. to every
engineer depends upon existmg constructiOns, and
cannot therefore depart without risk very far from such.
It is a. proportionate n.nd qualit~tive knowledge, ~nd
directly a. totally new prob~em a.r1ses, or a. constructi~n
is to be made on a totally different scale, or a. ma.teru~l
to be used under entirely different circumstances, we
must have a quantitative knowledge of thE' actions occurring, and must know pr~cis.ely t.h e effect ~f such ~~ the
material employed. This 1mphes .the. thud req~nstte
a scientific knowledge, the use ef smenttfic reasonmg and
theory.
.
.
.
That reasomng lS necessary m such a. case cannot be
denied. Directly we get to a. point where we cannot
appeal to direct experimental fact, the conclusion must
be reasoned out, and the process and method of that
reasoning constitute a. theory; and it. is i_n these freque~t
and all-important cases that soon~ s~1ent1fic kn~wl.edge 1s
essential. Nor by any means IS Its value limited to
such cases ; the scientific spirit should pervade every
branch of the engin~er's ~ork1 his experien~e should be
gained and recorded m a smentific way, and hlS commerce
conducted as far as possible on scientific lines.
This paper deals only with a. certain aspect of this
scientific method, viz., tha.t in which the reasoning is
assisted and the results obtained by graphical constructions instead of ordinary symbols.
Passing to the purely scientific side of engineering, we
find that it consists of a. knowledge of properties of
matter a.s given by phyaics, chemistry, &c., and thE:'
method of reasoning, by means of which these sciences
have been developed.
By far the most important branch of physics to the engineer is tha.t which deals with motion and the relation of
force to motion, viz., dynamics, and it is because the
fundamental quantities of dynamics (or mechanics, as it
is less properly called) can be easily represented on paper
that graphical methods have become of such importance
to enginee~.
It is not this alone, however, for mathematics in many
ways lends itself to graphi('.al treatment, and a.ga.in one
important property of matter, viz., form, with which we
have a great deal to do is essentially graphical, constituting the science of geometry.
To pub this concisely, we may say that geomet ry,
mathematics, and mechanics, constituting as they do a.
very large part of an engineer's scientific knowledge, all
lend themselves to graphical treatment more or less
readily in a. manner to be indicated later.
The following is a classified list of the general problems
in these sciences which p ermit of graphical treatment :
1. Geomet-ry.-Problems relating to form, areas, lines,
volumes, and all properties of same, centres of gravity,
moduli of inertia, &c., ratios, and simple, algebraic, and
arithmetical operations depending \!POD ratios.
2. Motion introduced to forruer. - Kinematics, diagrams
of position ab different times, point paths, centrodes, &c.
3. Mechanics. - Velocities and forc63 represented by
lines, and all properties and relations of same.
4. !Jfathe111;atics (Graphical). - Co-ordinate geometry.
Representa.tlt>n of equations as curves and determination
of area. slope, max1ma and minima, and their varied
meanings. (Diffn. and Into.)
4a. l nver&e of Forme1.-Plotting of experimental reault.s, and determination of law.
The idea of motion is introd uced with great a.dvanta~e
mto geometry, not only for the solution of problems m
Cla.ss 2 above, but into the actual definitions themselv~.
An angle is no longer the inclination of one line to
~nether,, but is the amount of turning a. line undergoes
m rotating from one position to another. This definition
at on~e enables us to distinguish between positive and
negative an.gles, .according to the direction of rotation of
the revolvmg hne. A counter-clockwiee rotation is
alway.s considered positive and a. clockwise rotation,
negat1 ve, a!Jd the same applies to the angles.
. An. area. 18. a. space enclosed by a line, and the enclosing
bne .18 de.qcrib~d by a moving point, and again the introductiOn of motton enables us to consider the area. positive

* ~ape~ read before the Civil and Mechanical Engi-

neers 8o01ety.

6o1

or negative, according to the direction in which the upon such data sh_ould be carried ou t ';Vith a.~y greater
accuracy; a. complicated problem can w1~h <?rd_ma.ry care
boundary is described.
The above rule, as to sign, is the same in this case ; t~at be worked out graphically well under thts bm1t of accuis, if the direction of the boundary is oounter-clockw1se, racy.
.
11

Even when the working out mvol ves aotua Y approxithe area is p ositive ; if clockwise, negative. This ma~ be
stated in a slightly different and rather more convement mate constructions, <J.Uite distinct from former. the accuway, thus : If on entering the area. the boundary passes racy obtai ned is suffiment.
A line of an y length can be drawn accurately to, sa.y,
from left to right the area. is positivet if it passes from
right to left, negative; and as the oounda.ry is all in -ttr in., and, therefore, as far as le~gths are con~erned, any
one direction, it is of no consequence a.t what point you degree of accura.oy may be obta.med by ~hoo~mg a la..r~e
enough scale. Other operations ooourrm~ m graph.10al
cross the boundary.
Looped Figures.-Fig. 1, page 602, shows a.n indicator constructions are (1) drawing of parallel hnes and hnes
diagra m with a loop, and we know by interpreting its making given angles with one another. The parallels can
meaning that the part AB E C (hatched from rtght to left) be drawn perfectly accurately, but the accuracy of the
represents work done by the steam on the piston, and latter depends upon the exa~t location of ~he intersection
that the parb AD E C (hatched from left to right} repre- of two lines or arcs, and thiS, when the hnes make very
sen ts work done by the piston on the steam; the available small an~les with each other, may introduce an error.
An es timation of the magnitude of this error has been
work per stroke is therefore the difference between these
two areas. Subtracting, the oross-ha.tc~ed part disappears made by means of Fig. 5, the construction being that for
and we have left the area M represe(lting positive work the bi-section of a.n angle, with the a.ros a a, b b purpose1y
.
and the area. N nega.ti ve work, P.ad the area of the chosen of very long radius.
The error in the bisection of the angle due to d1fficulty
d1 ~ram giving the available work dAne on piston is M-N.
Thts we see from the meaning of the diagram, but we can in location of point of intersection was found to be 2.1 per
also give the boundary a. direction indicated by the arrow- cent., the actual displacement of the point of intersectiOn
heads in the figure, and applying the above rule we see from its true positiOn being 0.03 in., and the angle bethat on entering M the boundary passes from left to tween the arcs being about 5 de.g. The latter is about as
right, and the area. is therefore positive, and N in a small, therefore, as should be used in constructions where
simila r way negative. The area by this rule is therefore moderate accuracy is required.
The errors found above, and those to b e given subseM-N, and in agreement with what we have previously
quently, are the maximum errors found by four draughtsdetermined.*
With any other figure the same, the quadrilateral men working independently, and not taking any special
A B CD in Fig. 2a has a.n area equal to CB F-A F D, pains to obtain accurate results.
They represent, therefore, the greatest, but always posand if we mnke for this figure the elementary construction
for reducing a quadrilateral to a triangle of equal area., it sible~ errora likely to be found in the particular oases to
can be shown by simple geometry that the triangle so whion they refer with ordinary careful work.
Another important operation frequently occurring is
obtained is equal in area. to the difference, not the sum,
of the component triangles. In Fig. 2 an ordinary that of drawing a. tangent to a curve from a gi ven point,
quadrilateral is shown, and the construction for reducing and the location of the tangent point. This can be done
this and the cross-quadrilateral (Fig. 2a,) to triangles with great accuracy, the error in the angle a. (Fig. 6}
equal to them in area. in each case can be followed step by not being measurable, and the error in AB being only
step. It is as follows: Join A C, through B draw a. line 0.5 per cent., viz., 4.58 in. instead of 4.60 in.
A third important operation is that of drawing a tanparallel to A C to meet AD (produced if nece~sary} in E ;
then the triangle E C D is in each case equal to the gent to a curve at a p oint, and this, when the centre of
quadrilateral. It will be noticed that in Fig. 2a, the curvature is unknown, is difficult.
To determine the error in this a parabola was plotted
triangle is very small, and, as it has already been stated,
it is extremely easy to prove that it is equal to 0 B F - and then drawn in by hand: three points were taken on
A F D. This is introduced in order to show that there it and tangents ruled in by eye a.t each of them. The
is n othing in the least artificial about the definition given, angles made by these tangents with the horizontal were
but that the~ are really involved in all geometrical con- measured and also calculated, and the errors proved to
structions. This is a.ga.in evident from the fact that if a. be 5 per cen b. , 2.4 per cent., and 1. 7 per cent. respecplanimeter (an instrument which mechanically records tively. The 5 per cent., of courae, occurred where the
area.) be taken round an area such as 2 (a}, the reading curvature wa~ greatest, the radius of curvature a.b the
obtained will again be the difference of the component point being about 1~ in. It seems therefore that a construction involving this operation should be used with
triangles.
L et us now consider Fig. 3, the arrowheads as before caution or, if possible, avoided.
Of the actual approximate constructions, the most
denotin~ the direction in which it was drawn.
The
part C 1s obviously positive, and the part A (the boun- important is that of drawing a. line equal to an arc.
dary of which also passes from left to right) cannot be To do this, a tangent is drawn at one end of the arc,
entered exce\)t from the positive area. C; it is, therefore, and, starting at the other extremity, small distances are
doubly positive, tha t is to say, it is positive and counts stepped off until a point is reached which may be contwice. The part B, on the other hand, is negative, con- sidered as either on the arc or tangent, the number
sidered by itself, but as it is entered from the positive of intervals stepped along the arc is then stepped
area 0, the signs cancel one another, and the result is off along the tangent, and the length of the tangent so found will b6 sensibly equal to the length
that it does not count in the area at all.
Another way of looking a.t this is to notice that the of the arc. The error is sma1ler than would be exoutside lbounda.ry being from left to right makes every- pected. Arcs subtending 45 deg. in circles of 1-in.,
thing within it positive. The part A is, therefore, positive, 2-in., and 3-in. radius respectively were estimated in
because it is within the outer boundary and positive this way, and in each case the error was less than 1 per
again because of its own boundary direction, i.e., twice cent. There is no gain in accuracy by taking the steps
positive, whereas the p art B is positive for the first of very small; a. length of arc subtending about 5 deg. is
above reasons and negative for the second, and, there- the best.
To comJ?lete this investigation into the errors occurring
fore, disappears.
A pla.mmeter taken right round the boundarr of a in gra.pb1cal constructions, two examples involving
figure of this kind gave its area as 10.29 square mches. several of the above operations have been considered.
Part C had a.n area 8.68 square inches, A = 0. 785 sq ua.re
1. The area of a triangle by the method shown in Fig. 7.
The triangle is A B C ; from one corner A an arc of
in.che!'t and 2 A + C.= 10.25 square inches in agreement
with tne above value.
ra.dius 2 units is drawn, and from one of the remaining
Referring briefly to Fig. 4, its parts are evaluated in the points C a tangent CD to this aro is drawn. From the
same way as before, by crossing a. succBSSion of boundaries remaining corner B a line B E p arallel to C D is drawn
and noting the sign of each. Thus the part marked A is to meet A C in E. Then the number of units of length
+ and must be reckoned three times, and this re~mlt is ob- in BE is equal to the numbel' of squa.ru 11nits of area in
tained whether the path be that marked 1, 2, 3, or a~y the triangle AB C. (The unit must be chosen so that
the point 0 falls without the circle, otherwise the conother.
These considerations are really of some importance strucpion fails.)
practically, because a.t any time we might be called upon
This construction involves the measurement of five
to analyse a. diagram drawn automatically by some motor lengths, two intersections, and a. parallel. An example
or other machine when it would be very necessary to worked out gave an area of 1.40 square inches, instead of
distinguish between the + or - parts of the area..
1.43 square inches, i.e. , a.n error of 2 per cent. The errors
We must now return, for a. short time, to our general are not cumulative. In this ca.&e the time of each method
considerations. We have analysed the engineering scientific was taken, the graphical construction required 1! miknowledge and noticed those parts which lend them- nutes, the calculation by the ~s(s - a ) (s - b) (s-e)
selves to graphical treatment!, and something about such formula. took 4; minutes.
construction must now be said.
2. The positiOn of the mass centre of a. sector was also
By a graehical construction is meant one in which worked out. The construction involves the measurement
paper, pen01l, and drawing instruments are used to make of several lengths, determination of several intersections
an actual quantitative determination - to obtain a and one arc approximation, the result was right to 1 pe~
numerical result, or a definite point, line, or figure.
cent.
Such a process is of necessity limited in its accuracy,
We have already seen that almost any problem in
but is quite within the range of accuracy req_uired by science is capable of a graphical solution, but it is by no
en~neers. In every engineering problem certam forces, means the most suitable in a. large number of cases.
we1ghts, or stres~es, have to be estimated or measured, When these methods were beginning to be understood
and the variation in material or conditions of use make and used, there was a great tendency to push them too
these detel'minations vary in ordinary work to the e:<tent far and apply them to the solution of proolems far more
of 3 per cent. or 4 per cent. ; in some cases very much easily done in other ways.
more, in others it may be a. little less.
We may take it that for one method to supersede
It is not necessary, therefore, that a.ny work ba.sed another, it must either be (1) quicker, (2) present the
problem more simply an~ clearlr, and ~o prevent un* If the arrowheads had been put on in the other direc- necessa.~y thought and ~1sta.kes m workmg, (3} or give
tion, the area would have been M - N; but this is of no results m a more convement form, and the two classes
importance, because all we wish to know is the relative of problems in which graphical methods possess some or
values of the parts of which the figure ia composed, and all. of these advantages are tho~e in whi~h (1) lines or
whether we consider the whole as p ositive or negative is pomts are found to fulfil certam conditiOns and conof no consequence.
nected by a curve the geometrical properties of which are

6o2

E N G I N E E R I N G.

translated; (2) problems which can be solved by operating with straight lines of definite magnitude, direction,
and position.
For instance, if we are given a set of forces acting on
a structure, say, a girder, we can by a sim~le construction of the second kind involving the properties of fore~,
draw a bending moment diagram. Th~ ordinate of this
diagram gives at any section a measure of the tendency
of the forces to rotate the part of the girder on one side
of the section relatively to that on the other.
Having obtained this diae-ram, we can by a not very
difficult process of the first kmd, deduce from it a second
figur~, the ordinate of which will exhibit to a scale, depending upon the material and section of the girder, the
alope of the deflected girder at every p oint, and by repeating the process on this new figure, we can obtain a
third, which is the actual form taken by the deflected

passing throu~h the centre of gravity of a given section.

L et the directiOn be X Y. Draw a line X Y in this direction, and touching the base of the figure.* Next draw
an axis X X at right angles t o this. In most
practical .Problems the section will be symmetrical,
and in thts case the line X X is naturally taken alo11g
the axis of symmetry, the construction has then
only to be made for one-half of the figure; if it is not
symmetrical, the axis X X, oan be drawn in any convenient p osition, and the following construction must be
applied t o ea.oh side of the figure. Dra\V a line XI yl
parallel to X Y about half-way up the figure, and at some
even dist ance "d " from X Y.
Next draw a series of lines Pp parallel to X Y . In
straight parts of the section, such as the web in the
figure, these can be wide apart; where the section changes
rapidly they must be drawn olos~r together, in order

Fi[J.8.

The value of a section to resist bending or twisting

depends upon its moment of inertia about an axis through
its centre of gravity. Every problem in which rotating
bodies are concerned, flywheels, &c., involves its nse.
The usual construction for t his necessitates the finding of
two centres of gravity; the one now given determines the
moment of inertia as an area direct, only a planimeter
being required.
.Referrmg to Fig. 9, X Y is the ax is about which the
moment of inertia is required, and X 2 q is a line at right
angles, if possible, an axis of symmetry for the same
reason as m the last construction. Above and below
X Y two lines X 1 Y 1 and X 2 Y 2 are drawn eara.llel to it,
and situated at some exact distance cl from it. N ext draw
a series of lines QP parallel to X Y across the section, and
in each case set off X 1 q = X Q. Join q P, and produce,
if necessary, to cub X 1 Y 1 in r. Join r to X, cutting

+2

Fig.1.. .
c

__,;;RYl
..........
~~: . : :::.:---. ......

1
t-

I
I

~----~~~----~'p

+1
.~~-(&28f.c.)

Areeh = M -N . '

',
'\

.Area.-- 2A +C.
I

I
I

Fig .4 ..---t--"""'-

X1

Y1

I
I

Pit}- z.

I
I

eh

II

'\

II

I
I

'

,,;

I
,"'
I ,,

X
AreCXJ

Arew

or

D A
cv.uu:triloot.eraL = C E.D.

'

or

origina-L sectio11.1-A .

n-ew(doUet:h)

fs"til-!tfce or

+2

-a;.

C. G. f'ro171J XY- _f ih"

b
fi9.:J.

I
I

-.......,

Ql

XI

l y;

I
I
I

F~.7.

I
I

I
I

I I

(#

:,?~...

'

'

(S28~. F)

a -------------------_,...,

L ocfMi,orv of' /:.o.n{J en/:1 poirW.

girder under the given loads. This is mentioned merely

as an example, introducing both the important meth<?ds
mentioned above, a.nd into one or other of these classes, v~z.,
geometry (including co-ordinate geometry),, or mecham~,
a.ll the engineering problems treated graphiCally fall.
The following e xamples are chosen because the constructions do not seem to be as well known as .t hey should,
and also because they soh e problems wh10h. are not
p ossible of solution in any other but the ~raph10al way,
except direct experiment, the ~a.tter bemg, however,
n either so accurate nor so convement.
.
The first construction is that for the centre of graVlty
of an irregular section.
As to the value of th~s point, ~t is well known to .a.ll;
an y question of balance mvolves It, and so do questiOns
of stability and buoyancy. . It m.ust be. ~nown for. a.ll
sections subjected to bendm~-gtrder, JOist, or ratland in 'an riveted work the rivets musb, as. far as ~os
sible, be arranged symmetr~cally aboot a. .l tne passmg
through the centre of gravity of the sectiOn, a.ng~e or
other shaped iron used. There arfj several constru?tions,
but the one shown in diagram is incomparably Simpler
and neater than any other of which the author knows.
The construction is shown in Fi~. 8.. The. probl~m u~u
ally t akes the form of finding a hne m a. g1ven dLrect10n

;y
I

1\

II

. -.. ....

' ,

'

~-<---------

1\
..., ,,

X~

A4..~..-.. ----~E~--------~c

I'

.smalL aTlflle.

.A

c1

1/

In.LercS'ectioTl/ of' l.i.nes inc~

ab

,p

..........

X .21

BE U'l/ inches = ctrefk of ABC~Sq..lns.

(S28G. G)

tha.t the final curve may be quite definite. At the

point P wh ore one of these li~es cuts ~he section, draw
a line P Q parallel to X X, mtersect~ng X 1 YJ ~t Q
J oin X and Qand produce to p on the hne ~ p or1g-~nally
drawn. p is a. point on .the curye we are findmg. ~epeat
this for each of the sen es of hnes and connect p om ts p
so found by a. curve (dotted in the figure).
T hen if the area of original fi~ure
A, and the area
of new dotted figure = a, the distance of the centre of
gravity from X Y along X X =
d.

Q P in

' ........

......... ...._

-... .
I

--

X1 q - XQ

I
~

......

.AreCXJ of' dOttecL f'igu.re

Mo17U!1W qf' Inert.ilh of

Y2

-w .

sect:./.,cro a.houtJXY- CX/ cL:1:

p (in this case X r is produced).

Then p is a.

point on the required curve.

Repeat this for each of the lines drawn across the section, for lines below X Y using the lower parallel ~2 Y 2,
and join a,ll the points so found by a cur ve (dotted m the
figure).
L et the total area. of this dotted curve = a . Then
moment of inertia of section about X Y = a d 2
The construction permits of many variations, e g., the
Qew area. can be obtamed by using only one parallel; but
the construction as given above will probably be found
If X X is not an axis of symmetry the a.rea a must the moat useful and nccura.te.
When the construction is made in connection with a
be taken as the sum of the areas of the new curves
obtained for both sides, and A must be the are~ of t~e bending problem, for which f = ~ .u [these lettera
entire section. Modifications of this constructiOn will
suggest themselves, and compared wit~ the method of having their usual meanings], the distance d may be
dividing the section into s trips and findmg the resultant
a y 2 and f
}rf.
of a number of forces considered a~ the weights or areas taken equal to y, in which ca.so I
ay
of the strips, the construction above will be found most
expeditious.
* The axis X Y usually divides the length of th~ secThe next construction is for determining the moment of
inertia of a section. This is also of the utmost importance. tion ab unequally and about the best value ford IS the
length of the shorter of these segments X a in the figure.
* If the figure is curved at the bottom, the line X Y must These lines X 1 Y 1 and X~ Y 2 may or may not cut the
be a. b ngent at the lowest point of figure.
section.

MAY 4 1900.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

"ENGINEERING" ILLUSTRATED PATENT ~~~~-nu(~~~~ ~'J~!~:~ :~, t~9e0~~fulation of direct-current gene

RECORD.
6819. W F . J ones, Hammersmith. Electric
Switch

layers of the sec~ndary coil preferably diminish as their diato.nce

!rom the c~n~re mcreases, t he primary coil being also in some
mstances stmtlarly arro.nged. The end of t he secondary which is
more e es~
[S Ftg~.] March 29, 1899. - This invention relates f~rthest away from the nucleus is connected to the sensitive tube
COMPILED BY
LLOYD WISE.
its mai~~g;~nr .to~Witches for CO!ltrolling electric motors. and dire~tly, a~d not through the condenser. The figures diagro.m
IBLBO'I_'KD_ J.BBTRAOTS OF RBOBNT PUBLISHED BPEOIFIO.ATIONS a manner tha~ if~~he ;onsrrucft a swtliOh of t his description in' such ma.tlco.lly Illustrate t he various forms of induction coil, whi<'h, it
OBDBR THB AOTB 1888- 1888.
term d
.
upp Y o current ceases or exceeds a prede
T numbefo of 1Mws given in the Specijicat:ihtl Drawings i8 stated oiroui~e F~axtt~um, the 8\vitch a~tomatically breaks the motor

r ts purpose the swttch la so arranged t h t t h

n ~ C<Ut; whiTe notu are tMnttooe(t the S"'ecin"aton .;,
not illmtrattd.
'
r
~- ..
..., movement of t he hnndwheel or lever ie transmitted to the ;wito:
WM1'6 inventions .are comnumica.ted f-ram abroad the :Na mu d:

w.

of.the Comm~nt~tors are given in italics.

'
' c.
Copta of Specijication8 may be obtained at the Patent 01/lce Sale
Bra~, 16, S~thampton Buildings Chancery-lane fY.C at
the uniform p~ of Bd.
'
'

The ~te oJ. th~ ~vertisement ~f the acceptance OJ a complete
Spec&ftcatton u, 'n each case, gtven aJte-r the abstract unless the
Patent h~ been seald, when the date of sealing is gi.Jen
Any p6rson !nay at any time within two months from th~ date of
th;t advet:tt:Sem6nt of the acuptance of a. complete Specification
g'~ not~ at the Patent 01/ice of oppoB-ition to the grant of~
Patent on anv of the ground:s mentioned in the .Act.

~~~~~J b~~~:J~u~~ri~~ ~~t~~~~Met~~il~uo~~b~v~~~~s: ~:t

on o

e clutch secured to t he handwheel or

le~r

being

GAS ENGINES, PRODUCERS, BOieDEKS,

.,~

Br~saels,

[1 Fi1/l March 2i, 1899.- Hydrogen is c.renerated by the reaction

of actdul~!tted water upon iron, very much in the manner usual in
labo~ato~tes, and the hydrogen is subsequently carburetted by
passmg 1t t hrough or over naphtha, benzine, or other hydrocarbon. It is stated ~h at ~n illuminatini gas of high candle-power
m~y be produced m this manner. The apparatus described comprises a .reservoir sup~lied with water and sulphuric acid, and
fitted With o. t ube which conducts the acidulated water io t he
('119)

1167. A. J. Fabre, Nimes, FraDce.

De.v tce for Elec~ric L~mps.

[~ ~s.)

'

Suspension

January 18,1900.A B}ngle or doul?le difterential pulley IS JOUrnalled within a hollow

~mg for!Iled 10 two parts, which are screwed together, and
pter~ed ~th orltlcea ~or t he pa.ssage of the conducting cord.
The tnten or of t he ca81Di" Is loaded with shot, so that it forms a

& .

Fig. I .

l o~er

II

I
I

I
I

i'lfi.Z.

engages with t he rheostat arm in such o. manner that when moved

by t he operator towards the other extremity of its range, it draws
the rheostat arm with it, inserting the resistance as it proceeds,
and on nearing the end of its travel, olosea the oirouit, and t hen
releaees the rheostat arm, which t hereupon gradually cuts out
the resistance in t he manner already described. The baokward
movement of t he switch arm, which breaks the circuit, may be
etlected either by hand or through the agency of a mechanical or
an electromagnetic device which prevents it remaining in a position intermediate between the extremities of its travel. Auto
matic mechanism le provided which prevents the operator from
-opening and closing the switoh when all the resistance i9 cut out,
when an excessive current would pass through the motor. (.A ccepted. March 21, 1900.)

9612. B. G. I.a.mme, Pittsburg, U.S.A. System of

.Eleotrloal Dl.strlbution. [J Fig.) May 5, 1899.-(0onven-tion date October 6, 1898.)-For the lpurpose of securing a constant electromotive force at t he terminals of a ~enerator driven at
variable speed, the dynamo supplying current is combined wit h a
direct-current generator, driven by an elect ric motor, included in
the distributing system, t he current supplied by the latter actin~
to reduce the magnetiaaf;ion of the field magnet of the fom1er

L---

~
I

Belgium. Generating WumtDatlDg Gas.

mechanically ~eld in the position to which it is tu.r ned while its

other potti<?n IS held in th~ ~osition by electromo.gn~tic means
a!one_. and tB thus automatically released, thereby breaking the
c~rowt, as soon as the cunent ceases. The circuit is automatically broken when the ourrent supply becomes excessive by
~ean.s of a~ elt:otromagnetio device operated by a coil in the
ou ou1t, whtoh ts adapted to short-circuit t he clutch electrom~net, and thereby. to ~emagn etise t he clutch and cause t he
swttoh to break the OlfOU.tt. The movement of the switch is controlled ~Y a; d~hpot, which also provides a blast to rupture the
aro which IS hable to be formed when the circuit is broken
(Accepted Ma;rch 21, 1900.)

~&c.

6525. G. Wanderpepen and A. Van Berokelaer,

object of this mventu;m IS to provide an apparatus whereby the

!Dotor or other oirow t can pe closed through a resiato.nce which
1e then gradually automatically out out . For this purpose a
rheoetat contact ~rm, moved by the ope~ator, ia ado.pted to be
wo!ked over a ~enee of c~mtaots arranged m a straight line or in
a cucular arc, m a direction to cut resi~tance out of the circuit by
a force euch as may be exerted by a sprm.r or weight , and the rate
of movement. is co~trolled by a dasbpot escapement, or t he like.
In combination \nth the rheoatat arm, another movable arm
refened to as the switch contact arm, is provided which is 8 ~
constructed that at one extremity of its ro.nge of 'movement it
0

is s~ted, have been succe88fully used in wirele88 telegraphy t he

particulars of succes~ful coils beine- also ~ven in tables which form
part of t he specification. The vertical wire usually employed wita
t hese coils is formed of seven etranda of copper wue H O ft. long
~nd about 1 millimetre in diameter, and the top of i bis conductor
18 about 100ft. above the ground. (.Accepted Jla;rch 21, 1900.)

ELEC"l'RICAL APPA1tA.TUS.
4801. J. B. Bolmea aDd F. Broadbent Newcastle
Beslstan~e. Swt~h~s. [11 ~B.] March' , 1899. -Th~

r--I.

- - -..- --

I I
I

wh1oh 1s arranged a perforated plate of red copper which suppo_rts the i!On w~cb ren:ots with the dilute acid. The cover of
thi? veasel1a furmshed W1th a small hopper mounted on t runnions
which .serve.a to reple.nish t he yessel with iron. The gae .;ene:
rated m th~s .vessel IS SUC?esstvely passed t hrough a pan of
ve~ela of BI~~ar construction, fitted wit h baffles, the first of
which, contammg water, serves as a washer, while t he second
containin~ a hydrocarbon, serves as a oarbutter. In some case~
~he gener!'tor may advantageously be supplied with iron ore
matead of uon. (.Accepted Jlarch 28, 1900.)

770. R. HelD, FrtedeDaU. and T. BabD, Kotzachen

broda, Germany. Gas-Pressure Regulator. Figs.)

I I
I

J?art of a hermetically closed veasel, near t he bottom of

January 12, 1900.-The rressure of the gas ia regulated by means

of a valve, the spindle o which is connected to a bell floating in
mercury. The gas enters the regulo.tor at the lower side of t he
casing, and, passing the valve, obtains access to the interior of the

I I
I I
I I

I I

un

balance weight, and t he diameters of the barrels of t he pulley are

so proportioned that t his weight is in equilibrium with t hat of
t he lamp in all positions. The fom1 of apparatus illust rat.ed in
Fig. 1 is generally applied to a single lamp ; that illustrated in
Fig. 2 being applicable more especially to the suspension of
g roups of lamps or single lamps of unusual weight. (.Accepted
ilfarch 21, 1900.)

9278. J. G. Statter, WestmiDster. Dynamos. t2

Figs.) May 3, 1899.- This invention relates to t he construction

of generators an.d JJ?.Otors ha~ing two a~mature~, but only one
field magnet, which 18 magnetised by a emgle coil. The magnetising coil ia wound round on a bobbin and encircles an inner
core, having a pair of polar extensions ; it is also enclosed within
an annular outer core composed of a pair of semi-cylindrical por

bell, which is t hereby caused to rise ; the gas then flows through
passages in the casing towards t he outlet pipe, whioh is furn ished
with a regulating aorew. The preeaure of the gas is thus balanced
against the weight of the bell, and the use of pietons attached to
the bell is avoided, as also is the difficulty which would arise in
connection with their paoking. (.Accepted Jlarch 28, 1900.)

9196. W. T. Sugg, WestmtDster. Kegulatlng Gaa

Pressure iD Incandescent Lighting. [2 P igs.) May 1,

'-----..1~1

gei!erator. The field magnet of the motor may be either shunt or

senes wound, or separately excited ; but whatever be the type of
m.oto.r employed, the relation between t he field-magnet core and
~nd10g should be such that the former is constantly maintained
JD a state of magnetic saturation. A rotary t ransformer may in
so~e instances be substituted for t he motor , and the generator
driyen thereby. The invention is mainly applicable to the regu
latton of eJternating generators supplying t ransformers in parallel;

tions bolted together, and each furnished with a polar extension ;

the poles of the inner and outer cores being reepecti vely diago
nally opposite each other. The outer and inner cores may be
mechaniCAlly connected by non-magnetic material ; and the construction may be modified so that only one armature is used ;
and the inner and outer cores and their pole-pieces may be constructed of any magnetic material, whioh need not be uniform
throughout the magnetic oircuit. (.Accepted March 21, 1900.)

6982. G. Marconi and the Wireless Telegraph

and Signal CompaDy, Limited, London. Induction

CoUs for Wireless Telegraphy. [6 Figs. ] Aprill, 1899.This invention relates to induction coils to be employed as described in specification No. 12,326, of 1~8. The primary and
secondary coils, instead of being wound in single layers, as described in t he above speoi1lcation, are either made very short, or
wound in sections ; and the number of turns in the successive

1899.- It is stated th!lot the moat suital>le pre88Ure of gas for use
in intensive incandescent gaslightin~ ie about 9 in., and that t his
pre88ure is most conveniently obtained by means of a waterdriven pump or oompreasor, t he speed of which is regulated
according to t he number ot lights. For t his purpose, the following means are employed to cut off the water supply when a certain
.:as pressure ia exceeded, and to turn it on again when the
gas has fallen to the normal pressure. Two vertical gas-tight
vessels of equal sectional o.rea, and preferably concentrically
arranged, are connected near t heir bottoms, and filled with water
to a oerto.in height. Qas from the compressor is admitted to t he
upper part of the outer Te88el, and when t he pressure therein
becomes excessive, forces the water into the central veasel, which
contains a float connected to a lever which actuates a outoft
valve on t he pipe which supplies t he water motor, t hereby checking or arresting the action of the compressor. The outer annular
veasel may also contain one or more floats on t he spindles of
which are mounted conical valves seated in a diaphragm below
the gas inlet; the sinking of these floats in consequence of the
excessive gas pressure closes the valves and prevents all risk of

E N G I N E E RI N G.

(MAY 4, 1900.

blowing from one vessel to the other. The inner vessel is how- tion g radually ohnnges, so that the outflowing liquid is caused to No. 18,307,. of ~887, and to . aut.omatio~lly and simultaneously
ever, furnished with a pipe communicating with the ope~ air, move in a direction parnllel to the axis of rotation, this change in effect oertam adJuStments wh1ch have h1t herto been successively
effect~d by th~ hand o~ the operator.
It is stated that the
maohme essent1ally oonslSts of a bed having mounted upon it a.
he~dst~ck provided with ~ fast -and-loose pulley, the spindle s>f
wh1ch 1s con nected by s uttable &'Baring to a sorew shaft which

operates a saddle carrying a reducing box in which are mounted

a number of balls or rollers capable of being closed or tightened
upon the t ube operated upon, which is placed on a mandril held!

p cdJ 1---~

- I.

,/

.. - =---

the direction of flow being gradually effected, and sharp and

sudden turns involving loss of energy being avoided. (A ccepted
1Jlarch 21. 1900. )

- .-

LIFTING AND HAULING APPLIANCES.

4275. s. Gibbs and A. E. Downing, West llromwich.
Sustaining Appa~atus for Pulley Blocks and Lift
tug Tackle. [2 Figs.] February 27, 1899.- The apparatus is

through which any ga' blown into it may escape. (Accepted stated to be specially applicable to pulleys, hoists, and the like
and consists of a casting pivoted at tts :centre, and having at on~
Jl arch 28, lQOO.)
end a curved projection, and 1\t the other a segmental hook. The
drawings show two forms of apparatus, in the former of which
GUNS AND EXPLOSIVES.
hook is adaJ?ted: to sustain a r?P ~ or ro~ at right an~les to its
9341. Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whltwortht and Co., the
own length_, while m the latter 1t IS apphe~ to sustain a rope
Limited, Sir A. Noble, and R. T. Brankston, New parallel
to tts length. The hook and proJeCtion at e, in the latter
castle. Field-Gun Carriages. [4 Pigs.] May a, 1899.All the parts of the elevating g ear of field-gun carriages are
Ft1J.1 . __
~ttached to, or carried by an elevating bracket, whioh is dropped
mto place on one side of the carriage, and provided with boles
whioh fit on to corresponding studs on the carriage, so that the
gear is ready for elevating or depressing the gun without the
0
t rouble of fixing it to the carriage. The gun rests on and is ele-

_
-- .
......

--

_.,, /

___________________
._

__.~_...__

in a chuck by maans of a screw or like device. When t.be mandril

and tube are fixed in position, the machine is set in motion, and
~he balls closed upon the tube so as to nie and thin it, commencmg near the end secured to the mandnl. The saddle carrying
the reducing box slowly travels along the bed towards the beadstock, unt il the belt is thrown from t he fast to the loose pulley
by means of a regulatable distance-piece fixed to t he slide, the
machine being thus stopped when the tube is finished. (A ccepted
Jlarch 21, 1900.)

STEAM ENGINES, BOILERS, EVAPORATORS, &c.

9975. G. G. M. Hardlngham, London. (E. D ol by and

.'

J eppestottm, J ohalntltesburg, South ~jrica.)

Water-Tube Boiler. [4 Pigs. ] May 11, 1899.-Tbe boiler
comprises an annular water chamber within which the fi regrate is
arranged, and whence a series of straight heating tubes extend up
wards, t heir upper extremities communioa.ting with a water and
steam drum. These t ubes are arranged to form a conical combus
t ion chamber, and may comprise several concentric groups be
A.

C. A u den,

case, Blotted, and the rope lies within t he slots and is furnished
with a button by means of which it is sustained. Both forms of
apparatus operate substantially in the same manner, t he rope, or
rather the button, t hereon presses on the convex edge of the hook
P';JShi~g it aside, and passmg over its point, thereupon engage~
wtth tt. The rope may be released by still furt her raising it, so
~hat the weight presses on the upper side of t he project ion, t hrowlOg the hook backward so far t hat tbe rope or the button tbereon
pa9ses below it before sufficient t ime has elapsed t o allow of its
yate~ by an arm ?r crank attached to a shaft revolving in bearreturning to t he orig innl position. (A ccepted 1Jfarch 21, 1900.)
w~s m t he elevatmg bracket, parallel to the trunnions ; and on
t.b1s shaft is moun te~ a. worm wheel, adjustably connected to the MACHINE AND OTHER TOOLS, SHAFTING, &c.
shaft by means of fnot10n \vashers, and revolved by means of a
5112. P. Mallet, Paris. France. Gear for Trans
worm and handwheel. The gun, instead of merely resting on the
arm or crankpin, and caused to follow t he crank by g ravity, may mttttng Motion. [17 Pigs.] March 8, 1899.- This invention
be positively operated by means of a longitudinal slot or groove in has for object the const ruction of gear for transmitting motion
the gun, engn~ing t he crankpin, so that the gun follows any move- from a drhing to a driven shaft, nnd automat ically varying t he
speed of the latter in inverae ratio to t he resistance to which it is
ment impartea to t he p in. (.Accepted lJJa'rch 21, 1900.)
The in\'ention is described by way of example as
9342. Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth, and Co., subjected.
to the propulsion of a motor vehicle, but it is stated t hat
Limited, A. G. Badcock, and S. M. Murray, New applied
may advantageously be employed in tool machines and other
castle. Breech Mechanism of Guns. [28 F i gs.] May 3, it
instances in which t he driven shaft is subject to a varying resist1899.-This invention relates to breech mechanism for quick- ance. According to one arrangement, a pair of rotary discs
firing g uns, espeC'ially those having t he De Bange or a similar loosely mounted upon a transverse shaft and pressed together by
system of obturation, and its objeot is to allow t he breechblock adjustable springs, are driven by a bevel wheel capable of being
to be swu.n g clear of t he breeoh opening aft er the breech screw clutched on the driving shaft. These discs actuate by friction a
has been unlocked. For this purpose t he shaft forming t he roller held between t hem and fixed upon a longitudinally movable
pivot of the carrier arm of the breechblock, instead of working in spindle on which is loosely mounted a second roller to mainfixed bearings, works in a groove or movable bearing, so that it tain the parallelism of t he discs. This spindle is furnished
can move rearwards when the carrier arm is swung back. The
breech screw and obturator are pivoted to the carrier arm in the
ordinary way, and on the carrier arm is a projection having
F'-9.1
formed on it one or more pins carrying rollers or sliding blocks,
""'-41

tween and around which t he heating gases are conducted. The

space above t he ashpit and fi re doors is not occupied by tubes, but
by a feed -water heater, and t he entire apparatus is enclosed in a
double casing through which air on its wav to the furnaces passes
11nd becomes heated. It is stated that t he generator above d escribed is adapted for use with launches, motor cars, ftre engines,
and in other mstances where light ness, accessibility, and quick
steaming qualities are desired. (A ccepted ill arch 28, 1900.)

VEHICLES.
21,202. W. Maek, Hannover, Germany. Combined
Automatic Fender and Brake for Tramcars. [S Pigs. ]

2.

J70.1.

Fyj.2.

October 24, 1899.-Tbe combined fender and brake is so constructed that as soon as the car is obstructed, the brake is automatically applied, checking the speed of the car, and preventing
the obstruct ing person or article from being run over. A pair of
arms, P.ivoted to t he underside of the platform of the car, carry
t he rails which support the fender frame ; these rails are transversely connected by a metal rod, whioh carries at either end a

which run in corresponding g rooves cut in t he gun. Other

g rooves of suit able form are C?t in the gun to receive t~e shaft of
the carrier arm, and to allow 1t to move rearwards dur1ng part of
the swinging action. When the mechanism commences to swing,
after the gun is unlocked, the projection on .t he ?arrier arm bears
against the gun and pushes the shaft, whioh 18 key ~d on the
carrier arm, rearwards along t he second grooves, wh1ch are so
formed as to cause the obturator t o clear its seat in swinging.
In closing the mechanism, the pins on t he carrier arm bear on the
opposite side of t he. ~rst groo\'e~, and t hus th.e breech screw can
be brought into pos1t10n for lockmg the sorew m t o the gun. The
first and second set of g rooves may be out in the carrier arm with a worm which 1:1;ears with a wormwheel fixed upon t he
instead of in t he gun, t he pins working therein being then driven shaft. The springs wbioh act upon t he rotary disc also
transmit to t he spindles, t hrough links and bellcrank levers, .a
attached to the l{UD. (.Accepted March 21, 1900.)
force tending to maintain the actuating ~oller towards th~ peripheries of the discs. If, however, the reslBtance to the rolhng of
HYDRAULIC MACHINERY.
the vehicle is increased, the foroe thereby applied to t he worm,
8030. E. E. Marchand, Erment, Upper Egypt. in a direction t nngential to the wormwheel, onuses the spindle to
Centrifu~al Pump. [3 Figs. ] Apd~ 17, 1899.- The.objeot of move long itudinally, carrying t he roller towards t he centres of
t his invention is to so construct a centr1fugal or a tu~b~ne pump t he discs, and reducing t he speed of. t h_e d:iven shaft, ~bile
that the liquid shall move along a curved passage, avo1dmg sharp t he mechanical advantage of t he oombmat ton 1s oorrespondmgly
turns or bends, and leave the pump ~n a directi~n at ~ight an~les increased. The apparatus is fitt ed with a oonion.l friction brake,
to its plane of rotation. The turbme has a .smgle mlet ?rtfice which nets automatically to oheok excessive speed ; and other and
communicating with t he suction t ube a~d formm~ the ope_mng of somewhat more complex arrangements for attaining the ohjeot
a. circular passage of curvellnear seot1on, leadmg to wn~gs or in view are also illustrated and deecribed. (A ccepted Jllarcll 21,
blades which extend into the body of the pump. The casmg of 1900. )
the pump is of conoi~al for~, .and has concentrically moun~ed
5985. T. B. Sharp, Birmingham. Rolling Metal
wit hin it a rotary turbme of Slmil&.r form, on the surface of whtoh Tubes. [14 Figs.] .M~rch .20, 1699.-The obje?t of this _invenare curved ribs or blades which occupy t he annular space between tion is to obviate oertntn d isadvantages attendmg the ctrcumit and the casing. These blades a re so curved that the inflowing ferent ial rolling of metal tubes in an ordinary lathe in the
liquid at first meets them nearly in the direction of the plaJ?e of manner referred to in the applicant's prior specification,
rotation as, however, t he blades appronoh the out!et t hen d1rec-

connecting bar, the obber end of which is pivoted to the brake

lever. These levers are mount ed on a rod journalled in brackets
secured to the underside of the car in front of the wheels, their
shorter extremities beiug conneclied by a weighted cross-beam,
while their longer extremities carry t he brake. When the fender
meets with an obstruction, the brake is applied, and remains in
action until the obstruction is removed, when the parts ar&
ret urned to t heir original position by the weighted beam. (Accepted Jlarch 28, 1900. )

UNITED STATES PATENTS AND PATENT PRAOTIOB .

Deecript ions with illust rations of inventions patented in the
United States of America from 1847 to the present time, and,
reports of trials of patent law cases in t he United States, may b&,
consulted, gratis, at t he offices of ENOI.NEKRING, 95 and 36, Bedford-street, Strand.