J UNE I, I 900.]
TABLE
T raction in Pence.
0.09 to 0.50
0.005 , C.20
0.03 ,. 0.40
0.025 " 0.06
VI. - C OST
Ob'
..
Onrs closed
..
..
..
., open
..
..
..
Cars equipped with motors
,
,
, fenders
Snow ploughs . .
..
..
Car-miles rm1 . .
..
Passengers
..
..
per car-mile
"
Round t l'i ps ..
Employ~
..
21.44
(including West
Shore Ro.ilwnr
39)
39
52
50
Name of Com
pa.oy.
Motive
Power.
Grnde.
ALx-laOhapelle.. 1 in 11
Gera
..
..
Hamburg
..
..
Brussels, Ln. Pe- 1 in 25
tite Espinette
Zwickau . .
. . 1 , 25
Hanover . .
Konigsberg
Dortmund
LUbeck . .
Strnsburg
Rome
..
Zurich . .
Badeo Voslnu
Bristol . .
Leeds
..
Glasgow . .
Dover
..
.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
level
1 in 24
1 , 40
1 , 20
1 , 70
1 , 10
..
..
1 in 15
1 , 20
1 , 14
1 , 25
.589 to 1.236
.975
.902
1.200 (heavy
cars)
.670 on level,
1.230on incline
.681
.608
. 576
.592
.688 (large car)
1.056
. 782
0.490
1.000
0.960
1.370
0.980
Avera~e
Speea
per
Hour .
Pounds of
Coal per
Oar Mile.
miles
lb.
3.5 to 6.9
21 (lignite)
3.21
4.6 to 4.9
8
8
6 to 12
16
6 to 8
7 to8
8
8
7 to 8
9
8
100
2!, 5
2!, 5
G7.8
. 5720d.
60.6
. 2231d.
. 0477d.
. 0075d .
. 0767d .
.0526d.
.577d.
.1798d.
.660d.
.0089d .
2.43!5d.
.21S6d.
. 0121d.
0.65 d.
.1526d.
4.9627d .
8.1080d.
8.1850d.
TABLE
..
..
. 0493d.
. 0372d.
.0402d.
. 2096d.
. 247ld.
. 0.312d.
. 'i902d.
3.3070d .
.4266d.
..
.1045d .
.09!3d .
6.6499d.
10.0620d.
10.7650d.
4,898,303
3.816
530
2!, 5, 7!, 10
69.2
. 5164d .
. 1734d .
.137ld.
. 181d.
.1132d.
. 4132d.
. 2831d.
. 0706d .
. 9963d.
2.92''7d.
. 3905d.
.1939d.
.106-!d.
.1928d.
G.7988d.
9.8090d.
9.8260d.
170,0"'6
225
2,\- + 2t on t h e
line
56.3
. 2855d.
.0373d .
.Oi96d .
.0013d.
.2014-d .
.1305d .
.520/d.
2.8235d.
. 7193d.
. 1251d .
.0263d.
.4253d.
5.4363d.
9.5025d.
9.653d.
220,680
200
2!, 6, 7!
51.6
.0131d .
.0176d .
.0888d .
.0446d .
. 0789d.
.3963d .
.345d .
.027d.
.4865d .
2.0555d.
.3895d .
.236d .
.0724d.
.2085d .
4.278d.
8.2165d.
8.284d.
E LECTRIC.
0.680
0.220
0.015
0.065
0.880
0.110
0.030
0 005
0.020
0.000
0.276
0.000
0.050
0.030
0.000
1.760
0.165
0.355
0.285
0.180
0.200
0.210
0. 190
0.000
0.465
0.410
0.190
0.065
0.050
0.000
0.025
0. 775
0.090
0.015
0.005
0.000
0.235
0.545
0.040
0.000
0.000
0.090
3.075
0.000
0.035
1.005
0.840
3.200
3.935
3.075
1.035
0.010
0.935
8.200
11,991,404
47.7 p er cent.
6.100
'i,110,090
37.9 per cent.
8.926
15,994,912
65.8 per cen t.
H ORSE.
____________________..... _______________________.....
Matetials and labour on trnck proper
Tube cleaners and oilers
Repairs to bu ildings ..
Snow and ice . .
..
65
7
1,464,038
4,108,260
2.824
1,283,642
2,228,932
8,886,229
3.996
284,203
"
equipment of cars
1,500,000
Steam
Aix-laOhapelle.ot
Car e of hmses . .
..
..
1.32
,,
GP.ra
..
..
1 24
0.94
Hamburg t
..
2,600,000
Electric m otive power
..
"
1.09
..
Brussels . .
..
Wages conducting tla nsportation
..
0.84
"
Ho.nov('r . .
..
"
1.77
Rome
..
..
Water
, and salaries , ot.h er . .
.
..
..
0.96
1.56
nresden! . .
..
Steam
Accident fu nd 2~ per cent. of g ross earnings ..
1.15
Geneva . .
..
600,000
Water
1.64
Bnden Voslnu ..
Steam
Fire insurance. .
..
..
..
t Corporation pays 8d. for every car-mile which tramway corn Enrnings per car mile
pany are pre,en ted from ru nning through its fault.
Average
Board of
Trade Units
per Car-Mile.
883,731
3,093,458
3.503
155
1.44 Lo 1.38
d.
T ABLE
746,801
4,381,462
5. 729
53
51
66
52
..
52.60
60
..
fen ces
..
..
..
"
buildings and fi xtures ..
"
electric line construction
"
R eroontl of snow and ice ..
Repairs of cars
..
..
29.853
46
88
88
..
..
..
70.201
05
85
180
180
30.75
35
33
G
68
..
..
..
T 1amway Lines.
1898.
Winchester
Bridgeport
Ho.atford Street Fair H aven and
New Haven
Avenue Railroad Staeet Railway Railwny Oom West,ille Rnil T aaction Com
Company, West
pa ny.
road Company.
pany.
Company.
H aven.
.Track in miles.
701
..
..
..
..
----.-
Oars a nd vehicles
..
..
..
..
Cable or electric equipment, tools, &c. . .
3.91
7
Total
---
P ower.
"
Harness and stable equipment
(Three trail car -miles are supposed equnl to oue motor car mile.) Engine and power service, fuel, light an d power supplies ..
.,
Supply of electric power . .
..
..
..
0.609
Watet . .
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
Repairs and cleaning of trucks and motors . .
0.213
..
..
..
..
1. 650
.
.
Wages and salaries
Total
Main tenance and depreciation of overhead
Tra:nsportation.
line . .
..
..
..
..
..
..
0.101
..
..
..
..
..
0.658
Sinking fund
Conductors, drivers, inspectors, ca.r lighting, oil, car house ex
Track main tenance
..
.
..
..
0.018
penses, &c.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
0.144
Oar cleaning and mamtenance . .
Office expe nse~ and insurance . .
..
..
O.U72
4. 245
General Expenses.
3.555
10,287,000
4,241,000
401
300
150
Electric power . .
..
..
Wages and salaries
..
..
..
Repairs and m aintenance
Road and maintenance. .
..
Compensation and management
Total
..
..
0.56
1.98
1.24
0.28
..
0.77
..
..
..
4.83
..
E N G I N E E R I N G.
j0 2
[JUNE I,
1900.
PLATFOR~1.
.,
((
Frc. 1.
per unit gen erA.ted. The type of engine used must,
however, also be taken into consideration.
Thus, taking the published results of British
electric-light plants, we find t hat the cost of coal
per unit generated varies approxima tely between
0.3 pence and 2.2 pence. Comparing t his to
tract ion plants, we find t he cost of co~l varying
between 0.09 and 0.50 pence per unit generated
(see Table I .). Again, considering the item of
wages a nd salaries in a lighting station, we have
0.3 to 1.6 pence; in the case of traction, t his is
0.03 to 0.40 pence per unit. Comparing the total
cost of production of on e Board of Trade unit
generated in a lighting station and in a traction
station, interest and sinking fund excluded, in the
former, the unit varies from 1.00 to 4.00 pence,
as compared to 0.25 to 1.00 penny for traction
purposes. Table II. shows the comparative costs
of producing electric power in average lighting and
traction plants. Or, in oth er words, t he cost of
power when generated for traction and power
purposes is one-quar ter of t hat when generated for
.
. .
lighting only.
The amount to be added for mterest and smkmg
fund, of course depends on the length of t he concession, on t he terms of final purcha e, and on
t he life of t he machinery employed. The cost of
p roducing power varies with t he amou.nt to be
produced, decreasing as the amoun t mc: eases.
This shows the advisability of concentratmg. as
much power as possible in one station, and reducmg
t he number of units. The question as to the
quality of coal to be employed is one. on :vhich
a uthorities do n ot always agree, and wluch Will be
d iscussed in d etail in a future article.
In considering the yarious items which go to
F0.
~.
- - ELECTRIC RAILWAY
STATION
- - MOVI N G PLATFORM.
__,__
STATION
R U E.
~tU
RU
--
..
JuNE I, 1900.]
<
H
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El
....
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o'~.70.t
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tf l
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fIll
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sea
LWS
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t:--
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- r--------------. . - --
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- .. --- --- ..... -- . . ---1
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---------.-+-------O!lbz.------------+----------- ooo1:---------
~oSl>l
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k-- --%t't --..........L-nt
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+--- -. 1,-1.....<
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-- ---y--------~
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M-,'
Jt-- . ..,t-,,....
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- - -----... ----
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~ - ------- 9~2
or
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- . - ..... --
E N G I N E E R I N G.
[JuNE I,
1900.
~ake ~ complete power or traction installation, The Nile itself runs between high banks, which through the land-as that brings up the salt
in large
mclud1ng the system of feeders, distributors track ~onfine the flood to the channel, except where it quantities. Mr: 'Yillcocks .is, therefore, a great
~nd overhead line, the cost of the power ~tation Is led away by the canals. After the basins are advocate of periOdical washing, such as occurs in
1s ~ut a. comparatively small item. The saving emptied, the crop is sown, and grows rapidly. The basin irri&ation; and he looks with apprehension at
whi~h c.an be effected by a. properly designed harves~ follows, and then the fields are left parched the great Increase of perenni~tl irrigation, if it is not
statwn. IS v~rY: gr eat, and a. little extra capital and and for several months, except such portions carried on with greater care than has hitherto
expenditure IS m many cases well justified.
of th em as can be irrigated by water raised from obtained. When the level of water in the canals
The total cost of running an electric tramway or wells, which is n ot very much. In perennial irri- is k ept continually higher than the surface of the
railwa! varies ~etween. 2. 50 and 8. 00 pence per gation,. on the contrary, water is available all the fields, there is always danger of infiltration.
car mile, according to ci_rcumstances ; the electrical year round, and the land is never drowned. In . It is impossible, within the space available, to
energy ~t the power .station required varying from the flood-time the c~nals run full, while in the gtve any adequate account of the contents of this
0.49 units to 1.4 ';!nits per car~mile, according to summer they are at a lower level, but water can valuable work, and we must be content with a
the profile of the hne and the weight and speed of always be obtained, eith er direct ly or by pumping. brief s~nopsis .of the .chapters. These are (I.)
the cars.
The result is that three crops can be obtained in a E gypt In relatiOn to Its geology, meteorology,
Ta~le III. gives the average consumption of year, and products, such as sugar and cotton, can agriculture, land system, imports, exports, and
electric power at the switchboard p er car-mile of be grown which require to be planted at times revenue. (I I.) The Nile from Lake Victoria to
several existing European lines; and Table II., the which do not coincide with the abatement of the the Sea. (HI.) Basin Irrigation in Upper Egypt
cost of production and charges tnade to tramway annual flood. This system has prevailed in the Part . I. (IV.) Basin Irrigation in Upper Egypt:
compan~es who do n<;>t generate their own power. Fayoum since time immemorial, the water being Part II., beginning at the year 1886, and tracing
Comparing these priCes to those at which current derived from a cann.l called the Bahr Yusuf, which the alterations and improvements introduced since
can be produced by a modern and properly designed branched from t he Nile far south, and following an t.hat date. (V.) Perennial Irrigat ion in Upper
and operated station, it will at once b e seen that easier gradient, eventually delivered its water at a Egypt. (VI.) Perennial Irrigation in Lower Egypt.
they are exorbitant.
much higher level. The modern development of (VII.) E gypt by Provinces, dealing with proThe cost of the electric power necessary t o run the system dates from about 1820, when Mehemet prietors, population, rent, taxes, manures, faclight, and h eat the cars forms from 10 to 40 pe~ Ali Pacha. inaugurated very large irrigation works tories, crops, drainage, and the like. (VIII.)
cent. of the total working expenses. The three in the Delta. In 1873 a large area in Upper Egypt Drainage and Land Reclamation. (IX.) The Barlargest items in the running costs are power, wages was also brought under perennial irrigation. Vast rages. (X.) The Nile in Flood, explaining the
sums were spent on these works, and undoubtedly regulation of the flood wat ero. (XI.) Engineering
and salaries, and sinking fund.
Tables IV., V. and VI., which give respectively immense returns were obtained. But owing to Details, in connection with regulators, canals,
the working of the Hamburg, L eeds, and of some Oriental methods of construction and management, escapes, silt deposit, dredging, well-sinking,
New .E ngland electric tramways, are inter esting as the cost was far greater and the returns far less masonry, &c. (XII.) Duty of Water, and Agri(XIII.) Administrative and Legal.
cultural.
sh~wing ~he P.reportion and the great variation than they should have been.
When the British took the country in hand it (XIV.) Reservoirs, giving accounts of the various
wh10h exists In the various cases between the
was at once evident that the irrigation system was projects which have been suggested for storing
proportions of the various items.
Table VI. gives the detailed working expenses in a. deplorable condition, and that no one knew water in Egypt. Eleven Appendices.
The most beneficent results that the English
and other useful data. of the most important New exactly what was needed to put it right. A number
of irrigation engineers were obtained from India, irrigation engineers have attained in E gypt have
England roads during 1898.
Table VII. is specially interesting, showing the under Colonel Moncrieff, Mr. Willcocks, the author been to get the full benefit out of the works they
results obtained on the New York lines by the of this book being one of t hem ; and they were sent took in hand. Before their t ime, everything was
subs tit ution of electric for cable traction. A few into the country to fe el their way, and to do what managed on the Oriental plan of doing as little as
facts and figures r egarding this great system are they could with very limited r esources to prevent possible, and beating someone when a disaster
decay ripening into disaster. This volume is a occurred. They naturally changed all that. They
inter esting in this connection.
record of what they have done, and it fur- insisted on the officials doing their duty, and t hey
(To be continued. )
nishes matter for pride to us, both aB engi- gradually-by minor alterations and improvements
neers and Englishmen, to read what enormous -brought order and regularity into a department
benefits have flowed from the exertions of a few which before had been characterised by sloth and
men who, in 17 years, have brought order out of waste. But the matters which appeal most to the
chaos, and have r endered happiness possible to imagination are the repair of t he barrages, and the
building of the great dam at AssG>uan, which is now
millions
of
fellaheen.
Mr.
Willcocks
is
pecuEgyptia!n Irrigation. By W. WrLLCOOKS, C.M.G. M.
Inst. C.E., late Director-General of Reservoirs. With liarly well adapted to be the historian of the in progress. The barrages were weirs built acr oss
an Introduction by Major HANBURY BROWN, C.M.G., movement, because he has been connected with so the two branches of the Nile where it forks at the
late R .E., Inspector-General of Irrig,ation, Lower many important features of it . We are told by head of the Delta, in order to hold up the level of
Egypt. Second Edition. London: E. and F. N . Maj or Brown, in the introduction, that Mr . the water in the summer where it enters the great
Spon. New York: Spon and Chamberlain. [Price
irrigation canals. The work s were completed in
the
first
to
see
that
the
Barrage
Willcocks
was
30s.]
1861, at a cost of 1,880,000l., exclusive of the
"The Egyptian question is the irrigation ques- was capable of repair : a discovery of immense cm"Vee, or forced labour of the peasants. In 1863
tion," said N ubar Pacha ; and certainly n o one was importance, as it enabled the flow of water to all the Rosetta barrage was closed for the first time,
b etter able to sp eak on the subject than he. The parts of the Delta to be greatly increased. He but was r eopened immediately, owing to a settlematter, however, does n ot rest on authority; it is held the position of Inspector of Irrigation of the ment of a part of the work. The ground
capable of easy demonstration. Egypt became a Central Provinces of the Delta, and did much for under the weirs was practically soft Nile sand.
''question " because it could not meet its liabili- the improvement of the district, and also for the The Rossetta weir was built on a platform, flush
ties, and thus furnished West ern Powers with an abolition of the corvee, the system of forced labour with the river bed, 46 metres (151 ft.) wide, and
excuse to meddle in its affairs. Could it have ob- which so grievously oppressed the peasantry. 3. 5 metres (11 ft. 6 in.). This was composed of
t ained a sufficient income t o meet the payments on During the low flood of 1888, he accompanied and concrete overlaid with brick and stonework. Upon
its debts, and t o have defrayed the cost of govern- ad vised the Ministers of Public Works, on a. special this platform there was built a regulating bridge
ment, it might have pursued its own path, certain mission undertaken to consider measures for meet- with 61 openings, each 16 ft. 5 in. wide. In each
that the jealousies of the Powers would have been ing the difficulties of the sit uation. Afterwards, as opening there is an iron gat.e, but this gate Ol'igia safer protection than any armaments. Its in- Director -General of R eservoirs, he conducted the nally did not., when lowered, r each the platform
debtedness, h owever, grew faster than its resources, studies which led to the decision to make a reser- of the barrage ; it rested on an iron .gr ating 12 in.
and it met the fate predicted by Mr. Micawber voir above the First Cataract ; and he drew up the high, fixed into the pier~ just above the platform.
of all whose expenditure exceeds their income. designs and estimates according to which the This grating allowed a free passage of the water
The Egyptian revenue is derived, directly or in- Assouam Dam and the Assiout Barrage are being when the gates were down, and was put in to
directly, from a tax on agricultural products, and built . Finally, h e was en trusted with the work 9f prevent deposits of mud. The Damietta. barrage
all agriculture in Egypt is dependent on the water ascertaining the rental value of all land in Egypt: has ten more openings than its fellow, and has a
of the Nile. When that is available in the r equired a task which made him intimately acquainted with similar platform and superstructure. Curiously,
quantities, the cultivators can pay t heir taxes easily; every part of the country.
all knowledge of the gratings seems to have been
One
is
particularly
struck
with
the
fair-mindedwhile, when it is sh ort in amount, they find it diffilost, and the spouting of the water through them was
n
ess
of
the
author
of
this
work.
He
holds
very
cult enouo-h to live, without contributing anything
held to indicate grave fissures in the foundations.
decided
opinions,
but
he
does
n
ot
conceal
the
fact
t o the r~venue. Thus it is t hat irrigation- the
The Da.mietta barrage was n ot closed ; that on the
that
they
do
not
meet
universal
acceptance.
He
system of delivering water when and where it is
Rosetta. branch was closed when the Nile gauge
entrusted
the
writing
of
the
preface
to
a
gentleneeded- is t he key to Egyptian finance, and through
stood at 12. 5 metres. The upstream gauge rose
strongly
from
him
on
certain
man
who
differs
that to its international difficulties.
to 13 metres, while the downstream gauge fell to
points,
and
did
not
hesitate
to
defend
his
own
ideas
There are two systems of irrigation in Egypt,
11.25 metres, so that with a difference in water
and
practice
;
and
hence
we
have
the
unusual
specand probably always have been-basin irrigat~on
level, of 1.25 metres (50 in. ), there was a gain in
an
introduction
which
is
also
a.
critiq'tte.
t
acle
of
and perennial irrigation. In the former, whiCh
water level of only .5 metr e (20 in. ). Gradually
Throughout
the
volume
th
ere
are
quotations
from
obtains chiefly in Upper and Middle Egypt, that is,
t he head fell to 1 metre, and the water level difeports
which
are
not
in
agreement
with
Mr.
Willr
south of Cairo, the country is divided by earthen
ference of level to . 35 metre.
own
conclusions,
and
the
reader
is
t
hus
cocks'
banks into irregular portions of about 10 square
Several engineers had been consulted at various
that
th
e
question
of
irrigation
is
not
so
warned
miles area, on t he average, and in the autumn each
times as to strengthening the barrages. Nothing,
as
h
e
might
otherwise
imagine.
If
it
were
simple
basin is filled to a depth of 4 ft ., or 5 ft., or 6 ft .
however, had been done, partly owing to want of
confined
to
leading
t
he
water
to
the
crops,
the
with flood water from t he Nile, and this water is
money, and partly to the uncertainty of the operamatter
would
be
fairly
easy,
provided
the
water
allowed to lie for about a month. The country is not
tion, as it was known that the work had been
were
available;
but
the
water
has
also
to
be
drained
.flooded, as we understand such a phenomena here,
shockingly sca.mped in places. In 1884 the irrigain
order
to
prevent
the
land
"salting"
and
away
,
but the filling and emptying is done in an ordered
tion engineers, under Sir Colin Soott Moncrieff,
becoming
sterile.
Further,
it
is
most
important
to
manner, by means of canals which are provided with
took the barrages in hand; and aided by a special
pr
event
''
infiltration"
the
rising
up
of
water
sluices, or r egulated by temporary ear th en dams .
LITERATURE.
J UNE I, 1900.]
TRAVELLING PLATFORM.
IN a recent article (sAe ENGINEERING, page 647
ante) we illustrated and described, with some detail, the Timmis and Lavezarri system of electric
sirnalling, adopted on the circular rail way that has
b:en constructed for the convenience of visitors to
the Paris Exhibition. It will be remembered how
indispensable to passenger transport was the Decauville Rail way at the Exhibition of 1889, while four
years later the World's :Fair at Chicago was provided partially with electric traction, and the travelling platform appeared for t he first time. In this
branch of engineering, matters have moved fast
since 1893, so that not only has a steam-worked
railway become obsolete for the present Exhibition,
but it possesses a far more complete system, and
one-thanks to the smaller area and more compact
form of t he grounds-of greater utility than was
possible in Chicago. We have -already described
the permanent extension lines that have been
hastened to completion for the convenience of
visitors to the Exhibition ; the present, and a subsequent, article will be devoted to the circular
electric rail way and travelling platform which are
essentially of a temporary character. The sketch plan
which we publish on page 702 shows the course followed. The thicker line indicates the electric railway, and the t hinner line, that highly popular mode
of t ransport, t he travelling platform; this ingenious
mode of transport appears to afford endless delight
to Exhibition visitors. It will be seen from the plan
that the routes followed by the railway and the
platform are similar, and that the latter is in places
identical with that of the former. Fig. 1 shows
the two lines at a station of the electric railway,
with the travelling platform immediately above it.
The stations on each are shown respectively by
solid and open circles. Both lines commence at
the upper part of the Esplanade des Invalides
(Rue Fabert) and passing down this street, turn
with a sharp curve to the Quai d'Orsay, which
they traverse, parallel to the street of foreign pavilions and at the back of the A.rmy and Navy
Building. In this way the lines reach t he A venue
de la Bourdonnais, which they cross, leaving the
Quai d'Orsay with another sharp curve. At the
upper end, where t he Avenue de la Bourdonnais
intersects the Avenue de la Motte Picq uet, a third
curve brings the lines into the last-named Avenue,
following which they reach the point of departure
in the Esplanade des Invalides. It will be seen
from the plan that quite a large area outside t he
Exhibition, including parts of the Rues de Grenelle,
E N G I N E E R I N G.
D orninique, and U niversite, the Avenues Rapp and
Bosquet, and the BouleYard de la Tour Maubourg
are enclosed by t he railways, which, moreover, are
in places constructed quite outside the Exhibition
boundaries. The works had therefore to be constructed in such a manner and at sufficiently high
levels, as not to interfer e with the traffic of the
streets affected. How far the comforts of residents
on t he line of route may be interfered wit h by t he
constant passage of trains on the level of the first
floor windows, is another matter.
A few words about the travelling platform are
necessary here, on account of its close connection
with the electric railway, although we r eserve the
details of its arrangement for another article.
It was intended that the platform should be
kept throughout its course at a certain levelabout 23 ft. -above t he road, in order that passengers may see as much as possible during t heir
extended and deliberate promenade ; and this condition has been admirably carried out. On the
other hand, it was desirable for the convenience
of passengers, and economy in construction, that
t he electric railway should, as far as possible, follow
the ground level, and the various stations are practically on this level. But obviously this arrangement was impossible where the line follows the
public streets; on such sections a sufficient elevation to clear all road traffic was n ecessary.
Where road crossings occur they are for the most
part made below the street le\el, as was done with
the little D ecauville Railway in 1889. U nder th ese
conditions, it may be readily imagined that the line is
one of frequent and steep gradients, as well as of
sharp curves. The Esplanade des Invalides station
(A, Fig. 2), is almost on t he ground level, but it rises
sharply towards the Quai d'Orsay curve, where it is
on the same level as the travelling platform ; it
then fall s into cutting and tunnel to pass beneath
the avenues converging on the Pont de l 'Alma.
After this it rises to the ground level, and continues with an ascending gradient till it curves into
the .Avenue de la Bourdonnais, and is again on the
lovel of the travelling platform. Near here the
line enters the Champ de Mars, and falls rapidly
to the ground level, where, opposite the Mining
and Metallurgical Building, is a station. Immediately beyond, t he line falls quickly enough to pass
beneath the Porte R app entrance to the Exhibition ; that is to say, near an entrance to the Textile
Building, which, by the way, is sadly interfered
with by the trestlework of the travelling platform.
N ear this point there is a short branch leading to a
service station, not accessible to passengers ; this
station serves as a dep6t and repairing shops.
The offices of both the electric rail way and travelling platform administrations are situated here.
The whole of the traffic is controlled from these
offices, the surveillance being greatly assisted by a
very complete system of telephones common to the
two means of transport, and about which we shall
say more presently.
The last station on the Champ de Mars is at
some 1ittle distance from the boundary, and is not
opposite the end of the Machinery Hall, because
at this point a rising gradient is lifting the track
so as to take it out of the Exhibition limits, high
enough to pass into the adjoining street. The
high level is maintained after this, the line running down one side of the Avenue de la Motte
Picquet, while the travelling platform at about the
same height passes on the other side, in front of
the first- floor windows of the Avenue. Passengers, especially those using the slower means
of transport, can thus be entertained with
passing views of the domestic arrangements
of the first-floor r esidents, all of whom probably
heartily resent the existence of the Exhibition.
Continued on the high level, the electric railway
enters the E splanade des Invalides, where it commences to fall rapidly, and terminates at the same
level at which it commences in the Invalides station.
From the foregoing explanation it will be realised
that the circular tour by this line offers other attractions besides conveniences to passengers-those
of sharp curves, severe gradients, and glimpses of
family life. On the ground level, in open cutting,
and in tunnel, the railway works show nothing of
interest, but the viaducts are quite important
structures which should be fully described. They
were constructed for the railway company, called
the Compagnie des Transports Electriques de !'Exposition, by a very famous firm of engineers and
constructors-the Societe de Constructions de
Levallois-Perret. It was this company which,
E N G I N E E R I N G.
[J UNE I,
1900.
Fig .I/.
Co~er
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of Oau wder
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line is decorated with warnings in different languages that it is dangerous to '!alk on the track,
just as in 1889, polyglot posters Informed the world
of the consequences that woul.d ~ollow the pro~ru
sion of its head beyond the hmit of the carriage
windows. The track is used for the return circuit,
the bonding being by copper rods riveted to the
webs of t he rails.
The various stations call for no special comment;
they are commodious, of good appea~anc~, and
simple, as should be ~he c~se for thi~ km~ of
service and a very brief exiStence. Fig. 1 IS a
.good iilustration of a station, and it shows t~e
elevated travelling platform as well as the ~lectnc
railway. The platforms are the same height as
t he floor of the carriages. The public are, of
course not adn1itted to the repairing Rtation and
carriage depot of which we spoke just now ; it is
on a branch, and for greater security the conductor
rail is r eplaced by an overhea~ con~uctor. The
carriages are therefore each proYided w1th a trolley,
which, in regular ser vice, is laid on the roof of the
F(e.1Z.
8edimvAB.
(l'Pl"n
... v
10'
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E N G I N E E R I N G.
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E N G I N E E R I N G.
[JUNE 1,
1900.
~evelo~ed on the axle, a speed of 500 revolutions t his takes place, the speed is also increased, and blade cost now a trifle over l i d.
1s requ1red. The control apparatus include a controller in parallel, each motor group being regarded as a single motor for grouping in series or
parallel ; t here are also a rheostat, an automatic
interrupter, a disjunctor, and safety fuses.
We have already (see page 647 ante) very fully
d_e scribed the Timmis-Lavezarri system of electric
s1gnals that has been adopted, and we neeJ, therefore, not dwell on this part of the installation. It
was at .firs~ c?nsidered. unnecessary .to equip a
closed c~rcu1t .hne of th1s character wtth signals,
t~e spee~s be1ng low,_ and the trains always runnmg on s1ngle track 1n the same direction. But
M. ~arechal, the engineer-in-chi.ef of the company,
deCided that too great precautwns could not be
taken, especially at the sharp curves on different
parts of the line, and the Timmis-Lavezarri system
was accordingly adopted. At 50 metres in
front of each curve a signal is located, but
the contact which closes the signal is placed
30 metres away, so that the train has passed
in front of the signal before the contact placed
under the motor car closes the circuit. On the other
hand, at a distance of 250 or 300 metres beyond
the same curve, is another contact for closing the
circuit, and as the train passes it opens the disc and
clears the track without the employment of any
other signal. The train then ceases to be protected,
a condition that applies to the straight portions of
the line, and which are certainly free of danger. It
may be remarked, however, that the two signals
protecting the curve at the entry to, and exit from,
the Rue F abert, where the line follows the Esplanade des Invalides, are coupled, because they
are so close to~ether ; they are worked under the
normal condit ions we ha ve already described, and
to which we refer our readers.
We have now to speak of the power station that
furnishes current for the traction and lighting of the
rail way and travelling platform ; in this, the latter
plays a somewhat important part, the stations,
lines, and carriages being all well lighted. Tpe
arrangement presents nothing of special interest
however, but it includes a great number of
incandescence lamps. The working current is
transmitted frem the transformer station to the
travelling platform, as well as to the railway,
and our present description of it will render it
unnecessary to return to this part of the subject
when we come to describe the platform. It is a
transforming, and not a generating, station, because
the Societe des Transports Electriques, found it
more economical to purchase, instead of generating,
current , on account of the temporary character of
the installation. They accordingly made arrangements with the Western Railway Company, which,
as we have already seen, is establishing a large station
at Moulineaux for working its trains on the new
railway we recently described. Unfort unately,
this power station is not yet complete, so that
the Societe des Transports Electriques had, for
the time at all events, to look elsewhere. They
were therefore compelled to t urn to one of the
Paris Sector companies to furnish them with the
necessary current, for the present at all events, and
they were thus able to run trains from the commencement of the Exhibition. It has also to be
mentioned that the completion of the transformer
station was delayed by a deplorable accident, no
other than the loss of the cargo boat Pauillac
belonging to the Compagnie Transatlantique FranQaise. Together with a large amount of Exhibition
material from the U nited States, the Pauillac
carried the greater part of the French W eatinghouse Company's plant for the station in question, and it required a considerable amount of
energy and prompt resource on the part of the
French Company to re,lace this lost material.
The traYelling platform is fed by a group of
transformer3 consisting mainly of a triphase motor
workin<Y with a 5000-volt current delivered from
the m:ins of the Paris Sector Company before
mention ed ; this motor develops 850 horse-power.
It is coupled direct to a tramway generator of
550 volts and 600 kilowatts effective continuous
current, capable o! working as a. maximum to
2000 amperes, wh10h corresponds t~ the effor t
required for starting. To produ_c~ this t he speed
is raised by means of an auXlhary gr?up, the
generator working as a motor ; the ex01ters are
then cut out and the circuit made between the
generator add the platform ~o.tors. Wit~ ~he
same auxiliary group the exCiting effort 1s Increased, till the platform is started ; as soon as
SCREWS.
THE introduction of automatic screwing machines
has had a great influence upon the manufacture of
screws, although in many cases- thirty, forty, and
fifty years ago-screws were being turned out at
one operation by machine tools ; and it should
be noted, too, that, according to the report before
us, from six to twelve of these automatic machines
are now operated by one person. In one cas~,
with six machines to attend, the wage is !Os. 6d.
per day ; in some, with 10 machines, 9s. 6d. ;
and in others, with 12 machines, 10s. 6d. per day,
all of 10 hours.
The greatest difference in the time required under
the hand and machine system is in the case of iron
screw posts, ! in. by 1! in., of which 10,000 are
now made in 16.7 minutes, as against 1250 hours
in 1840, a ratio of 4491 to 1 in favour of the
machine. The principal worker now gets double
the wage, and the labour cost of manufacture is
3!d., including power, keeping machinery in order,
&c., as compared with over 26l. In this case the
machinist attends twelve machines, and earns
10s. 6d. per day of ten hourR. This difference is
the greatest recorded by the inquiry resulting in
the report now before us. In the case of other
screws the saving in time is very considerable- in
several instances the reduction is to a twentieth
part of the time taken in the early sixties. Here is
a typical case :
TABLE
Mode of Production.
Hand.
...
...
1862
Date...
...
Number of different opera5
tions involved ...
. ..
Number of workmen em3
ployed ...
...
...
Number of hours worked 42 h. 0 m.
. .. 9.55 dols.
Cost of labour ...
Average rate of wages per
.. . . 23 cents
hour
...
. ..
Machine.
1896
6
6
2 h. 30 m.
.46 dol.
18.4 cents
A. steel cold
chisel ~ in. by 6 in. cost rather less than !d., as
compared with 3d. 30 years ago. The time required for making 100, was, in 1870, 28 hours 36
minutes, and now it is 7 h ours 20 minutes, so that
here also there has been a slight increase in the
average wage. In the modern system, shears, trip
hammer and tongs, trimming press, grindstone and
polishing wheel, all take the place of the smith's
hand-tools, and the band-worked grindstone.
In the making of hammers it is found that the
cost of labour is reduced to from a tenth to a
fifteenth what it was in the sixties. We take as a
typical case the making of 12 dozen engineers'
hammers, of solid cast steel, 2 lb. weight.
TABLE
Mode of Production.
Hand.
Machine.
...
.. . . ...
1860
Date...
1895
Number of different operations involved
..
8
27
Number of workmen employed ...
...
...
2
28
Number of hours w01ked 792 b. 0 m. 44 h. 36 m.
Cost of labour .. .
.. . 124.80 dols.
9.07 dols.
Average rate of wages per
hour
.. .
...
.. . 15.7 cents
20 cents
Thus t he engineer 's hammer costs 3d. to make
with steam-driven tools of pretty much the same
class as those used for making the chisels, while
with blacksmiths' tools, files, vise, &c., the
cost for each was 3s. 6d. In the case of
plain eye riveting hammers, of solid cast steel, and
weighing 9 oz., the results are ~lniost, although not
quite, as satisfactory ; the cost now being oneeleventh what it was in 1860, as against a fourteenth with the engineer's hammer. The number
of men and operations were the same in both cases;
but the gross of hammers were made in 36 hours
24 minutes, as compared with 432 hours, and the
cost has therefore been reduced from 69.60 dols.
to 6.31 dols. ; so that wages have in this case only
increased fractionally- from 8d. to 8fd. per hour.
The cost of making each riveter's hammer is rather
less than 2d. Again, in making hickory handles
for hammers, there has been a great saving. With
steam-driven saws, lathes, and "belting " machines
for finishing, 100 handles can be made in two hours,
whereas the woodworker of 1870 took 66 hours
40 minutes. Wages have been reduced from
2.50 dols. to 2 dols. per day, and thus the labour
cost has been reduced from 16.66 dols. to 40 cents;
the rate being now five handles for ld.
RAILWAY WAGONs, &c.
In the United States the work of loading and
emptying railway wagons has been brought to
great mechanical perfection, while at the same time
traction charges have been so reduced as to make
it a matter of small moment whether ore or coal
supplies have to be brought 1000 or 100 miles ; and
the figures we give on this point are therefore of
great importance as a standard to be aimed at in
this country. In the matter of loading ore, we have
results for 1891, when the primit ive shovel and
wheelbarrow were used, and for 1895 when the
steam shovel was utilised on an improvised
railway. Taking 100 tons as a unit, we find t hat
200 hours were required, which at a daily wage of
2 dols. works out to 40 dols., or ' l s. 8d. per ton,
while with the steam shovel operated by an engineer, craneman, and a fireman, with the help of a
trimmer in the car, we have the same work done
in 68 minutes, at a labour cost of 30 cents. To
t his, however, must be added the cost of laying
lhe track for the steam shovel and cleaning up the
iron ore afterwards, meaning 1 hour 43 minutes, at
a cost of 26 cents, but the total time is only oneseventieth that for hand labour, and the cost for
the 100 tons- 55 cents- is little more than the cost
of loading 1 ton with the primitive tools.
We take next the case for unloading coal, from a
canal barge to a bin 400ft. distant. Labourers ~n
1859 earning 7~d. per hour, unloaded 100 tons In
120 hours, at a"' labour cost of 19.50 dols., or lOd.
per ton. In 1896 the ~rimmers got l s. an ho:u
for shovelling the coal Into steam .elevators di~
charging into cars worked by grav1ty to the b1n
where t hey tipped the coal. 'l'he work was thus
done in one-twelfth the time- 10 hours at a labour
cost of 2. 50 dols., or l i d. per ton. This includes
overseering charges in each case ; wages, too, were
higher for all hands.
Our next and concluding Table gives the results
for transferrin0a 1000 bushels of wheat from storage
bins to steamships :
] UN E I , I 900.
TABLE
E N G I N E E RI N G.
1. Tissues made in the ordinary loom, and r e- or mor e round a warp thread, is then t urned to
Mode of Procedure.
Hand.
Maohine.
presen~ed as a class by calico weaving.
connect it with another adjacent warp thread,
Date...
...
...
. ..
1853
1896
2. Tissues less closely woven, and wit h the warp around which it makes similar turns, and so on.
Number of different operaand weft threads tied together by "whip thread." The process is so mew hat similar to that indicated
tions involved . . .
. ..
5
10
Gauze weaving is t he representative of this class .
Number of workmen emfor gauze weaving, except that the binding thread
ployed . ..
...
. ..
3. Tissues produced in the J acquard loom, such from t he bobbin, after being twisted once or twice
31
36
Number of hours worked 37 h. 0 m. 8 b. 56 m.
as brocades.
round a warp thread, passes on to the next one to
Cost of labour
.. .
. .. 6 45 dols. 2.50 dols.
4. Openly-woven t issues, t he threads of which repeat the same evolution, and so on. A slow
Average rate of wages per
are mutually and continuously interlaced tuJles movement is given to t he warp in the direction
...
...
... 17.4 cents
28 cents
hour
are the representatives of this class.
'
of its length, the bobbins passing to and fro conOur last comparison, associated also wit h trans5. Lace tissues.
t inuously as the warp is displaced. This product
port, is in the r epairing of " dirt " r oads, where
6. Close-woven tissues in which t he weft threads is characteristic of the various tulle fabrics. The
pick, shovel, and rake have b een superseded by the are knotted on the warp to produce a pile ; of this
road machine; the advantage in favour of t he latter class, som~ natures of tapestry, carpets, &c., are special purpose of the mechanism is to obtain a r eticular tissue having clear open spaces, with uniformly
is 40 to 1 in r espect of time, and 3 to 80 as to cost. r epresentat1ve.
divided and secure connections, giving at t he same
Indeed, it is almost impossible to find any ex7. Open knotted t issues, such as fishing nets.
t ime a special decorative effect. This method is
ample in th~ whole range of industrial enterprise
8. T1ssues p roduced by the involutions of one often corn bined with t he use of additional threads
where mach1nery has not been of great value in thread, ~uch as hosiery a!ld knitted goods.
t wisted around single threads or groups of threads
increasing the volume of production , r educing its
W e w11l endeavour bnefiy to describe the charac- of t he warp; these passing from one to t he other,
costl an~ at th~ same time ena:bling high~r wages teristics of t hese different classes of tissues a clear
according
to the nature of t he design, can be made
to be pa1d, whlle greatly reducmg the sellmg price understanding on this p oint being absolutely n ecesof the commodities; so that in the end t he worker sary for useful examination of t he machines by which t o produce figured materials of great beauty. A
piece of tulle is illustrated by t he diagram Fig. 10;
is a gainer from both points of view. 'J.lhis fact is t hey are produced.
it consists of a series of parallel threads, r ound
not new by any means ; but we t hink our series
1. Tissues P1oduced in the Orclin,ctry Loom. (The which each weft t hread makes one t urn in the b ody
of articles has demonstrated that it operates to a Fr~n?h definition. for t his is Oroisement Simple.)wider and greater exten t than was quite realised Thls IS t he most stmple method of producing fabrics. of the fabric, and two t urns at t he selvage. The
even by t hat ubiquitous and erudite individual- the A thread crosses at right angles to a series of intersections are made as follow: One set of
man in the street.
Fig .10.
parallel threads passing under and over these the
c?aracter . d~pending upon the system of alt~rna
twns ; t~Is Is tJle work pro~uced by the ordinary
TEXTILE MACHINERY AT THE
weaver 1n a s1mple loom, 1n which t he alternate
PARIS EXHIBITION.
threads of the warp rise and fall simultaneously.
(Continued from page 673.)
Or instead of being at right angles, the travel of the
HAVING described t he more important devices weft may be made obliquely between a warp of a
for testing the counts and physical qualities of given width, the t hreads of which pass alternately
threads and yarns, which are exhibited in the one below and the next above on the line of meetTextile Machinery building of the Exhibition, we ing, the angle of t he weft being made eq ual and
may pass on to consider briefly the principal opposite for each adjoining width. This method of
characteristics of tissues which are produced from weaving only produces a stable fabric if the warp
such yarns. In doing this we may be t raversing an~ weft are sufficiently close, as in linen tissues,
some of t he ground covered by elementary text- or if they are fixed by dressing, as in certain classes
books; but a recapitulation of the distinguishing of muslins.
features of differen t fabrics will be useful as an
2. TisSt~;es less Closely Woven, a;nd 'With the W arp
introduction to the different machines t hat produce and W eft Threads Tied together by Spi1al Ligattwes
them, and which are shown in t he Exhibition. (01oisements Lies). - The special purpose of this
The word '' fabric ' ' serves not only to define all method of weaving is to supply the lack of stability
classes of stuff made from textile materials, and unavoidable in producing fabrics by the previous
suitable for clothing, upholstery, &c., but its use method. It is illustrated in Fig. 9, where it will
is extended to combinations of interlaced t hread,
employed for a variety of purposes. All woven
materials may be broadly divided, according t o
their characteristics, into four principal categories.
1. Ordinary tissues, such as calicoes, &c., produced
in t he common loom. 2. Upholstering goods, such
as carpets, hangings, &c. ; t hi8 class is distinguished by great variety of colour and richness
of design.
3. Hosiery.
4. Tulle, lace, &c.
Tissues may be defined generally as fabrics produced from t hreads interlaced according to some
I
regular method, and weaving is the operation by
which such fabrics are produced. But this classi- be seen that a whip thread is twisted round each
fication and definition of tissues is t oo general for warp t hread, and locks ar ound it and the weft at
practical purposes, and, moreover , is not strict ly every point of intersection of the two threads, which weft threads travelling in on e direction and ancorrect; because such a material as felt, for example, cross at d gh tangles to each other. This whip thr ead other, symmetrically in the opposite direction, are
may be classified as a tissue, because it fills consists of a second but finer longitudinal thread, twisted around each warp thread so as to form sixcertain purposes of a fabric, although no operation which envelopes t he first one with an alternat ing sided meshes, as is shown in Fig. 11, which repreof weaving is r equired for its production; on the spiral; it also ties the transverse thread at each point sents t he t issue obtained by the three series of
other hand, wire cloth cannot be defined as a of intersection, and is then twisted under the lower t hreads when the warp is n o longer stretched on
tissue, although it is actually a woven material. longit udinal thread. The structure so produced is t he loom ; one set of the weft thread~; draw t he
Again, knitted goods may be spoken of as tissues, that of gauzes in t heir most simple form : it is warp to t he right, and the other set to t he l~ft, as
though the operation by which they are produced made by means of special devices added to the indicated on the diagram. W e shall see later on
ordinary loom, and is capable of various modifica- that varieties of this method of interlacing are
cannot cer tainly be called ' "eaving.
In order to avoid these difficulties a more com- tions, producing different effects.
shown at the Exhibition on some very remarkable
3. 1.'isSttes P1odtu;ed in the Jacqtta?d Loom, such machinery in operation.
plicated terminology has been adopted . The professor of spinning and weaving at t he Conservatoire as B1ocade (Enveloppements Fnwtiones). - This
5. L ace TisSttes (Torsion Mt,tuelle).- This method
des Arts et Metiers, of Paris, defines a t issue as operation, which is simple in principle, but very in principle is the interlacing of two threads twisted
follows : '' A stable aggregation of flexible elements, delicate in operation, consists in passing from left t ogether ; this operation is not continuous as in
producing compact or open coverings, uniformly t o righ t, for example, between the raised and spinning ; two threads coming from two different
flexible, and of a limited t hickn ess;" this definition lowered threads of a part of t he warp, a small special points meet, and turning one around the other
allows felt to be included as a stable aggregation of shuttle, t hen in returning this shuttle from right to eit her wit h a half twist or one complete t urn at
flexible elements, but it excludes cotton wool left between the other raised and lowered t hreads the Inost, separate in order to repeat, each on its
which is an unstable aggr egation, as well as t he of t he same group of the warp, and continuing this own side, similar evolut ions with other t hreads.
many variet ies of passementerie which do not form operation between the same or other gr oups of This i.nterlacing is p~oduced in its most simple
coverina surfaces. I t would appear, therefore, threads, following a progressive or intermittent form In a meAhed tissue, where each thread is
more logical, and certainly mor e practically system, according to t he requirements of the design. twisted successively ar ound its neighbour to right
useful, to distinguish the different classes of This is the decorative and supplementary work exe- and left. It is, in fact, an imitation by mechanical
tissues according to their textures, as illustrated by cuted on ordinary tissues, either locally or over their means, of the tedious but highly artistic work of t he
characteristic types, and by the methods of laying whole surface, or produced continuously, according hand-lacemaker executed with so much skill, but
and interlacing t he component threads, which fur- to the pattern, on highly finished brocaded t issues, to the uninitiated onlooker, in a capriciously irrenishes the clearest and most characterist ic distinc- in which t he tnost elaborat e and richly coloured gular manner, according to the r equirements of the
design and by means of pins fixed in pillows ;
tions from a practical point of view. I t is this designs can be woven.
4. Openl11 Woven Tissues, t.he Th1eads of ~rh ich t hese worker~ ~lso employ .other and ordin~ry
mode of classification that we propose t o adopt in
dealing with the textile exhibits at Paris, and we me MttttwllAJ and OO?ttinmottsly I n terlaced (Enve- m eth~~ of twi~tmg, and oc~swnally of knotting, to
shall find that it leads to eight comprehensive loppements Oonlinus H elictiidal).-This variety is consolidate t heir work. ThlS class of interlacing in
produced by a binding thread which, twisting once t he loom involves t he use of a number of separate
divisions, as follow :
7IO
E N G I N E E R I N G.
HORSE-POWER
2500
TRIPLE-EXPANSION
[J UNE I,
ENGINES
1900.
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by one and one, continued diagonally. In the diagram, Fig. 16, t he warp gradation is by one and
one, t hat of the wefb by two and two. In Fig. 17
the gradations are by threes. The same order can
be observed either transversely or longitudinally.
(To be continued.)
Fig.8 .
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EXHJBITION.
E N G I N E E R I N G.
gear can, therefore, be handled with eo.se, in spite
of the high-pressure ca.rried and the large size of the
va.l ves. The va.lve gear is of the us ual link type.
The boiler shell is constructed of Ar - in. pla.ting,
the rings being a.rra.nged teleecope fashion. The
centre line is 8 ft. 1 in. above rail level. There are
228 tubes, 1& in. in dia meter by 10 ft. lOi in. long.
The t ubes, it will be seen, are sharply bent, increa.Ring
their flexibility and reducing a ll expansion strains.
The firebox casing is 8 ft. long by 4 ft. 0! in. over
the outside plates. The inside firebox is, of course,
of copper; and, with the exception of t he tu be-plate,
is -Ar in. t hick.
'l' he frames a re of the usu al plate type, and are
made from 1-in. steel plates. Th~ crank a.xle, it
will be seen, i~ provided with four bearings, the inner
journals being 8~ in. and the outer 6! in. in dia.meter.
The crankpins are a lso Si in. in diameter, with a
leng~h of 4! in. Tee crank c heeks have an elliptical profile, a nd are reinforced with steel rings shrunk on. A
steam brake wi th blocks on each side of th e drivers is
fitted, and there is also a steam sa.ndin~ appa.ra.tus
provided both before and behind the driving wheels.
The front of t he engine is carried on a. four-wheeled
bogie, having wheels 3 ft. 10 in. in di am e~er. The
single t railing axle, which has wheels 4 ft. 4t in. in
diameter, is situated immediately under the rear of
the firebox.
'l'he general design of the tender is shown in Figs. 5
and 6, page 718. It is support ed on two bogies, the
axJe.boxes of which are connected with equalising
Learns. It is designed to carry 4000 gdlons of wattr
and 3! tons of coal.
' iV e give below some of the principal dimensions
and pa.rt icula.rs of the engine and tender, in a. ta.bulated form:
Cylitn.ders :
Diameter . . .
. ..
.. .
. ..
19~ in.
S troke
. ..
...
.. .
. ..
26 ,
L ength of ports . . .
...
. ..
171 ,
Width
,
. ..
. ..
. ..
lB
"
Piston valves, diameter .. .
. ..
8
"
,
lap
...
. ..
,,
lead in full gear
! "
Wheels ( Ca3t Steel) :
Driving wheels, diatr.eter
7 ft. 9! in.
"
7! ,
,
outside ,
.. .
. .. 6
"
9 ,
" trailing . . .
.. .
,
9 ,
. .. 5~
Boile1 (Telescopic) :
Length of ba.rrel . . .
...
. ..
10 n. 6 in.
Dia.meter of barrel inside
.. .
4 " )~ ,
Thickness of barrel plates
.. .
,~ ID.
,
smokebox tubeplate
i ,
L ength of firebox casing outside
~ ft.
Centre of boiler from ra.il
.. .
8 ,. 1 ,
Number of tubes, copper
.. .
228
Diameter of tubes, outside
.. .
1ft in.
Firebox (Copper) :
L ength inside, at bottom
.. .
7 ft. 3 in.
Width
,
,
.. .
3, 4 ,
Thickness of tu beplate . . .
. ..
0, (I ,
.,
top, baok, a.nd sides ...
0 , 0 1~ "
H eating Surface :
Firebox
.. .
147 sq. ft.
Tubes
.. .
1070 "
trailing ,
.. .
14
Hi 1
compa.01ea are being formed to incJ;"ease t he proTotal weight, engine . . .
. ..
50
3 0
duction of bitu~inous coal o~ a. ~arge scale. N ea.rly
On lea~!ng tender bogie...
. ..
26
0 0
a ll the more desirable properties m P ennsy lvania. and
,
. ..
. ..
. , tratling
23
2 1
West Vi:g!nia.. have been brought up, a nd extraordiTotal weighb of tender, with
nary actiV1ty m _d,~velopment is assured during the
4000 gallons of wa.ter a.nd 3i
next ~ea.r. Inquir_Ies from Europe are q uite frequent,
tons coal ...
. ..
. ..
. ..
49
2 1
and stx cargoes w1ll sta.rt as soon as vessels can be
T otal weigh b, engine and tender
99
5 1
loaded. Much more coa.l would be sent abroad but
for the absence of tonnage.
. PARA AND NEW YORK.- A Bill has been passed a.uthorismg the Governor of the State of Pa.ra to call for tenders
for the esta.lJlis hment of a. line of steamers between Para
and New York. . A sub.vention of 7878l. per a.nnum for a
A NEW TRANSATLANTIC CaBLE.- The American
term of 12 yea.rsl.S prov1ded for. Steamers of the new line Eu~o~n Cable Company is a.nnounced. The proposed
are to make at least 12 round voyages in the first year oa.pttal1s 2,000,000l., and the object is to lay a cable from
and 24 annua.lly during ea.oh of the subsequent 11 yea.rs. ' New York to the Portuguese const.
la ,
E N C 1N t E R I N G.
[JUNE I, I 900.
C0 N ST RUCT ED
BY
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1900,
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tion for them, but by the olose of the market they were
weak at 693. 3d. c9.-sh buyer3.
!Jfanufactured Iron and Steel.- Nearly all the manufactured iron and steel makers give a good account of
their condition, reporting that they have large orders on
h&nd, and that they will nob accept new contracts except
a.t similar rates to those that have ruled for some time. Easing of quotations in other districts has not influenced the
market here. It musb be mentioned, however, that few new
orders are being placed. Common iron bars are 9l. 103. ;
be3t bara, 10l. ; iron ship-plates, 8l. 103. iron ship-angles,
8l. 7s. 6d. ; and steel ship-plates and steel ship-angles,
ea()h 8l. 7s. 6d.-all less the customary 2~ per cent. discount for cash. Rail produce~ are kept pretty well employed, and they are not pressmg material on the market.
Heavy sections of steel rails are 7l. 15s. net at works.
Coal and Ooke.-Coal prices are fairly steady, though
bunkers show a tendency to ease. Coke strong. Average
blast-furnace kinds keep at 29J. delivered here.
E N G I N E E R I N G.
MISCELLANEA.
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J UNE 1 , I 900.]
R
1
725
essrs.
ms"rong
o
no"
cons
rue
mac
ary, nor On e of them says : '' We could undertake and gua . . r
(n lu.strat<:A.IJ1
ou
rtcan at ways ... .
Hand and Machine Labour 708 " Road Locomotion" ... . .. 726 a.t presen t make armour-plates ; and for their supply rantee to turn out one battleship and three first-.
Textile Machinery at the
The War in South Africa .. 725 in these respects they are dependen t upon t he
class cruisers, with propelling machinery an~
Paris Exhibition (lllusForeshore Protection .... .. 726
h
d l
d
h
t rated) .. . 709 Range Finders .. .. ... . .. .. 726 same manufacturers as t e A ml.l'a. ty a.n
ot er auxiliary machinery complete, within three years
The Paris Exhibition ElecThe Accident at Southshipbuilders."
from date, commencing delivery of the first vessel
726
trio
Power
Station
(I
ll
u
sampton
(Illustrated)
The
imputation
clearly
was
that,
though
1\'Iessrs.
ltctted) ... ... . ... . ..... .. 712 Lending Library for Engiin two years from r eceipt of plans." Another fi rm
Midland Locomotive at the
neers ....... .. ........ . 726 Armstrong might be able to build the ships, t hey says : ' ' . . we could lay down two large ships
Paris
Exhi
bition
(I llus. ) 713 Naval Engineers 726 could not supply complete ships, but only the hulls.
Notes from the United
Power Stamping Presses
(either battleships or first-class cruisers) in 1900,
States . . . . .. _ .. .. . 718 ( Illustrated) .... .. . .. .. . 727 How unfounded this view was, was speedily shown, launch them in 1901, and complete by t he end of
Armoured Traction Train
Industrial Notea . .. 727 so far as machinery was concerned, by a letter 1903 ; could lay down six large ships in 1901, launch
for South
Africa
(lllus.) .. 714 The
Action of Bilge Keels
Messrs. Humphrys, Tennant, and Co. sen t to the
Notes
from the
~orth .. .. .. 716
(Illustrated) .... .... .. .. 729
them in 1902, and complete by the en d of 1904, and
Notes fromSouth Yorkshire 716 Workmen's Compensation
Times, in which they said they would ' ' be exceed- six per annum afterwards." This does n ot refer
731 1'ngly glad to undertake the construction and de
Notes
from
Cleveltwd
and
Oases
-.
ENGINEERING.
E N G I N E E R I N G.
[]UN E I , I 900.
J UNE I , I 900.]
72 I
E N G I N E E R I N G.
E N G I N E E R I N G.
ISSUe.
Act 3 now ensued. Hardly was the ink dry when
the Chinese Government dismissed t he DirectorGeneral, who had been concerned with the Imperial
Railways for many years, and also had been instrumental in the progress of the negotiations just
brought to a close. An originally low-class Chinaman, of the name of Chang-yen-mow, more commonly known as Chang-yi, who for some time past
had been manager and part owner of the Tongshan
Mine, was appointed by the palace clique as
Director-General of Rail ways. The motive was
obvious, viz., that he might apply the products of
the loan to enrich himself and friends at the cost
of the English bondholders. He at once set to
work. His first endeavour was to obtain possession of the proceeds of the loan, so that he might
administer them in his own fashion. In this he
was foiled by the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Bank,
which refused to part with the money except on
direct requisitions of the English officials engaged
on the construction of the railway.
Then intrigues were set on foot to divert the
course of the line from that set forth in the bondholders' agreement, so that it might pass through
lands belonging to himself, or his friends, or should
serve places in which they held an interest.
Thwarted in this and in other devices he proceeded to memorialise the Throne, finding fault
with the construction and maintenance of the
existing lines and directly and indirectly attributing fault to the E?ropean officials. .This
official who probably d1d not know the difference between a fish-bolt and a humn1ing bird,
who up to the time of his appointment, not only
possessed no special or even general kno~le?ge of
railways and their management, and who, If JUdged
by the Chinese standar~ ~f knowledge a~one,
antiquated and absurd as 1t 1s, was a mere Ignoramus had no hesitation in preferring charges, the
truth ~r the falsehood of which carried as little information to his mind as the symbols X or Y.
In one thing he was successful, in tha~ of tak~g
possession of the revenues of the hne, wh1ch
according to the agreement, were ~eek by week to
be paid into the bank for the serv10e of the loan.
Of course some part thereof stuck, as the moneys
[} UNE I, 1900.
British interests there are destroyed, the Russians will slip in and restore N ewchwang to
the importance it deserves, but that it will be an
'' open port " then is more than human credulity
can take stock in. This gradual disintegration of
the Chinese Empire by steady pressure in the
north, equally, these constant blows at English
enterprise and interests, seem as yet to awaken few
qualms at home, "Sufficient for the day is the evil
thereof.'' Hinc illre lachrymre.
J UNE I,
1900.]
surface to the land. It will be seen that this proceSB is necessarily slow, especially as the land gets
higher. At first, when the deposit is sand or silty
mud it is comparatively heavy and its deposition
more rapid, but for agricultural land it is necessary
to wait for the ''warp" which is the soil which
supports vegetation. Not only is this light and
difficult to retain, but also it is not found to deposit
very far below high-water mark, and the best land
for enclosure is only that found between the levels
of spring and neap high water ; so that only three
or four tides in a fortnight have access. The late
Sir John Fowler a few years ago wrot.e "Ambition
and impatience are dangerous in reclamat ions.,
The land, being thus formed, can be enclosed with
comparative ease; the land being high, only a
low and consequently cheap bank is required, the
usual dimensions being a bout 10 ft. in height
with an outer or sea slope of 1 to 5, a 4-ft .
top and inner slope about 1 to l i; the bank
is flagged or sodded with the salt grasses. These
banks, being made on high marsh, are in little
danger of damage by the ;:;ea, an ordinary spring
tide hardly reaching the foot of the bank ; and they
are, moreover, made of much more tenacious
material than the raw sand which was alone available for the high and much-exposed banks formerly attempted. They are further protected by
an expanse of ' ' solid grass '' marsh outside.
Impatience to enclose, and a desire to enclose
too much, are dangerous in a double aspect : first
from the engineering view in bank-making; the
higher the ground on which t he bank stands, the
smaller the bank can be made, and the safer it
will be from damage. Secondly, from the agricultural view, the higher land is best, and it is found
that the land, when enclosed, has a higher letting
value when it has an expanse of grass marsh outside the bank for feeding stock, the salt grasses
having excellent feeding qualities. There is now
in one part solid grass marsh at a distance of over
a mile from the last enclosure bank. The amount
of land actually enclosed up to the present time is
from 2000 to 3000 acres, and there are now some
1600 acres ripe for enclosure.
The q uestion will naturally be asked, Does it
pay 1 and that question may be answered in t he
affirmative. From what has been said above, it
will be seen that no expensive operations are necessary, and the capital required is not large, though
it remains a considerable time unremunerative.
Land replamation would not be a suitable investment for a man desiring to trade on the principle
of small profits and quick returns; it is, moreover,
a business involving some risk and excitement; one
tide may bring in a rich deposit of warp, and the
next may come with a heavy gale fron1 a critical
direction, and do serious damage to, or destroy
the work of years, though n o serious damage has
ever occurred to any of the works under the present system. Even the well-remembered tide and
storm of November, 1897, which had such disastrous effects on low-lying lands in many places, did
no damage to the reclamation works of the company. Though n ot properly a part of land reclaiming operations, it may be interesting to note the
company's experience in the protection of t he banks
of the "Estuary Marsh Cut,, the new navigable
channel to Lynn above-mentioned. It was found
that these b~nks were subject to very severe erosion ;
a tier of quickset fagots is laid under water in
the line d esired for the foot of the bank, thus forming a low submerged g royne parallel to the stream.
It is found that silt is rapidly deposited behind the
fagots until the top of the fagots is reached, when
another layer is placed, and the operation repeated,
until finally the tide water actually replaces or
rebuilds the bank it had washed away. The conclusion arrived at is that in these operations fighting the sea ends in disastrous defeat, the sea is the
land reclaimer's best friend and patient servant, and
he will feel that he has attained the fullest success
when it can be said '' Nature has done it all for
you. "
E N G I N E E R I N G.
medium which surrounds them. But so far no electrostatic capacity of the couple. Oppositelytest ha~ been, or could have been, acknowledged charged bodies should attract one another. The
as cruCial. In the absence of any well-established difficult demonstration of this attraction, often
theory, we have, therefore, still to remain con tented attempted before without success, was given last
wit h hypotheses. If we acquiesce in the view to year only by Majorana. But that demonstration
which many members of the Como Conference does not decide t he question, whether the seat of
see.me~ t~ incline, that th~ olta effect is something the electromotive force is at the metallic junction
as 1nt rms10 and charactenstlC to the metal as its or in the air in its immediate neighbourhood.
density and affinity, then indeed we would appear Majorana, in fact, wished to demonstrate attracto be faced by a fundamental problem, about which tion for dissimilar metals and repulsion for similar
we may speculate, but which we are not likely metals, and he failed in the latter task.
further to elucidate by experimental investigation.
As to the explanation of this effect, scientists
But although we can assign no reason why fluorine had, as we mentioned already, arranged themselves
attacks nearly any other elementary substance with in two camps. The contact theorists, the minority,
an almost vicious energy, whilst the sluggishness of headed by Lord Kelvin, say: We have to deal with
argon seems to be above all temptation, we can three junctions, zinc-copper, copper-ether, etherreckon with those affinities and base calculations zinc, and with a contact force at each j unction.
upon them. We have learned to calculate the The Volta effect is the sum of the three forces, and
electromotive force of an electrolytic cell, consisting its seat is mainly at the zinc-covper junction. It
of metals and their salt solutions, or simply of salt is due to the direct affinity of the metals for one
solutions of different concentrations ; but we have another, a tendency, as Professor L odge puts it
not agreed as to how t o predetermine the V olta plainly, to form brass. But we have no proof
contact force. Yet few of us doubt that chemistry whatever that brass would bt) formed if we passed
is in some way responsible.
a current for years across that junction, even if
The opposing sides of t he old controversy used to we applied both metals in the thinnest sheets
be called contact theorists and chemical theorists. imaginable. The Peltier effect for copper-zinc is
To have proved that this description, if ever cor- very small. On the other hand, certain experirect, is not correct now, that both parties r ely in ments on the heat of combination, for instance,
some sense on chemical affinity, and to have pre- the renewed researches of J. B. Tayler,* seem to
sented the whole controversy on its broadest basis yield values which approximate to the order of the
with remarkable lucidity, both in mathematical V olta force. Tay ler tried the heat of amalgamaand in popular language, has been the work of Pro- tion. Galt and Baker have, independently of one
fessor Oliver L odge. As President of the Physical another, dissolved mixtures of powdered copper
Society he has taken another opportunity, as he had and zinc, and alloys of the same composition in
previously done at British Association meetings, of nitric acid ; the difference in the h eat evolved
raising this discussion. His presidential address would r epresent the heat of combination. Here
was delivered in February. The discussion was again, values which would suit the contact theorists
adjourned till May, but, unfortunately, his oppo- have been obtained, notably for the alloy Ou Zn 2
nents were then prevented from attending. Though But the alloys were not uniform, and the comthe battle has n ot been fought, we may examine plicated reactions which take place in nitric acid
the q uestion.
expose these experiments to grave objections.
Some of the electric phenomena, observed in a Bromine might answer as the solvent, in Professor
metallic circuit, are manifestly in close connection Armstrong's opinion.
with heat . We have first the Seebeck effect,
One of the chief p oints of the contact theorists
or ordinary thermo-electric current which is oh- is, however, that they have, on the basis of very
served, not only when junctions of different metals feeble experimental evidence, maintained that the
are at different temperatures, but also, as has been V olta effect is independent of the medium, and
established in recent years, when different portions is the same in air, e. ~f., as in a vacuum, or in a
of a homogeneous metallic circuit are at different hydrogen atmosphere. It had been assumed
temperatures. Further, the Peltier effect, the heat that it was only necessary to bring a zincevolved (or absorbed) when a current is passed copper couple in a vacuum, and then charge the
across a junction of different met9-ls; and, finally receiver with hydrogen, to change an air atmosphere
the Thomson (Kelvin) effect, convection of heat, in into a hydrogen atmosphere; and as the electrothe sense of the positive current (copper) or against it motive force did not materially vary under t hese
(iron), when a current is passed through a conductor circumstances, the medium was said to be without
whose portions are different temperatures. Com- influence. But we have to deal less with t he
pared to the Volta effect, the apparent difference of surrounding atmosphere than with the gaseous
potential of the order of about one volt, which films which settle on all solids, and which, as many
copper and zinc assume in air, these effects are electricians have learned from . experimenting with
small. But in the Volta effect we have to deal ROntgen tubes, are exceedingly hard to get rid of.
wit h a dielectric, and scientists do not agree Mr. F. S. Spiers, to whom we owe the most recent
as to the interpretation of the various effects and excellent work in this field, has tried chemically
and t heir relation to the V olta effect, if t here to burn out the last traces of oxygen, which resisted
Lord Kelvin holds that the j unction the repeated action of heat and of the air pump,
be any.
force at a boundary of two metals has n othing by means of hydrogen ; and he found that under
to do with any reversible heat effect observed these circumstances the electromotive force went
there. In Professor 0 . Lodge's opinion, the re- down to almost nothing. His experiments were
versible heat at a specified junction is a measure not brought to a conclusion, and, as the task is
of the n1etallic electromotive force located there. beset with difficulties, which perhaps only a chemist
Professor Perry regards the Peltier effect as a dif- can fully realise, not decisive. For one thing, by
ferential coefficient , the rate at which t he electro- this burning of the oxygen, he reintroduces moismotive force varies with the temperature ; whilst ture, which C. Ohristiansen, in the course of
Professor Lodge, from whom Mr. Glazebrook differs investigations extending over years, holds mainly
to a certain extent, argues that those holding this responsible for the apparent Volta effect, an objecview confound the electromotive force, measured at tion which is sustained by J. Brown, also a notea particular junction, with the whole electromotive worthy investigator. To obviate all trouble arising
force of the circuit, and bring the latter in com- from water-vapour and gaseous films, Professor
parison with the heat evolution at that particular H . .Armstrong has suggested to experiment in liquid
gases; but he is quite aware that the eventual
junction.
But we had better first state the undisputed facts disappearance of the Volta effect might be ascribed
of the V olta effect. Two n1eta.ls in contact become to the low temperature.
Professor 0. Lodge locates the chief V olta force
oppositely charged, and these charges can be measured when the metals have been skilfully sepa- at the air boundary of each metal. He postulates
rated again. If a drop of liquid or of electrolytic two facts: (1) chemical affinity b etween oxygen
moisture - not dry vapour- intervenes and connects and metal, in amount different for different metals;
the two metals momentarily after the true metallic (2) the fact t hat oxygen atoms are, at any rate some
contact has been broken, the charge will leak across of them, negatively charged. A layer of oxygen
the conducting bridge and disappear. If the metals atoms seeks to move up to the zinc ; but t he
are connected both metallically and electrolytically, atoms are unable to d o so because there is no avenue
we have a common voltaic cell. If connected both for the s upply of electricity of opposite sign. We
metallically and dielectrically, as in the ordinary have a kind of incipient polarisation, not a charge.
Volta experiment, t hat is, insulated fro~ one. a~ The zinc is somewhat in the condition of an
other except at one point where the dielectric 1s insulated sphere surrounded by a concentric nega ..
swept away, a charge results 'vhich is controlled by
* See ENGINEERING, page 662 ante.
an electr0motive force of fixed value and by the
V.
E N G I N E E R I N G.
[JUN E
1,
1900.
tively charged she11, so far as the interior of the views, we ~hink th~~ many electricians will be glad were fired. Various types of shells and explosives
s~ell is concerned. Outside, the conditions are to accept hts expositiOn. It helps us over difficulties
were used for the purpose of gaining experience of
dlfferent, and the cause of the stress is different. without forcing novel hypotheses upon us.
their destructive effects.
The Belleisle sank
When at some point connection with a neutral or a
and seemed badly damaged ; but it is scarcely
less strained substance-copper-is established an
necessary, for the present, to enter into details
NOTES
avenue ~o! the reli.e~ of the strain is provided,
ho~ever
picturesque.
The
naval
critics
of
th~
~nd positi~e electriCity flows across the junction T HE STATE P URCHASE OF TELEGRAPH SUBMARINE
dally press, adding omniscience to their other
CABLES.
1nto the Zinc, and takes its abode on the sur
qualities,
have
told
us
of
the
effects
produced
as
a
OPINION is growing in favour of a closer State
face, facing the oxygen ; the oxygen atoms
result of their observat ion of the interior of the
control
of
submarine
cables,
if
not
of
the
State
pur~pproach slightly nearer all round, the surroundship from the shore, three miles or more distant
Ing molecules are polarised with their negative chase ~~d working of them ; and ther~ is every and the wor~h of the de~uctions made upon such
poles inwards and positive poles outwards a double proba~nhty of . an .inquiry being instituted to data. c~n eas1ly be .appraised. We are sufficiently
layer is set up on the zi~c, an~ line~ of fo;ce appear Investigate t he s1t uatwn, and the p ublic obligations p~triOtiC ~o recognise that the experience which
all through the surroundmg dielectric. These lines of cable. companies earning large Government will be gatned by the careful observation which is
reach from the zinc free surface to the copper free grants, w1th reference not only to the strategical being made of the Belleisle, is too valuable to be
surface. The oxygen atoms are slightly further re requirements of the Empire, but also to the com- noised abroad. Meanwhile, Mr. Goschen who
moved than ?efore from the copper, and have mercial and social needs. The House of Commons with the Board of Admiralty, witnessed th~ trials'
approached sbghtly nearer to the zinc. Thus his tho Royal United Service Institution an d th~ has announced in the H ouse of Commons that'
doctrine is not a doctrine of chemical cornbination S?ci~ty of Arts have all discussed ti1e subject to the extreme surprise of all concerned the Bel:
but of chemical approach. I t signifies a voltai~ Within a w~()k, aud the general consensus of opinion leisle did not take fire at all, as had' been recell, whose electroly.te is replaced by a dielectric, has been In favour of fuller State control. Sir pOIted. The spectators, wh o were at sorue disand whose current IS momentary, not continuous Henr~ H . Fowler, .P., who speaks with the tance, were misled by seeing clouds of steam rise
and if a current did pass, there would be actual oxi~ experience. of a Cabinet ~nister, in presiding over the ship. These were due to a. steam pipe
dation. That is precisely Dr. Lo.dge's meaning, at the SoCiety of Arts meetmg, seemed to ignore having been cut, and, further, some of the shells
and he demonstrates that, assuming an air film the Government fear that a public and inde- especially the lyddite shells, as they burst in th~
layer of a thickness of molecular dimensions suf- pendent inquiry would be inimical to the water emitted a cloud of smoke, and gave the
ficiently dense to be virtually a liquid, and a~ ap- secrecy necessary for strategic reasons ; and, impression that the ship was on fire. There was a
proach of the oxygen atoms by one hundred thou- moreover, he was pronouncedly in favour of little smouldering fire in one of the cabins amongst
s~ndth of their distance, we should get a potential Sta~e ownership. Th?1:e is no question of the some clothing, but otherwise the wood work
difference between zinc and the air in its neigh- des.Irableness of all-Brihsh cables, and the dupli- alt hough shivered in every direction, had not bee~
bour~ood of a few volts. A ~eal atmosphere is not ca:twn, too, of means of rapid communication consumed b:f fire in any d~g~ee. The fire pumps
r~qu1red; the film would suffice,. and the potential w~t~ all the ou.tpost.s of the Empire; and, where of. the Belle~sle were not InJured, and while the
dtfference would, therefore, continue to exist under mihtary necess1ty dictates, financial details must shtp was ~emg battered her pumps flooding the
t he air puml? . To get real o~idation, we must bring be settled somehow or other. It is also important decks continued to work for a long time. There
the plates wtthm molecular dlStances of one another that the social and business relations of the Empire can be no harm in adding to the First Lord's
squeezing out the films, or else bring them withi~ s~ould be fostered b:y cheap telegraph communica- s~tement the fact that this practical demonstramolecular distance of the parts of a liquid con- tiOn, and here also Su Henry F owler brushed aside tiOn of gun pow~r proved the efficacy of light
the financial difficulties by pointing to t he popularity armour for protectmg the upper works, especial1y
ductor, as is done in an ordinary voltaic cell.
Professor L odge thus takes an intermediate posi- of. cheap ~ates within ~he United Kingdom, not- against explosive shells.
tion between meLallic and oxidation effects, and he Wlthstanding that no Interest was paid on the
THE RusTING OF IRON.
has brought himself in harmony with modern views capital involved. Sir Edward Sassoon, who brought
Ordinary red rust is essentially an oxide of
on chemical affinity, as Professor Armstrong re forward the subj ect in the House of Commons and
marked. The peculiar behaviour of chromium to at the Society of Arts, had many strong staten1ents ~on .conta~ing .c ombine? water and practically
which the veteran electro-chemist Hittorf has drawn to make against the cable companies. It is not IdentiCal. wit~ Je wellers rouge, which is nearly
attention, possibly offers a parallel case of chemical necessary to enter into the details of these charges pure fen~IC oxide, Fe2 0 3 ~he ordinary chemical
approach, though Hittorf himself has not made but we are quite at one with him in the view that explanatiOn of the process IS that the iron comany such suggestion. Chromium passes with a as railwa:r, electric, gas, and other undertakings bines with the oxygen of the air according to the
surprising facility from the active state, in which have their rates, agreements, and concessions equat ion
2 Fe2 + 3 0 2 = 2 Fe2 0 3,
it stands voltaically near zinc, into t he passive directly controlled by Government departments,
state in which it behaves like platinum. The cable companies earning subsidies should similarly or taking the combined water into account according
change may be effected by making the chromium come u.nd.er control. Bu~ in ;ega.rd to State pur- to the equation
It Is well to bear In mtnd that there is inthe anode nf an electrolytic cell. It is due-as in chase,
Fe2 + 3 0 + 3 H2 0 = F e.2 Oa, 3 H2 0 .
vol ved in the submarine and other colonial telethe case of iron- to the fcrmation of an oxide layer
graph
cables
about
30
million
sterling
in
capital,
That
these
simple
equations
do
not
represen
t
the
on the surface. If we substitute for the attraction
of metal for oxygen an attraction of matter for the and that the market value is very much greater. actual facts of the case ~as been k~own for years,
I t is true that this capital is highly remunerative ; as well as the fact that 1ron placed m contact with
electricity with which every atom is charged, we
but
if,
for
strategic
reasons,
it
is
deemed
necessary
an
alkali
does
not
rust.
To
explain
this
fact
it
find ourselves on Helmholtz's ground. In any such
to be independent of foreign territory as well as has been suggested that the presence of carbonic
surface effect, the condition of t he surface is necesof private enterprise, it follows that Inuch of the acid gas is n~cessary fo.r rust~g t o take place, and
sarily of importance. The potential difference rerevenue n ow earned by " tapping" various foreign th~t tl.1e alkahes absorbmg thlS prevent rusting. On
quired to liberate hydrogen has been supposed to centres will be lost. Under all the circumstances this VIew the phenomenon of rusting, according to
vary with the nature of the cathode; it is probably
however, an inquiry would be welcomed, as it i~ Professor Crum Brown, takes place in two stages as
more correct to say that it depends upon the surface
certain
to
yield
results
of
advantage
to
commerce.
follows:
condition of the cathode. We know that burnish1. 4 [Fe + H2 0 + CO:.~] = 4 Fe COa + 4 H 2
ing increases the Volta effect, and in the poten tial A PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATION OJ:.' GuN PowER.
To throw light upon various problems associated
2. 4 Fe COa + CH20 + 02 = 2 Fe~ (OH)6 + 4 C02
differences between gases and liquids, surface tension plays an important part. Water particles, with gun power, and upon the effect of modern ex- A close investigation of t he matter has, howsprayed in air, surround themselves with a double plosive shells, the British Admiralty gave one of our ever, led Mr. W. R . Duns ton, F .R.S., to queslayer, possibly, according to Usener, an adsorbed most powerful ships an opportunity of attacking, with tion this theory, and to conclude that the pregaseous film in the electrically dissociated state. ~11 her might, the Belleisle, a. ship. which, although sence o~ C02 is ~y no means necessary for t he
If the water is pure, it imparts to the air through 1n some respects obsolete, was still endowed with productiOn of t his red rust. Thus five pieces
which it falls, a negative charge. In the presence moderate capacity for resistance. Built in 1878, of bright iron were taken, the first was placed
of salts, acids, or bases, this charge is diminished, with a length of 245 ft., the Belleisle has a load in. dr~ ox.yg~n, the second in water vapour, the
and may turn into a positive charge (Lenard, J . J. line belt 12 in. thick in t he centre tapering to 4 in. th1rd ID liquid water, the fourth in a mixture
Thomson); the sea water spray, for instance, elec- at the end, and an armoured central battery of pure oxygen and water and vapour. In none
trifies the air positively. Now, according to J. B. about 70 ft. long, within which are four 25-ton of these cases was any rust formed . The fifth
Kenrick, the addition of electrically dissociated muzzle-loading guns and six smaller weapons. specimen, however, was placed in liquid water
substances d ecreases the charge, whilst that of The old ship steamed out to a point off Selsey charged with pure oxygen, and the production of
non-dissociated substances increases it, and this Bill where she was anchored over a shoal so rust was then quickly apparent, alt hough no C02
effect occurs parallel with the changes in the surface that even when she sank as the result of the attack was present. In fact, for this rust to be formed it
tension. There are, further, the experiments of it would be easy to board her and examine the is essential, Mr. Dunstan finds, t hat the iron shall
S. J . Barnett on the surface tension of liquids effects. On Saturday morning she was p'r epared for be in contact wit h liquid water, and with oxygen.
under the influence of electrostatic induction. We action, steam rai.sed, guns set, splinter nets run out, A piece of bright iron placed in a receiver over a dish
know, on the other hand, from Lord Kelvin, that and a full set of brand new dummy men ordered to of water remained perfectly bright for sixty hours,
air bubbles passing through pure water electrify quarters and to " man guns." Then t he flagship of provided that the temperature was kept constant,
the water, and that the presence of other substances t he Channel squadron- the Majestic - steamed so as to prevent the condensation of the water on the
round the deserted vessel, opening fire at about a metal. A similar piece, similarly suspended, but
diminishes this electrification.
In the case of solid surfaces we do not as a mile range, so as to rake the Belleisle from stern without any precaution against t his condensation,
rule speak of surface tension ; yet it is a factor to to stem. Cont inuing on its victorious but inglorious soon showed spots of rust. Reasoning on the results
be reckoned with, and enters largely into lubrica- career, the Majestic ultimately got a broadside in of the experiments just describ ~d, and on the fact
tion problems, for instance. Failing the crucial at 1000 yards range, finishing off with racking the t hat the alkalies J>revent the formation of rust,
test whether or not the Volta effect is independent old ship from bow to stern. The period of attack Mr. Dunstan suggests t hat the real active agent is
of the medium, the controversy must remain unde- was less than ten minutes, during which some twelve hydrogen peroxide. To test this, iron was suscided. But though some of the leading contact shots from the four 12-in. guns, t hirty-two 6-in. pended in water, to which were added substances,
theorists have declared that Professor Lodge's de- shots from the six broadside quick-firers, and a son1e of which decompose this peroxide, whilst
ductions have not induced them to modify their number of smaller projectiles from the 3-in. guns, . others have n o such action. In every case the
E N G I N E E R I N G.
} tiNE I, 1900.)
===========================~==================================~~~
d f
h C
t e .d.pe overnmen 1mes m c;case . rom ~20,000
tons m 1890 t o 1, 500,000 tons m 1898, showmg an
advance of 140 per cent ..' the num?er of trucks UJ?OD
the network was only m creased m t he eame penod
t o t he extent of 84 p er cen t . The only extension
opened in the Cap e Colony lac: t year was that from
Ashton to Swellend am. This extension will have th e
effect , when a further section t o Riversdale now in
course of construct= on, has been completed, of bringing
t he south-wstern dist ricts of t he colony into closer
.
k
th t
t ~me h Wl . 1 s prmclpa 1 oonsummg . mar ,et s. The
hne ~rom . S n Lo.wry Pa~s to Caledon! a d.1sta? ce of
53 mtles, Is now In c?urse of. cons~ru~t10n ; It will .run
t hrough a good g ram-growm g dtst n ct . Ot her hnes
have aho been nearly completed from :Nialmesbury to
:N!ooreesburg, and from Queenstown to T arkastad
while a li ne from Klipplaat t o Oudtshoor n is ex~
peoted to be ready for traffic by the close of t his
year. In the nort h an extension northward t o the
Za.mbesi and L ake Tanganyika has been started
and,_ but for the outbreak of the war, this ex:
tensiOn would probably haYe been now completed
as fa r as Gwelo. On the 'east coast the line from
Beira to Salisbury is being laid upon a 3 ft. 6 in.
gauge: . This lin~ will be extended from Salisbury so
FORESHORE PROTECTION.
~s to.JOlD t he roam Bulawayo and Zambesi line; so that
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
1t wtll not be long-especially now that the close of
SIR,-I~ reply t~ the letter signed "W. H. T., " which
the war is in sight-before Sout h Africans ~ill be able a~ea.red m ~our ISsue of the 2~tb inst., may I be perto travel by railway all the way from Cape Town to mitted to pomt out that experience and careful experiB eira, as well as to the Za.mbesi.
ments enabled the late Mr. Case to construct tables which
in the he:nds of an ~ngineer who understands the system:
are reqmred for laymg out the elliptical curves decided
'
E N G I N E E R I N G.
system is correct, but its application necessarily varies
with circumstances.
As regards the Hastings foreshore, "W. H. T." appears
to take the view that, though uniformity and protection
might be secured by the adoption of the Case system, it
would be more difficult for yacht and plea.sure-boa.t
owners to work their vessels out and in. Of course, if
the integrity of the long esplanade wall and the sa.fety of
the whole frontage are of secondary importance to the
con venience of the boat-owners, there is nothing further
to be said; but one would certainly imagine that the constant breaches and deepening of t he water toward the
wall-due to the ever-increasing erosion near the sea ends
of the existing high groynes-would caus~ the ratepayers
t o feel very uncomfortable when they contemplate the
possible-I should say probable-cost of protective measures which will be necessary in a few years' time.
With respect to the li~ht nature of the Case groynes
b eing unsuitable to Hastmgs on account of the exposed
situation, I may point out that these light groynes stand
well at Southwold , at Glenbeigh, and at Dea.l, which are
all exposed places liable to violent storms, and quite
different to Dymchurch ; they present a very s mall s urface to the action of the water, and therein lies their
strength. A slend er rod can be made to stand in a
stream which would instantly carry away a r od of heavier
scantling. These low groynes are not supposed to show
mor e than 18 in. or 20 in. above the shore level, which is
amply sufficient to enable them to fulfil their functions,
aud the piles or uprights at intervals of 7 ft. 6 in. a re
quite strong to hold the planks against any waves or
longshore currents. When the work is firs t put in a. few
piles ar e sometimes washed out by scours ; but, if the
plan king is properly attended to, they are never disturbed
by the lateral action on the planks themselves.
The concluding para.gra.Ph in your correspondent's letter
is one which particularly mterests me. On October 4 last
year I called attention, through a. letter in the T imes, to
the absence of a ny official and reliable record of the
changes annually taking place round our coasts-changes
cons tantly affecting buildi ngs and other works which
have been carried out by a large outlay of public money.
I had previously brou g ht this matter forward at the meeting of the British Association at Dover, and, later on,
wrote to the Board of Trade and the B oard of Agriculture. My idea was, r oughly, that there should be a D epartment, or special branch of a Department, to look
after that strip of neglected land which lies all round ou r
coasts between high and low water marks.
A committee was appointed last year by the cou ncil of
the British Association to consider the question of
coast erosion, and arrangements have been made
with the assistance of the Admiralty, to obtain returns
from the coastguard s tations along the coast o f protective
works which may be carried out, and of the effects
produced by such works. This may be a step in the right
direction, but it d oes not go nearly fa~ enoug~, _and it is
~bvious that the coastguards are not m a pos~t10n from
their training and equipment to take the sect10ns, make
plans, and keep records in such a manner as would be
serviceable to engineers when called upon to execute
works. It would, for example, be very difficult for a
coastguard however intelligent, to give anything like a
satisfactory account of the u effects .Produced " by walls
or g royne3 unless be had taken sectiOns, &c., when the
work was started and would compare them with later
sections, &c.
I n reply to my letter, the Board of Trade informed me
that the establishment of the D epartment I suggest ed
would entail very considerable expense, and would p~o
bably necessitate the revision of many Acts of Parhament, and that the scheme was not fea~ble at present.
Early in January of the present year, the B oard of
A'Jriculture wrote to say that they had read m:r communica-tions with much interest, but that they dtd not
t hink it at all probable that the Treasury would . feel
justified in providing at the public cost for the considerable expenditure requisite for the purpose. The letter
concluded by suggesting that my proposals might be
brou~ht under the notice of both the Treasury and the
Admualty.
Soon after this the South African war absorbed all the
attention of the ~uthorities and the public, and I am only
just about to r evive the consideratiOn _of what I .cannot
but feel in common with many others mterested m foreshore w~rks is a question of national importance.
Faithfully yours,
'
R. G. ALLAN~ON-WINN.
39, Victoria-street, W estminster, S. W., May 30, 1900.
RANGE-FINDERS.
T o THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
SIR -In the concluding portion of your notice of Captain Eugene Pierucoi's range-finder, on page 695 of your
issue of ~lay 25, you make reference to Colonel W eldon's
rangefinder, and s tate that you are not aware _that _the
W eldon instrument had undergone further ~od1fica~10?,
or had become popular, since your first not1ce of 1b m
your journal.
Will you kindly permit us, as. sole m~k!3rs of ~b.e
\ Veldon range-finder, to state that, m the op~mon. of military experts, this instrument needs no modtfica~lOn, a.nd
is all round the best yet invented: and, further, 1ts p opularity has been lately strongly endorsed by the large
number purchased by officers (including the late General
W. Penn Symonds) for use. in ~outh ~frioa.
With reference to Captam P 1erucc1 s new range:finder,
it would seem that the gentleman named k?ew httle or
n othing of the Weldon range-finder, otherw_Jse he .snrely
w ould not have been to t~e trou~le to ~evl8~ an mstrument that is in every mam partiCular mfer10r to one
already well known and in exte nsive use. W e refer to
_[}UNE I,
1900.
- .,
ing R.bout 1200 tons. Just as the men had left. the VfOrl~s
at dinner-time, the workshop collapsed, ca.rrymg w1th It
the ferro-concrete piles which it contained. M ost of the
piles were still green, and were, consequently, br oken by
their fall. The acciden t occurred about 200 yards from
the permanent building no w in construction, which is not
injured in any way. The workshop bad been erected on
made ground principally composed of chalk, a~d the
accident is attributed to a s udden subsidence m the
g round. The workshop had been in use for about twelve
months.
I am, dear Sir, yours faithfully,
L. G . M oucaEL.
G reat Western Railway Buildings, 124, Holborn, E. C.
P.S.-I beg to enclose a photograph of the working
moulds above referred to.
NAVAL ENGINEERS.
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
SIR - I have seen the letters in your issue of April 27
on th~ above subject, a nd although I have no intention of
entering into an y controversy with ~our correspondents,
I think it only just that the attent10n of your readers
should be directed bo the fa.ot that such letters are merely
ex parte statements. Ther e are many good and obvious
. I
Obediently your3,
FAIRPLAY.
J UNE I,
E N G I N E E R I N G.
1900.1
BY
TAYLOR
AND
CH ALLEN
'
ENGINEER ,
BIR~1IN GHAM.
FIG.
1.
INDUSTRIAL NOTES.
FIG.
2.
An.M.A TORE
E N G I N E E R I N G.
[JUNE I,
1900.
are not at all anxious about new orders, changes in as the limit below which a child shall not work in a
only twice before, since 1870, has the total been lower,
in 1872 and 1873. The union is to be congratulated
on the smallness of the sum expended.
The cost of management is moderate when it is remembered that there are all the officers of 273 branches,
besides the general council and some district councils
to be paid. The cost of the general and assistant
secretaries, executive council, &c., in the general
office, 1462l. Ss. 6d. ; presidents and vice-presidents,
472l. 23. 5d.; secretaries of branches, 2889l. 53. 4d.;
treasurers, 78ll.; stewards, 969l. 1s. 1ld. ; trustees,
119l. 5s. 2d.; guardians, 124l. 5s. 6d.; audits, general
office, and branches, 1023l. ls. 11d. Some of these items
are due to sick and other benefits. Branch expenditure
for benevolent purposes amounted to 3094l. 15s. 10d.;
grants to hospitals, 29l. 4s. ; arbitration expenses,
l37l. 10s. ; law expenses, 987l. 1ls. 6d. ; congress,
196l. 11s. 7d.; federation, 25l. 4s. 6d.; grants to other
societies, 336l.; compensation, 70l.
Then there were costs of printing, 2006l. 17s. 2d.;
posta.ges, &c., 70ll. 6s. 3d.; branch committees,
374l. l5s. lOd.; banking expenses, 268l. 14s. 9d.; district committees, 4826l. 16s. 6d.; rent and rooms for
meetings, l079l. l4s. 7d. ; rates, taxes, and fuel,
95l. 4s. 3d.; missions on society's business, l288l. 6s. 8d.;
and a variety of other items incidental to a union of
this character, such as purchase of property, repairs,
money orders, &c.
The balance in band at the close of the year was
291,329l. 19s. 8d., showing an increase of 55,883l. Os. 4d.
This is the largest balance ever attained. In 1888 the
total was 53, 028l. 6s. 7d., only once before that year,
in 1883, did the balance reach over 100,000l., and it
fell largely below that amount during the next fiv~
years. A large amount of the cash balance is now
invested in permanent securities, the market Yalue of
the aggregate being 174,032l. 10s. 3d. on December 30,
1899. The investments are all of a highclass character, not likely to fluctuate to any extent. The
gain on the whole was 168l. Ss. 1ld. in the year in
value, as certified by the accountants, the whole of t he
securities being examined, as well as the bank books.
There was still a large cash balance of l04,637l.15s. 10d.
in the several branches, 9537l. 10s. in the council's
hands, and 403l. l4s. 7d. in the hands of the several
district committees.
The aggregate amounts expended on benefits from
1867 to 1899 inclusive have been as follow:
474,598
Sick benefit
... ... ... ...
105,056
... ...
Funeral benefit .. .
103,975
...
...
Surgeon benefit
...
117,095
...
...
Superannuation benefit
605,631
...
Out of work benefib ...
72,969
...
...
Benevolent grants
6,046
...
.. .
:E'a.res to situations ...
78, 2~5
... ... ...
Accident benefit
---
---
J UN E I , I 900.]
I.
INTRODUCTION.
E N G I N E E R I N G.
~oefficient and the experimental facts
mdeed."
'
Now ~he diagram shows that the midship section of the
Sultan IS ~ounder than that of the Revenge; and, moreover, the btlge keels were placed one near the bottom and
the other rather below the p oint where the contour is
most curved. The section given of the Revenge shows
that the subme! ged portion is more nearly of the form of
a . rectangl.e w1th rounded corners ; and, moreover, the
bilge keel Is placed at the most protuberant part 0f the
contou~. ~n Mr.. Luke's diagrams the angular forms of
the mtd.shlp seot10~s of most ships and the far more
~ear~y ctrcular sectton of the Sul tan are n oticeable, while
m d u1grams of the Campania and Omrah kindly ~ent
me by ~r. Elgar, the section is approxim'a tely a reotaJ?gle Wlth the corners rounded off. A glance ab the
d1agram.s s uggests that the differences i n the behaviour
of .the bil.ge keels largely depend on the forms of the mids~~p sections, and we a re thus led to the following propoSltlOn:
The. resistance. to dis?ontinuous motion due to bilge
keels IS g reater m a ship of somewhat angular section
than in a ship of circular section, provided that the keels
are attached at the protruding corners of the section.
5. The angular contour of the midshiJ.> section increases
the efficacy of .the bilge keel _in two distmct ways :
a. The. mot10n of the sh1p produces currents in the
water w~10h fl.ow past th.e b~nds i~ the opposite direction
to ~hat m which the shtp IS t~rmng, thereby producing
a n m orea.se of pressure on the bilge keels.
b. ?-'he. dis?ont inuous motion p ast t he bilge keels alters
the dtstnbution of pressure on the sides of the ship and
for a rectangular section the differences of pr~sure' thus
produced have a moment always t ending to retard the
rolling motion.
Sir William White was evidently alluding to some
such considerations as these in his remark : "But as the
ma tte! at present stands, it would appear that the R evenge
exper1ments point to a possibility which is also indicated
by the results given by Mr. Froude in 1874. It appears
that ~hen bilge keels are added to a ship they musb become
eff~ctive, not ~erely as flat surfaces oscillating with the
ship, and expen encing direct resistance, but by indirectly
influencing the stream-line motions which would exist
about the oscillating ship if there were no bilge keels."
II. Elt' FECT OF STREAM-LINE M OTIONS.
o~
k{<v
k{ v2
k { (V
+ 1)2 -
(V - v)2 }
= 2 k V v,
JUN E
I, I
900.]
21. The question a.q to how far actual bilge-keel resiste.nces can be accounted for by discontinuous motions alone,
without invoking the aid of dissipation of wave-making
energy, could be tested by laboratory ex.P.eriments on
cylinders oscillating totally immersed in flmds with fixed
boundaries, so that no wave formation is possible. Such
cylinders could easily be ~et oscillating by attaching them
to pendulums.
The case of a cylinder half immersed in liquid bounded
by a rigid horizontal plane, with the object of preventing
wave formation, the oounda.ry having j ust sufficient opening to allow free play for the oscillations of the cylinder,
would be of considerable interest. A similar result could
also be gob bv making the upper part of the cylinder of
such a. form as to give zero vertical velocity across a horizontal plane, as sug~ested in Fig. 4.
Further informatiOn could be doubtless obtained as to
the ultimate fate of the discontinuous surfaces by injecting coloured fluids into the water, either as close as possible to the edges of the mod~l bilge keels, or. along
alternate quadrants of the section. Such experiments
would test a. point which we have not yet considered,
namely, the action of the bilge k eels in producing circulating motions of the liquid ; in particular, that of sucking
the water in at the sides and bottom of the ship (Aq, A2o
..A.a. of Figs. 6 and 7), and. projecting it . outwa.~ds tn . the
regions traversed by the btlge keels. durmg t~eu osc~
tions. Professor Hele-Sba.w's beautiful experiments With
E N G I N E E R I N G.
thin liquid film~ unfortunately, would not answer the
purpose in cases where the discontinuous motions in these
are almost at once broken up by the enormous influence
of viscosity. The turbulence which breaks up t he coloured
bands with thick films no doubt makes observations very
difficult, but it is precisely this turbulence of which we
want to take account in l>racbioe.
Lastly, experiments wtth vertical cylinders, with tubes
let into them at various points, would enable the pressure
variations on the sides of the cylinder itself to be measured. Practically, a long oscillating or rotating ver tical
cylinder, projecting above the water, shows the same
effects by the heaping up of the water in front of the
projecting edges, and moreover shows the eddies thrown
off very readily. A little dust scattered on the surface
will show the currents produced in the liquid. Since
writing the last words, we have tested the point in a
simple way, by scattering powdered sealing-wax and bits
of P.aper in a. basin of water, and causing a. glass plate to
osctlla.te about a. vertical diameter. In this way anyone
can easily see for himself the particles being sucked m at
the middle of the plate, and shot out when they reach
the ends.
VIII. CONCLUSIONS.
731
WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION CASES.
H ol1nes v. T he Great No1the1n Railway Cornpany.This wa3 an appeal from the award of the County Court
Judge ab Clerkenwell. It came on for hearing in the
Court of Appeal on Saturday, May 26. It appeared that
the applicant wa.s the mother of a workman who met his
death on the line under the following circumstances : He
was employed by the company as an engine cleaner, and
on November 4, 1899, was engaged on work at King's
Cross. On that day he was ordered by a foreman to
P!'Oceed to the company's new engine shed at Hornsey.
No particular instructions were g iven as to how he was to
get to H ornsey, but he travelled on one of the c0mpa.ny's
trains from King's Cross to H ornsey. On November 7
he proceeded to Hornsey as before, in coru pa.ny with
other men, and on arrival they proceeded to cross
the line in front of the engine of the train by which
they bad travelled, which was then blowing off steam.
While the deceased was so crossing the engine of an
ex_Press train which was travelling in the direction of
Kmrs Cross, caught him and injured him so much that
he died next day. It was proved that there was a. footway across the line and also a. subway, by means of which
the deceased might have crossed. The sole point in the
case was whether the accident arose out of and in the
course of the employment, the company con tending that
upon the principle of H olmes v. Macka.y [1899, 2 Q.B., 319]
the employment did not commence unttl the hour of
actual work had a.rri ved and the deceased was upon that
part of the employer's premises where such work was to
be performed. The County Court Jud g-e, however, held
that as the deceased was carrying out his foreman's orders
at the time, he was in the course of his employment, and
that, therefore, the applicant was enti tled to compensation in respect of his death.
Mr. Monta.gu L ush and Mr. Clutton Brook, who appeared for the company on a.p(>Sa.l, argued that a~ the
workman was not under any obligation to cross the line,
be could not be said to have acted in the course of his employment when he did so. While he was travelling by
train, and until he reached his work, he was his own
master.
Mr. Duckworth, for the applicant, was not called upon.
The Court dismissed the appeal.
In the course of his judgment, L ord Justice A. L.
Smith said : The only question whi ch the Court ha.s to
consider is whether there is any evidence to support the
conclusion of the County Court Judge that this accident
arose out of, and in the course of, the deceased's employmen t. It seems to me that there wa.3 an implied contract
between the company and the deceased, that if he would
get into a train at King's Cross they would take him by
their line to his work and brins- him back again. There
is a difference between the begmning of employment and
the beginning of work. In my opinion the employmen t
in this case began at King's Cross, and the workman was
in the course of his employmen t when the accident happened. This appeal must be dismissed.
L ord Justice Va.ugha.n Willia.ms and L ord Justice
Romer agreed.
732
BOILER EXPLOSION NEAR NEWCASTLE.
A FORMAL investigation under the Boiler Explosions
Act, 1882, hM been conducted by the Board of Trade at
the Guildhall, Newcastle-on-Tyne, relative to an explosion
which occurred on January 30, at North Farm, Great
Usworth, owned by Mr. Roberh Meek. Mr. Howard
Smith and Mr. Alexander Grey were the Commissioners;
and Mr. Gough a.Ppeared for the Board of Trade.
In opening the inquiry Mr. Gough said the boiler in
question was of the cylindrical egg-ended, externallyfired type, and was 14ft. long by 3 ft. diameter. It was
of iron, and had been purchased some 16 or 17 years ago,
by Mr. Meek; but the maker's name could not now be
ascertained. When Mr. Meek bought it, it was secondhand, and he had the advice of a Mr. Milburn, who was
then foreman 1lacksmith at a colliery. It did not appear
to have occurred to Mr. Meek to ascertain what pressure
the boiler was fit to be worked at, and nothing on the
point had apparently been said either by him or Mr.
Milburn. Mr. Meek used the boiler once or twice a week
for grinding and threshing purposes, and found that a
pressure of 50 lb. was required; so that the safety valve
was loaded to blow off at that pressure, the weight being
placed at the end of the lever. The boiler was fixed in
the usual way, in brickwork; and it had not apparently
occurred to the owner to have it examined periodically in
order to ascertain its condition. From the time it was
set up until March, 1895, there was no leakage; and Mr.
Meek appeared to have considered that so long as the
boiler did not leak it was fit to work. In 1897 there was
some leakage from the plates at the firing end, and Mr.
Meek had two new steel plates put in, and a patch applied
to a third plate, which was grooved, the work being done
by a blacksmith. But still no examination was made to
determine the safe working pressure at that time. In
December, 1899, the pressure-gauge was seen to be defective, and a. fitter who was doing some work mentioned the
fact to Mr. Meek, but the gauge was not examined nor
replaced. Mr. Meek attended to the boiler himself, and
twice a year he emptied it and cleaned it out. Early on
the morning of Tuesday, J a.nuary 30, he Jit the fire, and
at about nine o'clock started pumping, the gauge at the
time indicating 28lb. He then went to breakfast; but,
hearing the valve blowing off, he went back and moved
the weight to the end of the lever. Some time afterwards
be found the gauge still registering 28lb., andt thinking
there was more steam than that, he tapped tne gauge,
but the p ointer did not move. He again fired up, and
was preparing to start the engine when the boiler exploded, parting in the middle circumferential seam, and
being practically divided into two main portions. The
front half was projected a d~tance of 88ft., and the back
half was blown into several pieces, which were scattered
around. The building in which the boiler was placed was
wrecked, and great damage was done to the farm buildings; but fortunately no one was injured. Mr. Swan, of
the Board of Trade, had examined the boiler and found
that it was much corroded, particularly at the seam where
the primary rent occurred.
The evidence of the various witnesses was then taken
by Mr. Gough. Mr. ~leek, the owner of the boiler, said
that he had no knowledge of boilers beyond the fac ~ that
he had worked one himself for 30 years. The damage
done by the explosion would. he calculn.ted, amount to
more than lOOl., apart from the boiler. He was on the
top of the boiler a few minutes before it exploded. He
had not exe,mined the boiler regularly, nor caused it to be
examined. There was no law to that effect. In his
judgment the boiler was safe, and he had run it himself
for manv years.
Mr. Thomas D. Swan, engineer-surveyor to the Board
of Trade, who had made an examination of the exploded
boiler, said that the fracture was along the line of the
rivet-boles. At one place the plate was only t-o-i n. thick,
tapering to a knife-edge; but there was a point at whiob
it did not break which was even thinner still. The plates
externalJy were generally very much corroded.
After the taking of evidence Mr. Gougb submitted a.
ist of questions on which he desired the judgment of the
Court ; and in reply to Mr. Howard Smith Mr. Meek
said that he did not consider that he had been at all
negligent, and there was no law for compelling the
examination of boilers. He was "as careful as be
could be."
The Court adjourned, the Commissioners meanwhile
visiting the seen~ of the explosio~, and making a~ examination of the bmler. On resummg the proceedmgs the
following day, Mr. Howard Smith reviewed at some
length all the circumstances under which this old boiler,
purchased secondhand 16 or 17 years ago, exploded. The
boiler he said, was quite worn out ; and the plates were so
reduc~d in thickness owing to external corrosion that they
were incapable of resisting any useful pressure. The boiler
should have been examined from time to time; but Mr.
Meek took no measures to insure that it should work
under safe conditions. The explosion was undoubtedly
caused by the neglect of . Mr. Meek in not .having proper
ex&~minations made. If It had been exammed bY; a competent engineer it wm1ld have been found to be quite t:mfi t
for the pressure at which it was worked, and would ha:ve
been condemned three or four years ago. It was quite
true that there was no statute directing the owner of a
boiler to have it examine_d ; ?ub he owed a duty t? .the
community to keep his bailor m good and safe condtt10n,
otherwise it mjght become a source of grave danger. Fortunately for Mr. Meek, no person had been injured, and
no property, other than his own, bad been da.m~ged by. the
explosiOn. Otherwise be would have found hu~self .m a
very serious position, and would have ascerta~ned, In a.
striking manner, wha.t the law was. He p~eaded Ignorance
for his neglect but that was a plea wh10h could not be
accepted by th~ Court. The neglect of the ordinary pre-
E N G I N E E R I N G.
cautions which he ought to have taken had oaul)ed the
explosion.
Mr. Gough, on this decision, asked that Mr. Meek
should be ordered to pay at least a portion of the oasts of
the investigation.
Mr. Meek defiantly said that he could not, and would
not, pay. If the Commissioners wanted any money from
him, let them come and ta.k e him awav. There was no
blame attaching to him : he bad done h{s duty.
Mr. Ho ward Smith advised Mr. Meek to adopt a different tone, and inquired what his means were; to which Mr.
Meek replied that, like most farmers, it took him all his
time to make a living.
Mr. Howard Smith said that the Court had seen the
damage which Mr. Meek's ~roperty bad sustained. and
they would take it into consideration. Bnt the case was
one for which there could be no excuse, and Mr. lYieek
must pay lOt. towards the costs of the investigation.
Mr. Meek said that he would not pay it, and the Board
of Trade could "eome and get it."
Mr. Howard Smith in reply said that if Mr. Meek
would meet the Government officials in a proper spirit
they would no doubt give him time in which to pay the
amount ordered; but he advised him not to adopt towards
them the tone he had taken in the Court that day. If
Mr. Meek refused to pay, he might be taken before the
magistrates and sent to prison.
Ftp.1.
.Rg.4.
[]UN E I , I 900.
packed joint made around the small part of the tube
in which the gas was placed, and where it was compressed
by pumping mercury into the iron chamber. Around the
sm~ll part of the tube co.uld be placed a cooling bath.
Ca1lletet added an expansiOn cock by which the pressure
could be relieved suddenly and the gas thus further
cooled; he also improved the form of the tube.
In 1845, Faraday again took up the experiments upon
gases. He used air pumps combined as a two-stage compressor, pumped the gases into glass tubes, and inserted
them in a cooling mixture. During the 20 years' interval,
Thilorier had made liquid carbon dioxide by compression,
and then, by evaporation of the liquid, had produced
the solid snow; also Natterer bad, by the use of a mixture of carbon dioxide, snow, and ether, and by pumping
away the vapours, so that a continuous evaporation was
produced, succeeding in freezin&' mercury, so that the
means were at hand for producmg a much lower temp~rature than at the time of the earlier experiments.
Natterer bad also tried experiments on the compression
of gases, going as high as 4000 atmospheres or 60,000 lb.
per square inch on oxygen, but did not cool the gases,
and therefore get no liquefaction. He did, however, get
gases whose density was greater than that of their
liquids, as it has since been determined, thus proving
the fact, had he hub known it, of the existence of a
critical temperature of substances. In his experiments
of 1845, Faraday used the carbon dioxide-ether mixture
of Natterer, and thus was enabled to obtain a temperature of -106.2 deg. Fahr. ( -76.6 deg. Cent.), at atmospheric pressure, or, at a vacuum of 1.26 of an atmosphere,
!l. temperature of -166 deg. Fahr. ( -110 deg. Cent.); the
bath would only last 15 minutes, so that his observations
on the liquefied g&E~es were practically instantaneous.
By this means be solidified sulphur dioxide, sulphuret of
hydrogen, nitrous oxide, hydriodic and hydrobromic acids
and ammonia. He tried, but failed, to liquefy hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide and coal gas, using
pressures of from 27 to 50 atmospheres, not realising the
existence of a critical temperature, and these gases were
long known as incondensible.
This point was investigated a little later, in 1849, by
Dr. Andrews, who proved, as bad Natterer before him,
that some gases could nob be liquefied by any amount of
pressure; but went further and showed that, by cooling,
some of them would be condensed, thus determining the
existence of a temperature below which, and only below
which, a gas may be condensed to a liquid.
For a time aftP,r this the work of experimentation went
on intermittently in several laboratories, but without
notable result, although some improvements in the details of apparatus were made. An important suggestion
was made in 1857, by Sir William Siemens, thab refrigeration might be produced by expanding a compressed
gas, either in a cylinder doing work, or freely, to a lower
pressure, and using this cold gas to cool, before expansion,
the gas coming to the apparatus. It is on this basis that
the latest investigators have proceeded, and it is this
means which has accomplished, in the closing years of
the century, the long-sought result of the liquefaction of
all gases. During this time of apparent inertness,
Messrs. Pictet and Cailletet, the one in Switzerland, the
other in France, working in ignorance of each other's
efforts, were reaching toward the same goal, but along
different lines. Cailletet, using the apparatus of Colladon,
modified as previously mentioned, was working as a man
of pure science, interested in discovering facts; Picteb
wanted to liquefy gases in quantity, so that they might
be used for refrigeration or otherwise. The results were
announced to the world at about the same time in
December, 1877, but Cailletet is proven to have reached
his result in the liquefaction of oxygen on December 2,
while Pictet accomplished the same thing on December
22. Cailletet bad the liquid in a glass tube, could study
its properties visually, and could liquefy the same gas
again and again; but he could not get at it, and bad only
a minute quantity. Pictet had his liquid in a steel tube,
so that it could not be seen, and he could not repeat the
experiment on the same charge of gas to verify a result,
but he had about 1~ cubic centimetres of the liquid, a
considerable amount as such things had gone up to that
time. In his original ap_paratus, Pictet made no provision for drawing off the hquid, but in a later form this
was accomplished by means of a pipe, and a cock outside
the cooling chamber, though no means of preserving the
oxygen in its liquid form had then been devised. The
greater importance of Pictet's work lies in the apparatus
which he devised. This was what is termed the cascade
system (see Fig. 4) ; a circulating pump was used to draw
tbe vapour from a jacket filled with liquid sulphur
dioxide ; this vapour wn.s forced through a water-cooled
condenser, and then compressed to liquid form, so that
the action was much the same as in a modern refrigerating
machine. The sulphur dioxide jacket was used to cool
the vapour of carbon dioxide, this, in turn, being used to
cool a tube into which oxygen gas was forced under
pressure, by heating a large quantity of potassium chlorate
m an iron bomb. A cock on the bomb allowed of the
escape of part of the gas, thus cooling the remainder by
expansion ; in this way, with the oxygen tube at -220
deg. Fabr. ( - 140 deg. Cent.), and at a pressure of 320
atmospheres, Picteb was able to get a tube one-third full
of oxygen. The temperatures were -85 deg. Fabr.
(- 65 deg. Cent.), at 5 atmospheres in the carbon dioxide
chamber, and -13 deg. Fahr. ( -25 deg. Cent.), at 2.75
atmospheres in the sulphur dioxide chamber.
Cailletet experimented with various gases, among others
laughing gas, acetylene, and carbon monoxide. H e also,
as did Pictet, got a mist of hydrogen, but was not able
to get it in liquid form; he is cr~dited wit~ being: the
first to use liqUid ethylene as a coohng agent m the llquefaction of gases.
.
.
During the next decade, experiments were earned on
&.
1900.]
JUNE I,
Fiff.5.
733
E N G I N E E R I N G.
by which the liquid could be drawn off, and was thua
enabled to get amounts of the gases which could be
handled in the Dewar flasks.
D ewa.r at first used the Oa.illetet apparatus as altered
by Wroblewski, but changed to that of Piotet, using,
however pumps to compress the gases previously made,
and for~e them into the liquefying Qha.mber; he used
ethylene in place of carbon dioxide, placed the draw-off
cook inside the cooling chamber and, l.ater, added the .regenerative principle suggested by Su~mens f<;> r ooohng
the chamber in the case of hydrogen hquefact10n. Pro
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press the air again will d~pend upon t~e ratio of the
pressures, i.e., upon ~he ratioToh~ compr~totn, a.thd :hbu~~
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be as small a:s posstble.
1s nece.ssi a ea . a
pressures be ht~h for tl~e most economiCal worklbg, h enod
Linde works hlS maohme b.etween 200 a..tmo3p eres an
1G atmospheres for a!l the au by expa.ndmg through hthe
va.l ve a, one-fifth 1s then expande.d to. 1 atmosp ere
through the valve b so .as to cool .It still further, and
I n.bout one-f_ou!th of th1s a;mount ts oon?ensed. The
expn.nded n.~r IS. sent ~ack 10 the O\lter p1pes as sho~,
1 the part wb10h lS at 16 atmospheres to the ooropress10n
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('l'o be continued )
E N G I N E E R I N G.
734
THE PHYSICAL SOCIETY.
AT the meeting of the Physical Society, held May 25
1900, Professor J. D. Everetb, F.R.S., vice-president i~
the ~hair, ~rofessor. ~ P. Thompson showed s~me
exper1ments illustratmg the aberration called ''coma."
If a.conve.rging lens is .Pl.aced obli~uely in a parallel beam
of _hght, ms~ead ?f g1vmg a pomt 1mage, ib produces
umlateral. d1stort10n, and the bright central spot is
accompamed by a pear-shaped tail, which is known as a
"coma." _The direction in w~ic~ this tail points depends
up~.:>n the s1de of the lens whiCh 1s pre.~ented to the light.
W1th a concavo-convex lens the convex surface gives an
inward pointing coma, and the concave surface an out~ard pointing coma. The existence of this phenomenon
1s due to unequal magnification from different ~ones of
t~e len~, a fact which was shown by covering the lens
w1th a zone plate of three or four rings, and viewing on a
screen the distorted images of the several zones. The
form of a coma varies greatly with the distance of the
screen fro~ the lens. A parallel beam of li~ht which has
passed obhquely through a convex lens 1s capable of
producing some curious shadows. The shadow of a rod
can be obtained as a. circular spot and that of a grating
made by stretching threads between two rods, as con~
cent~ic circular rin~s. Pr~fessor Thompson also showed
a strmged model, illustratmg the paths of light rays in
the formation of a coma.
Mr. R. T. Glazebrook then read some "Notes on the
M easurement of Some S tatnda;rd Resistances." Three
methods have been employed by the author for building
up multiples of a standard resistance, such as a 1-obm
coil. The first method consists in making as accurately
as possible three 3-ohm coils. These in parallel can be
compared directly with the standard by Carey Foster's
method. Their resistance in series is very approximately
nine times that in parallel, and hence an accurate determination of a resistance about 9 ohms can be obtained.
If, then, this resistance is put in series with the standard
an accurately known 10-obm resistance is obtained. By
a similar process a 100 or 1000-ohm coil can be built up.
The second method consists in calibrating a resistance
box. The 1-ohm coils of the box are compared directly
with the standard, and the other resistances determined
accurately by a building- up process, using a subsidiary resistance-box. In comparing the high resistances the differ ence between the two boxes may
be so great as to send the balance off the bridge wire.
In these cases the third method is employed. The equal
arms of the bridge are accurately known, and one of
them is shunted with a resistance, which need not be
accurately known, until the reading is brought back into
the wire. The coils chiefly used tlirougbout the experiments are made of platinum silver.
Mr. Campbell as ked if the same degree of accuracy
could be obtained with manganin coils. If so, then the
small temperature change of manganin would be an advantage.
Mr. Trotter asked if proper allowance could be made
for the large number of mercury cups used in method I.
Mr. Rennie advocated the use of the build-up box in
preference to the first method. With two mercury cups
there is less chance of errors escaping notice than with
eight. Every 10 or 100-ohm coil tested at the Board of
Trade is subjected to a comparison with a box calibrated
by a build-up process.
Dr. Harker asked if the resistance of the eight mercury
cups in series had ever been measured, and if so, what
was the magnitude of the result and what the uncertainty.
Mr. Glazebrook said he bad investigated the resistance
of the mercury contacts, and it was negligible. In answer
to Mr. Campbell, the author said he bad no experience of
manganin coils himself, but he had seen some figures for
German coils which agreed very closely.
Mr. J. J. G uest then read a paper" On tke Strength of
Ductile M aterials under Oombined Sflresses." The author
throughout his experiments has used the "yield point " of
a material as the true criterion of its strength and has
rejected the elastic limit is being modified by local yielding. At present two theories are used i n the calculation
of strengths of materials. . ~he first is that the materi~l
yields when one of the prmctpa.l stresses reaches a certa.m
amount. This theory, which was adopted by Rankine
and is used by engineers in England and America, is not
in accord with recent experiments. The second theory is
that the material yields when the greatest s train reaches
a certain amount. This was advocated by St. Venantand
is used by engineers on the Cc;mtinent. Besi~es th~e there
is a third theory of elastic strength, m wh10b the
condition of yielding is the existence of a shearing
stress of a specific. amount. . In th~ ~e. of a sol~d
bar subjected to torsion, there 1s a var1a.t10n m the str!l'm
from the axis outwards, and consequently the matenals
have been used in the form of thin tubes. This allows
the application of an internal fluid pressure. The specimens were of steel, copper, and brass, t he state of set
caused by drawing ha.vmg been removed by annealing.
The tubes were subjected to (1) t~rque ; (2) torque and tension; (3) tension only; (4) tension and u~temal pressure;
(5) torsion and internal pr_essure; an~ (6) mternal p~essure
only. The axial elonga.t10n, the twist, and occas10nally
the circumferential strain were measured. Towards the
end of the experiments observations were made on bending. The results disprove the maximum .stress theory,
and are at variance wtth the maximum stram theory. The
maximum shearing stress develope~ and the corresponding she11-ring strain were comparatiyely consta!lt throughout the experimen~, and no other stmpl~ rela.t10n between
the stresses or strams was even approximately oonstan~.
The results of the ex periments have been plotted synoptically on a cur ve, and the several lines ~ave been dr~wn
upon which these points should be accordiDg to the van ous
[] UNE I, 1900.
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E N G I N E E R I N G.
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LLOYD WISE.
3426.
AGRICUL'l'URAL APPLIANCES.
R. Bawden, Devon. One - Way Plough.
735
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4727. A. M. Taylor, Old Charlton, Kent. Conduits
and Turn-Outs. [4 .Figs.] March 3, 1899.-According to
786S.
L.(
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(~$'/)
I I
U.S.A.
April 14,
1899.-The arrangemenlis described in tbis specification are stated
to be in the main intended for the purpose of conser ving the
radiant beat of the incandescent fi lament and converting some
portion of t he saici heat int o light. In one arrangement two
globes are provided, t he inner being at one par t unprotected , so
t hat it may be cooler in that plaee t han at others, so as to favour
deposit of any volatile substance in the cooled portion rat her
(7 Figs.]
Pig .3 .
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6881.
[5 Fig8.]
Fig .1.
Fig.2.
are employed and a channel intermediary to the conductor
<JhMnel, or th~ conductor channel, is supplied wit~ insulating
fluid under pressure. Contact boxes, sumps, a flexthle plou~h,
and a dirt brush are some of the devices employed. The in\"eD
tion is stated to be applicable where the three-wire system is to
be applied in a single conduit. (A ccepted .Jlarch3, 1900.)
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9272. R. G. wnuams, Manchester. Wireless Telegraphy. [1 Fig. ) May 2, 1899.-Tbe inventor proposes to tele-
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graph "graphic or other m~tter, su9h as pho~ograpbs, drawings,
or the like automatically, w1thcut wues." It 1s stated that" The being repaired. The top or side of the target is hinged by rubber
advantages of wireless transmissions of electrical actions or mani straps, and may be brou~ht inwards towards t he marker by
means of a handle when 1t is necessary to repair any portion of
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its surface. (A ccepted Apn'.l 18, 1900.)
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or leads consist of two insul a~d copper wires, which are braided
or lapped together, and at one end a lead tube is threaded which
is squeezed to the wires, and the flashing mixture is then put on
in the usual way. The tuee bead t h\ls pr epared is forced into a
Fig.2
Fig.3.
. 1.
E N G I N E E R I N G.
[] UN E I , I 9CQ.
to remove the inner tube from the outer, or to pull the wires ing element.. Tile inclined water tubes connecting the two tate with very little friction, tb~ thread guide is not eo liable to
b!lokwards or forwards. (.A ccepted .A.p1il 25, 1900 )
he~ders. formmg part o1 an element are arranged in pai~, each overrun, and thus vary the tensiOn on the yarn, as is the case when
patr bemg c~nnect~d. at their rear ends tll a junction box which
LIFTING AND HAULING APPLIANCES.
IS D?t fixed lD. p0Slt10n, SO that each V -shaped pair Of tubes,
each
.Pair
are
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bolts
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that
the
a. l.ever mto contact With another bevel wheel which is preferably
b.uilt up of ~brous material and driven by the shaft of a. con- combmed headers and water tubes form practically one piece
tmuous-ru~nmgmotor. An automatic tripper gear, consisting of
Fig. 7 .
. . 2'
a. nut_working on a. screw th~ead.on the shaft, on which the pair
,
of be\ el w~eels are free to slide 1s fitted. This nut is prevented
from rota.tmg, and therefore moves along the shaft as the latter
..) I
the yarn is removed direct from the bobbin, and the bobbin caused
to rotate in the manner hitherto common. (AcceptedApril25, 1900.)
11,278. J. B. Bolton. Colne, Lancs. Treating Yam.
[2 Figs.] May 30, 1899.-This invention is for treating yarn in
hank form in continuous succession, the banks being so arranged
that they are passed in succegsion into and out of a vat or
chamber and can be removed and replaced without stopping the
maJhine, which is constructed with two or more endless or con'
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arranged to hold the brush with its whole surface against the hull
of the vessel as it is moved up and down. Lifting cables are connected to the frame, and extending over winding pulleys are
operated from winding drums, and a drawing-down cable is connected to a further windin~ drum. In operation the brush, if in
its lowermcst position is drawn upward by the lifting cables, and
upon reaching the surface, the drums operating the lifting C<4bles
are put out of a{}tion and the drawing-down c:.ble is wound up,
so moving the brush downwards. (A ccepted April 18, 1900.)
FU].
TEXTILE MACHINERY.
brough. Bradford. Unwinding Bobbins. [ L Fig.]
May 3 L, 1899.-This invention ha.s for its object the unwinding of
yarn from stationary flanged or other bobbins, by combining with
each bobbin an appliance so arranged that the tension on the
yarn as it is removed from the bobbin by the rotation of the spool
cop or the like is reduced, therefore to reduce the liability to
breakage of the yarn ; also to unwind the yarn from the
fla.nged or other bobbin with more uniformity of tension than is
the case when the bobbin is rotated by the drag of the yarn. The
bobbins containing the yarn to be wound therefrom into cops, or
upon spools or other bobbins, are placed in any suitable position
on the frame, and the spindles for receiving the rope, spools, or
other bobbins on which the yarn is to be wound, are mounted and
operated in the ordinary manner, but instead of drawing the yarn
direct from the flanged or other bobbin in a manner that the said
bobb!n rotates, there is upon . each flange.d or other st~tionary
bobbin a rotatable thread gutde or carrter arranged m such
manner that the thread guide or carrier is caused to rotate around
the bobbin, and thus unwind the ya.ru t herefrom wit hout causing
the bobbin to rotate. It is stated tha.t by forming the thread
guide of light material and mounting the same so that it will ro-
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