151
Introduction
Recently, the issue of global warming as the main cause of climate change has received
notable attention. The major source of global warming is CO2 emissions from the
combustion of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels from vehicles, manufacturing and
petroleum burning (Diakoulaki and Mandaraka, 2007; Mattisson et al., 2009).
The World Meteorology Organization (WMO) reported that 2008 was the warmest
year on record (World Meteorological Organization, 2008). The annual growth rate of
CO2 in the atmosphere was 2.38 ppm/yr or 5,069 million metric tons (MMT) in 2010,
which shows an increase of about 0.73 ppm/yr or 1,554 MMT/yr from 2009. In the first
quarter of 2011, the average concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere was 391.92 ppm or
83,478 MMT (Tans, 2011). In Malaysia alone, the total CO2 emissions from fuel
combustion was 164.2 MT in 2009 (International Energy Agency, 2011).
Antarctic and arctic sea ice also show declines caused by increasing global
temperature (Stroeve et al., 2007; Swingedouw et al., 2008). Sea level, on the other hand,
rose about 17 cm over the last century; this forced some communities to relocate,
including Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Panama and Vanuatu (Mattson, 2010). The sea level
in Malaysia is expected to increase about 10 to 13 cm over the next 100 years (The Star
Online, 2010).
Energy is continually used in an inefficient way due to lack in knowledge about
techniques to prevent the release of CO2 in the atmosphere. Carbon, capture and storage
(CCS) is the current technique used by some commercial plants. The efficiency of this
technique ranges from 80% to 100% (Hendriks, 2007). It typically involved storage of
CO2 at depths of more than 1 kilometre (Gibbins and Chalmers, 2008). The cost of CCS
is reportedly about 200 to 250 USD for every 1 tonne of captured carbon (Anderson and
Newell, 2004). Safety, capital cost and storage capacity are the major issues. One concern
often raised by environmental activists is leaking of the CO2 reservoir, which can cause
sudden increased acidity in the ocean that can kill marine life. However, the CCS
technique has received considerable attention for its potential to enhance oil recovery
(EOR). The CCS technology has not been applied in Malaysia due to government policy
that requires specific study before approval.
Microalgae cultivation uses CO2 as an essential feed for photosynthesis. A microalga
is about 10 m in size and only can be seen under microscope and is capable to amass
lipid as high as 80% on a dry weight basis. Microalgae biomass can be converted into
biodiesel through transesterification and into biofuel products such as methanol and
gasoline through thermochemical conversion. Microalga is also rich in biochemical
compounds which can be added to infant formulas and nutritional supplements (Spolaore
et al., 2006). In the energy balance of biofuel production from microalgae, cultivation is
the most crucial part. More than 25% of recoverable energy depends on the cultivation
parameters; CO2 supplied is essential for photosynthesis. In light of this concern, this
work reviews microalga as a carbon sequestration converting carbon into biomass
for biofuel productions. Microalgae commercialisation in Malaysia is still under
development. There are a few established companies, such as UTAR Microalgae Sdn.
Bhd, cultivating microalgae in open ponds and photobioreactor for food supplement
(UTAR, 2011). Other established companies such as Algatech Sdn. Bhd cultivate
microalgae as a source of renewable energy and for food supplement (Algatech, 2011).
152
Industries
Total (%)
Oil
Natural gas
Othersc
8,091.3
695.1
1,972.2
37.6
37.23
453.5
150.4
386.8
40.3
03.56
13
6,366.7
164.1
22.57
3,093.1
1,500.2
1,247.3
30.3
20.24
273.5
641.8
548
0.8
05.05
568.7
1,276.6
1,443.9
4.2
11.36
Total (%)
Total (MT)
Energy consumptionsa
Ratio (C:E)b
a
43.08
36.66
19.87
0.39
12,536.61
10,667.82
5,782.37
113.2
3,305.6
3,908.7
2,661.4
N/A
1:3.8
1:2.7
1:2.1
N/A
153
The CO2 emissions of the coal and peat sector is accounted for more than 43% and
represents almost half of the overall CO2 emissions in 2009, followed by the oil sector
which accounted for more than 36% (International Energy Agency, 2011). The CO2
emissions of the coal sector grew by 7.6% in 2010, the fastest growth among energy
source since 2003 (BP, 2010). The main reason for high emissions of CO2 from the coal
sector is the high consumption of coal in developing countries especially China. This
resulted in total coal consumptions of 29.6% compared to global energy consumptions in
2010. This shows that coal and peat in the future have potential to become the highest
contributor of CO2 emissions. The ratio of energy consumptions and CO2 emissions, also
shown in Table 1, indicates that the coal sector has a highly significant impact on CO2
emissions. The total CO2 emission in Malaysia was 164.2 millions ton in 2009. The
overall energy consumptions and CO2 emissions are shown in Figure 1. The oil sector
contributed the highest CO2 emissions, while the coal and peat sector contributed the
lowest. However, the ratio of emissions and consumptions of coal sector was the highest
among the energy source as indicated in Table 1.
Figure 1
Land requirement
Final product
Low risk
Not involved
Up to 60%
Notes: aThe estimated value was based on 1 kg of CO2 required to produce about 0.25 kg of microalgae biomass with lipid content estimated about 70% of dry
biomass and both extraction and conversion efficiency is 90%.
b
Based on estimation that 18 millions ton of CO2 will recover extra 130 million barrels of crude oil
*EOR efficiency
**Based on microalgae that accumulate 50% to 70% lipid contents
N/A not applicable
Remarks
Not involved
Low or no risk
Up to 30%
Efficiency
Risk
No or low cost
Conventional methods
Prevents the release of emitted CO2 into
the atmosphere by filtration process in the
manufacturing system, whereas the filtered
gasses is recycled to the system or sent to
other means of storage.
CCS
Captures, stores and enhances oil recovery
Table 2
EOR efficiency
Design requirement
Microalgae
Utilises and transforms CO2 into biomass
Approach
Issue
154
R. Sarbatly and E. Suali
155
Photosynthetic of microalgae
156
the ATP concomitant synthesis. The chlorophyll molecule regains the lost electron from
H2O molecule through a process called photolysis and releases an oxygen (O2) molecule.
The energy absorbed from light is stored in ATP and NADPH, which are used in the
Calvin cycle to produce glucose. Individual pigments selectively absorb certain
wavelengths of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). This PAR characteristic affects
the biomass production of microalgae strains. Those high-energy chemical molecules
are used to convert atmospheric CO2 into carbohydrate and other energy containing
compounds.
The conversion of CO2 into carbohydrate takes place in the chloroplast stroma and
follows a complex metabolic pathway called the Calvin cycle or dark phase (Raines,
2003). During the Calvin cycle, the non-regulated enzymes catalyse reversible reactions;
aldolase and transketolase exert significant control over carbon flux. As recommended by
Raines (2003), increasing the amounts of these enzymes may lead to an increase in
photosynthetic carbon assimilation. This finding could be manipulated to use CO2 for
maximum biomass production. Also, microalgae have higher photosynthetic efficiencies
than terrestrial plants and are more efficient in capturing carbon (Packer, 2009).
Table 3
Microalgae species
Botryococcus braunii
Chlorella sp.
Chlorococcum litorelle
Biomass yield
(g/l/d)a
Referenceb
4.96
0.077
10 (pure CO2)
0.026
2.51
0.3230.38
68 (pure CO2)
0.3180.376
0.15
0.19
Dunaliella tertiolecta
2.72
Scendesmus sp.
0.203
10 (pure CO2)
0.217
Spirulina platensis
3.18
Synechocystis aquatilis
0.15
2 (pure CO2)
0.480
Monoraphidium minutum
a
To create a double benefit for green energy production, it is important to feed microalgae
within its tolerable amount of CO2. Biomass yield of microalgae depends on its essential
feed. When cultivated in sufficient amounts of CO2, nutrients and light, biomass in
maximum production can be achieved. The commonly cultivated microalgae species to
achieve this purpose are listed in Table 3. As shown, the tolerable CO2 concentration for
157
cultivation ranges from 5% and 20% of air enriched with either pure or flue gases, which
consist of slight NOx and SOx. Microalgae species tested suitable for CO2 fixation
include Chlorella sp. H84, Chlorella sp. A2, Chlorella sorokiniana, Chlorella vulgaris,
Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Chlorella vulgaris, Spirulina platensis, Emiliania Huxley,
Nannochloropsis sp. and Phaeodactylum sp. (Shelp and Canvin, 1980; Negoro et al.,
1993; Sekino and Shiraiwa, 1994; Hirata and Hayashitani, 1998; Jeong et al., 2003).
Table 3 also shows that some species react positively with flue gases compared to pure
gas. In addition, the use of flue gas or pure CO2 directly to the cultivation system does
not adversely affect algal growth (Negoro et al., 1993). This shows that microalgae are
capable to utilise CO2 emission from power plants.
Conclusions
Among green approaches for CO2 management, the microalgae approach is the best way
to reduce CO2 emissions. In addition, microalgaes ability to produce high lipid content
makes it suitable as green energy feedstock for biofuel productions. While CCS
technology can be applied as an alternative to prevent the release of high CO2 emitted
158
from large-scale power plant, microalgae as biofuel feedstock must be applied along with
the CCS approach for better energy balance production.
Acknowledgements
The work was financially supported by the Research Grant LRGS/TD/2011/UMP/PG/04
from Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia. This work was also supported by the
Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia.
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